14

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE EARLIER WORKS IN THE RELEVANT FIELD
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2.1 Introduction

Biomass gasification technology is more than a century old now. In early days this
technology had to face the challenge caused due to abandon availability of conventional
energy sources. With the rising cost of conventional energy the biomass gasification has
found its acceptability as a low cost alternative. Thus with the worldwide acceptance of
this gas technology many commercial scale gasifier system has been developed. For the
last few years there have seen a major resurgence of interest in biomass gasification
processes mostly due to its environmental and political pressures for CO 2 mitigation
measures. Very few processes have yet proved commercially viable, although the
technology has progressed steadily. At the present juncture it can be seen that sufficient
expertise and knowledge is available in this particular field to have a high level of
confidence in modern gasification processes.

Biomass gasification is a thermochemical conversion of biomass into gaseous fuel by

means of partial oxidation of the biomass at high temperature [1]. The gas is well known
as producer gas. It is a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane,
water vapor, nitrogen (if air is used as the oxidizing agent) and various contaminants such
as small char particles, ash, tars and oils. The partial oxidation can be carried out using
either air, or oxygen, or steam or a mixture of all these. In case of air gasification, the low
heating value of the producer gas is (4-7 MJ/Nm3 higher heating value) and it is suitable
for boiler, engine and turbine operation but not for pipeline transportation due to its low
energy density. Oxygen gasification produces a medium heating value gas (10-18
MJ/Nm3 higher heating value) suitable for limited pipeline distribution and as synthesis
gas for conversion [2, 3], for example, to methanol and gasoline. Such a medium heating
value gas can also be produced by steam gasification. Gasification with air is the more
widely used technology since there is no need of complexity and no involvement of high
cost for multiple reactors.
 15

When a solid fuel is heated at 300-5000C in absence of an oxidizing agent, it pyrolyses to

solid char, condensable hydrocarbons or tar and gases. The relative yields of gas, liquid
and char depend mostly on the rate of heating and the final temperature. Generally in
gasification, pyrolysis proceeds at a much faster rate than gasification and the latter thus
controls the rate of production. The gas, liquid and solid products of pyrolysis then react
with the oxidizing agent usually air, to give gases like carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
dioxide (CO2) , hydrogen (H2), and some quantities of gaseous hydrocarbon. Char
gasification is the interactive combination of several gas-solid and gas-gas reactions in
which solid carbon is oxidised to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and hydrogen is
generated through the water gas shift reaction. The gas-solid reactions of char oxidation
are the slowest and limit the overall rate of the gasification process. Many of the reactions
are catalyzed by the alkali metals present in wood ash. The gas composition is influenced
by many factors such as composition of feed, water content, reaction temperature, and the
extent of oxidation of the pyrolysis products. Not all the liquid products from the
pyrolysis process are completely converted due to the physical or geometrical limitations
of the reactor and the chemical limitations of the reactions involved, and these give rise to
contaminant tars in the final gas produced.

Due to the higher temperatures involved in gasification compared to pyrolysis, these tars
tend to clink and form lumps and are difficult to remove by thermal, catalytic or physical
processes. This aspect of tar cracking/removal in gas clean up is one of the most
important technical uncertainties in implementation of gasification technologies and is
discussed in this chapter.

In this chapter a review is carried out on the gasification of agricultural waste. The review
is restricted to the following grounds.

 Gasification technology
 Properties of fuels
 Different types of gasifier
 Various methods of gas cooling and cleaning
 Environmental impacts and
 Problems exists
 16

2.2 Overview of gasification technology

Gasification is a well-known technology, which flourished quite well during the Second
World War with approximately one million gasifiers used to operate cars, trucks, boats,
trains and electricity generators in Europe [4]. The technology disappeared soon after the
war, when liquid fuel became easily available. Today, because of increased fuel prices
and environmental concern, there is renewed interest in this century old technology.
Gasification has become more modern and quite sophisticated technology.

The advantage of this technology is decentralized energy conversion system, which

operates economically even for small-scale applications. The complete gasification
system consists of gasification unit (gasifier), cooling and filtering unit and energy
converter - burners or internal combustion engine. The gasifier is a simple device
consisting of usually cylindrical container with space for fuel, air inlet, gas outlet and
grate. It can be made of firebricks, steel or concrete. The design of gasifier depends upon
two factors - type of fuel used and whether gasifier is portable or stationary.

For successful design of a gasifier it is necessary to understand the properties and thermal
behavior of the fuel. Portable gasifiers are mostly used for running vehicles. Stationary
gasifiers combined with engines are widely used in rural areas of developing countries
for many purposes including generation of electricity and running irrigation pumps.

2.2.1 Theory of gasification

Gasification is the thermochemical conversion of solid biomass fuels into energy rich
gaseous fuel. The solid fuel is usually composed of the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In
addition there may be nitrogen and sulfur. The result of gasification is the producer gas,
mixture of combustible and non-combustible gases. Carbon monoxide, hydrogen and
methane (CH4) are the combustible gas, whereas carbon dioxide, nitrogen (N 2) and water
vapor are the main non-combustible components of the producer gas. Mixed with air, the
producer gas can be used in compression ignition engine with little modifications.
Sometimes steam is introduced during gasification for accelerating this process [5].

Theoretically, almost all kinds of biomass with moisture content below 30% can be
gasified; however, not every biomass fuel can lead to the successful gasification. Most of
development activities carried out so far was with common fuels such as coal, charcoal
 17

and wood. It was recognized that fuel properties such as surface area, size, shape as well
as moisture content, volatile matter content, fixed carbon content, and ash content
influence the gasification process. A typical gas composition as obtained from
commercial wood and charcoal downdraft gasifiers operated on low to medium moisture
content fuels (wood 20%, charcoal 7%) are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Composition of gas obtained from commercial wood and charcoal gasifiers [6]

Component Wood gas (volume %) Charcoal gas (volume %)

Nitrogen 50 - 54 55 – 65

Carbon monoxide 17 - 22 28 - 32

Carbon dioxide 9 - 15 1-3

Hydrogen 12 - 20 4 - 10

Methane 2-3 0-2

Gas heating value MJ/m³ 5.0 – 5.9 4.5 – 5.6

2.2.2 Chemical reactions

Gasification is quite complex thermochemical process. Normally the gasification occurs

in four distinct zones viz. Drying, Pyrolysis, Oxidation and Reduction. Splitting of the
gasifier into strictly separate zones is not realistic one [7]. But this concept of zoning is
essential for understanding the system behavior. The different gasification zones are as
follows.

