PDF (All-In-One) MK Perancangan Pabrik Kimia (Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012) PDF

PDF PERANCANGAN PABRIK KIMIA
DAFTAR ISI
chapter1-Chemical Process Diagrams (minggu 1)…………………………………………………………………………………………...............................2
chapter2-Structure and Synthesis of the Process Flow Diagram (minggu 2)……………………………………………………………………………….38
chapter3-batch processing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………67
chapter6-understanding process conditions (minggu 3)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….121
chapter7-estimation of capital costs (minggu 4)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..141
chapter8-estimation of manufacturing costs……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..176
chapter9-engineering economics analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….204
chapter10-Monte Carlo Simulation and the Evaluation of Risk………………………………………………………………………………………………….249
chapter10-profitability analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………273
chapter14-Process Optimization……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….312
chapter15-Pinch Technology Design of Heat Exchanger Networks – Optimum deltaTmin………………………………………………………..333
chapter15-Pinch Technology Heat Exchange Networks…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….346
chapter19-Process Input-Output Models………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….388
chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Distillation Columns and Absorbers or Strippers)…………………..399
chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Fluid Flow Equipment)…………………………………………………………..438
chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Heat Exchange Equipment)……………………………………………………468
chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Reactors)……………………………………………………………………………….503
chapter25-Ethics and Professionalism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..523
chapter26-Health, Safety, and the Environment………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………538
(Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012)

Created by nozware
Chapter 1
Diagrams for Understanding
Chemical Processes
Department of Chemical Engineering
West Virginia University
Copyright - R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz, 2012 1

3 Levels of Diagram
• Block Flow Diagram (BFD)
• Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
• Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) – often
referred to as Mechanical Flow Diagram
Complexity Conceptual
increases understanding
Increases
As chemical engineers, we are most familiar with BFD
and PFD.

The Block Flow Diagram (BFD)
• BFD shows overall processing picture of a
chemical complex
– Flow of raw materials and products may be
included on a BFD
– BFD is a superficial view of facility – ChE
information is missing

Definitions of BFD
• Block Flow Process Diagram

– Figure 1.1
– Similar to sketches in material and energy
balances
• Block Flow Plant Diagram
– Figure 1.2
– Gives a general view of a large complex
plant

The Block Flow Process Diagram

The Block Flow Plant Diagram

The Process Flow Diagram
• PFD shows all process engineering

information
– Diagram developed in junior year design
projects (especially the 2nd semester)
– Often PFD is drawn on large paper – textbook
breaks down information into 1 diagram and
2 tables

The Process Flow Diagram (cont’d)
– The topology of the process – showing the connectivity

of all the streams and the equipment
• Example for toluene HDA – Figures 1.3 and 1.5
• Tables 1.2 and 1.4 – list information that should be on the PFD
but cannot fit
• Use appropriate conventions – consistency is important in
communication of process information
ex. Table 1.2


Table 1.2 : Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment
Process Equipment General Format XX-YZZ A/B
XX are the identification letters for the equipment classification
C - Compressor or Turbine
E - Heat Exchanger
H - Fired Heater
P - Pump
R - Reactor
T - Tower
TK - Storage Tank
V - Vessel
Y designates an area within the plant
ZZ are the number designation for each item in an equipment class
A/B identifies parallel units or backup units not shown on a PFD
Supplemental Information Additional description of equipment given on top of PFD

Equipment Numbering
• XX-YZZ A/B/…
– XX represents a 1- or 2-letter designation for the
equipment (P = pump)
– Y is the 1 or 2 digit unit number (1-99)
– ZZ designates the equipment number for the unit
(1-99)
– A/B/… represents the presence of spare
equipment

Equipment Numbering (cont’d)
Thus, T-905 is the 5th tower in unit nine hundred P-
301 A/B is the 1st Pump in unit three hundred plus a
spare
• Use unambiguous letters for new equipment
– Ex. Turbine use Tb or J not T (for tower)
– Replace old vessel V-302 with a new one of different
design - use V-319 (say) not V-302 – since it may be
confused with original V-302

Stream Numbering and Drawing
• Number streams from left to right as much as
possible
• Horizontal lines are dominant
yes no no

Stream Numbering and Drawing (cont’d)
• Add arrows for

– Change in direction
– Inlet of equipment
• Utility streams should use convention given in
Table 1.3, lps, cw, fg, etc.

Stream Information
• Since diagrams are small, not much

stream information can be included
• Include important data – around reactors
and towers, etc.
– Flags are used – see toluene HDA diagram
– Full stream data, as indicated in Table 1.4, are
included in a separate flow summary table –
see Table 1.5

Stream Information - Flags

Table 1.4: Information in a Flow Summary
Essential Information
Stream Number
Temperature (°C)
Pressure (bar)
Vapor Fraction
Total Mass Flow Rate (kg/h)
Total Mole Flow Rate (kmol/h)
Individual Component Flow Rates (kmol/h)
Optional Information
Component Mole Fractions
Component Mass Fractions
Individual Component Flow Rates (kg/h)
Volumetric Flow Rates (m3/h)
Significant Physical Properties
Density
Viscosity
Other
Thermodynamic Data
Heat Capacity
Stream Enthalpy
K-values
Stream Name
A Portion of Table 1.5
Stream Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Temperature (°C) 25 59 25 225 41 600 41 38 654 90
Pressure (bar) 1.90 25.8 25.5 25.2 25.5 25.0 25.5 23.9 24.0 2.6
Vapor Fraction 0.0 0.0 1.00 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0
Mass Flow (tonne/h) 10.0 13.3 0.82 20.5 6.41 20.5 0.36 9.2 20.9 11.6
Mole Flow (kmol/h) 108.7 144.2 301.0 1204.4 758.8 1204.4 42.6 1100.8 1247.0 142.2
Component Mole Flow

(kmol/h)
Hydrogen 0.0 0.0 286.0 735.4 449.4 735.4 25.2 651.9 652.6 0.02
Methane 0.0 0.0 15.0 317.3 302.2 317.3 16.95 438.3 442.3 0.88
Benzene 0.0 1.0 0.0 7.6 6.6 7.6 0.37 9.55 116.0 106.3
Toluene 108.7 143.2 0.0 144.0 0.7 144.0 0.04 1.05 36.0 35.0

Basic Control Loops
• Often the basic control loops (those involving
maintaining material balance and reactor
controls) are included on the PFD;
instrumentation and other control loops are
not shown

Basic Control Loops

Equipment Information
• Equipment are identified by number and a
label (name) positioned above the equipment
on the PFD
• Basic data such as size and key data are
included in a separate table (Equipment
Summary Table) Table 1.7 (and Table 1.6) in
TBWS

Equipment Information
A Section of Table 1.7: Equipment Summary
Vessel V-101 V-102

Temperature (ºC) 55 38
Pressure (bar) 2.0 24
Orientation Horizontal Vertical
MOC CS CS
Size
Height/Length (m) 5.9 3.5
Diameter (m) 1.9 1.1
Internals s.p. (splash plate)

PFD Summary
• PFD, Equipment Summary Table, and Flow
Summary Table represent a “true” PFD
• This information is sufficient for a preliminary
estimation of capital investment (Chapter 7)
and cost of manufacture (Chapter 8) to be
made

The Piping and Instrument Diagram(P&ID)
P&ID – Construction Bible

• Contains: plant construction information
(piping, process, instrumentation, and other
diagrams)
• P&ID information is explained in Tables 1.8
and 1.9
• Conventions for instrumentation are shown in
Figure 1.10

P&ID

Look at V-102 on P&ID
V-102 contains an LE (Level Element)
• LE senses liquid level in separator and adjusts
flow rate leaving
• LE opens and closes a valve depending on
liquid level
• LE and valve represent a feedback control loop

Other Common Diagrams
• Plot Plans – plan or map drawn looking down
on plant (drawn to scale with all major
equipment identified)
• Elevation Diagrams – show view from side and
give information about equipments distance
from ground

Other Common Diagrams
Section of Plot Plan Section of Elevation Diagram

Other Common Diagrams (cont’d)
• Piping Isometrics – show piping in 3-

dimensions
• Vessel Sketches – show key dimensions of
equipment and locations of inlet and outlet
nozzles etc.

Scale Models and Virtual Plants
• 25 years ago physical models were used for review
• Now virtual or electronic models are generated using
software (3-d plant diagrams)
• Purpose of Models – catch errors such as
– Piping clashes
– Misaligned piping
– Equipment not easily accessed
– Sample points not easily reached by operators

OPERATOR AND 3-D IMMERSIVE TRAINING SIMULATORS



Chapter 2
The Structure and Synthesis of
Process Flow Diagrams
Chemical Engineering Department

Generic Structure of Process Flow Diagrams


C6H5CH3+H2  C6H6 + CH4

Environmental Control
• End of Pipe vs. Green Approach

– Most significant changes obtained by changing
process chemistry within reactor – eliminate/minimize
unwanted by-products
• End of Pipe vs. Common Units
– Fired Heaters - excess oxygen
- low sulfur fuel
- NOX control
– Wastewater - biological/sedimentation/
filtration

Approach of Douglas1
• Five step process to tackle a conceptual process
design
– Batch vs. continuous
– Input-output structure
– Identify and define recycle structure of process
– Identify and design general structure of separation
system
– Identify and design heat-exchanger network or
process energy recovery system
1 – Douglas, J.M., Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, McGraw-Hill, NY, 1988

Batch vs. Continuous
Variables to Consider:
• Size
– Batch < 500 tonne/yr ~ 1.5 tonne/day
(< 2 m3 of liquid or solid per day)
– Continuous > 5000 tonne/yr

Batch vs. Continuous(cont.)
• Flexibility
– Batch can handle many different feeds and
products – more flexible
– Continuous is better for smaller product slate
and fewer feeds

Continuous allows the process to benefit from
the “Economy of Scale,” but the price is less
flexibility

• Other Issues
– Accountability and quality control – FDA
requires batch accountability
– Safety – batch is more accident prone
– Scheduling of equipment – may be most
important issue
– Seasonal demands – e.g., antifreeze, food
products

Input – Output Structure
(Process Concept Diagram)
Copyright - R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz,

11
2012
Input-Output on PFD

Input-Output – Utility Streams

Other Input – Output Issues
Purify Feed ?
• Feed purity and trace components
– Small quantities and “inerts” – do not separate
Example H2 in feed contains CH4
CH4 does not react
so – do not remove

Other Input – Output Issues (cont)
• If separation of impurities is difficult – Do not
separate
– Azeotrope – (water and ethanol)
– Gases – (requires high P and low T)
How would you remove CH4 from H2?

• If impurities foul or poison catalyst then separate
– Sulfur – Group VIII Metals (Pt, Pd, Ru, Rh)
– CO in platinum PEM fuel cells
Note: S and CO may be present in very

small amounts (ppm)

• If impurity reacts to form difficult-to-
separate material or hazardous product then
separate
Phosgene Example
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
CO + Cl2 COCl2
Any H2 HCl

• Impurity in large quantities then purify – why?
A notable exception is air

Add Materials to Feed
• Stabilize products
• Enable separation/minimize side reactions
– Anti-oxidants and scavengers
– Solvents and catalysts

Inert Feeds
• Control exothermic reactions

– Steam for oxidation reactions (explosion limits)
– Reduces coke formation on catalyst
• Control equilibrium
– Adding inerts shifts equilibrium to the
right
e.g., styrene reaction
C6H5CH2CH3 C6H5CHCH2 + H2

Profit Margin
• If $ Products - $ Raw Material < 0,
then do not bother to pursue this
process, but start looking for an
alternate route
Toluene HDA vs. Toluene Disproportionation
C6H5CH3 + H2 C6H6 + CH4

Toluene benzene
Toluene used
more efficiently
2C6H5CH3 C6H6 +C6H4(CH3)2
Toluene benzene xylene

Recycle
• Since raw materials make up from 25 to 75%
of total operating costs, should recover as
much raw material as possible
• Exception is when raw materials are very
cheap
For example, Air Separation

3 Basic Recycle Structures
• Separate and purify unreacted feed from products
and then recycle, e.g., toluene
• Recycle feed and products together and use a purge
stream, e.g., hydrogen with purge as fuel gas
• Recycle feed and products together but do not use a
purge stream - must come to Equilibrium
2C6H6 C12H10 + H2

Recycle Structure in PFD

Recycle without separation or purge
Recycle
increases and
equip. and op.
costs increase
2C6H6 C12H10 + H2

Recycle with Separation (and Purge)
2C6H6 C12H10 + H2
Extra tower
with associated
operating costs

Other Issues on Recycle
• Number of recycle streams
• Does excess reactant affect structure
– Size of Recycle Loop
H2 : Toluene = 5 : 1
• Number of Reactors
– Separate and recycle to different reactors

Other Issues on Recycle (cont.)
• Do we need to purify prior to recycling?

• Is recycling of inerts warranted?
• Can recycling an unwanted inert material push
equilibrium to the right?
– Gasification of coal – CO2 recycle

Other Issues on Recycle (cont.)
• Can recycling an unwanted inert control

reaction
– CO2 in Gasifier
• Phase of Recycle Stream?

Chapter 3
Batch Processing

R. Turton and J. A. Shaeiwitz - Copyright 2012 1

Outline
• Design Calculations
• Gantt Charts and Scheduling
• NonOverlapping and Overlapping Operations
• Cycle Times
• Flowshop Plants
• Jobshop Plants

Outline
• Product and Intermediate Storage
• Parallel Process Units
• Equipment Design for Multiproduct Batch
Processes

Outline
• Cycle Times
• Flowshop Plants
• Jobshop Plants

Design Calculations
• Recipe
• Operations are unsteady state
• Often existing equipment is used – not
designed specifically for recipe
• Transfer from equipment and cleaning
important
• Recycling and energy integration issues

Recipe
Step 1: 500 kg of reactant A (MW = 100 kg/kmol) is added to 5000 kg of

a mixture of organic solvent (MW = 200 kg/kmol) containing 60% excess
of a second reactant B (MW = 125 kg/kmol) in a jacketed reaction vessel
(R-301), the reactor is sealed, and the mixture is stirred and heated (using
steam in the jacket) until the temperature has risen to 95C. The density of
the reacting mixture is 875 kg/m3 (time taken = 1.5 h).
Step 2: Once the reaction mixture has reached 95C, a solid catalyst is
added, and reaction takes place while the batch of reactants is stirred. The
required conversion is 94% (time taken = 2.0 h).
Step 3 ……..
Step 4 ……..
Step 5 ……...
Design Calculations
5500[kg]
V  6.286 m3
875[kg/m3 ]
5500[kg] 1
Vrequired  3
 10.48 m3
 2768 gal
875[kg/m ] 0.6
60% fill
 Because reactors of this sort come in
standard sizes, a 3000-gallon (Vtank) reactor
is selected.

Design Calculations
Find the time to heat vessel contents from ambient to

95C
dT
VC p  UA Ts  T 
dt
T  T final  UAt

s
ln
Ts  To  VC p

Design Calculations
• Transfer from equipment and cleaning
important
Gravity drain or pump
Cleaning – GMP/documentation
• Recycling and energy integration issues
Recycling – often use dump tank and
accumulate material from several runs

Outline
• Cycle Times
• Flowshop Plants
• Jobshop Plants

Gantt Charts and Scheduling

Outline
• NonOverlapping and Overlapping
Operations
• Cycle Times
• Flowshop Plants
• Jobshop Plants

NonOverlapping and Overlapping
Operations
m
TNO  n  ti
i 1

Operations

Operations
m
TO  T  (n  1) max (t i )   t i
i 1,...,m
i 1

Outline
Operations
• Cycle Times
• Flowshop Plants
• Jobshop Plants
Cycle Times
tcycle = total time/number of batches

m
n  ti m
 ti
TNO i 1
tcycle, NO   
n n i 1
m
(n  1) max (t i )   t i
T i 1,...,m
t cycle ,O  t cycle   i 1
n n

Cycle Times
From the overlapping scheme – when the

number of batches (n) to be produced is large,
tcycle  max {ti }

i 1,..,m

Cycle Times
Example
A batch process involves 4 pieces of equipment with the following
process times
Heating and Mixing 2.5 h
Reaction 3.5 h
Filtration and Drying 1.5 h
Crystallization and packaging 2.0 h
Determine the cycle times for non-overlapping and overlapping
operation.