Drying

Biomass fuels consist of moisture ranging from 5-40%. To generate producer gas by
gasification technology low amount of moisture 5–10% is desirable. To remove moisture
content in biomass, it can be treated at an elevated temperature, might be in the order of
1000C. The water content in biomass then gets removed and is converted into steam. No
chemical breakdown occurs in this zone.
 18

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass fuels in presence of low amount of air
or oxygen. The temperature range of this zone is 150-7000C. In the pyrolysis zone, some
physical and chemical changes occur, which yield solid char, a complex pyrolitic liquid
and a low calorific value gas. Heavy hydrocarbons including tar are also produced after
pyrolysis. The heating value of gas produced during the pyrolysis process is in the order
of 3.5-8.9 MJ/Nm3.

Oxidation

The hydrocarbons obtained from pyrolysis process experiences oxidation in the

combustion zone where air or oxygen is supplied at a controlled rate. Sometimes steam is
introduced to increase the calorific value of the producer gas. The temperature range of
this zone is 700-20000C. The following chemical reactions take place in this zone.
Heterogeneous reactions take place between oxygen in the air and solid char, producing
CO2 with liberation of heat.

C + O2 = CO2 + 405.9 KJ/mol

In this reaction 12.01 kg of carbon is completely combusted with 22.39 m3 of oxygen

supplied by air to yield 22.26 m3 CO2 [7]. Hydrogen available in the fuel reacts with
oxygen in the air to produce steam according to the reaction:

H2 + ½ O2 = H2O + 242 KJ/mol

All the above reactions are exothermic. So, temperature of the system increases.

Reduction

In reduction zone, a number of high temperature chemical reactions take place in the
absence of oxygen. The principal reactions which take place in the reduction zone are -

CO2 + C = 2CO - 172.6 [MJ/kmol] (Boudouard reaction)

C + H2O = CO + H2 - 131.4 [MJ/kmol] (Water-gas reaction)

CO2 + H2 = CO + H2O + 41.2 [MJ/kmol] (Water shift reaction)

C + 2H2 = CH4 + 75 [MJ/kmol] (Methane production reaction)

 19

The above reactions show that heat is required during the reduction process. Therefore,
the gas temperature will decrease during reduction process. If complete gasification takes
place, all the carbon is burned or reduced to carbon monoxide, a combustible gas and
some other mineral matter is vaporized. The remains are ash and some char (unburned
carbon).

2.2.3 Conversion efficiency

Conversion efficiency is often simply called the efficiency. It is the proportion to the
energy appearing in the secondary fuels compared with the input energy contained in the
primary fuel. Efficiency of all energy conversion processes is necessarily less than 100%.
For coal conversion in particular, with its myriad different possible products, the exact
definition of the useful term will clearly have a bearing on any exact measure of
efficiency.

The conversion efficiency, of any energy conversion system is defined as the useful
energy output divided by the total energy input. In practice it is common to express this
as a percentage of the input [8].

Energy output
Efficiency   100%
Energy input

2.2.4 Gasifier efficiency

An important factor determining the actual technical operation, as well as the economic
feasibility of using a gasifier system, is the gasification efficiency.

When the gas is used for engine applications then a useful definition of the gasification
efficiency is defined as follows:

H g Qg
m=  100%
Hs M s

where,  m = gasification efficiency (%) (Mechanical), Hg = heating value of the gas

(kJ/m³), Qg = volume flow of gas (m³/sec), H s = lower heating value of gasifier fuel
(kJ/kg), Ms = gasifier solid fuel consumption (kg/sec).
 20

If the gas is used for direct burning purposes, the gasification efficiency is sometimes
defined as:

( H g  Qg )  (Qg   g  C p  T )
 th =  100%
Hs  Ms

where,  th = gasification efficiency (%) (Thermal), ρg = density of the gas (kg/m³),

Cp = specific heat of the gas (kJ/kg0K), ΔT = temperature difference between the gas at
the burner inlet and the fuel entering the gasifier ( 0K).

Depending on type and design of the gasifier as well as on the characteristics of the fuel,
the mechanical efficiency, ηm, may vary between 60% and 75%. In the case of thermal
applications, the value of ηth can be as high as 93%.

2.3 Impact of fuel properties on gasification

A wide range of biomass fuels such as wood, charcoal, wood wastes (branches, twigs,
roots, bark, wood shavings and saw dust etc.) as well as multitude of agricultural residues
( maize cobs, coconut shells, cereal straws, rice husks etc.) and peat also can be used as
fuel for biomass gasification. Theoretically, almost all kinds of biomass with moisture
content of 5-30% can be gasified; however, not every biomass fuels lead to the successful
gasification. Because those fuels differ greatly in their chemical, physical and
morphological properties, consequently requires different reactor design approach or
even gasification technologies. It is for this reason, during a century of gasification
experience, a large number of different gasifiers have been developed and marketed, and
a specific design is geared towards handling the specific properties of a typical fuel or
range of fuels.

All the gasifier systems includes updraft, downdraft, cross-draft, fluidized bed. Different
biomass gasification systems show relative advantages and disadvantages with respect to
the type of fuel used, its application and simplicity of operation. For this reason each will
have its own technical and/or economic advantages in a particular set of circumstances.

Each type of gasifier will operate satisfactorily with respect to stability, gas quality, its
efficiency and pressure losses only within certain ranges of the fuel properties. The most
important factors are- energy content, moisture content, volatile matter content, ash
 21

content and ash chemical composition, reactivity, size and size distribution, bulk density
and charring properties.

Before choosing a gasifier for any individual fuel it is important to ensure that the fuel
meets the requirements of the gasifier or it can be treated to meet these requirements.
Practical tests are needed if the fuel has not previously been successfully gasified.

In this sections the most important properties of fuel, which influence the gasification are
described in details.

2.3.1 Energy content of fuel

The choice of a fuel for gasification will in part be decided by its heating value. Fuel with
higher energy content is always better for gasification. Energy content of fuel is obtained
in an adiabatic, constant volume bomb calorimeter. The bomb calorimeter determines
higher heating value of the fuel. It includes the heat of condensation from water formed
in the combustion of fuel.

The amounts of inert material and moisture are obviously significant in determining the
heat values of different types of biomass; but there are other features that play important
role [8]. Normally the biomass used in the gasification process contains varying
magnitude of moisture content. The evaluation of the heating value of fuel is thus
influenced by the percentage of moisture within it. Thus it is being necessary to
determine the heating value of fuels on a moisture free basis as a reference.

Fuel of higher heating values on a moisture and ash free basis, which disregards the
incombustible components and consequently provide estimates of energy content too
high for a given weight of fuel, especially in the case of some agricultural residues (rice
husks and immature paddy).

So the only realistic way for presenting fuel-heating values for gasification purposes is to
give lower heating values (excluding the heat of condensation of the water produced) on
an ash inclusive basis and with specific reference to the actual moisture content of the
fuel. Average lower heating values of wood, charcoal and peat are given in Table 2.2.
 22

Table 2.2: Average lower heating values

Fuel Moisture content (%) Lower heating value (kJ/kg)

Wood 20 - 25 13 - 15000

Charcoal 2-7 29 - 30000

Peat 35 - 50 12 - 14000

2.3.2 Moisture content of fuel

The moisture content of the most biomass fuel depends on the type of fuel, its origin and
treatment before it is used for gasification purpose. Moisture content of the fuel is usually
referred to inherent moisture plus surface moisture. The moisture content below 15% by
weight is desirable for trouble free and economical operation of the gasifier. Higher
moisture contents reduce the thermal efficiency of gasifier since heat is used to drive off
water and consequently this energy is not available for the reduction reactions and for
converting thermal energy into chemical bound energy in the gas. Therefore, high
moisture contents results in low gas heating values. Igniting the fuel with higher moisture
content becomes increasingly difficult, and the gas quality and the yield are also poor.

In the early stages of combustion, as the biomass is heated, any moisture in the structure
is also heated and evaporated [8]. Moisture content can be determined on a dry basis as
well as on a wet basis [8]. Moisture content (M.C.) on dry basis is defined as:

Alternatively the moisture content on a wet basis is defined as:

When the gas is used for direct combustion purposes, low heating values can be tolerated
and the use of feedstock with moisture contents (dry basis) of up to 40-50% is feasible,
particularly when updraft gasifiers are used.
 23

In the downdraft gasifier with high moisture contents gives rise not only to low gas-
heating values, but also to low temperatures in the oxidation zone, and this can lead to
insufficient tar converting capability if the gas is used for engine applications for power
generation.

Downdraft gasifiers need reasonably dry fuels (less than 25% moisture-dry basis) to
generate gas of high heating value (engines need gas of at least 4200 kJ/m³ in order to
maintain a reasonable efficiency) and to prevent tar entrapment problem.

Figure 2.1 [8]: Wood gas compositions as a function of wood moisture content.

2.3.3 Volatile matter content of fuel

As the temperature continues to rise, a range of gases is evolved in the pyrolysis zone.
These are called the volatile matter (VM), and arise from the dissociation of the biomass
fuel structure. They carry most of the hydrogen and oxygen in the fuel and some of its
carbon, and consist of carbon monoxide, methane and a variety of other hydrocarbon [8].
Fuel with high volatile matter content produces more tar, causing problems to internal
combustion engine. The amount of volatile matters in the fuel determines the necessity of
 24

special measures (either in design of gasifier or in the layout of the gas cleanup train) in
order to remove tars from the gaseous product. Volatile matters in the fuel determine the
design of gasifier for removal of tar. Compared to other biomass materials (crop residue:
63-80%, Wood: 72-78%, Peat: 70%, Coal: up to 40%), charcoal contains least percentage
of volatile matter (3-30%).

2.3.4 Ash content of fuel

A mineral content of fuel that remains in oxidized form after the fuel burnt is called ash.
In practice, ash also contains some unburned carbon. Ash content and ash composition
have impact on smooth running of a gasifier. Slagging or clinker formation in the reactor
caused by melting and agglomeration of ashes is a common problem particularly in
updraft and downdraft gasifiers. If special measures are not taken, slagging or clinker can
lead to excessive tar formation and/or complete blocking of the reactor. A worst case is
the possibility of air channeling, which can lead to a risk of explosion, especially in
updraft gasifiers.

Slagging depends on the ash content of the fuel, the melting characteristics of the ash,
and the temperature pattern in the gasifier. Local high temperatures in voids in the fuel
bed in the oxidation zone, caused by bridging in the bed, may cause slagging even using
fuels with a high ash melting temperature.

Ash content varies from fuel to fuel. In general, no slagging occurs with fuel having ash
content below 5%. Raw wood and wood charcoals seldom create problems, the ash
content being normally from 0.75 to 2.5%. Severe slagging can be expected for fuels
having ash contents of 12% and above. Rice husk contains high amount of ash (15-20%).

For fuels with ash contents between 6-12%, the slagging behavior depends to a large
extent on the ash melting temperature, which is influenced by the presence of trace
elements giving rise to the formation of low melting point eutectic mixtures. For
gasification purposes the melting behavior of the fuel ash should be determined in both
oxidizing and reducing atmospheres. Table 2.3 lists ash content of some common
agricultural residues that have been tested with respect to their slagging properties (Table
2.4) in a small downdraft gas producer (Jenkins) [9].
 25

Table 2.3: Fuels and their ash content

Fuel Ash content Fuel Ash content
(weight %) (weight %)
Alfalfa seed straw 6.0 Peanut husks 0.9
Barley straw 10.3 Rice hulls 16-23
Charcoal 2-5 Safflower straw 6.0
Coffee hulls 1.3 Wallnut shell 1.1
Coal 5-17 Wheat stalks 7.4

Cotton grin thrash 17.2 Wood chips 0.1

Table 2.4: Slagging of agricultural residues in a small laboratory downdraft gasifier