Cycle Times
Example
TNO = 2.5+3.5+1.5+2.0 = 9.5 h
TO,5 = [(5-1)×3.5+9.5]/5 = (14+9.5)/5 = 4.7 h
TO,10 = [(10-1)×3.5+9.5]/5 = (31.5+9.5)/10 = 4.1 h
TO,∞ = 3.5 h

Outline
Operations
• Cycle Times
• Flowshop Plants
• Jobshop Plants
Multiple Products
When we have multiple products that can be produced in the
same equipment, the scheduling of multiple batches requires
careful planning
The different products may require the same processing steps, or

more often will require only a subset of all possible steps.
Moreover, the order in which a batch process uses different
equipment might also differ from product to product

Flowshop Plants
If all the products use the same equipment in the same
order or sequence, but not necessarily for the same
lengths of time then the plant is referred to as a
flowshop plant

Flowshop Plants
Consider 3 products A, B, C each requiring to be run nA, nB, and
nC times in a given period.
When we want to produce multiple products using the same

equipment then we can either:
• run campaigns of the same product followed by campaigns of

the next product followed by……
i.e., run A - nA times followed by B - nB times followed by C -
nC times - AAAAAAAABBBBBBBBCCCCCCC
• Intermingle the products so that we run ABCABCABC… or

ACBACBACB…, or AABCAABCAABC

Flowshop Plants
For multiple- (single) product campaigns the total

processing time, or production cycle time, is found by
adding the operation times for each product.
If the number of batches per campaign is large (for

example, >10), then the production cycle time can be
approximated by
C C
 
T   j 
n j tcycle  n j  max {ti }
i 1,..,m  j
j A j A

Flowshop Plants
Example – production of three products A, B, and C
Use Single Product Campaigns

Flowshop Plants
What if we want to run as ABCABCABC. What is the

cycle time and how many batches can we produce of
each product in 500h?

Flowshop Plants

Flowshop Plants
3.5h not 2.5 h
Cycle times > 10.5h
29
R. Turton and J. A. Shaeiwitz - Copyright 2012
Jobshop Plants
When not all products use the same equipment or

the sequence of using the equipment is different
for different products, then the plant is referred to
as a jobshop plant.

Jobshop Plants

Jobshop Plants
For running sequential (multiple) single-product

campaigns, the cycle time and number of batches can
be determined by the same method used for the
flowshop plant.
For sequential operation of batches ABCABC.. or
ACBACB… we need to draw the Gantt chart.

Jobshop Plants
For equal batches of A, B, and C how many batches can

be produced in 500 h?
Jobshop Plants

Jobshop Plants

Jobshop Plants

Jobshop Plants

Outline
Processes

Product Storage
Product Storage for Single-Product Campaigns

When using combinations of single-product campaigns in a multi-
product plant, it is necessary to store product during the
campaign.
The amount of storage is dependent on the rate of production and

rate of demand for each product and the cycle time.

Product Storage

Product Storage
Campaign time
Vs   rp  rd  tramp
Rate of production Rate of demand

Product Storage
For products A, B, and C, determine the minimum storage capacities

for a single-product campaign strategy.
Assume that 1 month = 500 hours. Note that 43 batches of each

unit are required for each product per month.
Product Storage
Product Vs   rp  rd  tramp
A (0.093 – 0.020)(43×2.5) = 7.85 m3
B (0.07752 – 0.06202)(43×4.5) = 9.20 m3
C (0.06202 – 0.024)(43×4.5) = 7.36 m3

Intermediate Storage
For Multi-product Campaigns

So far, assumed no intermediate product storage
available. This type of process is a zero wait, or a zw-
process.
Flow to equipment directly from previous equipment in
recipe.
Delay in one step propagates through batch to all
steps.

It may be possible to store product in the equipment

that has just been used.
e.g. if two feed streams are mixed in a vessel, the
mixture could be stored until the next process unit in
the production sequence becomes available. This
holding-in-place method may not work for some unit
operations, e.g. in a reactor.
The upper limit of the intermediate storage concept

occurs when there is unlimited intermediate
storage (uis) available, and this is referred to as a
uis-process.
Limiting Case

A B C

Outline
Processes

Parallel Process Units
Reduce bottlenecks caused by a single piece

of equipment by duplicating the equipment.
Trade-off between added equipment (and
maintenance) cost vs. higher throughput.
Makes sense when one equipment dominates
cycle time.

Parallel Process Units
A B C
R. Turton and J. A. R.
Shaeiwitz 50
Turton- and
Copyright
J. A. 2012
Shaeiwitz - Copyright 2009
Outline
Processes

Equipment Design for Multi-product
Batch Processes
The design of equipment sizes for multiproduct

batch processes depends on the
• Production cycle time
• Whether single- or multi-product campaigns are
used
• The sequence of products for multi-product
campaigns,
• Use of parallel equipment.

Batch Processes
Example
Clearly the reactor is the limiting piece of equipment

– determine the size of the reactor required.

Batch Processes
From the recipe for each batch, calculations for the specific
volume of each reactor can be made – see Chapter 3.
Equations required total time taken to produce A
Total time for batches tA + tB + tC = 500

Reactor volumes VA = VB = VC

Chapter 6
Understanding Process
Conditions
Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012 1

Heuristics
• Temperature
< 40ºC > 250ºC > 400ºC
Require Require Special
Refrigeration Fired Heater M.O.C
• Pressure
< 1 atm > 10 atm
need Vacuum Thick Walls - $

Temperature
• T < 40º C – Refrigeration
– Use as much cooling water as Possible
cw rw
– Operating Costs (Table 8.3)

• Cooling Water (30-40°C) $0.354/ GJ
• Refrigerated Water (5-15°C) $4.43/ GJ

Temperature
40
35
Refrigeration (cw = 1)
Relative Cost of
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-50 -30 -10 10 30 50
Temperature of Refrigerant
Copyright - R.Turton and J.

4
Shaeiwitz 2012
Temperature
Q  10,000 kW
U  1000 W/m2 K
T  30C
A
10  10 
 333 m
6
10  30
2
3

Temperature
– CBM
• Heat Exchanger = $ 1.70x105
• Fired Heater = $ 1.81x106
• T > 400C
– M.O.C. is very Important

Why not use High-Pressure Steam?
P sat ( bar) T sat (ºC)

15.2 200
39.7 250
46.9 260
64.2 280
Graph of Saturated
86.0 300
74.5 290 Steam vs. Pressure
80.1 295
98.8 310
113.0 320

Why not use High-Pressure Steam?
Tcrit
120
Pressure of Saturated
100
80
Steam, bar
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Temperature of Saturated Steam, oC

Pressure
• Vacuum
– Slightly Higher Cost due to Stiffening Rings
– Large Equipment
– Air Leaks
• High Pressure
– Thick Walls - $
– H2 Embrittlement
– Safety

Minimum Wall Thickness
PR
t  CA
SE  0.6P
Wall thickness, t = m , design pressure, P = bar , vessel radius,
R=m
S = Design Stress (Max Allowable Working Pressure, bar) this
is a function of material and temperature
E = Weld Efficiency( ~ 0.9)
CA = Corrosion Allowance ( 0.00315 to 0.00625 m)

Minimum Wall Thickness
• Look at 36 inch Diameter Vessel with a CA of ¼
in made of CS with S = 13,700 psi
P t (m) t /CA
14.7 = 1 barg 0.0069 1.09
58.8 = 4 barg 0.0085 1.34
147 = 10 barg 0.0118 1.86
• As P > 10 then t >CA

What About S vs. T ?
• Look at Several Steels in Graph
• For CS S as T > 400ºC
• Must use Stainless Steel and $
• For a given Pressure
– t as T

Copyright - R.Turton and J.
13
Shaeiwitz 2012
Material of Construction
1 m Diameter Vessel made of SA285 - Grade A Carbon Steel
10.0
CS @ 500oC
Thickness of Vessel Wall, m
1.0
0.1 CS < 300oC
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Operating Pressure, bar

Material of Construction
• Carbon Steel
– Cheap
• Stainless Steel
– Expensive
– Better Chemical/Thermal Resistance
• What About T = 700-900C?
– Insulate inside of Pipe
– Metal – Refraction Lining

Conclusions
• T < 40C – Refrigeration
• T > 250C – Fired Heater or Furnace
• T > 400C – M.O.C. Issues
• P < 1 atm – Vacuum and Large Equipment
• P > 10 atm – Cost

Operating Conditions
Wall Thickness Increases
10 atm
Requires Requires Requires
Refriger- Fired Special
ation Heater M.O.C.
1 atm
40º C 250º C 400º C

Vacuum – Large Equipment
Do we ever operate outside these
limits?
• Tables 6.1 – 6.3
– Reactors and Separators
• Table 6.4
– Other Equipment

Examples
• Example 1 – Acrylic Acid

– Appendix B.9
– Why does T-305 Operate with the top pressure at 0.07 bar?
– Feed – 86.6 kmol/h Acrylic Acid – nbp =140°C
6.1 kmol/h Acetic Acid – nbp = 118°C
Table 6.2 – Reasons for using P < 1 atm
1. Obtain a gas phase for VLE
2. Temperature sensitive materials

Examples
• Example 2 – Separation of Propane
– Typical depropanizer operates at 220 psig (16 bar)
– why?
Table 6.2 – reasons for using P > 10 bar
1. Obtain a liquid phase for VLE

Chapter 7
Estimation of Capital
Costs

Types of Capital Cost Estimate
• 1. Order-of-Magnitude Estimate (Feasibility)
– + 40%, - 20%
– BFD , Process Modification
• 2. Study Estimate / Major Equipment
– + 30%, - 20%
– PFD , Cost Chart

Types of Capital Cost Estimate cont.
• 3. Preliminary Design (Scope) Estimate
– + 25%, - 15%
– PFD , vessel sketches , equip. diagrams
• 4. Definitive (Project Control) Estimate
– + 15%, - 7%
– PFD , P&ID, all vessel sketches, equip. diagrams,
preliminary isometrics

Types of Capital Cost Estimates cont.
• Detailed (Firm or Contractors) Estimate
– + 6%, - 4%
– Everything included – ready to go to construction phase
• Estimate low so actual cost will be high (+)
• Estimate high so actual cost will be low (-)
Why is + # > - #.?

Cost of Estimate – See Also Table 7.2
Accuracy
1
2
3
4
5
Cost of Estimate (Time)

Estimating Purchased Equipment Costs
• Vendor quote
– Most accurate
- based on specific information
- requires significant engineering
• Use previous cost on similar equipment and scale for time
and size
– Reasonably accurate
- beware of large extrapolation
- beware of foreign currency
• Use cost estimating charts and scale for time
– Less accurate
– Convenient

Effect of Size (Capacity)
n
Ca  Aa 
  (7.1)
Cb  Ab  Cost Exponent
Cost Equipment Cost

Attribute - Size
Ca  KAa n (7.2)
Cb
where K
Abn
Effect of Size (Capacity) cont.
• n = 0.4 – 0.8 Typically
• Often n ~ 0.6 and we refer to Eq.(7.1) as the
(6/10)’s rule
• Assume all equipment have n = 0.6 in a
process unit and scale-up using this method
for whole processes
– Order-of-Magnitude estimate

Example 1
• A New Plant Ordered a Set of Floating

Head Heat Exchangers (Area = 100 m2)
cost $92,000. What would cost be for a
heat exchanger for similar service if area
= 50 m2 and n = 0.44 ?

Example 1 - Solution
n
Ca  Aa 
n
 Aa 
  Ca  Cb 
Cb  Ab   Ab 
0.44
 50  Ca  $67,816
92,000 
 100 
100 m2 Exchanger is not twice as expensive as a 50 m2 exchanger
 Economy of Scale

Effect of Time
• Time increases – cost increases (inflation)
• Inflation is measured by cost indexes - Figure 7.3
– Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI)
– Marshall and Swift Process Industry Index
• Numbers based on “basket of goods” typical for
construction of chemical plants - Table 7.5

Table 7.5: The Basis for the Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index
Components of Index Weighting of Component (%)
Equipment, Machinery and Supports:
(a) Fabricated Equipment 37

(b) Process Machinery 14
(c) Pipe, Valves, and Fittings 20
(d) Process Instruments and Controls 7
(e) Pumps and Compressors 7
(f) Electrical Equipment and Materials 5
(g) Structural Supports, Insulation, and 10
Paint 100 61% of total
Erection and Installation Labor 22
Buildings, Materials, and Labor 7
Engineering and Supervision 10
Total 100
13
Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012
Equation for Time Effect
 I2 
C2  C1 
 I1 
• C = Cost
• I = Value of cost index
• 1,2 = Represents points in time at which costs
required or known and index values known

Example 2
• Cost of vessel in 1993 was 25,000, what is
estimated cost today (Oct 2010 – CEPCI =
582)?

 I now   582 
Cnow  C1993   25,000   $40,529
 I1993   359 

Example 3 - Accounting for Time and Size
• 2 heat exchangers, 1 bought in 1990 and the

other in 1995 for the same service
A B
Area = 70 m2 130 m2
Time= 1990 1995
Cost = 17 K 24 K
I = 358 381

Example 3 (cont’d)
• What is the Cost of a 80 m2 Heat Exchanger
Today ? (I = 582)

• Must First Bring Costs to a Common Time
 582 
A = 70 m2 Ca (2010)  17,000   $27,637
 358 
 582 
A = 130 m2 Ca (2010)  24,000   $36,661
 381 

Example 3 - Solution (cont’d)
C  KA n
27,637  K (70) n
36,661  K (130) n
ln(36,661)  ln( 27,637)
n  0.4564
ln(130)  ln(70)
C 27,637
K   $3,975
An 70 0.4564
C  3,975(80)0.4564  $29,374

Total Cost of Plant
• Purchased cost – equipment f.o.b.
• Installed cost – Often 3 to 8 times larger than
purchased cost

Installed Cost of Equipment (Table 7.6)
• 1. Direct Project Expenses

– Equipment
– Material for installation
– Labor for installation
• 2. Indirect Project Expenses

– Freight, insurance, and taxes
– Construction overhead
– Contractor engineering expenses

Installed Cost of Equipment Table 7.6
(cont’d)
• 3. Contingency and Fee

– Contingency
– Contractor fee
• 4. Auxiliary Facilities
– Site development
– Auxiliary buildings
– Off-sites and utilities

Lang Factors
• Table 7.7
• Use multiplier depending on type of plant to escalate
equipment costs to installed costs
• Flang = 4.74 Fluid processing plant
= 3.63 Solid-Fluid processing plant
= 3.10 Solid processing plant

Lang Factors (cont’d)
n
CTM  FLang  C pi
i 1
Total Module Cost Purchased Cost of Major Equipment

From Preliminary PFD
(Pumps, Compressors, vessels, etc.)

Module Factor Approach
• Table 7.8
• Direct, indirect, contingency, and fees are
expressed as functions (multipliers) of purchased
equipment cost  C op  at base conditions (1 bar and
CS)
• Each equipment type has different multipliers
• Details given in Appendix A

Module Factor Approach
CBM  C p FBM
o Bare Module Factor
(sum of all multipliers)
Bare Module Purchased Equipment Cost for CS

Cost and 1 atm pressure - Appendix A
FBM = B1 + B2FpFM
o
FBM  B1  B2
Fp = pressure factor (= 1 for 1 bar)

FM = material of construction factor (=1 for CS)
C p  C op Fp FM
Module Factor Approach – Pressure Factors

Module Factor Approach – Pressure Factors

Illustrative Example
• Compare Costs for
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger in 2011 with an
area = 100 m2 for
• Carbon Steel at 1 bar
• Carbon Steel at 100 bar
• Stainless Steel at 1 bar
• Stainless Steel at 100 bar

Effect of Materials of Construction and Pressure
on Bare Module Cost (all costs in $1000)
Cp = CpFpFm Fm = 2.73, Fm = 1.383
P MOC C op Cp o
CBM CBM
1 bar CS 36.6 36.6 120.7 120.7
1 bar SS 36.6 99.9 120.7 225.8
100 bar CS 36.6 50.6 120.7 143.8
100 bar SS 36.6 138.2 120.7 289.3

Bare-Module and Total-Module Costs
• BM – Previously Covered
• TM – Includes Contingency and Fees at 15%
and 3% of BM
CTM  1.18  CBM

all equip

Grass-Roots Costs
• GR – grass-roots cost includes costs for

auxiliary facilities
CGR  0.50  o
CBM  CTM
all equip
• Use base BM costs in GR cost (1 atm and

CS) since auxiliary facilities should not
depend on pressure or M.O.C.