Slagging fuels Ash % Degree of Non slagging fuels Ash %

slagging

Barley straw mix 10.3 severe Cubed alfalfa seed 6.0

straw

Bean straw 10.2 " Almond shell 4.8

Corn stalks 6.4 moderate Corn cobs 1.5

Cotton gin trash 17.6 severe Olive pits 3.2

Cubed cotton stalks 17.2 " Peach pits 0.9

RDF pellets 10.4 " Prune pits 0.5

Pelleted rice hulls 14.9 " Cracked walnut shell 1.1

Safflower straw 6.0 minor Douglas fir wood 0.2

blocks

Pelleted walnut shell 5.8 moderate Municipal tree 3.0

mix prunings

Wheat straw and corn 7.4 severe Whole log wood 0.1
stalks chips
 26

Updraft and downdraft gasifiers are able to operate with slagging fuels if specially
modified (continuously moving grates and/or external pyrolysis gas combustion). Cross-
draft gasifiers that work at very high temperatures of 15000C and above need special
protection with respect to the ash content of the fuel. Fluidized bed reactors, because of
their inherent capacity to control the operating temperature, suffer less from ash melting
and fusion problems

2.3.5 Reactivity of fuel

Reactivity determines the rate of reduction of CO2 to CO in the gasifier. Reactivity

depends upon the fuel types. It has found that wood and charcoal are more reactive than
coal. There is a relationship between reactivity and the number of active places on the
char surfaces, these being influenced by the morphological characteristics as well as the
geological age of the fuel. The grain size and the porosity of the char produced in the
reduction zone influence the surface available for reduction and, therefore, the rate of the
reduction reactions. It is well known fact that reactivity of char surface can be improved
through various processes including stream treatment (activated carbon) or treatment with
lime and sodium carbonate. There are number of elements which act as catalyst and
influence the gasification process. Small quantities of potassium, sodium and zinc can
have large influence on reactivity of the fuel.

2.3.6 Particle size and size distribution

The particle size of the fuel affects the pressure drop across the gasifier and power that
must be supplied to draw the air and gas through gasifier. Fine grained and/or fluffy
feedstock may cause flow problems in the bunker section of the gasifier as well as an
inadmissible pressure drop over the reduction zone and a high proportion of dust in the
gas. Large pressure drops will lead to reduction of the gas load in downdraft gasifier,
resulting in low temperature and tar production. Excessively large sizes of particles give
rise to reduce reactivity of fuel, causing start-up problem and poor gas quality and to
transport problems through the equipment. A large range in size distribution of the
feedstock will generally aggravate the above phenomena. Too large particle sizes can
cause gas-channeling problems, especially in updraft gasifiers.
 27

Acceptable fuel sizes for gasification systems depend to a certain extent on the design of
the units. In general, wood gasifiers operate on wood blocks and wood chips ranging
from 8  4  4 cm3 to 1  0.5  0.5 cm3. Charcoal gasifiers are generally fuelled by
charcoal lumps ranging between 1  1 1 cm3 and 3 3  3 cm3. Fluidized bed gasifiers
are normally able to handle fuels with particle diameters in between 0.1 mm and 20 mm.

2.3.7 Fuel form

The form in which fuel is fed to gasifier has an economical impact on gasification.
Densifying biomass has been practiced in for the past 40 years. Cupers and Pelletizers
densify all kinds of biomass into energy cubes. These cubes are available in cylindrical or
cubic form and have a high density of 600-1000 kg/m3. The specific volumetric content
of cubes is much higher than the raw material from which they are made.

2.3.8 Bulk density of fuel

Bulk density is defined as the weight per unit volume of loosely tipped fuel. Bulk density
varies significantly with moisture content and particle size of fuel. It is also recognized
that bulk density has considerable impact on gas quality, as it influences the fuel
residence time in the reactor, fuel velocity and gas flow rate. Fuels with high bulk density
are advantageous because they represent a high energy for volume value. Consequently
these fuels need less bunker space for a given refueling time. Low bulk density fuels
sometimes give rise to insufficient flow under gravity, resulting in low gas heating values
and ultimately in burning of the char in the reduction zone. Average bulk densities of
wood, charcoal and peat are given in Table 2.5. By briquetting or pelletizing bulk
densities can be improved to a considerable level.

Table 2.5: Average bulk densities

Fuel Bulk density (kg/m³) *
Wood 300 - 550
Charcoal 200 - 300
Peat 300 - 400
*
The bulk density varies significantly with moisture content and particle size of the fuel.
 28

2.3.9 Charring properties of fuel

The occurrence of physical and morphological difficulties with charcoal produced in the
oxidation zone has been reported. Some feedstock (especially softwoods) produces char
that shows a tendency to disintegrate. In extreme cases this may lead to inadmissible
pressure drop. A number of tropical hardwoods (notably teak) are reported [10] to call for
long residence times in the pyrolysis zone, leading to bunker flow problems, low gas
quality and tar entrapment.

2.4 Types of gasifier

Design of gasifier depends upon type of fuel used and whether gasifier is portable or
stationary. Gas producers are classified according to how the air blast is introduced in the
fuel column. A range of reactor configurations has been developed. The most commonly
built gasifiers are classified as: Updraft gasifier, Downdraft gasifier, Cross-draft gasifier,
Fluidized bed gasifier, Circulating fluid bed gasifier, Twin fluid bed gasifier, Entrained
bed gasifier and other types of gasifiers.

2.4.1 Updraft gasifier

The oldest and simplest type of gasifier is the counter current or updraft gasifier shown
schematically in Figure 2.2. An updraft gasifier has clearly defined zones for drying,
pyrolysis, reduction and partial combustion. In this process the hot producer gas moves
from bottom to top, whereas, the fuel flow from top to bottom. In this process the fuel
first undergoes drying and then it is pyrolyzed forming char. This char moves down
further and is gasified. The upward flowing hot product gas carried the pyrolysis vapors.
The tars in the vapor either condense on the cool descending fuel, or are carried out of the
reactor with the product gas contributing to its high tar content [11]. Ashes are removed
from the bottom of the gasifier. Air is introduced at the bottom and act as countercurrent
to fuel flow and the gas leaves at the top. Sometimes steam is introduced to provide a
higher level of hydrogen in the gas.

The principal advantages of updraft gasifiers are their simple construction and high
thermal efficiency as the sensible heat of the hot gas produced is recovered by direct heat
exchange with the entering feed, which is then dried, preheated and undergoes pyrolysis
prior to entering the gasification zone.
 29

Disadvantages of updraft gas producer are excessive amount of tar in raw gas. Hence the
fuel gas requires substantial clean up if further processing is to be performed.

2.4.2 Downdraft gasifier

A solution to the problem of tar entrapment in the gas stream has been found by
designing co-current or downdraft gasifiers, in which primary gasification air is
introduced at or above the oxidation zone in the gasifier. The producer gas is removed at
the bottom of the apparatus, so that fuel and gas move in the same direction, as
schematically shown in Figure 2.3. On their way down the acid and tar distillation
products from the fuel must pass through a glowing bed of charcoal and therefore are
converted into permanent gas like hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and
methane. Depending on the temperature of the hot zone and the residence time of the
tarry vapors, a more or less complete breakdown of the tars is achieved.

Due to the low content of tars in the gas, this configuration is generally favored for small-
scale electricity generation with an internal combustion engine.

Figure 2.2: Updraft gasifier. Figure 2.3: Downdraft gasifier.

Minor drawbacks of the downdraft system are somewhat lower efficiency resulting from
the lack of internal heat exchange.

A relatively new concept of stratified or open core downdraft gasifier has been developed
in which there is no throat and the bed is supported on a grate. This was first devised by
the Chinese for rice husk gasification and further developed by Syngas Inc. [12] from
work carried out at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory - NREL) [13].
 30

2.4.3 Cross-draft gasifier

The disadvantages such as high exit gas temperature, poor CO 2 reduction and high gas
velocity are the consequence of the design of cross-draft gasifier. Unlike downdraft and
updraft gasifiers, the ashbin, fire and reduction zone in cross-draft gasifiers is separated.
A schematic diagram of cross-draught gasifier is shown in Figure 2.4. This design
characteristic limits the type of fuel for operation to low ash fuels such as wood, charcoal
and coke. The load following ability of cross-draft gasifier is quite good due to
concentrated partial zones, which operate at temperatures up to 2000 0C. Cross-draft
gasifiers are an adaptation for the use of charcoal. Charcoal gasification results in very
high temperatures (15000C and higher) in the oxidation zone that can lead to material
problems. In cross-draft gasifiers the fuel (charcoal) itself provides insulation property
against high temperatures. The relatively higher temperature in cross-draft gas producer
has an obvious effect on gas composition such as high carbon monoxide, and low
hydrogen and methane content when dry fuel such as charcoal is used. Cross-draft
gasifier operates well on dry air blast and dry fuel.

A disadvantage of cross-draught gasifiers is their minimal tar-converting capabilities and

the consequent need for high quality (low volatile content) charcoal.

2.4.4. Fluidized bed gasifier

Fluid bed gasifiers are a more recent development that takes advantage of the excellent
mixing characteristics and high reaction rates of this method of gas-solid contacting.
Fluidized bed reactors are the only gasifiers with isothermal bed operation. A typical
operating temperature for biomass gasification is about 800-8500C. A design approach of
the fluidized bed gasifier is illustrated schematically in Figure 2.5. Air is blown through a
bed of solid particles at a sufficient velocity to keep these in a state of suspension. The
bed is originally externally heated and the feedstock is introduced as soon as a
sufficiently higher temperature is reached. The fuel particles are introduced at the bottom
of the reactor, very quickly mixed with the bed material and almost instantaneously
heated up to the bed temperature. As a result of this treatment the pyrolysis of the fuel is
very fast, resulting in a component mix with a relatively large amount of gaseous
materials. Further gasification and tar-conversion reactions occur in the gas phase. Most
systems are equipped with an internal cyclone in order to minimize char blowout as much
 31

as possible. Ash particles are also carried over the top of the reactor and have to be
removed from the gas stream if the gas is used in engine applications.

Figure 2.4: Cross-draft gasifier. Figure 2.5: Fluidized bed gasifier.

The major advantages of fluidized bed gasifiers, as reported by Van Der Aarsen [14] and
others, is easy control of temperature, which can be kept below the melting or fusion
point of the ash (rice husks), and their ability to deal with fluffy and fine grained
materials (sawdust etc.) without the need of pre-processing. Problems with feeding, loss
of fluidization due to bed sintering can occur with some biomass fuels.

Other drawbacks of the fluidized bed gasifier lie in the rather high tar content of the gas
produced (up to 500 mg/m³), the incomplete carbon burnout, and poor response to load
changes.

Fluidized beds provide many features that are not present in the fixed bed types,
including high rates of heat and mass transfer and good mixing of the solid phase, which
means that reactions rates are high and the temperature is more or less constant in the
bed. A relatively small particle size compared to dense phase gasifiers is desirable and
this may require additional size reduction. The ash is elutriated and is removed as fine
particulates entrained in the off gas.
 32

2.4.5 Circulating fluid bed gasifier

A circulating fluid bed gasifier is shown schematically in Figure 2.6. The fluidizing
velocity in the circulating fluid bed is high enough to entrain large amounts of solids with
the product gas. These systems
were developed so that the
entrained material is recycled back
to the fluid bed to improve the
carbon conversion efficiency
compared with the single fluid bed
design. A hot raw gas is produced
which, in most commercial
applications till date, is used for
close coupled process heat or
retrofitting to boilers to recover the
sensible heat in the gas [15]. This Figure 2.6: Circulating fluid bed gasifier.

configuration has been extensively developed for wood waste conversion in pulp and
paper mills for firing lime and cement kilns [16, 17] and steam generation for electricity.