Materials of Construction
• Very important
• Table 7.9 – rough guide
• Perry’s – good source

Capcost
• Calculates costs based on input

• CEPCI – use current value of 600 or latest
from Chemical Engineering
• Program automatically assigns equipment
numbers

Chapter 8
Estimation of Manufacturing
Costs

Estimation of Manufacturing Costs
• Direct Costs
– Vary with production rate but not necessarily directly
proportional
• Fixed Costs
– Do not vary with production rate but relate “directly” to
production function
• General Expenses
– Functions to which operations must contribute – overhead
burden

Direct Costs
• Raw Materials • Maintenance and
• Waste Treatment Repairs
• Utilities • Operating Supplies
• Operating Labor • Laboratory Charges
• Supervisory and Clerical • Patents and Royalties
Labor

Fixed Costs
• Depreciation – cover as a separate topic in
Chapter 9
• Local taxes and insurance
• Plant overhead costs

General Expenses
• Administration costs
• Distribution and selling costs
• Research and development

Manufacturing Costs
• Table 8.1
– Description of items
• Table 8.2
– Factors for estimating costs
* We relate (historically) the relationship between

items in Table 8.1 to direct costs A (RM) , B (WT) , C
(UT) , D (OL), and FCI of plant

Manufacturing Costs - examples
• Maintenance and repairs
– 2 – 10 % FCI
– Proportional to size of plant
• Supervisory and clerical labor Use mid-point
– 10 – 25 % COL values from
– Proportional to op. lab Table 8.2
• Depreciation
– some % of FCI
Note: using the mid-point values from Table 8.2 is a non-biased way of estimating COM but actual
COM may be quite different depending on the plant and industry sector

Manufacturing Costs
with depreciation as 10% FCI
COM  0.280FCI  2.73COL  1.23 CUT  CWT  CRM  (8.1)
COM d  0.180FCI  2.73COL  1.23CUT  CWT  CRM  (8.2)
COM without depreciation – we use this since we

calculate depreciation more accurately in Chapter 9

How Do We Get…..
• FCI – Chapter 7 CTM or CGR
• COL
• CRM
Look at these separately
• CUT
• CWT

Cost of Operating Labor
NOL  (6.29  31.7 P  0.23N np ) 2 0.5
NOL = the number of operators per shift

P = particulate processing steps
Nnp = non-particulate processing steps – compression,
heating/cooling, mixing, separation, and reaction
Important note – Above equation based on data from chemical plants and
refineries where number of particle processing steps is low. For units with
more than 2 solids processing steps ignore middle term and add 1 operator
per solids step
Example - acetone process
Operating Labor – Acetone Facility
Equipment Number of Nnp

Compressors 0 0
Exchangers 8 8
Fired Heaters 1 1
Pumps 5 -
Reactors 1 1
Towers 3 3
Vessels 4 -
Total 13
• NOL = [6.29 + (31.7)(0)2+ (0.23)(13)]0.5 = 3.05
• Number of operators required for one operator per shift = 4.5
= (49 wk/yr)(5 shifts/operator/wk)

= 245 shifts/year/operator
Total shifts per year = (365)(3 shifts per day)
= 1095 shifts/year
1095 / 245 = 4.5 operators (for a single shift)

Total Operators = (3.05)(4.5) = 13.75  14
Salary = $59,580/y (2010 Gulf-Coast average)
COL = (59,580)(14) = $834K

Cost of Raw Materials, Utilities, and Waste
Treatment
• Flowrates
– Get these from PFD – use stream factor
• Costs
– Utilities and waste treatment - Table 8.3 – see
Section 8.6 for utilities estimation
– Common chemicals – Table 8.4, Chemical Market
Reporter, http://www.icis.com/StaticPages/a-e.htm#top

Stream Factor
• Operating hours per year divided by total
hours per year
– Typical 8000 operating hours
– 0.9 – 0.95 typical
8000/8760 = 0.913
* Flows on PFD are kmol/operating hour not

kmol/hour – why?

Utilities – Fuel and Electricity
• Fuel for Fired Heaters
– PFD gives process load (energy balance) but total flow is more
due to efficiency – 70-90% from Table 11.11 – item 13.
– Fuel costs may vary wildly – Figure 8.1
• Electricity for pumps and compressors – Figure 8.7

– Shaft power – fluid power/efficiency
– Power to drive – shaft power/drive efficiency
* PFD usually gives shaft power – but be careful!

Cost of Fuel – Utility costs

Utilities - Steam
• Pressure levels
– Low (30 – 90 psi)
– Medium (150 – 250 psi)
– High (525 – 680 psi)
• Available saturated but sometimes
superheated
Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz

18
2012
Utilities - Steam
• Large chemical complexes generate high-
pressure steam and use excess pressure to
generate electricity – Figure 8.6.
• Steam can be used as a drive medium for
compressors and pumps
– Thermodynamic efficiency – Table 8.5
– Drive efficiency – Figure 8.7

Note: Modern supercritical power plants operate to give
Utilities - Steam
steam at 250 bar (3675 psi) and 1075◦F (580◦C)
20
Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012
Utilities - Condensate Return and
Boiler Feed Water
Steam
Process
condensate returned to
* just use steam costs steam generating systems
If Steam Lost in Process
gas and steam
use steam cost + bfw

since condensate is not returned
stripping steam
Steam Generated in Process
bfw
process
steam
* just take credit for steam – unless steam is lost in process

Utilities - Cooling Water
evap + loss
make up and chemicals
30°C 40°C
Process
purge (blowdown)

Utilities - Cooling Water
• Make-up based on DT (40 - 30) !
• Should charge cw based on energy used
– Table 8.3
• Does not matter (much) if cw returned at 40C
or 45C – same energy
• 45C is absolute max – due to fouling

Utilities - Refrigerated Water
• Same as previous slide in that energy costs are
not DT dependent – but cost based on 5°C
supply temperature
• Figure 8.4 shows cost of refrigeration as a
function of temperature

Utilities – Refrigerated Water
Costs ($/GJ)
CW = 0.354
RW = 4.43
-20C = 7.89
-50C = 13.11
8.4

Summary
• FCI
• COL
• CUT From these get COMd
• CWT
• CRM

Chapter 9
Engineering Economic Analysis
Copyright R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz - 2012 1

Definitions
• P – Principal or Present Value (of an investment)

• Fn – Future Value (of an investment)
• n – Years (or other time unit) between P and F
• i – Interest Rate (based on time interval of n) per anum
Basic premise: Money when invested earns money
$1 today is worth more than $1 in the future

Interest
• Simple Interest – Annual Basis

– Interest paid in any year = Pis
• Pis – Fraction of investment paid as interest per
year
– After n years total interest paid = Pisn
– Total investment is worth = P + Pisn
– Total investment after 1 year (n = 1) = P (1+is)
– What is the drawback of simple interest?
We can earn interest on earned interest

Interest
• Compound Interest
At time 0 we have P
At the end of Year 1, we have F1 = P (1 + i )
At the end of Year 2, we have F2 = P (1 + i )2
At the end of Year n, we have Fn = P (1 + i )n

or P = Fn / (1 + i )n

Example
• How much would I need to invest at 8
% p.a. to yield $5000 in 10 years?
i  0.08
n  10
F10  5000
5000
P  $2315.97
1  0.08  10

What if Interest Rate Changes with
Time?
n
Fn  P  (1  i j )  P 1  i1 1  i2  ....... 1  in  Eq. (7.7)
j 1

Different Time Basis for Interest
Calculations
• Relates to statement “Your loan is 6 % p.a.,
compounded monthly”
• Define actual interest rate per compounding
period as r
– inom = Nominal annual interest rate
– m = Number of compounding periods per year (12)

Different Time Basis for Interest
Calculations cont.
– ieff = effective annual interest rate
inom
r
m
• Look at condition after 1 year
m
 inom 
 
F1  P 1  ieff  P  1 


m 
m
 inom 
ieff   1   1
 m 
Example
• I invest $1000 at 10 % p.a. compounded

monthly. How much do I have in 1 year, 10
years?
m 12
 inom   0.10 
F1  P  1    1000  1    $1104.71
 m   12 
12
 0.10 
ieff  1    1  0.1047
 12 
 
10
F10  P 1  ieff  $2707.04
Example cont.
• As m decreases ieff increases
• Is there a limit as m goes to infinity
– Yes – continuously compounded interest
– Derivation – pp. 265-266
– ieff (continuous) = e inom – 1

Cash Flow Diagram (CFD)
• Represent timings and approximate
magnitude of investment on a cfd
– x-axis is time and y-axis is magnitude
– both positive and negative investments are
possible.
• In order to determine direction (sign) of cash
flows, we must define what system is being
considered.

Consider a Discrete Cash Flow Diagram
• Discrete refers to individual CFDs that are

plotted

Example
• I borrow $20 K for a car and repay as a $400
monthly payment for 5 years.
$20,000
For Bank For Me
$400
123 60
12 3 60
$400
$20,000
Cumulative CFD
Cumulative CFD

Annuities
1 2 3 n
Uniform series of equally spaced, equal value cash flows
Note: The first payment is at the beginning of year 1 not
at t = 0

Annuities
• What is future value Fn?
n 1 n 2
Fn  A 1  i   A 1  i   ..... A
• Geometric progression
 1  i n  1 
Fn  Sn  A  
 i 
Discount Factors
• Just a shorthand symbol for a formula in i and
n
F P  1
P   , i, n  
1  i  n
F  1  i n
P   1 
 P  F  , i, n   F  
F   1  i  
n
 
See Table 9.1
 1  i   1
n
P
 A  P   , i, n  
A  i 1  i n
Discount Factors
 F  1  i n
1
 , i, n  
A  i Table 9.1 has six
P  1 versions of these
 , i, n  
 F  1  i n
Three are reciprocals
therefore of the other three
 1  i   1
n
P
 , i, n  
A  i 1  i n

Calculations with Cash Flow Diagrams
$5,000
$2,000
$1,000
4 7
0 1 3
$3,000
• Invest 5K, 1K, 2K at end of Years 0, 1, 3, and take 3K at end of
Year 4
• Note that annuity payments are all at the end of the year

Example 1
• How much in account at end of Year 7 if i = 8%

p.a.?
F7  5,000 1  0.08  1000 1  0.08  2000 1  0.08
7 6 4
3000 1  0.08
3
F7  $9097.84
• What would investment be at Year 0 to get this
amount at Year 7?
9097.84
P  5308.50
1.08 7
Example 2
• What should my annual monthly car payment
be if interest rate is 8% p.a. compounded
monthly?
A
$20,000

• Compare at n = 60
  0.08 60 
 1    1
F60  A   12    73.47 A
 0.08 
 12 
 
 0.08 60 
F60  20,000  1     29,796.90
 12  
73.47 A  29,796.90  0
A  $405.53 Interest paid = $4,331.20
Copyright R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz -
22
2012
• Another method
mn 60
i  i  0.08  0.08 
1   1  
A  m m 12  12 
 ,0.08,60    0.020276
P   i 
mn
 0.08 
60
 1    1 1   1
 m  12 
A 
A  P ,0.08,60   20,000(0.020276)  $405.52
P 
interest paid  60(405.52)  20,000  $4331.20

Example 3
• You buy a house where you finance $200 K
at 6% p.a. interest, compounded monthly.
What is your monthly payment, and how
much interest do you pay over the lifetime
of the loan for a 15-year and a 30-year
mortgage in current dollars?

mn
i  i 
1  
A i (1  i ) n
m m
 
P (1  i )  1 
n
i 
mn
1    1
 m
15 - year mortgage m  12, n  15
30 - year mortgage m  12, n  30

• For 15-year mortgage
– $1687.71/month
– total of $303,788 paid
– $103,788 interest
• For 30-year mortgage
– $1199.10/month
– total of $431,676 paid
– $231,676 interest

Example 4
• You invest $5000/year (the maximum, for

now) in a Roth IRA, starting at age 25 for 40
years. Assuming a return of 8% p.a., how
much will you have at age 65 in future
dollars?

F (1  i )  1
n

A i
F (1  0.08)  1 40

A 0.08
F
 259.06
A
A  5000
F  $1,295,283
Example 5
• Repeat the previous calculation, assuming that you
do not start investing until age 35 or age 45.
F (1  i ) n  1

A i
F (1  0.08) n  1

A 0.08
A  5000
F
if n  30  113.28 F  $566,400
A
F
if n  20  45.76 F  $228,800
A

Depreciation
• Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital +

Working Capital
– Fixed Capital – All costs associated with new
construction, but Land cannot be depreciated
– Working Capital – Float of material to start
operations cannot depreciate
TCI  FCI L  Land  WC

Definitions
• Salvage Value, S
– Value of FCIL at end of project
– Often = 0
• Life of Equipment
– n – set by IRS
• Not related to actual equipment life
• Total Capital for Depreciation
– FCIL - S

4 Basic Methods for Depreciation
• Straight Line
• Sum of Years Digits (SOYD)
• Double Declining Balance (DDB)
• Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System
(MACRS)

Straight Line
 FCI L  S 
d kSL  
 n 
n = # of years over which depreciation is taken

Sum of Years Digits (SOYD)
 n  1  k  FCI L  S 

d kSOYD 
1
n  n  1
2
SOYD

Double Declining Balance (DDB)
 k 1 

2
DDB
dk   FCI L  d j
n 
 j  0 

MACRS
• Current IRS-approved method

Year Depreciation Percentage
1 20.00
2 32.00 See Chapter 9
3 19.20
Based on combination
4 11.52 of DDB and SL
5 11.52
6 5.76

Example 9.21
FCI L  $150  10 6
S  $10  10 6
n7
1st Year  d SL  ?
150  10
d SL   20
7
Same for Years 1-7
Example 9.21 (cont’d)
Sum of Year’s Digits
 7  1  1 7
d SOYD ,1 
1
150  10  150  10  35
 7 8 28
2
 7  1  2 6
d SOYD ,2 
1
150  10  150  10  30
 7 8 28
2

Double Declining Balance
2
d DDB,1  150   42.9
7
2
d DDB,2  150  42.9   30.6
7

MACRS
d MACRS , yr 1  0.20(150)  30
d MACRS , yr 2  0.32(150)  48
d MACRS , yr 3  0.192(150)  28.8
d MACRS , yr 4  0.1152(150)  17.28
d MACRS , yr 5  0.1152(150)  17.28
d MACRS , yr 6  0.0576(150)  8.64

Taxation, Cash Flow, and Profit
• Tables 9.3 – 9.4

• Expenses = COMd + dk
• Income Tax = (R – COMd - dk)t
• After Tax (net)Profit =
(R – COMd –dk)(1 – t)
• After Tax Cash Flow =
(R – COMd – dk)(1 – t) + dk (+ other cash flows)
• Other cash flows might include working capital return,
salvage value, etc.

Inflation
• $ Net Worth Now vs. $ Next Year
CEPCI  j  n   1  f  CEPCI  j 
n
• f = Average inflation rate between years j and n

Inflation
• Example
CEPCI 1993  359
CEPCI  2003  402
402
1  f 
10

359
0.1
 402 
f    1  0.0114 or 1.14%
 359 
Inflation
• What is inflation rate since 2003? The current

CEPCI is 600 (2011).
600
(1  f ) 
8
 1.4925
402
f  1.49250.125  1  0.0513
5.13%

Inflation
• Effect of inflation on interest rate
f affects the purchasing power of the $
• Look at the purchasing power of future worth, then
F
F' 
(1  f )n
• If this future worth was obtained by investing at a rate i,
then the inflation adjusted interest rate, i ’ is given by
n
F (1  i ) n
 1 i 
F'   P  P 1 f   P (1  i ' n
)
(1  f ) n
(1  f ) n
 
1 i
i'  1  i  f
1 f
45
Copyright R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz - 2012
Chapter 10
Monte Carlo Simulation and the
Evaluation of Risk

Outline
 Causes of uncertainty in profitability calculations

 Forecasting
 Quantification of risk
 Best-case - worst-case
 Monte-Carlo method and probability distributions
 Using CAPCOST

Factors Affecting Profitability
From Table 10.1

Cost of Fixed Capital Investment1 -10 to +25
Construction Time -5 to +50
Start-up Costs and Time -10 to +100
Sales Volume -50 to +150
Price of Product -50 to +20
Plant Replacement and Maintenance Costs -10 to +100
Income Tax Rate -5 to +15
Inflation Rates -10 to +100
Interest Rates -50 to + 50
Working Capital -20 to +50
Raw Material Availability and Price -25 to +50
Salvage Value -100 to +10
Profit -100 to +10

Forecasting – Prediction of Future
Trends
Demand: As P demand
demand increases
Supply: As P more supply
supply will become available
Market will reach
equilibrium when Supply =
Demand
New plant comes on line

– so supply curve shifts
down and Pequilib
Quantity of X demanded, Q (per year)

Historical Data
• Variation around
trend line = ±
35c/gal
• Build Plant in
1998 or 2005!

Difficulty in Forecasting
According to Yogi Berra
“It’s tough to make predictions, especially about

the future”

Quantifying Risk
Example 10.1 and 10.2
R= $75 million per year
COMd = $30 million per year
FCIL = $150 million
NPV = $17.12 million
What if variation of 3 parameters is
R – 20% to +5%, COMd –10% to +10%,
FCIL +30% to –20%?
Quantifying Risk
Best Case – Worst Case Scenario
Worst Case (all figures in $million or $million/yr)
R = (75)(0.8) = 60
COMd = (30)(1.1) = 33
FCIL = (150)(1.3) = 195 NPV = -59.64
Best Case What does this tell
R = (75)(1.05) = 78.75 us? - not much!
COMd = (30)(0.9) = 27
NPV = 53.62
FCIL = (150)(0.8) = 120

Quantifying Risk
The problem with the best case –worst case
scenario is that neither case is very likely!
If each variation were equally likely, i.e., the
high, average, and low values could each occur
with the same probability then we would have
33 = 27 equally possible outcomes

Quantifying Risk
Scenario R1 COMd1 FCIL1 Probability of Occurrence
1 -20% -10% -20% (1/3)(1/3)(1/3) = 1/27
2 -20% -10% 0%
3 -20% -10% +30%
4 -20% 0% -20%
5 -20% 0% 0%
6 -20% 0% +30%
7 -20% +10% -20%
8 -20% +10% 0%
9 (worst) -20% +10% +30%
10 0% -10% -20%

Quantifying Risk
Assign Probabilities to values using probability
distributions leads to the Monte Carlo Method
(MC)
We use an 8-step method to describe MC

Quantifying Risk
1. All the parameters for which uncertainty is to be quantified are identified.

2. Probability distributions are assigned for all parameters in step 1 above.
3. A random number is assigned for each parameter in step 1 above.
4. Using the random number from step 3, the value of the parameter is assigned
using the probability distribution (from step 2) for that parameter.
5. Once values have been assigned to all parameters, these values are used to
calculate the profitability (NPV or other criterion) of the project.
6. Steps 3, 4, and 5 are repeated many times (say 1000).
7. A histogram and cumulative probability curve for the profitability criteria
calculated from step 6 are created.
8. The results of step 7 are used to analyze the profitability of the project.

Probability Distributions
Uniform Distribution
P(x)
p(x)
1
1
b-a
0
a b x
a b x
Probability density Cumulative probability

function p(x) function P(x)

Triangular Distribution
P(x)
p(x)
1
2
c-a
0
a b c x
a b c x
Probability density Cumulative probability

function, p(x) function, P(x)

Triangular Distribution – used in CAPCOST
Triangular probability density function:
2( x  a )
p( x )  for x  b
(c  a )(b  a ) (10.9)
2(c  x )
p( x )  for x  b
(c  a )(c  b)
Triangular cumulative probability function
( x  a )2
P( x )  for x  b
(c  a )(b  a ) (10.10)
(b  a ) ( x  b)(2c  x  b)
P( x )   for xb
(c  a ) ( c  a )( c  b)

Monte Carlo Method
Monte Carlo Method
1. Identify parameters = R, COMd, FCIL
2. Probability distributions assigned – use
low, medium and high values for a, b, c
in triangular distribution
3. and 4. As an example – look at R
a = 60, b = 75, c = 78.75 (-20% - +5%, BC = 75)
P(x = b) = (b-a)2/(c-a)(b-a) =15/18.75= 0.8
Generate a random number (RN) (0,1) = 0.3501
Monte Carlo Method
Monte Carlo Method
Since RN < 0.8 use first part of Eqn (10.10)
( x  a )2
P( x )  for x  b
(c  a )(b  a )
( x  60)2
0.3501   x  69.92
(78.75  60)(75  60)

Monte Carlo Method
First part of curve – Eqn (10.10) x<b
0.80
0.3501
x = 69.92 b = 75

Monte Carlo Method
• Using R = x = 69.92
• Choose RNs for COMd and FCIL and repeat
procedure to get values for these
parameters
• Calculate NPV
• Repeat many times (1000) and plot
frequency (distribution) of NPV
Figure 10.15 shows NPV distribution for
this problem

Monte Carlo Method

Monte Carlo Method
1.00
Project B
Cumulative
Probability
Project A
0.50
0.17
0.02
0.00
-40 -20 0 20 40 60
Net Present Value ($ Millions)
Figure 8.16: A Comparison of the Profitability of Two Projects Showing the NPV with Respect to
the Estimated Cumulative Probability from a Monte Carlo Analysis
Monte Carlo Method

22
2012
Monte Carlo Method
Results using Capcost for Monte Carlo Simulations

23
2012
Summary
• The quantification of risk allows a more complete

interpretation of the economic potential of a new
project
• The Monte-Carlo method is a convenient tool for
quantifying the risk associated with factors
affecting a project’s profitability
• Capcost may be used to run Monte-Carlo
simulations on a process

Chapter 10
Profitability Analysis

Cash Flows for a New Project
1. Purchase land
2. Build plant (1-3 years typically)
3. Plant start-up – working capital
4. Plant produces product and revenue
a. Depreciate capital over first 5 years
b. Plant operates for some period of time – time over
which profitability analysis is performed
5. At the end of the project working capital, land,
and salvage value are recovered

Cash Flows for a New Project
Project life
Land
Plant start-up WC
S
Depreciation period
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Land
FCIL
Cumulative Cash
Flow Diagram
WC
Low revenue in 1st year
after start-up

Non-discounted Profitability Criteria
3 Bases for Profitability
• Time
• Cash
• Interest Rate

Time Criterion
Payback Period = PBP
PBP = time required after start-up to recover the

FCIL for the project

Cash Criterion
Cumulative Cash Position,
CCP = worth of the project at the end of the project
life
Because CCP depends on the size of project, it is
better to use the cumulative cash ratio, CCR
Sum of all Positive Cash Flows CCP

CCR   1
Sum of all Negative Cash Flows Land  WC  FCI L

Interest Rate Criterion

Rate of Return on Investment = ROROI
Average Annual Net Profit

ROROI 
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI L )

Sum of all Positive Cash Flows CCP

CCR   1
Sum of all Negative Cash Flows Land  WC  FCI L
CCP
Plant start-up
S
Payback period, PBP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Land Land
WC
FCIL ROROI 
Average Annual Net Profit

Slope of line 1

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI L ) FCI L n
FCIL
WC

Discounted Profitability Criteria
 For this type of analysis, we discount all
the cash flows back to time zero. This puts
all the investments and other cash flows
on an equal footing.
 For large capital projects, e.g., new plants
or significant additions, discounted criteria
are always used

Example 10.1 (all figures in millions of $)
Land = 10
FCIL = 150 (year 1 = 90 and year 2 = 60)
WC = 30
R = 75
COMd = 30
t = 45%
S = 10
Depreciation = MACRS over 5 years
Project life, n = 10 years after start-up

Land
End of (R-COMd-dk)(1-t)+dk Cash SCF Disc CF SDisc CF

Investment dk FCIL-Sdk R COMd
year, k flow
0 (10) - 150.00 - - - (10) (10) (10) (10)

FCIL R – COMd = 75-30
1 (90) - 150.00 - - - (90) (100) (81.82) (91.82)
= 45
2 (60)+(30)=(90) - 150.00 - - - (90) (190) (74.38) (166.20)
3 - 30.00 120.00 75 30 38.25 38.25 (151.75) 28.74 (137.46)

WC
4 - 48.00 72.00 75 30 46.35 46.35 (105.40) 31.66 (103.80)
5 - 28.80 43.20 75 30 37.71 37.71 (67.69) 23.41 (82.39)

MACRS = % of FCIL
6 - 17.28 23.92 75 30 32.53 32.53 (35.16) 18.36 (64.03)
7 - 17.28 8.64 75 30 32.53 32.53 (2.64) 16.69 (47.34)
8 - 8.64 0.00 75 30 28.64 28.64 26.00 13.36 (33.98)
9 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 50.75 10.50 (23.48)
10 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 75.50 9.54 (13.94)

WC
11 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 100.25 8.67 (5.26)
12 10+30=40 - 0.00 85 30 30.25 70.25 170.50 22.38 17.12
Land
Disc CF = CF /(1+i)k
R+ Salvage Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012 11
Same basis for criteria as before except we
use the discounted cash flows and discounted
cumulative cash flow diagram

Cash Basis
CCP Net Present Value, NPV
CCR Present Value Ratio, PVR
NPV  Cumulative discounted cash position at the end of the project

Present Value of all Positive Cash Flows
PVR 
Present Value of all Negative Cash Flows

Time Basis
PBP Discounted Payback Period, DPBP
DPBP = time required, after start-up, to recover the

fixed capital investment, FCIL, required for
the project, with all cash flows discounted
back to time zero.

Interest Basis
ROROI Discounted Cash Flow Rate of
Return, DCFROR
DCFROR = interest or discount rate for which the

NPV of the project is equal to zero.


End of (R-COMd-dk)(1-t)+dk Cash SCF Disc CF SDisc CF

Investment dk FCIL-Sdk R COMd
year, k flow
0 (10) - 150.00 - - - (10) (10) (10) (10)
1 (90) - 150.00 - - - (90) (100) (81.82) (91.82)
2 (60)+(30)=(90) - 150.00 - - - (90) (190) (74.38) (166.20)
3 - 30.00 120.00 75 30 38.25 38.25 (151.75) 28.74 (137.46)
4 - 48.00 72.00 75 30 46.35 46.35 (105.40) 31.66 (103.80)
5 - 28.80 43.20 75 30 37.71 37.71 (67.69) 23.41 (82.39)
6 - 17.28 23.92 75 30 32.53 32.53 (35.16) 18.36 (64.03)
7 - 17.28 8.64 75 30 32.53 32.53 (2.64) 16.69 (47.34)
8 - 8.64 0.00 75 30 28.64 28.64 26.00 13.36 (33.98)
9 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 50.75 10.50 (23.48)
10 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 75.50 9.54 (13.94)
11 - - 0.00 75 30 24.75 24.75 100.25 8.67 (5.26)
12 10+30=40 - 0.00 85 30 30.25 70.25 170.50 22.38 17.12


Comparing Several Large Projects
When comparing projects with large capital

investments, the question becomes what criterion
should we use to discriminate between alternatives?
Consider the following example (figures are in $millions)
Initial Investment NPV DCFROR
Project A $ 60 11.9 14.3%
Project B $120 15.2 12.9%
Project C $100 15.9 13.3%
The capital limit for this year is $120 million so we

may only choose A or B or C. Which is best?
When comparing projects with large capital
investments, the question becomes what criterion
should we use to discriminate between alternatives?
Consider the following example using a hurdle rate i = 10% (figures are
in $millions)
After tax cash flow in year i Initial NPV DCFROR
i=1 i = 2 - 10 Investment
Project A 10 12 $ 60 11.9 14.3%
Project B 22 22 $120 15.2 12.9%
Project C 12 20 $100 15.9 13.3%
The capital limit for this year is $120 million so we may only choose A
or B or C. Which is best?

Start with lowest capital investment – Project A – NPV is positive so this is
a viable investment.
Compare incremental investment in going from Project A to Project C (the
next largest investment case)
D investment = $100 – $60 = $40
D cash flow = $12 - $10 = $2 for year 1

= $20 – $12 = $8 for years 2 – 10
DNPV = -40 + 2(P/F, 0.1, 1) + 8(P/A, 0.1, 9)(P/F, 0.1, 1) = $3.7
DDCFROR = 11.9%
Because the incremental investment has a +ve DNPV – Project C is better
than Project A.

Basically what we have just compared is the following:
Case 1 – Invest $60 in Project A and $40 at a rate of 10%
Case 2 – Invest $100 in Project C
Since C is better than A, we now compare C with the next largest
investment – Project B
D investment = $120 – $100 = $20
D cash flow = $22 - $12 = $10 for year 1
= $22 – $20 = $2 for years 2 – 10
NPV = -20 + 10(P/F, 0.1, 1) + 2(P/A, 0.1, 9)(P/F, 0.1, 1) = -$0.4
DDCFROR = 9.4%
Because the incremental investment has a -ve DNPV – Project C is better

than Project B
Therefore, Project C is the best.

When comparing large, mutually

exclusive projects the appropriate
criterion is choosing the project with the
highest NPV.

Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives
Here we consider equipment alternatives for a vital

service – this means that one of the alternatives must
be purchased and operated. However, alternatives are
always available. The usual trade-offs are a higher
capital investment for a piece of equipment that will
either last longer (longer equipment life – better
corrosion resistance) or that is cheaper to operate.
When comparing equipment with equal lives, a simple
NPV comparison is appropriate.

Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives – Equal
Equipment Lives
Example
The following equipment alternatives are suggested for
an overhead condenser. The service lives for the two
alternatives are expected to be the same (12 years)
and the internal rate of return for such comparisons is
set at 10% pa.
Alternative Initial Investment Yearly Operating Cost
A -Air-cooled Condenser $23,000 $1,500
B - Water-cooled Condenser $12,000 $3,000

Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives
Alternative Initial Investment Yearly Operating Cost
A - Air-cooled Condenser $23,000 $1,500
B - Water-cooled Condenser $12,000 $3,000
Alternative A
NPV = -23,000 – 1,500(P/A, 0.10, 12) = -$33,200
Alternative B
NPV = -12,000 – 3,000(P/A, 0.10, 12) = -$32,400

Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives – Unequal
Equipment Lives
When the service lives for alternative equipment
choices are different then NPV cannot be used.
There are three methods to evaluate alternative
equipment with unequal lives:
• Capitalized Cost Method
• Common Denominator Method
• Equivalent Annual Operating Cost Method (EAOC)
The ranking of alternatives does not depend on
which method is chosen. So just choose one of
them – EAOC
Equipment Lives
EAOC
EAOC = (Capital Investment) (A/P,i,neq) + Yearly
Operating Cost
i (1  i )n
( A / P, i , n ) 
(1  i )n  1
The EAOC will be positive because it is a cost.

Therefore, choose the alternative with the smallest
EAOC

Equipment Lives
Example
Two pumps are considered for a corrosive service. The
yearly operating costs include utility and maintenance
costs. Which alternative is best if the internal hurdle
rate for these types of projects is 8% pa?
Alternative Capital Yearly operating Equipment life,

Investment cost years
A – carbon steel $ 8,000 $ 1,800 4
B – stainless steel $16,000 $ 1,600 7

Evaluation of Equipment Alternatives –
Unequal Equipment Lives
Example
Alternative Capital Yearly operating Equipment life,
Investment cost years
A – carbon steel $ 8,000 $ 1,800 4
B – stainless steel $16,000 $ 1,600 7
0.08(1.08)4
EAOC A  8,000  1,800  $4,220 per year
1.08  1
4
0.08(1.08)7
EAOCB  16,000  1,600  $4,670 per year
1.08  1
7

Retrofitting Operations – Incremental Analysis
(non-discounted)
Non-discounted methods
Rate of Return on Incremental Investment (ROROII)
Incremental Yearly Savings
ROROII 
Incremental Investment
Incremental Payback period (IPBP)
Incremental Investment
IPBP 
Increemntal Yearly Savings

Retrofitting Operations – Incremental
Analysis (non-discounted)
Example
The following insulations are being considered for the heating loop to an
endothermic reactor. If a non-discounted rate of return of 15% (equivalent
to a IPBP = 1/0.15 = 6.67 yrs) is set as the hurdle rate for improvement
projects such as this, which alternative is best? Note that alternative 1 is
the do-nothing option – compare all the others to this one (base case).
Alternative Type of Project Cost Yearly Savings

Insulation (PC) (YS)
1 None 0 0
2 B – 1” thick $3,000 $1,400
3 B – 2” thick $5,000 $1,900
4 A – 1” thick $6,000 $2,000
5 A – 2” thick $9,700 $2,400

Retrofitting Operations – Incremental
Analysis (non-discounted)
Example (cont’d)
Option # - ROROII IPBP (years)

Option 1
2-1 $1,400/$3,000 = 0.47 (47%) $3,000/$1,400 = 2.1
3-1 $1,900/$5,000 = 0.38 (38%) $5,000/$1,900= 2.6
4-1 $2,000/$6,000 = 0.33 (33%) $6,000/$2,000 = 3.0
5-1 $2,400/$9,700 = 0.25 (25%) $9,700/$2,400 = 4.0
Choose the option with the lowest cost that meets the profitability
criterion – Option 2. Then compare the option with the next highest
capital investment using this as the base case.

(non-discounted)
Example (cont’d)
Option 3 - ROROII IPBP (years)

Option 2
3-2 (1,900-1400)/(5,000-3,000) $2,000/$500 = 4
= 0.25 (25%)
Since by moving from Option 2 to Project 3, the profitability criterion is

met, make Option 3 the new base case. Then compare other options
with the new base case.

(non-discounted)
Example (cont’d)
Option # - ROROII IPBP (years)

Option 3
4-3 (2,000-1,900)/(6,000-5,000) $1,000/$100 = 10
= 0.1 (10%)
5-3 (2,400-1,900)/(9,700-5,000) $4,700/$500 = 9.4
= 0.106 (10.6%)
Since neither of the incremental investments in going from Option 3 to

Options 4 or 5 meet the profitability criterion – Option 3 is the best.
Note that decisions may be made using either 15% or 6.67 yrs as the
profitability criterion.

(discounted)
Discounted Method
Determine the incremental NPV or EAOC for each
option (compared to the do-nothing alternative) and
choose the alternative with the highest NPV or Lowest
EAOC (highest negative value).

(discounted)
Example revisited using a project life of 5 years and a discounted hurdle
rate of 10% pa
Option # - Option 1 INPV = -PC +(P/A, i, n)YS

2-1 = - 3,000 + [(1.1)5-1]/[(.1)(1.1)5](1,400) = $2,307
3-1 = -5,000+(3.79)(1900) = $2,201
4-1 = -6,000+(3.79)(2,000) = $1,580
5-1 = -9,700+(3.79)(2,400) = -$ 604
Because Option 2 has the highest NPV with respect to the do-nothing
Option 1, Option 2 is best.

(discounted)
Example revisited using a project life of 5 years and a discounted hurdle
rate of 10% pa
Option # - Option 1 EAOC = PC(A/P, i, n) - YS

2-1 = (3,000) [(.1)(1.1)5]/[(1.1)5-1] - 1,400 = -$ 609
3-1 = (5,000)(0.2638) - 1,900 = - $ 581
4-1 = (6,000)(0.2638) - 2,000 = - $ 417
5-1 = (9,700)(0.2638) - 2,400 = $ 158
Because Option 2 has the most negative EAOC with respect to the do
nothing Option 1, Option 2 is best. This result is exactly the same as
obtained with the INPV analysis.