2.4.6 Twin fluid bed gasifier

Twin fluid bed gasifiers are employed in place of single air blown gasifier for obtaining a
higher heating value gas from reaction with air. It consists of two defined reaction zones.
Drying, low-temperature carbonization and cracking of gases occur in the upper zone,
while permanent gasification of charcoal takes place in lower zone. The gas temperature
lies in between 460 and 5200C. Total process takes place below 30 mbar pressure. Steam
is also usually added to encourage the shift reaction to generate hydrogen and to
encourage carbon-steam reactions. Product quality is good from a heating value
viewpoint and produces fairly clean gas.
 33

2.4.7 Entrained bed gasifier

In entrained flow gasifiers no inert material is present but a finely reduced feedstock is
required. Entrained bed gasifiers operate at much higher temperatures of 1200 0C or even
above, depending on whether air or oxygen is employed, and hence the product gas has
low concentrations of tars and condensable gases. However, this high temperature
operation creates problems of materials selection and ash melting. Conversion in
entrained beds effectively approaches 100%. However, there is little experience with
biomass in such systems.

2.4.8 Other types of gasifier

Although updraft, downdraft or cross-draft gas producers have been the most commonly
built types, there are a wide variety of gasifiers, which do not really fit into any of these
categories and are classified as other gas producers. Some units are built to combine the
advantages of cross draft with downdraft or updraft gas producers. A number of other
biomass gasifier systems (double fired, entrained bed, molten bath etc.) are currently
under development. In some cases these systems incorporate unnecessary refinements
and complications, in others both the size and sophistication of the equipment make near
term application in developing countries unlikely. For these reasons they are omitted
from this account.

2.5 Gas cleaning and cooling

2.5.1 Introduction

Gases formed by gasification of biomass contaminated by tar and particulates. The level
of contamination will vary depending on the gasification process and the nature of
feedstock. Gas cleanup and conditioning systems, including tar separation and hot gas
particulate removal must be applied to prevent erosion, corrosion in downstream
equipment and to minimize environmental hazards.

6.5.2 Cleaning dust from the gas

The very small carbon containing particles in the gas streams are difficult to remove by
cyclone separator. Tests using high efficiency cyclones showed that particulates levels
were not reduced to less than 5-30 g/Nm3 [18]. For the successful removal of particulate
 34

works are going on ceramic filters. Results of pilot-scale tests with pressurized ceramic
hot gas filtration of fluidized-bed product gas to date appear to have been relatively
successful, e.g., see Anon. [1994b]. Filtration would also be required with fixed beds
[Furman et al., 1993], but lower particulate carry over with the gas is inherent in their
design. With filtration generally, there is some concern about the cumulative effect over
extended operating hours of the minute particulate concentrations that may pass a filter
[Wenglarz, 1994]. Continued testing and demonstration will help better understand the
extent to which this might be a problem.

High temperature ceramic or metal candle filters have been tested with gasification
products from peat and coal. Many designs do not give a constant pressure drop, but this
increases as the deposits build-up.

Tests on wood-derived gases have presented a further problem with filter clogging by
soot caused by thermal cracking of tars both in the gas phase and on the filter surface.
Cooling the gas to below 5000C and reducing gas face velocities across the filter surface
can reduce this problem. However, if temperatures fall below 4000C, there is still a
potential problem of tar deposition. Recent developments employ ceramic candle filters
with automatic pulsing to strip off the accumulated filter cake but these are not free of
problems.

Smaller fuel particles generally cause higher dust concentrations in the gas than do the
larger fuel blocks. The type of fuel also has an influence: hardwoods generally generate
less dust than softwoods. Maize cob gasification leads to severe dust contamination as
reported by Zijp et al. [19].

For normal type Imbert downdraft gasifiers, the dust leaks when using wood blocks of
about 4  4  4 cm3 are reported to vary between 0.5-5 g/m³ gas [20].

Investigations of the size, and size distribution of generator gas dust were undertaken by
Nordstrom [21] and the results are reproduced in Table 2.6. It is possible to separate
about 60% - 70% of this dust from the gas stream by means of a well-designed cyclone.
The rest (dust particles of smaller diameter) has to be removed by other means.
 35

Table 2.6: Size distribution of producer gas dust

Particle size of dust m.10 -6 Percentage in the gas
Over 1000 1.7
1000 - 250 24.7
250 - 102 23.7
102 - 75 7.1
75 - 60 8.3
Under 60 30.3
Losses 4.2

During the Second World War a multitude of dry filters containing wood wool, sisal
fiber, glass wool, wood chips soaked in oil, and other types of fibrous or granular
material were used for removal of the fine dust, average particle size below 60 µ, but
success was very limited.

The best cleaning effect is obtained by employing cloth filters. However, normal cloth
filters are very sensitive to the gas temperature. In the case of wood or agricultural waste
gasification, the dew point of the gas will be around 70 0C. Below this temperature water
will condense in the filters, causing obstruction of the gas flow and an unacceptable
pressure drop over the filter section of the gasification system.

At higher temperatures normal cloth filters are likely eliminate dust from the hot gas
stream. Another of their disadvantages is that they are subject to a rapid build-up of dust
and so need frequent cleaning if not used in conjunction with a pre-filtering step.

The disadvantages of cloth filters can be partly offset by using woven glass wool filter
bags as proposed by Nordstrom [21]. This material can be used at temperatures up to
3000C. By heating (insulated) filter housing by means of the hot gas stream coming from
the gasifier, temperatures above 1000C can be maintained in the filter, thus avoiding
condensation and enhanced pressure drop. If a pre-filtering step consisting of a cyclone
and/or an impingement filter is employed, it is possible to keep the service and
maintenance intervals within reasonable limits, i.e., cleaning each 100-150 h. This
 36

combination is probably the most suitable for small and medium-sized systems (up to 150
kW), and experience has shown that engine wear is no greater than with liquid fuels [21].

Electrostatic filters are also known to have very good particle separating properties, and
most probably they could also be used to produce a gas of acceptable quality. However,
such filters are expensive, and it is for this reason that their use is foreseen only in larger
installations, i.e., equipment producing 500 kW electric powers and more.