Using CAPCOST for Profitability Calculations
Go to COM summary worksheet

Rework Example 10.1 using CAPCOST
Land = 10
FCIL = 150 (year 1 = 90 and year 2 = 60)
WC = 30
R = 75
COMd = 30
t = 45%
S = 10
Depreciation = MACRS over 5 years
Project life, n = 10 years after start-up

Chapter 14
Process Optimization

The Base Case
For any optimization, we need a starting point – this is our base case
• The base case may be any technically feasible process
• The further the base case is from optimum, the more optimization
must be done
• An objective function based (OF) on operating and capital investment,
e.g., EAOC or NPV should be chosen with the aim of minimizing or
maximizing the function – other OFs are possible, e.g., maximize
production of chemical B from the plant, etc.
• A Pareto analysis (80-20 rule) is often helpful to focus attention on
what should be looked at first
• Overall material balance tells us how efficiently raw materials are
being used – even though these costs are high, it may not be possible
to reduce them significantly.

Key Decision Variables
Even simple processes have tens if not hundreds of potential decision
variables. Therefore, it is important to identify which of these has a
significant effect on the OF.
• A Pareto analysis will identify the major costs, but how those costs
are affected by changes in operating variables needs some
preliminary investigation.
• Usually, the single-pass conversion in the reactor is an important
decision variable since recycle rates are influenced directly.
• It is easy to mask the effect of conversion using different
variables such as reactor temperature and pressure.
• Interpreting results in terms of conversion is usually more
straight forward than T and P – but T and P may be easier to set
in the simulation.

• If unreacted material leaves the process, then decision variables that

reduce these streams by better recovery in the separations sections
(and higher conversion) should be considered.
• High utility costs (steam and electricity) warrant decision variables
that focus on recovering heat and work. Also, there is heat
integration.

Costs associated with the production of a new facility to
produce acrylic acid via the partial oxidation of propylene
Contribution to Cost of Manufacturing, (million $/yr)
Largest
20 improvements
may not be
associated with
the largest costs
3
C3H 6  O2  C3H 4O2  H 2O
2
10
acrylic acid
5
C3H 6  O2  C2 H 4O2  H 2O  CO2
2
acetic acid
9
C3H 6  O2  3H 2O  3CO2
2
0
Electricity
DI Water
Propylene
Labor
Water
FCI
lps (feed)
lps (utility)
Cooling
Copyright - R. Turton and J. 5

Shaeiwitz, 2012
c
Costs associated with the production of a new facility to
produce acrylic acid via the partial oxidation of propylene
Change Selectivity (Reactor Temperature)
Recover lost propylene in Off Gas
Use New Catalyst (reduce Steam to Reactor) Largest savings is
Optimize Pressure to Recduce Compression Costs associated with
Add Waste Heat Boiler to Molten Salt Loop generating and selling
Contribution to Cost of Manufacturing, (million $/yr)
steam from WHB
20
10
0
Electricity
DI Water
Propylene
Labor
cooling Water
FCI
lps (feed)
lps (utility)
Copyright - R. Turton and J. 6

Shaeiwitz, 2012
Topological vs. Parametric Optimization
Topological Optimization involves changes in the arrangement (topology) of

process equipment. Questions that should be addressed include:
• Can unwanted by-products be eliminated?
• Can equipment be eliminated or rearranged?
• Can alternative separation methods or reactor configurations be employed?
• Can heat integration be improved?
Often, topological changes lead to large improvements in the OF and are
considered early on in the design phase.
Many of the more common topological changes were considered in Chapter 2

– Structure and synthesis of process flow diagrams

Topological vs. Parametric Optimization
Parametric Optimization involves the manipulation of

process variables such as single-pass conversion, reflux
ratio, product purity and yield, operating pressure, etc.
Parametric optimizations may lead to changes in the
topology of the process. For example, by increasing the
single-pass conversion, it may be possible to eliminate a
separation unit and the recycle of unused reactant.

Parametric Optimization – 1 variable
Parametric Optimization – Case Study No .1

Optimum reflux in a distillation column
For a fixed feed, operating pressure, and product yields and purities – the
size (diameter and height) of a distillation tower is fixed based on the reflux
ratio, R (assuming % flood, tray design, etc., are fixed)
As R increases
Reboiler duty, size, and utility costs increase
Condenser duty, size, and utility costs increase Formulate costs in
terms of EAOC or NPV
Tower Diameter increases
and optimize
Number of stages + tower height decreases
EAOC
Copyright - R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz, 2012 Rmin R 9

Consider the compression of feed air into a process that produces maleic
anhydride.
The air (10 kg/s) enters the process at atmospheric pressure and 25C and is
compressed to 3 atm in the first compressor. The compression is 65%
efficient based on a reversible adiabatic process. Prior to entering the second
stage of compression (where the air is compressed to 9 atm at the same
efficiency) the air flows through a water-cooled heat exchanger where the
temperature is cooled. What is the optimum size of the heat exchanger?
Tair,2 Assume: ignore pressure drop in pipe and exch,
cw
U = 42 W/m2°C, Tcw,in = 30°C and Tcw,out = 40°C
Problem is specified by choosing Tair,2

Tair,2
cw
As Tair,2 decreases
Cexch
Ccw Formulate total cost as
EAOC and minimize
Cpower
Ccomp

Look at the distillation of light (volatile) materials, e.g., propane from butane,
in a depropanizer and consider the column pressure as the decision variable.
General trends as P 
Separation becomes harder – equilibrium curve moves closer to x =y line
Column has more stages and a smaller diameter
Column temperature increases (top and bottom)
 

A
Objective function, OF = EAOC   , i, n  FCI  utility costs (reboiler, condenser, pumps)
P  tower
reboiler
condenser ,etc

At some pressure, we can
Depropanizer change from refrigeration to cw
in the condenser
As P increases, we must
change from lps to mps in
the reboiler
EAOC
refrig cw Column pressure

Topological change – eliminate refrig’n unit
Parametric Optimization – Multivariable
Parametric Optimization – multivariable

When considering multivariable problems it is tempting to change one
variable at a time and proceed in a stepwise manner.
For example: Consider an OF and two variables T and P
First hold T constant at T1 and vary P to get OF T1
Popt P
Then using Popt, we vary T to get
However Topt, Popt is not the OF Popt

“global” optimum
Topt T 14
Copyright - R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz, 2012

What should be done is:
T4
OF T1
T2
Topt
Popt P


For more than 2 variables, the previous approach becomes very tedious, so
try a DOE (design of experiments or lattice approach).
Consider the simulation and associated cost analysis that provides the OF as
the result of a single “experiment.” Choose values of decision variables in a
reasonable range and pick the end points of the range as independent
variables. Thus, for three decision variables there are 23=8 “experiments.”
x3+ OF1 = f (x1-, x2-, x3-) Find best OF and
then refine the
OF2 = f (x1-, x2-, x3+) grid or use linear
x1- x3- regression
techniques to fit
x1+ the data and
predict optimum
x2 - x2+ OF
May include a “base 16
case” or center point Copyright - R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz, 2012
Presentation of Optimization Results
In general, when plotting optimization results the curves

should be smooth if all the variables are continuous. For
example, if plot conversion as a function of reactor
temperature then should get something like this not this
x x
T T
17
Copyright - R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz, 2012
Beware of expanding the y-axis
EAOC, $1,000/yr
7,375
EAOC, $1,000/yr
8,000
7,000 7,370
6,000 7,365
5,000
4,000 7,360
3,000 7,355
2,000 7,350
1,000 7,345
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Reactor Pressure, bar Reactor Pressure, bar
Be aware of the accuracy of
your estimates

Understand the main effects

3
C3H 6  O2  C3H 4O2  H 2O
2
OF 5
acrylic acid
c C3H 6  O2  C2 H 4O2  H 2O  CO2

d 2
b acetic acid
e
?
9
C3H 6  O2  3H 2O  3CO2
a f
2
0 Reactor Pressure, P 1 c
Yield d
b
e
a
f
0 Conversion in the reactor 1

Optimization Examples
Example – 1 for Class

Consider the reactor preheat exchanger for the DME process given in Appendix 1.
T1 and T5 are fixed by process
R-201 Conversion and pressure in the adiabatic reactor are
fixed (80%)
How many variables are there in this optimization?
How would you solve this problem?
T2 T3 cw
E-202 T5
T1 T4
E-203
Optimization Examples
Example - 2 for Class

Consider the recovery of acetone from the reactor effluent
water T1 and composition are fixed by process

Reactor effluent contains acetone, IPA,
and hydrogen.
What are the key decision variables in
this optimization?
How would you solve this problem?
cw
reactor
effluent
T1 T2
E-203
Chapter 15 – Pinch Technology
Design of Heat Exchanger
Networks – Optimum DTmin


Optimal DTmin
Algorithm for Finding DTmin

• Estimate Qhot and Qcold and cost of utilities
• Estimate the installed cost of all heat exchangers
– “design the network”
• Take into account the materials of construction
(MOC)
• Estimate EAOC or NPV of network
• Repeat for different DTmin
• Plot EAOC vs DTmin

Optimal DTmin
Total cost
Energy costs
(utilities)
EAOC, $/yr
Exchanger cost
DTmin, opt DTmin

Optimal DTmin
Approach
• Estimate areas without designing network
– Cover details of hand calculations
– Show how HENSAD can be used to solve this
problem

Optimal DTmin
Exchanger Cost
Purchased Exchanger Cost, C p  KA n
Installed Exchanger Cost, CTM  f (C p , MOC, P)

 Find A
 Find MOC, and P

Optimal DTmin
Consider a Single Heat Exchanger
DT1  DT2
T DTlm 
DT2 ln( DT1 / DT2 )
1 -1
U
1 1 1
2

DT1 3
h i ho
Include
Q fouling Q
A
Number of shells = 3 U DTlm F
n
 A 
Purchased Cost of Exchanger  nshells K  
 nshells 

Optimal DTmin
Now Consider Cumulative T-Q Diagram
T T hot Streams 1 and 3 (say)
cold Streams 4 and 5

Q (say)
Q
We can match Streams 1 with 4 and 3 with 5 or
Streams 1 with 5 and 3 with 4 or
Stream 1 with some other stream ……..

Optimal DTmin
Stream Matching
• Not necessary to match hot and cold streams

within a given interval
• Results by matching streams within intervals are
not too much different than by matching streams
outside interval (~20%)
• We match streams within intervals since it is easy
and results are reasonable

Optimal DTmin
Area required per interval, Ai
hot cold
streams streams
 
Qi Qi

hhot ,i hcold ,i
Ai  i i
F DTlm,i
Assume F =0.80
Total Area required in Network, Anetwork

all intervals
Anetwork   Ai
i 1
Optimal DTmin
 sum up all contributions from each interval to get an

estimate of total area
 Use minimum number of exchangers to determine the
average area per exchanger
 Ntotal = (Nmin, above pinch + Nmin, below pinch)
n
 Anetwork 
 C p,network  ( N total ) K  
 total 
N

Optimal DTmin
What about MOC and P ? Base case conditions

P = 1 atm and MOC = CS
CTM  1.18( B1  B2 FM FP ) KAn (13.12)
1.18( B1  B2 FM FP ) KAn  1.18( B1  B2 ) KAbc

n
1
Abc  ( B1  B2 FM FP )  n
  (13.13)
A  ( B1  B2 )  For non-base case conditions
1 adjust h downwards

h  ( B1  B2 FM FP )  n
  (13.14)
hbc  ( B1  B2 ) 

Optimal DTmin
What about MOC and P ?

Optimal DTmin
HENSAD – Heat Exchanger Network Synthesis, Analysis, and Design
HENSAD performs the following calculations:

• Temperature Interval Diagram
• Cascade Diagram
• Composite Enthalpy Diagram
• Minimum Number of Exchangers
• Optimum DTmin
• Design of Network
• Above pinch
• Below pinch
Chapter 15 – Pinch Technology
Heat Exchange Networks
Chemical Process Design


Outline
• Heat Integration
• Design Procedure for MUMNE
– Temperature interval diagram
– Cascade diagram
– Temperature-Enthalpy diagram
– Minimum number of exchangers
– Design above and below pinch

Heat Integration
• Heat exchange networks
• It saves money to match streams rather
than pay to heat one and pay to cool
another
• You have already done this on ad hoc
basis in design projects

Heat Integration
• There is a rigorous methodology
• We will learn MUMNE (Minimum
Utility, Minimum Number of
Exchangers) method
• Not necessarily (and unlikely to be)
economic optimum

Design Procedure
1. Complete energy balance on all streams to
determine all temperatures, mC
& p values, and heat
flows.
2. Choose minimum approach temperature. Typically,
this is between 5°C and 20°C, but any positive
number is valid.
3. Complete temperature interval diagram, Each
stream is drawn and labeled. The heat flow in each
interval is calculated.

Design Procedure
4. Complete the cascade diagram. The energy excess
or deficit is calculated for each interval on the
temperature interval diagram.
5. Find the minimum hot and cold utility
requirements and identify the pinch temperature.
6. Complete the composite temperature enthalpy
diagram. This is a T-Q diagram for the entire
process.

6
2012
Design Procedure
7. Determine the minimum number of heat
exchangers required above and below the pinch.
8. Design the heat exchanger network.

7
2012
Example Problem
Stream Properties for Example Problems
Stream Tin Tout C p
m Q
kW/°C kW
1 200 120 3 240
2 140 100 5 200
3 100 170 3 -210
4 110 190 2 -160
Net heat 70
flow

Example Problem
1. The value of Q might not be given in above table,
or Q is given and mC
& p is missing. These are
calculated from the energy balance. The sign
convention is positive for heat available from a
stream and negative for heat needed by a stream.
2. Choose the minimum approach temperature. For
this problem, it is 10°C.

Example Problem
3. Draw and label the temperature interval diagram.
Label the intervals beginning with “A” for the
highest temperature interval. The heat flow for
each interval is calculated from, Q   mC
& p T , where
the sum is over all streams existing in that interval.

12
2012
Example Problem
4. Draw the cascade diagram. This represents the
cascade of heat flowing down from high to low
temperatures. Add utilities where needed. Label
the heat flows. The net utility flow should agree
with the net heat flow on the earlier table.
5. On the cascade diagram, there will be a location
where the heat-flow cascade is not continuous.
This represents the pinch temperature

Cascade Diagram
A
20
20
60
Hot B
Utility -80
Pinch Temp
130-140C
C
60
60
D
20
80
130 Cold
E
50 Utility
Example Problem
6. Construct the composite temperature enthalpy
diagram. This provides useful information, but it is
not required to solve the problem.

Example Problem
Hot Cold
interval T Q T Q
(°C) (kW) (°C) (kW)
E 100 90
D 110 50 100
C 120 100 110 30
B 140 260 130 130
A 180 380 170 330
200 440 190 370
Example Problem
In the table, the temperature shown is at the lower end
of the interval. The Q values are obtained by summing
all mC
& p T existing on the interval and adding it to the
previous interval. The temperature difference is for
that interval. The mC& p value is the sum of all existing
streams on that interval.

17
2012
Example Problem
The hot and cold stream lines are plotted, as shown on the
following figure. Clearly, there is a temperature cross, so the
cold stream line is shifted to the right until the minimum
approach temperature of 10°C exists at one point. (It could
exist at more than one point by coincidence.) For this
problem, all Q values for the cold stream must be increased
by 130 kW, as shown in the figure. Note how the hot and
cold utility requirements are apparent from the diagram.

QH=60
200
180
160
T(°C)
140
10°C - minimum approach temp.
120
100
Qc=130
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Q(kW)
hot stream
cold stream
cold stream adjusted

Composite T-Q
2012
Diagram 19
Example Problem
7. By representing the heat available in each stream
and from the utilities both above and below the
pinch, the minimum number of heat exchangers
can be determined. This identifies the minimum
number, but not necessarily the correct stream
matches. The correct number of heat exchangers
is the number of process streams + the number of
utility streams – 1.

above pinch - 3 exchangers below pinch - 4 exchangers
HU 1 2
1
60 180 60 200
60 60 120 60 30 130
40
3 4 3 4 CU
120 120 90 40 130
each arrow identifies one heat exchanger,

total number of arrows is total number of hxs.,
but not necessarily the correct stream matches
numbers in boxes are energy in streams

numbers with arrows are energy transferred in
a heat exchanger

Example Problem
7. Note that if a “direct match” is found, i.e.,
where sets of two streams match heat flows
exactly, one fewer exchanger may appear to
be possible. However, be careful, the
minimum approach temperature may be
violated.

Example Problem
8. Design the heat exchange network. There
may not be unique streams here. The
design is started at the pinch and you work
away from the pinch. Above the pinch, for
any streams that exist at the pinch, streams
can only be matched such that
C p  m
m C pC
H

Example Problem
8. When dealing with streams away from the
pinch, this criterion is no longer needed.
Any streams can be matched as long as the
temperatures are valid. If the criterion at
the pinch appears impossible to satisfy,
streams can be split to satisfy the criterion.

25
2012
26
2012
27
2012
28
2012
Example Problem
8. The same procedure is done below the pinch,
except that the criterion is
& pH  mC
mC & pC
9. Streams are matched and heat exchangers are
added until all required heat transfer is
accomplished. The entire network, both above
and below the pinch, can then be represented on
one diagram.

30
2012
31
2012
32
2012
In-class Example Problem
Stream Properties for In-class Example Problem
Stream Tin Tout 
m Cp
kg/s kJ/kg°C
1 250 100 1 1
2 280 120 2 2
3 100 200 1 2
4 120 230 1 5

In-class Example Problem
Determine (minimum approach T = 20°C)
a. minimum hot and cold utility consumption
b. pinch temperatures
c. minimum number of heat exchangers
required above and below the pinch
d. design of heat exchange network above and
below the pinch

35
2012
Cascade Diagram
A
120
120
B
0
120
Hot 40 C
Utility -160
Pinch Temp
120-140C
D
60
60
80 Cold
E
20 Utility

above pinch - 4 exchangers
1 2 HU
110 560 40
110 10 550 40
3 4
160 550
below pinch - 2 exchangers, if possible
1 2
40 80
40 80
3 CU
40 80
37
2012
1 4
split
38
2012
39
2012
40
2012
41
2012
Summary
• Heat Exchange Networks

• Well-established procedure
• Not necessarily (and unlikely to be) economic
optimum but a very good starting point
• Straight forward, but must be careful when
matching streams at pinch
• Different correct answers possible

Chapter 19
Process Input/Output Models

Copyright R. Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012 1

Chemical Process or Unit
input output
process

known
the design problem unknown
input output
process
Inputs Outputs
feed products
recycle recycle
Process
utilities steam
equipment
work condensate
heat cw return
bfw work
heat

known
the performance problem unknown
input output
process

input output
process
troubleshooting problem:
Unanticipated change in output observed.

What is cause?
It must be a problem with the input or the process.

input output
process
debottlenecking problem:
Want to make change in output. What parts

of process and/or input limit ability to modify
input?
Problem Solving Strategy – 1
• Fogler and LeBlanc • Woods

– Define – Define
– Generate – Explore
– Decide – Plan
– Implement – Do it
– Evaluate – Look back

Problem Solving Strategy – 2
• Define – make sure you are solving correct
problem
• Generate – brainstorming works
• Decide – narrow down ideas
• Implement – solve problem
• Evaluate – review results: Do they make
sense? What needs to be modified?

Suggestions – 1
• Do not get married to one idea – explore

alternatives
• Input can not be assumed in any
performance problem
• Must use all relationships for unit
• Not sufficient to say that unit is oversized,
so it will work

Suggestions – 2
• Problem in one part of process may be caused
by upset in very different part of process
• Must analyze each unit individually

Summary
• Design vs. performance problems
• Troubleshooting
• Debottlenecking
• Problem-solving strategies

Chapter 21
Chapter 21
Performance Curves for Individual
Unit Operations
i O i
(
(Distillation Columns and
Absorbers/Strippers)
Copyright R.Turton and J.A. Shaeiwitz - 2012 1

Outline
• Distillation columns
Distillation columns
– column pressure
– scale‐up/down
p/
– reflux ratio
– flooding/weeping
g/ p g
• Absorbers/strippers
– operation
p
– performance

Outline
– column pressure
– scale‐up/down
p/
– reflux ratio
g/ p g
– operation
p
– performance

Column Pressure
Column Pressure
How do we choose the operating pressure
How do we choose the operating pressure
of a column?
Usually based on:
Usually based on:
(i) Temperature of overhead condenser
(ii) Temperature at bottom of column

Column Pressure
Column Pressure
Algorithm:
1. If possible – use cheapest coolant stream available
– cooling water (or air) in the condenser
g ( )
2. If by choosing (1) above, the bottom temperature
is too high –
g then reduce pressure so that bottom
p
temperature is acceptable and choose warmest
coolant (refrigerant) for condenser

Column Pressure ‐ example
Column Pressure
A depropanizer is a column that separates propane from n‐
p p p p p
butane. At what pressure would you operate this column?
log P*(mmHg) = A ‐ B/(C+T)
Propane A = 6.80398 B = 803.810
C = 246.990
246 990
n‐butane A = 6.80896 B = 935.860
C = 238.730
C 238 730

Column Pressure
Depropanizer
p p Column – Overhead Condenser
Top product is ≅ pure propane
50
T
40
30
Q
Propane
log P*(mmHg) = 6.80398 ‐ 803.810 /(246.990 + 50)
= 4.0975
P* = 12,516 mmHg = 242 psia
P = 12 516 mmHg = 242 psia
What is pressure and temperature at bottom of the column?

Column Pressure
What does ΔPtray depend on?
Often this is the dominant term

and ∴ΔPtray is not a f (operating
conditions)
ΔPtray = ρlg(hw+ hcr) + kρgvo2

Column Pressure
Depropanizer Column
Top product is ≅ pure propane
ΔPcol = nΔPtray Pbot = Ptop + ΔPcol
Say ΔPcol = 5 psi Bottom product is ≅ pure butane

Pbot = 242 + 5 = 247 psia = 12,770 mmHg
For butane bottom product
p
A ‐ B/(C+T ) = log(12,770)
T = B/[A‐ log(12,770)]‐C = 935.860/[6.80896 – log(12,770)] ‐ 238.730
T = 107.5
107.5°CC

Column Pressure ‐
Acrylic Acid Example
Wh i
Why is column operating under vacuum?
l i d ?

47°C and 0.07 bar
11
Column Pressure ‐
Acrylic Acid Example
Why is column operating under vacuum?
Polymerization of acrylic acid above 90°C
Must reduce pressure so that P*(acrylic

Must reduce pressure so that P (acrylic acid) = A‐B/(C+89
acid) = A‐B/(C+89°C)
C)
What about ΔPcol?
ΔPcol = Pbot – Ptop = 0.16 ‐ 0.07 = 0.09 bar
Number of trays, n = 31
ΔPtray = 0.09/31 = 0.003 bar = 1.2” of acrylic acid

Scale‐up/down of Column
What if we want to change the feed rate to the
V column?
R = L/D
D If we want to keep all the purities the same then
the reflux ratio must stay the same.
F L=V-D Look at scale-down
How do we adjust the condenser and reboiler to
V’ L’ = B + V’ keep the reflux ratios the same? This will keep all
the product purities the same
B
Top of column F=B+D
QD = VλD=D(1+R)λD Fxf = BxB + DxD

R’ = L’/B
Bottom of column QD and QB scale linearly
with F if purities all
QB = V’λB = B(R’-1)λB
remain the same
of Column
Q2 U 2 A2 ΔTlm
l ,2
(
m&c p ΔT )cw,2 [D(1 + R )MλD ]2
= =
Q1 U1 A1 ΔTlm,1 (
m&c p ΔT )cw,1 = [D(1 + R )λD ]1
V process
R = L/D 1
+
1
D U2
=
hi ,1 ho,1
m& m&cw, 2
U1 1 1 M = p,2 M cw =
0. 8
+ m&p ,1 m&cw,1
hi ,1M cw ho,1
F L=V-D
Reduce cw flowrate and

V’ L’ = B + V’ reduce steam pressure
B Q2 U 2 A2 ΔTlm, 2 (m&λ )steam, 2 [B(R′ − 1)MλB ]2

= = =
Q1 U1 A1 ΔTlm,1 (m&λ )steam,1 [B(R′ − 1)λB ]1
process 1 1
+
R’ = L’/B U 2 hi ,1 ho,1
= = constant
U1 1 1
+
hi ,1 ho,1

Scale‐up/down
Scale up/down of Column
of Column
What if we do not adjust any of the utility flows

V while increasing/reducing the feed to the column?
R = L/D
D Look again at scale-down case
F=B+D
F L=V-D
Fxf = BxB + DxD
V’ L’ = B + V’ Top of column
QD = VλD=D(1+R)λD
B
Bottom
B tt off column
l
QB = V’λB = B(R’-1)λB
R’ = L’/B
Copyright R.Turton and J.A. Shaeiwitz -

15
2012
47°C and 0.07 bar
16
Scale‐up/down
Scale up/down of Column
of Column
What if we do not adjust any of the utility flows

V while increasing/reducing the feed to the column?
R = L/D
D Look again at scale-down case
F=B+D Material balance control will
F L=V-D
Fxf = BxB + DxD adjust D + B to based on F
V’ L’ = B + V’ Top of column
QD = VλD=D(1+R)λD Same cooling water flow
B and steam pressure causes
Bottom
B tt off column
l same amount of
QB = V’λB = B(R’-1)λB condensation and reboil –
R’ = L’/B what happens to R and R’ ?
R and R
R’ will increase – what happens to the
separation?
Scale‐up/down of Column – McCabe‐
Thiele Analysis
h l l
y Feed line slope What causes a high
= -q/(1-q) reflux ratio?
1.High purity products
2.Difficult separation
3.Impure feed
xD/(1+R)
xB xF x
xD
Scale‐up/down of Column – McCabe‐
Thiele Analysis
h l l
y Feed line slope
Back to scale- = -q/(1-q)
down analysis
What happens
when reflux
ratio increases
but number of
trays stays the
same?
xD/(1+R)
x
⇐ xB
xF xD⇒
Operation
What other factors must we consider when

column operations change?
Capacity of the column to process more or less

material is limited (bounded) by:
Flooding (scale-up)
Weeping (scale-down)

Operation
scale up
scale
down
Taken from JJ.D.

D Seader and E.J. Henley Separation Process Principles, John
E J Henley,
Wiley and Sons, NY 1998
Operation
For Scale-up
• must be aware of flooding limit
• normall design
d i is i between
b t 75-85%
75 85% off flooding,
fl di so scale-up
l window
i d
is small
• for vacuum operations – changes in column pressure have a large
effect on flooding
For Scale-down
• weeping becomes an issue at 30-40%
30 40% of flooding
flooding, depending on
type of tray
• generally can avoid weeping problems by using higher than
necessary condenser and reboiler duties

Outline
– column pressure
– scale‐up/down
p/
– reflux ratio
g/ p g
– operation
p
– performance

Stripper and Absorber Operation
L G
For dilute systems, L and G do not change
xA,in yA,out in the column ⇒ operating lines are
straight
Tower can contain trays or packing –
but the approach is very similar
For absorbers – we are interested in

reducing the amount of A in the
entering gas stream by transfer to the
liquid
For strippers – we are interested in
xA,out yA,in reducing the amount of A in the
incoming liquid stream by transfer to
the gas

Absorption Stripping
y y
yA,in
A in
ol el
yA,out
ol
yA,out l y = mx
el:
yA,in
xA,out xA,in x
xA,in xA,out x

Strippers and Absorber Operation
Strippers and Absorber Operation
For dilute systems we have

Packed Beds – Colburn Equation (18.23) in text
y A,in − y *A,out e N OG [1−1/ A] − [1/ A]

= Written in
y A,out − y *A,out 1 − [[1/ A] absorber form
A=(L/mG)
Tray Columns – Kremser Equation (18.22) in text
y A,out − y*A,out 1− A Slope of el
=
y A,in − y*A,out 1 − A N +1 L and G are the
molar flowrates
y*A,out = mxA,in
From Analysis,
Analysis Synthesis and
Design of Chemical Processes,
2nd ed., Turton, Bailie, Whiting,
and Shaeiwitz, Prentice-Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003

27
2012
From Analysis,

28
2012
Performance of Strippers and Absorbers
pp
For dilute systems, we can use Figures 21.14 an 21.15 (or

Eqs. 21.22 and 21.23) to solve most problems.
Example
An absorber with 10 stages is used to reduce the acetone
concentration in 80 kmol/h of air from 0.03 to 0.0015. The
acetone is absorbed into 50 kmol/h of pure water.
During a process upset, it is found that the water available for

this service is reduced to 40 kmol/h.
What is the new outlet fraction of acetone in the air?

pp
Example - Solution
Information given – drop the subscript A for the solute
L = 50 kmol/h xin = 0
G = 80 kmol/h yin = 0.03 yout = 0.0015
Find y*out= mxin = 0
∴Y ordinate for Fig 18.14 – Kremser Plot is
Y = (yout – y*out)/(yin – y*out) = (.0015 – 0)/(0.03 – 0) = 0.05
Locate intersection of Y and N = 10 on figure

From Analysis,
Interpolating
we get
A = 1.11

31
2012
pp
Example - Solution
Now look at new condition
L2 = 40 kmol/h
A1 = 1.11 = L1/mG1 = (50)/(m)(80) ⇒ m = (50)/(1.11)(80) = 0.563
A2 = L2/mG2 = (40)/(0.563)(80) = 0.888
Find intersection point of A2 = 0.888 and N = 10 on figure

From Analysis,
Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2003 Y = 0.15

33
2012
pp
Example – Solution
Does not change because xin remains at 0
Y = 0.15 = (yout – y*out)2/(yin – y*out)2 = (yout,2 – 0)/(0.03 – 0)

Yout,2 = (0.15)(0.03) = 0.0045
(originally 0.0015 – up by a factor of 3!)

pp
Example – continued
What can we do to bring
g back the exit concentration of vapor
p
to 0.0015 under the constraint that the water flowrate
remains at 40 kmol/h?
Discuss and find all possible strategies

pp
Discuss and find all possible strategies
1. Reduce the gas flow to [(40)/(50)](80) = 64 kmol/h – A remains at
1.11 and we are at the same original operating point on Figure.
the problem is that this is the process stream,
stream so not a viable option!
2. Change m to have the same value of A = 1.11 – m decreases to
(0.563)(40/50) = 0.45
t
two decrease A
ways tto d
(i) Change temperature yP = xp* ⇒ m = y/x = p*/P
((ii)) Change
g pressure
p T ↓ or P ↑

pp
Discuss and find all p
possible strategies
g
3. Reduce yin – but this is the process variable we are trying
to reduce so not an option
4. Increase the number of trays – could be costly and in this
case it will not work – see graph – we prefer solution not
requiring new/modified equipment

From Analysis,

38
2012
Outline
– column pressure
– scale‐up/down
p/
– reflux ratio
g/ p g
– operation
p
– performance

Chapter 21
Performance Curves for
Individual Unit Operations
(Fluid Flow Equipment)
Copyright J. A. Shaeiwitz and R. Turton - 2012 1

Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
– laminar vs. turbulent
• NPSH
• Pump and system curves
– single vs. multiple pumps
– centrifugal vs. positive displacement
– compressors

Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors
Copyright J. A. Shaeiwitz and R. Turton

3
- 2012
Key Relationships
Key Relationships
• Turbulent flow
2 ρfLv 2
ΔPfr = ⇒ ΔPfr ∝ v 2
D
m& 4m&
v= =
ρA ρπD 2
32 fLm&2
ΔPfr = ⇒ ΔPfr ∝ D −5
ρπ 2 D 5

Key Relationships
Key Relationships
• Laminar flow
πD 2 ΔPπD 4
v&= v=
4 128μL
32vμL 128v&μL
ΔPfr = = ⇒ ΔPfr ∝ D − 4 and ∝ v
D 2
πD 4

Example 1
Example 1
• Increase velocity by 25% ‐ turbulent flow ‐
effect on ΔP
2 = new 1 = old
ld
v2
= 1.25
v1
2 ρfLv 2
ΔPffr = ⇒ ΔPffr ∝ v 2
D
ΔP2 v22
= 2 = 1.252 = 1.5625
ΔP1 v1
Example 2
Example 2
• Double diameter – turbulent flow‐ effect on

ΔP
2 = new 1 = old
D2
=2
D1
32 fLm&2
ΔPfr = ⇒ ΔPfr ∝ D −5
ρπ 2 D 5
ΔP2 D15 1
= 5 = 0.5 = 0.03125 =
5
ΔP1 D2 32

Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors

NPSH
• NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head
NPSH N P i i S i H d
• There is pressure drop upon entering pump,
p p p g p p,
before mechanism that increases pressure
• If
If fluid is too close to vapor pressure at pump
fluid is too close to vapor pressure at pump
inlet, it could flash upon entering pump
• Pumps are designed to handle liquids and do not
behave well with vapor

NPSH
• NPSHA = Pinlet – P *

NPSHR
• NPSHA = NPSH “available”
v&
• NPSHR = NPSH “required”
– information supplied by pump manufacturer
i f i li d b f

NPSH
• Common situation
• Apply MEB
ΔP Δv 2
+ + gΔz + e f − Ws = 0 Δ → 2 −1
ρ 2
P2 − P1 2 fLv 2
− gh + =0
ρ D
2 ρfLv
fL 2
P2 = P1 + ρgh −
D
2 ρfLv 2
NPSH A = P2 − P* = P1 + ρgh − − P*
D
NPSH
32 ρfLv&2
NPSH A = P1 + ρgh − − P*
π D 2 5
of form
NPSH A = a − bv&2 NPSHA
a = P1 + ρgh − P *
32 ρfL
b=
π 2 D5 v&
this is for turbulent flow
f llaminar
for i flow
fl – straight
t i ht liline
with negative slope
NPSH
• How to increase NPSHA NPSH A = a − bv&2