2.5.3 Tar cracking

Tars in the gasifier product gas are a potential problem, because they foul surfaces on
which they condense. Its concentration is mainly a function of feedstock materials,
reactor type and processing conditions. Tests have shown that tar production in wood,
rice husk gasification is much greater than in coal gasification [18].
There are two basic ways of destroying tars:
• Catalytic cracking
• Thermal cracking

2.5.3.1 Catalytic cracking

Catalytic cracking is very effective for removal of tar. Tar conversion in excess of 99%
has been achieved using dolomite, nickel-based and other catalysts at elevated
temperatures of typically 800-9000C. Most reported work uses a second reactor. Some
work has been carried out on incorporation of the catalyst in the primary reactor, which
has often been less successful than use of a second reactor. Catalyst deactivation is
generally not a problem with dolomite etc., but there is no long term operating experience
and catalyst losses may be a problem. An initial loss of activity is sometimes experienced
as carbon compounds settle on the catalyst, but these compounds gasify as the bed
temperature rises and the catalyst is reactivated. Metal catalysts tend to be more
susceptible to contamination.

2.5.3.2 Thermal cracking

Biomass derived tars are more refractory and are harder to crack by thermal treatment
alone. Tar levels can be reduced to a certain levels by thermal cracking at 800-10000C.
Increasing residence time and contact surface area can also reduce tar to a level. But to
heat the surface it requires a significant energy supply and thus reduces the overall
 37

efficiency. Partial oxidation by addition of air or oxygen reduces the tar and increases
CO2 levels. As a result it reduces efficiency and increases cost for oxygen use. It can be
very effective particularly at high temperatures of up to 1300 0C or more.

Tars and oils make an important contribution to the energy content of the gas delivered to
the gas turbine combustor, especially in the case of fixed bed gasification when they are
maintained as vapor.

Fuel gas produced by the low-pressure indirectly heated gasifier was cleaned using a tar
cracker to reduce the molecular weight of the larger hydrocarbons. Although a tar cracker
was not necessarily required since the gas was cooled using direct water quench, so one
was included in this design to avoid losing the substantial heating value of the tars.

However, there is no clear view as to whether tar cracking or tar removal is preferable,
although the current trend is to prefer cracking to minimize potential tar deposition
problems and minimize washing water requirements.

2.5.4 Tar removal by water scrubbing

Water can cool and clean the contaminated syngas in a single operation. Water coolers
are available in two types, the scrubber and the heat exchanger.

Water scrubbing is widely used and is a proven effective technique for physical removal
of tar and particulates and other contaminants, but results in loss of sensible heat and thus
poorer efficiencies. There are many reported problems, particularly in the poor removal
efficiencies of tars although surprisingly little hard [22] data is available.

Scrubbers of many different types exist, but the principle is always the same: the gas is
brought in direct contact with a fluid medium generally water which is sprayed into the
gas stream by means of a suitable nozzle device. In the first stage the system cools the
gas to aid coalescence of particulates and tars, and then follows to intimately contact the
contaminants and reduce the pressure so that the water will condense onto the particulates
and tar droplets. As a result their size increases and their susceptibility to agglomeration
and coalescence improves. The final stage is to provide a high residence time to allow the
system to reach equilibrium. Tar levels down to 20-40 mg/Nm3 and particulate levels
down to 10-20 mg/Nm3 can be achieved with such kind of high efficiency system.
 38

Cooling the product will also reduce electrical efficiency, but it provides highest energy
density gas for the engines.

Alkali species present in the fuel gas can cause corrosion and deposition if introduced
into the expansion section of a gas turbine. Therefore, it was necessary to remove these
species prior to combustion. These must be removed to extremely low levels, typically
less than 1 ppm. Fortunately, most alkali components present in biomass synthesis gas
have relatively high condensation temperatures. Therefore, cooling below 538 0C results
in condensation of the bulk of these species and usually fine particles can be removed
with the rest of the particulates.

During gasification 50-80% of fuel-bound nitrogen is converted to ammonia and lesser

quantities of other gaseous nitrogen compounds (HCN). These soluble gases are
effectively removed by water scrubbing technology.

The advantage of water scrubbing is the small size of the scrubber. But the disadvantages
are – the power consumption resulting from the use of a water pump, increased
complexity of maintenance, and need for fresh water and it creates a waste disposal
problem by generating large quantities of contaminated water. The cleaning of the
cooling water from phenols and other tar components is by all probability also a
necessary and cumbersome operation. The wastewater can usually be treated by
conventional biological processes unless there is a high recycle ratio when more
concentrated solutions will be produced requiring special disposal. Limited data are
available regarding cost calculations in the area of wastewater treatment.

Sulfur is not generally considered to be a problem since biomass feeds has very low
sulfur content. However, the specification on turbines is typically 1 ppm or often much
less. Some gas compositions have reported 0.01% S that represents 100 ppm. Dolomite
often used for tar cracking will also absorb significant proportions of sulfur, but possibly
not to the low levels required. A sulfur guard, consisting of a hot fixed bed of zinc sulfide
is likely to be adequate for the concentrations expected. This would be relatively
inexpensive to install but would create a waste disposal problem from the zinc sulfide
produced.
 39

It is possible to cool the gas by means of a water-cooled heat exchanger. Gas cooling
mainly serves the purpose of increasing the density of the gas in order to maximize the
amount of combustible gas entering the cylinder of the engine at each stroke. A 10%
temperature reduction of the gas increases the maximum output of the engine by almost
2%. Cooling also contributes to gas cleaning and makes it possible to avoid condensation
of moisture in the gas after it is mixed with air before the engine intake.

2.5.5 Summary of clean-up methods

A summary of the contaminants and the methods for clean up was given in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7: Fuel gas contaminants and their associated problems

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Contaminants Examples Problems Clean-up methods
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Particulates Ash, char, Erosion Filtration
feeding material Water scrubbing
Cooling

Tars Higher hydrocarbons Clogs filters Tar cracking

Difficult to burn Water scrubbing
Deposition
Fouls IC engine

Alkali metals Sodium, potassium Corrosion Cooling

compounds Deposition Adsorption

Filtration

Fuel-bound Nitrogen compounds NOx formation Water scrubbing

nitrogen (NH3, HCN)

Sulfur SOx, H2S Corrosion Dolomite

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.6 Environmental impacts

The earth’s temperature is regulated by the emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse gases

to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, principle greenhouse gas and also other gases such as
 40

nitrous oxide, ozone, CFCs and methane, allow the sun’s energy to penetrate to the earth,
but trap the heat radiated from the earth’s surface. Scientists and others are concerned
that those gases being added to the atmosphere by human activities will increase the
warming at the rate unprecedented in human history. The carbon dioxide emissions from
the use of fossil fuels that provide about 85% of the total world demand for primary
energy [23] cause the observed increase of the carbon dioxide concentration in the
atmosphere.