• base case is line (1) a = P1 + ρgh − P *
– increase a
increase a – line (2) 32 ρfL
• increase h b=
π 2 D5
• increase P1
• decrease P*
– decrease T
– decrease b – line (3) NPSHA
3
• decrease L 2
• increase D
1
– suction line usually larger D
v&
NPSH
NPSHA > NPSHR
pump operates appropriately
NPSHA < NPSHR
R pump will cavitate
inappropriate pump operation
but it will operate
NPSH
v&

Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors

Pump and System Curves
• Pump curve (centrifugal pump shown)
Pump curve (centrifugal pump shown)
• Supplied by manufacturer
• Can be measured in lab
• centrifugal is sometimes called “constant head” pump
ΔP in pressure units
or head developed
Copyright J. A. Shaeiwitz and R. Turton - 2012 v& 16

• System curve
pump supplies pressure increase
to increase fluid pressure and to overcome all of these pressure losses
ΔP1−2 = ΔP1−3 + (− ΔPfr ) + (− ΔP2−3 )

Δ = out - in
ΔP1−3 = source to destination ΔP (usually > 0) + ρgΔz (could be > 0 or < 0)
ΔP1−2 = pressure change
h across pump (> 0)
ΔPfr = frictional pressure drop in pipes (< 0)
ΔP2−3 = frictional pressure drop across valve (< 0)

• To plot system curve – look at source to
destination and frictional loss
ΔPsys = ΔP1−3 + (− ΔPfr )
Δ = out - in
ΔP1−3 = sou
source destinatioon ΔP(usu
ce too des y > 0) + ρgΔz (cou
usually couldd be > 0 oor < 0)
2 ρfLv 2 32 ρfLv&2
ΔPsys = ΔP1−3 + = ΔP1−3 + 2 5
D π D
so ΔPsys
ΔPpump = ΔPsys + (− ΔPvalve )
empirical form ΔPsys = a + bv&2
v&
this is for turbulent flow
Copyright J. A. Shaeiwitz and R. Turton - 2012 for laminar flow – straight18line
• Often expressed as head
2 fLv 2 32 fLv&2
hsys = h1−3 + = h1−3 +
gD gπ 2 D 5
so
h pump = hsys + hvalve hsys
v&
ΔPpump < ΔPsys
impossible operation
ΔP sys
{
ΔPpump
-ΔPvalve
a = ΔPsource-dest if know this point
source dest + ρgΔz z
}-ΔPfr with ΔPsys = a + bv&
2
a pump
can find a and b
v&operating v&
ΔPpump > ΔPsys
excess pressure dissipated across partially closed valve
as open and close valve, flowrate changes
intersection point is fully open valve
Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors

Pumps in Series and Parallel
• Series two pumps
– Pump curve
Pump curve ΔPpump
– 2X head at
same flowrate one pump
v&

• Parallel two pumps
– Pump curve
P ΔPpump
one pump
– 2X flowrate at
same head
same head
v&

two pumps
• Which series
configuration
configuration
maximizes
ΔPpump z
flowrate?
z two pumps
– No general one pump parallel
result
v&
Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors

Centrifugal – variable speed
Centrifugal variable speed
ΔPpump
rpm 5
rpm 4
rpm 3
rpm 2
rpm 1
rpm increases with number

v&
p
more expensive pump
p p
cost of “wasting” pressure across valve may be less than cost of pump

Positive Displacement
fl
flow regulation/pump curve
l /
sometimes called “constant volume” pump

ΔP in p
pressure units
or head developed
v&

Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors

Compressors
locus of maxima = surge line
can also draw system

Pout /Pin
curves on this graph –
must change form of left-
rpm 5 hand side to ratio
rpm 4
rpm 3
rpm 2
rpm 1
v&
usually worth using speed control here because of compression costs

Outline
• Flow in pipes
Flow in pipes
• NPSH
– compressors

Chapter 21
Ch t 21
Individual Unit Operations
(H
(Heat Exchange Equipment)
E h E i )
Copyright J.A. Shaeiwitz and R. Turton - 2012 1

Outline
• Heat Exchanger Design Review
Heat Exchanger Design Review
• T‐Q Diagrams
• Heat Transfer Coefficients
f C ffi i
• Heat Exchanger Regulation
• Heat Exchanger Performance

Outline
• T‐Q Diagrams
f C ffi i

Heat Exchanger Design
Heat Exchanger Design
Tc,in Tc,out
Q = m&c C p ,c (Tc,out − Tc,in ) or Q = m&c λc Th,out Th,in
Q = m&hC p ,h (Th,in − Th,out ) or Q = m&h λh

Q = UAΔTlm F
ΔTlm =
(Th,out − Tc,in ) − (Th,in − Tc,out )
( i )
Th,outt − Tc,in
ln
(Th,in − Tc,out )
F = f (Th,out , Th,in , Tc,out , Tc,in , m&cC p ,c , m&hC p ,h )

Log‐mean
Log mean Correction Factor
Correction Factor
• F is log
is log‐mean
mean correction factor
correction factor
• Correction for not pure countercurrent flow in
multiple pass exchangers
multiple‐pass exchangers
• “Default” exchanger is 1 shell, 2 tube pass

Log‐mean
Log mean Correction Factor
Correction Factor
T T
T
Q Q
Q
F > 0.9 F < 0.9 F < 0.7
As temperatures approach, F decreases. When F gets too small, must add

additional shell passes to increase F.

Additional Shell Passes
Additional Shell Passes
one shell pass

two tube passes two shell passes
four tube passes

Outline
• T‐Q Diagrams
f C ffi i

TT‐Q
Q Diagrams
T T
T
Q Q
Q
no phase change hot fluid condensing hot fluid desuperheating,

phase change condensing, subcooling
Always sketch T-Q diagram to make sure there is no temperature cross.

TT‐Q
Q Diagrams
T T
Q Q
incorrect – caused byy jjust
correct looking at end points (red line)
and not sketching T-Q diagram.
Always sketch T-Q

T Q diagram to make sure there is no temperature cross
cross.

Outline
• T‐Q Diagrams
f C ffi i

Heat Transfer Coefficients
⎛ Ro ⎞
ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
1
=
1
+
1
+ ⎝ Ri ⎠ Ro 1
+
R 1
+ o
U o ho h f ,o k Ri h f ,i Ri hi
For class problems

problems, assume no fouling,
fouling thin walls,
walls and negligible wall resistance.
resistance
If given detailed data (like in major), then use all terms.
1 1 1
≈ +
U o ho hi

hi ∝ v 0.8 (equivalent to v&0.8 or m&0.8 ) - fluid in tubes or in annulus, no phase change
ho ∝ v 0.6 (equivalent to v&0.6 or m&0.6 ) - fluid in shell in cross flow, no phase change
h ≠ f (v) for phase changes (actually very weak function)
for boiling, h = f (ΔT n ) where n ≈ 0.25 if ΔT ≤ 10°F

n ≈ 3 to 4 if 10°F ≤ ΔT ≤ 50°F
ΔT is difference between hot surface and boiling fluid
for condensing, h = f (ΔT n ) where n ≈ −0.25
ΔT is difference between condensing fluid and cold surface

Outline
• T‐Q Diagrams
f C ffi i

Heat Exchanger Regulation
No phase change
UNREGULATED REGULATED
if process fluid flowrate increases control utility rate in response to
h increases, get increased heat transfer measured outlet temperature
somewhat self-regulating
however, h does not increase linearly with flowrate

Heat Exchanger Regulation
Phase change
Stream b is twotwo-phase
phase mixture
CV-1 lowers steam pressure bfw rate adjusted by measuring temperature
changes driving force of outlet and changing rate of steam removal
flowrate not regulated if level of liquid in accumulator drum changes,
steam trap removes condensate as it accumulates condensate recycle rate is adjusted

Outline
• T‐Q Diagrams
f C ffi i

Heat Exchanger Performance
150°C
150°C – shell – condensation
30°C – tubes – cooling water

40°C ΔTlm = 114 .93 °C
problem – must scale down by 50%
case 1: all resistance on tube side
MUST USE ENERGY BALANCES AND DESIGN EQUATION

150°C
ΔTlm = 114 .93°C
40°C
40 C
2 = new Q2 m&2λ2
1 = old =
Q1 m&1λ1
Q2 m&cw, 2C p , 2 (Tcw,out ,2 − Tcw,in,2 )
=
Q1 m&cw,1C p ,1 (Tcw,out ,1 − Tcw,in,1 )
Q2 U 2 A2 ΔTlm, 2 F2
=
Q1 U1 A1ΔTlm,1F1

150°C
ΔTlm = 114.93°C
40°C
40 C
2 = new
1 = old
Q = M = 0.5
(Tcw,out ,2 − 30)
define
Q
Q= 2 Q = M cw
Q1 (40 − 30)
m&cw, 2 U 2 ΔTlm, 2
M cw =
m&cw,1 Q=
U1 (114.93)
m&stm,2
M=
m&stm,1

150°C
ΔTlm = 114.93°C
case 1: all resistance on tube side 30°C – tubes – cooling water
40°C
40 C
2 = new
1 1 1
1 = old +
U 2 U1 h ho1
= ≈ i1 all resistance on tube side
define U1 1 1 1
+
Q2 U 2 hi 2 ho 2
Q=
Q1
1 1
m&cw, 2
M cw = U 2 U1 h h
m&cw,1 = ≈ i1 = i 2 = M cw
0.8
U1 1 1 hi1
m&stm, 2 U 2 hi 2
M=
m&stm,1

150°C
ΔTlm = 114.93°C
40°C
40 C
2 = new
1 = old
Q = 0.5
define
0.5 = M cw
(Tcw,out ,2 − 30)
Q2 (40 − 30)
Q=
0.8 (150 − 30 ) − (150 − T
cw, 2,out ) (Tcw,2,out − 30)
Q1 M cw 0 .8
M cw
0.5 = =
M cw =
m&cw, 2 (114.93) ⎡ (150 − 30) ⎤ (114.93) ⎡ (150 − 30) ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
m&cw,1 ln
⎣⎢ (
150 − T )⎥
cw, 2,out ⎦
ln
⎣⎢ (
150 − T )⎥
cw, 2,out ⎦
m&stm, 2
M=
m&stm,1

150°C
problem – must scale down by 50% 150°C – shell – condensation
ΔTlm = 114.93°C
2 = new 40°C
40 C
1 = old Q = 0 .5
define
0.5 = M cw
(Tcw,out ,2 − 30)
Q= 2
Q
(40 − 30)
0.8 (150 − 30 ) − (150 − T
cw, 2,out ) (Tcw,2,out − 30)
Q1
0.8
m&cw, 2 M cw M cw
0. 5 = =
M cw =
m&cw,1 (114.93) ⎡ (150 − 30 ) ⎤ (114.93) ⎡ 120 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ (150 − Tcw, 2,out )⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (150 − Tcw, 2,out )⎥⎦
ln ln
m&
M = stm, 2
m&stm,1
M cw = 0.425
solve second and third equations:
Tcw, 2,out = 41.77°C

150°C
problem – must scale down by 50% 150°C – shell – condensation
ΔTlm = 114.93°C
40°C
40 C
M cw = 0.425
solve second and third equations:
Tcw,2,out = 41.77°C
T 150°C
41.77°C
40°C
40 C
30°C

Class Examples
Class Examples
1. Re‐do
Re do previous problem if all resistance on shell
previous problem if all resistance on shell
side.
2. Re‐do previous problem if equal resistances in base
p p q
case on shell and tube sides.
p p y
3. Re‐do previous problem if 150°C stream is utility
and 30°C stream is process stream that must be
scaled down by 50%. All resistance is on the tube
side
d

Reboiler Performance
want to scale up 20%
254°C
condensing steam Q2 m&stm 2λstm 2
T
=
234°C Q1 m&stm1λstm1
boiling organic
Q2 m&org 2λorg 2
=
Q1 m&org1λorg1
Q
Q2 U 2 A2 ΔTlm 2 U 2 ΔT2
= =
Q1 U1 A1ΔTlm1 U1ΔT1

want to scale up reboiling organic by 20%

254°C
Q2 m&stm 2 m&stm 2
condensing steam
= 1.2 =
T
234°C Q1 m&stm1 m&stm1
boiling organic
Q2 m&org 2 m&org 2
= = 1.2 1.2 =
Q1 m&org1 m&org1
Q
Q2 U 2 ΔT2
= U 2 ΔT2
Q1 U1ΔT1 1.2 =
U1ΔT1
h not strong function of flow for phase change

want to scale up reboiling organic by 20%
m&stm 2
254°C
condensing steam
1.2 =
T
m&stm1 ΔT2
234°C
boiling organic 1.2 =
m&org 2 20
1.2 = ΔT2 = 24
Q m&org1
⇒ Tstm = 258°C
ΔT2
1.2 = or Torg = 230°C
ΔT1

Desuperheater
reduces steam pressure, which lowers temperature

spray
p y in bfw to resaturate at lower pressure
p
hence, get saturated steam at lower pressure
can get any saturated steam between available steam levels

More Complicated Example
• Must scale up or down
Must scale up or down

heat exchanger
Q2 m&cw, 2C p ,cw, 2 (Tcw,out , 2 − Tcw,in, 2 )
reactor
Q2 ξ 2 ΔH rxn, 2 =
= Q1 m&cw1C p ,cw1 (Tcw,out ,1 − Tcw,in,1 )
Q1 ξ1ΔH rxn,1
Q2 m&D 2C p , D 2 (T3, 2 − T4, 2 ) same Q2 m&D 2C p , D 2 (T3, 2 − T4, 2 )
=
Q1
=
m&D1C p , D1 (T3,1 − T4,1 )
equation Q1 m&D1C p , D1 (T3,1 − T4,1 )
Q2 U rxr , 2 Arxr , 2 ΔTlm,rxr , 2 Q2 U hx, 2 Ahx, 2 ΔTlm,hx, 2

= =
Q1 U rxr ,1 Arxr ,1ΔTlm,rxr ,1 Q1 U hx,1 Ahx,1ΔTlm,hx,1

• Result is 5 equations
Result is 5 equations
• Must be 5 unknowns

• 6 Unknowns: T
6 Unknowns: T3 3 T4 Tcw,out Q Mcw MD
ratios

• Have control of one
variable
– required to maintain
control
– otherwise, only one
possible set of operating
ibl f i
conditions
• Usually coolant flowrate
• Determined by pump
curves

Outline
• T‐Q Diagrams
f C ffi i

Chapter 21
Performance Curves for Individual
Unit Operations
(Reactors)
Copyright R. Turton and J. A. Shaeiwitz - 2012 1

Phenomena Affecting Reactor
Performance
Production of desired product
Chemical Reactor
• Conversion
• Volume
• Selectivity
• Space time
• Yield
• Catalyst
• Reactor model
Reactor • Reactor configuration
Performance
Reaction Kinetics Heat Transfer

• Concentration • Exothermic
• Temperature • Hot spots and runaway
• Pressure reaction
• Reaction mechanism • Endothermic
• Catalyst • Heat exchange configuration
• Thermodynamic Limitations

Phenomena Affecting Reactor
Performance
reactant consumed in reactor Low values mean high

single-pass conversion =
reactant fed to reactor recycle
reactant consumed in process For expensive reactant that is

overall conversion = recycled, this will (hopefully)
reactant fed to process be close to 100%.
rate of production of desired product High value is desirable but

selectivity =
rate of production of undesired product(s) may occur at v.low s-p c
moles of reactant reacted to produce desired product

yield = Process efficiency
moles of limiting reactant reacted

Production of Desired Product
When considering process conditions, it is important to consider what

conditions to manipulate in order to improve selectivity, yield, and overall
conversion.
In general, we have the ability to control temperature, pressure, and the extent
of mixing within the reactor. How each of these affects a given set of reactions
depends on the reaction kinetics.
Rule 1: On temperature levels and relative rates of reaction

High T favors the reaction with the larger activation energy
k1  k0e E1 / RT
Low T favors the reaction with the lower activation energy
T has no effect on relative rates if activation energies are the same

Rule 2: On concentration level and relative rates of reaction

High CA favors the reaction having the higher reaction order wrt CA
Low CA favors the reaction having the lower reaction order wrt CA
CA has no effect on relative rates if reaction orders wrt CA are the same
Rule 3: On maximizing a reaction intermediate say R in A→R→S
To obtain the highest value of CR, do not allow fluids of different ratios of A to
R to mix
This implies that plug flow is always better than mixed flow for simple series
reactions.
Usually operate at low conversions.

Rule 4: On combined reactions

Try to analyze in terms of their constituent series reactions and parallel
reactions.
For example:
A→R→S
A+B→R is equivalent to R
R+B→S B
S

Example 1 – What conditions favor the formation of maximum R?
1 2R r1  k10e80,000 / RT C ACB0.3
A+B
r2  k20e40,000 / RT C A0.5C1.8
2
S+T B

Example 2 – What conditions and reactor type favor the formation of

maximum R? (assume a gas phase reaction)
1 2 r1  k10e60,000 / RT C A
A → R → S r2  k20e60,000 / RT CR2

Example 3 - Consider an acrylic acid process
3
The reaction kinetics are of the form:
C3 H 6  O2  C3 H 4O2  H 2O (1)
2
 E 
propylene acrylic acid ri  ki exp   i  p propylene poxygen
 RT 
5
C3 H 6  O2  C2 H 4O2  CO2  H 2O (2) where i is the reaction number above, and
2
propylene acetic acid
i Ei ki
kcal/kmol kmol/m3reactor h
9 (kPa)2
C3 H 6  O2  3CO2  3H 2O (3)
2
1 15,000 1.59105
What conditions will maximize 2 25,000 1.81108
production of acylic acid? 3 20,000 8.83105

Example - Consider an acrylic acid process
A = propylene, B = oxygen, R = acrylic acid, S = The reaction kinetics are of the form:
acetic acid, T = combustion products
 E 
1 R ri  ki exp   i  p propylene poxygen
 RT 
2
A+B S
3 where i is the reaction number above, and
T i Ei ki
kcal/kmol kmol/m3reactor h
(kPa)2
1 15,000 1.59105
2 25,000 1.81108
3 20,000 8.83105

Reaction Kinetics
Elementary reactions of the form rA  k1C ACB

n m
Good for homogeneous reactions (single phase) or as data fits for

heterogeneous reactions
Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetics
n
k1  cii
i 1
ri  m
1  K jc j
j 1
The K’s and k’s are catalyst specific and must be fitted to data. L-H
considers bulk mass transfer, adsorption and desorption, surface reaction,
and pore diffusion.

Reaction Kinetics
For solid-catalyzed gas-phase reactions, the following resistances may be

important:
1. External mass transfer of reacting species from bulk to surface of catalyst
pellet.
2. Reaction at the surface of the pellet (mostly internal surface) and mass
transfer through the pores comprising the catalyst. These resistances occur in
parallel and must be considered together.
As T increases and the intrinsic reaction rate increases, the observed reaction
rate will go from being controlled just by the reaction kinetics to pore-
diffusion limited, and finally, at high temperatures, to external mass transfer
controlled.

Reversible Reactions and Chemical
Equilibrium
All reactions are reversible
• However, many appear to be essentially irreversible, e.g., oxidation reactions
• Because reactions are reversible, does not mean they are in equilibrium
• If reversible reactions are limited by equilibrium then (and only then) Le
Chatelier’s Principle applies
Example – the synthesis of ammonia
N2 + 3H2 
→ 2NH3 DH = -92 kJ/mol
What is the effect of
• Change in temperature?
• Change in pressure?
• Increase in the number of moles of reactant and/or product?

Heat Transfer in the Reactor
Exothermic Reactions
.
Liquid Phase – easier to control because of the high mcp of liquid
Common methods are
(1) Use a pump around
(2) Use evaporation of a solvent or the reactor contents with condensation
(1) (2)

Exothermic Reactions
Gas Phase – Type of temperature control or regulation depends on exothermicity of
reaction
Mildy exothermic
Use an adiabatic packed bed (temperature rise of up to 50°C is acceptable)
More Exothermic
Use a series of staged packed beds or PBRs with cold quench or heat exchange
between beds (again limit the temperature rise to 50°C)
T
z
z
z
Highly exothermic
Heat transfer must occur simultaneously with the reaction, alternatives include
Shell and tube reactor – catalyst in the tubes with gas flowing over the catalyst and
a heat transfer medium (HTM) in the shell. The HTM could be cooling water, a
hot circulating oil (Dowtherm), or a molten salt or we could use BFW and make
steam on the shell side.
HTM
Increasing heat of
runaway reaction
reaction
HTM

Highly exothermic
Fluidized Bed reactor – catalyst comprises a solids bed (may contain other inert
solid material) through which the reactant gases pass. The movement of the gas
creates rapid movement and mixing of solids and the solids bed acts isothermally.
Heat transfer surface in the bed removes heat as it is generated. Control is much
easier and runaway reactions “cannot” occur. However, FBRs are expensive.
Solids are
Gas passes upwards through solids well
with bypassing and non-uniform flow mixed
pattern
HTM
Reactant gas HTM

Highly exothermic
Other issues for highly exothermic reactions are to use
diluents and inerts to act as thermal sinks to reduce the
temperature rise of reactants. Moving outside of explosion
limits is also important.
What DT driving force is best in highly exothermic reactors
Increasing heat of
Small DT or large DT ? runaway reaction
reaction
HTM

Endothermic reactions
These reactions are inherently safe. As reaction proceeds, the temperature
decreases and the rate slows – therefore no “runaways” are possible.
Same configurations as exothermic are available.
Remember that high temperatures may be required in order to get the reaction rates
fast enough to have a reasonable size of reactor. But heat may have to be added to
the reactor through heat exchange surfaces for highly endothermic reactions
(possibly using a fired heater) in order to stop the reactor quenching itself out.
HTM
Increasing heat
of reaction
“Quench out”

Example
How would we scale up the acrylic acid reactor?

Chapter 25
Ethics and Professionalism

Copyright R. Turton and J. A. Shaeiwitz 2012

1
Outline
• Why study engineering ethics
• Ethics, morality, and the law
• Codes of ethics and professional registration
• Moral Dilemmas
• Whistleblowing
Copyright R. Turton and J. A. Shaeiwitz 2012 2

Why Study Engineering Ethics?
• Because it is the right thing to do.
• Because it is required.
• Because it is part (a crucial part) of being a modern
engineer or scientist
• Because it may save lives.
• Because it may keep you out of trouble.
• Because it may protect some tender parts of your
body or soul from legal assault.

Engineering Ethics
Case Study 1
• I am a senior seeking employment. In
January, I am offered a job by company X for
$4500/month, and I am given 10 days to
accept their offer. I accept their offer. Two
weeks later, I receive an offer of
$5000/month, and a more exciting position
from company Y. What do I do?

Ethics
• Morals – differ from person to person – based
on personal beliefs – often religion and
upbringing
• Legal – what behavior is legal and illegal
• Ethics – code of conduct (behavior) based on
personal morals and legalities

Ethics
• Moral Autonomy
The ability to make one’s own ethical
decisions, consistent with:
• Moral principles
• Codes of conduct
• Obligations accepted
• Law
• Applicable codes of ethics
Codes of Ethics
• AIChE
• NSPE
• Engineer’s Creed

Case Studies for Class Discussion
• Video scenarios
• From FE Exam Study Book
• General Ethics Questions – from Ethics Training
• Learning Ethics Case by Case
 Case 1
 Case 3
• Insider Informaton
• Falsified Data
 #1
 #2
Professional Registration
• FE Exam, then PE Exam
• Corporate exemption
Responsible charge
Government exemption

Some Solid Rules
(preachin’ and guidelines)
• Accept personal responsibility
• Reject bribery in all its forms
• Avoid conflict of interest
• Maintain your technical competence
• Seek, accept, and offer honest criticism
• Treat people fairly (regardless of race, age, sex,
national origin, religion)
• Avoid injuring others
• Assist others in following these guidelines
Based on the IEEE code of ethics

Steps in Confronting Moral
Dilemmas
1. Identify the relevant moral factors and reasons. What
are the conflicts and clashing ideals?
2. Gather all pertinent facts (technical and moral).
3. Try to rank the moral considerations in order of
importance as they apply to the situation.
4. Consider alternate courses of action and study
implications.
5. Talk with colleagues, friends, mentors.
6. Arrive at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing
all the relevant moral factors and reasons in light of
the facts (this is the HARD step).

This process allows us to get in our minds clear ideas about
what is right and wrong and helps us to decide what to do
in other cases. Then we have to make important
distinctions. We have to distinguish between:
 Conventional and Reflective Morality - Is what we have

always done what we ought to do?
 Morality and Law - Just because it is legal, is it right?
 Morality and Prudence - Can we morally do it, just because
it is in our best interest?
 Morality and Economics - Is the most economic decision
the most moral decision?
 Morality and Obedience to Authority - Is following orders
that are not proper a legal or a moral defense?
 Morality and Mere Opinion - Are you obligated to search
further for a reason to justify actions than mere opinion?
http://www.murdough.ttu.edu/EthicsModule/EthicsModule.htm
This takes you back to the start of the
list and the considerations of what
morality really means.
Follow the above system when you analyze
ethical dilemmas and you will be able to encircle
the problem completely and approach its
solution from many directions. But remember:
You usually have to give up something of value
to get something of value, and with ethics, there
is frequently no absolute right answer, just a
personal best answer, and it all comes down to
you.
http://www.murdough.ttu.edu/EthicsModule/EthicsModule.htm

Whistleblowing
• Rarely the best decision
• Questions to ask
What can be done to solve without
whistleblowing?
Can it be solved without whistleblowing?
What actions should be taken?
What are personal consequences?

Case Studies for Class Discussion
• Video Testing Water … and Ethics

• What they Don’t Know
• A Question of Integrity
• Learning Ethics Case by Case
#2

Chapter 26
Health, Safety, and the
Environment

Outline
• Risks
• Regulations and Agencies
• Worker Exposure
• Process Safety Management
• Fires and Explosions
• Inherently Safe Design
• Pollution Prevention
• Life-cycle Analysis
• HAZOP
Risk Assessment
• Statistics
OSHA incidence rate
Injuries and illnesses/100 worker years
200,000 hrs @ 2000 hrs/yr

Risk Assessment
• Statistics
FAR (fatal accident rate)
Fatalities/1000 worker lifetimes
108 hr

Risk Assessment
• Statistics
Fatality rate
Fatalities/yr/applicable population
e.g., smokers

Risk Assessment
Activity OSHA Incident Fatal Accident Fatality Rate
Rate Rate (deaths per person
(injuries & deaths (deaths per per year)
per 200,000 h) 100,000,000 h)
Working in Chemical
Industry
0.49 4
Staying at Home 3
Working in Steel
Industry
1.54 8
Working in
Construction
3.88 67
Traveling by Car 57 170 x 10-6

Rock Climbing 4000 40 x 10-6
Smoking (1 pack per
day)
5000 x 10-6
Being struck by
Lightning
0.1 x 10-6

Risk Assessment
• Accident statistics - Table 22.1
• Worst case scenario  HAZOPS
• Role of CHE – to communicate risks to
employees, employers, clients, public –
Important Public Relations

Regulations and Agencies
• Rules and regulations arise from governmental (OSHA,
NIOSH, EPA, DOT, MSHA) and non-governmental agencies
(AIChE, API, ASTM, NFPA, etc.)
• Federal government rules are published in the Federal
Register (FR) and the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
• Important Standards include
– OSHA Act and Air Contamination Standard – give exposure limits
– Hazard Communication Standard – “worker right to know” or
HazCom. Specifies proper labeling of containers and availability
of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).

Worker Exposure
Time weighted average
• Workers over 8-hr day
 OSHA
 Permissible Exposure Limit
 Threshold Limit Values (ACGIH)
 NIOSH – Recommended Exposure Limits
 Short Term Exposure Limit – 15 minute exposure
• Public
 EPA – CAA, CWA, SARA
 DOT
• MSDS Sheet
 See Table 22.3

Process Safety Management
– See 13 components of PSM in Table 22.4
• Process Hazards Management
– See video – API 750

Fires and Explosions
• Combustion - rapid oxidation
– At room temp rate usually low
– Increases rapidly with temperature
– Below auto-ignition temperature – remove heat and
returns to room temperature
• Auto-ignition temperature
– Above this temperature, combustion is sustained when
heat source removed.
– Energy to heat small region to above A-I temp is called
the ignition energy – very small

• Flammability (or explosive) Limits
LFL (LEL) – min concentration of fuel in
oxidant (usually air) that will support
combustion
UFL (UEL) - max concentration of fuel in
oxidant (usually air) that will support
combustion
MOC – relates to “inerting”

• Explosion – rapid combustion in which the pressure waves
formed propagate the combustion. Waves compresses and
heats flammable mixture to its AI temperature.
 Deflagraton (< speed of sound)
 Detonation (> speed of sound)
• Vapor cloud explosion
• BLEVE (boiling-liquid expanding vapor-cloud explosion –
rapid expansion of vapor can cause a massive shock wave)
BLEVE + VCE = 

• Runaway reaction
– Insufficient heat removal from exothermic
reaction  LOCA (loss of cooling accident)
– Use a small or large DT for cooling medium?
• Over-pressure
– Pressure-relief valves
– Bursting discs

Inherently Safe Design
• Substitution – avoid
• Intensification – use less
• Attenuation – less hazardous conditions
• Containment – do not let out
• Control Leaks – emergency isolation
• Survive Leaks – fire protection, etc.

Pollution Prevention
• Source Reduction
• Recycling – “mass integration”
– In process
– On-site
– Off-site
• Treatment
• Disposal
• Release
Life-cycle Analysis
• “Cradle-to-grave”
– Raw materials acquisition
– Manufacturing
– Use, reuse, maintenance
– Recycle and waste management

Life-cycle Analysis
• Inventory analysis
– Material and energy inputs to
environment
• Impact analysis
– Environmental consequences
• Improvement analysis
– Opportunities to improve environment
HAZOP
• Hazard and Operability Study
• Ask: What if?
• “A modified brainstorming technique for
identifying and resolving process hazards
by considering seemingly unusual
occurrences.”

HAZOP
• Guide words used to describe possible
deviations in the process
– No, none, not
– More of
– Less of
– More than, or as well as
– Part of
– Reverse
– Other than
HAZOP
• No, none, not
– Design intention does not occur
• More of
– Beyond design intention
• Less of
– Below design intention
HAZOP
• More than, or as well as
– In addition to design intention
• Part of
– Only some of intention present
• Reverse
– Opposite of design intention
• Other than
– Other than intended by design
HAZOP
• Intention
– How process is designed to operate
• Deviation
– From operating specifications
• Cause
– How deviation might occur
• Consequence
– Of deviation with reasonable causes
• Hazard
– Consequences that could cause dangerous situation
HAZOP Algorithm
• Pick unit and establish design intention
• Pick streams entering
• Apply all guide words – does possible cause
exist for given deviation
• For deviation – determine consequences and
suggest remedy
• Repeat for all equipment

HAZOP Example
• See Table 26.5
– Shows example of each guide word
– Shows “correct” tabular form for
presentation of results

Table 21.5. HAZOP for the Feed Heater of the Hydrodealkylation (HDA) Process
Process Unit: H-101, Feed Heater, Figure 1.3 6
Intention: To provide feed to the Reactor (Stream 6) at 600ºC. 4
fg air
Guide Deviation Cause Consequence Action

Word
No No flow (Stream 4) blockage in line Fluid in H-101 Consider an interlock on
overheats fuel gas flow
 No O2 in Rich fuel:air mixture Unburned fuel and None. O2 analyzer with
combustion CO in combustion self-checking circuit
products products controls ratio reliably
  O2 analyzer Potentially rich 
malfunction fuel:air mixture
 No flow (Stream 6) Heat tubes burst Explosion Interlock with sudden P
drop alarm and shutdown
 No benzene in C-101 not working Hydrogen:Toluene Maintain spare
Stream 6 ratio off to R-101 and compressor C-101
loss of hydrogen to
fuel gas
 No fuel gas flow Supply pipe rupture Cold shot to R-101, Interlock with process
quenching reaction shutdown
 No flame Momentary loss of fuel Explosive mixture Automatic flame
gas detection with re-ignition
cycle
Summary
• Risks
• Regulations and Agencies
• Worker Exposure
• Fires and Explosions
• Inherently Safe Design
• Pollution Prevention
• Life-cycle Analysis
• HAZOP

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PDF PERANCANGAN PABRIK KIMIA

chapter1-Chemical Process Diagrams (minggu 1)…………………………………………………………………………………………...............................2

chapter2-Structure and Synthesis of the Process Flow Diagram (minggu 2)……………………………………………………………………………….38

chapter6-understanding process conditions (minggu 3)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….121

chapter7-estimation of capital costs (minggu 4)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..141

chapter8-estimation of manufacturing costs……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..176

chapter9-engineering economics analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….204

chapter10-Monte Carlo Simulation and the Evaluation of Risk………………………………………………………………………………………………….249

chapter15-Pinch Technology Design of Heat Exchanger Networks – Optimum deltaTmin………………………………………………………..333

chapter15-Pinch Technology Heat Exchange Networks…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….346

chapter19-Process Input-Output Models………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….388

chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Fluid Flow Equipment)…………………………………………………………..438

chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Heat Exchange Equipment)……………………………………………………468

chapter21-Performance Curves for Individual Unit Operations (Reactors)……………………………………………………………………………….503

chapter25-Ethics and Professionalism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..523

chapter26-Health, Safety, and the Environment………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………538

(Copyright - R.Turton and J. Shaeiwitz 2012)

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• Block Flow Process Diagram

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• PFD shows all process engineering

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– The topology of the process – showing the connectivity

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• Add arrows for

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• Since diagrams are small, not much

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Temperature (°C) 25 59 25 225 41 600 41 38 654 90

Component Mole Flow

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A Section of Table 1.7: Equipment Summary

Vessel V-101 V-102

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P&ID – Construction Bible

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Section of Plot Plan Section of Elevation Diagram

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• Piping Isometrics – show piping in 3-

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