Increasing energy efficiency and displacing fossil fuels with renewable sources of energy
are the two leading options for reducing emissions of SO x, NOx and CO2. Generally
speaking, the effectiveness of biomass in reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from
fossil fuels depends on two main factors:

(i) The net effective greenhouse gas flux for the overall biomass production-use
cycle and

(ii) The relative efficiency of the biomass conversion or end-use process (Williams,
1985; Hall et. al., 1991; Overend, 1996; Schlamadinger and Marland, 1996;
Williams and Larson, 1996).

Although conversion and end-use efficiencies for biomass energy feedstock are currently
lower than those for fossil fuels, these may be transient symptoms of technological
immaturity and small-scale implementation. Even now there are exceptions, that biomass
can be co-fired in large and efficient coal-fired electrical power plants with minimal
modifications and efficiency penalty (Overend, 1996). For the longer term, new
technologies - such as pre-drying, new combustion technologies, gasification, gas
turbines and combined cycle systems promise even greater efficiencies (Bryden et al.,
1994; Overend, 1996; Williams and Larson, 1996).

Biomass fuels used in a sustainable manner result halting the increase of the carbon
dioxide concentration in atmosphere, because it can readily supply base load electrical.
This is based on the assumption that all the CO2 given off by the use of biomass fuels was
recently taken in from the atmosphere by photosynthesis. Increased substitution of fossil
fuels with biomass-based fuels would therefore help to reduce the potential for global
warming, caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of CO2.
 41

Biomass feedstock generally contains little amount (less than 0.1% by weight) of sulfur
compared with oil and coal (0.5-4%), and varying amounts of nitrogen. Uncontrolled SOx
emissions from biomass combustion are negligible compared to uncontrolled SO x
emissions from coal and oil combustion, but uncontrolled NO x emissions can be
comparable and are dependent on the conversion process and nitrogen content of the
biomass (Antares, 1993). NOx emission comprises fuel-bound NOx and thermal NOx.
Generally, wood contains less nitrogen (i.e., protein) than perennial herbaceous crops or
crop residues. Fluidized bed boilers generate less thermal NOx than grate-fired boilers or
gasifier-based boilers and gas turbines because of their lower and more uniform
temperatures.

Acid rain, which can damage lakes and forests, is a by-product of the combustion of
fossil fuels, particularly coal and oil. The high sulfur content of these fuels together with
hot combustion temperatures result in the formation of SO x and NOx, when they are
burned to provide energy. SOx and NOx can be transformed in the atmosphere to H2SO4
and HNO3. The replacement of fossil fuels with biomass can reduce the potential for acid
rain because biomass contains minimal sulfur.

Another acidic gaseous pollutant is HCl, produced from chlorine and mainly associated
with combustion of municipal wastes. HCl plays also an important role for dioxin
formation during combustion [23]. Other high chlorine biofuels are straw and some peats.
Lower combustion temperatures and pollution control devices such as wet scrubbers and
electro-static precipitators can also keep emissions of NO x to a minimum when biomass
is burned to produce energy.

Unfortunately, things may not be as simple as has been assumed above. Currently,
biomass is being used all over the world in a very unsustainable manner, and the long-
term effects of biomass energy plantations have not been proven. As well, the natural
humus and dead organic matter in the forest soils is a large reservoir of carbon.
Conversion of natural ecosystems to managed energy plantations could result in a release
of carbon from the soil as a result of the accelerated decay of organic matter.

Thus the net effective greenhouse-gas flux for a particular biomass feedstock depends
primarily on two characteristics of the biomass production-use cycle:
 42

(i) The net greenhouse gas flux and

(ii) The order and timing of the component source and sink terms (Schlamadinger and
Marland, 1996; Marland et. al., 1997).

Fluxes of CO2 and other greenhouse gas for bioenergy systems involve several sources
and sinks. The principle ones are: CO2 fixation during biomass growth, changes in the
organic matter content of the soil, and CO2 emissions during biomass conversion and/or
use.

So sustainable biomass energy development could reduce net greenhouse gas emissions,
improve air quality and reduce acid deposition, reduce landfilling, reduce agricultural
chemical runoff, and improve habitat for native wildlife. Conversely, inappropriate
biomass energy development could do great environmental damage.

2.7 Problems exists

The gasifier systems which is used to generate synthetic fuel from biomass have several
constrains both from technical as well as socio-environmental aspects.

At the present day many Indian process industries are keen to use biomass gasifier
derived synthetic fuel due to the low input cost in comparison with conventional fuel.
However, the input biomass should satisfy several criteria like moisture content, calorific
value, chemical composition and others. Thus the gas generated from the gasification
process is a function of quality of the input related to the gasifier. The biomass is a
hydrocarbon material, which content additional chemical reagents, which sometimes
created problem to the gasification process. Thus while one is opt for gasification they
have to consider all these aspects regarding the process and the products that will take
place inside the gasifier chambers. After gasification both burners and engine desire
quality fuel. And processing the syngas produced in the thermochemical reactor can
generate the quality fuel. The thermochemical reactor not only produces the syngas but
also produce some toxic reagent, which can affect the gasification systems, as well as the
environment, which is generating toxicity. Thus, the two fold problems exist in the
context of gasification technology.

(i) To develop a compact gasification system to have an efficiency more than 70%.
 43

(ii) To make an arrangement such that gasification process should not affect or
corrode the ambient as well as the environment.

These two problems required an integrated solution in the context of emerging of gasifier
as an innovative technology for bringing energy security. These two problems required
solution before one opts for technology.

In this context the biomass that has been opted is either a forest based or agriculture
based. Forest based biomass has a problem on the availability as well as moisture content
and other peripheral aspects. The agriculture-based biomass those are generated as the
agricultural residues is an appropriate material for gas generation. The residues normally
have low moisture content as extraction of crops required minimum moisture content.
Thus demoisturization is already implemented when these crops used for crop extraction.
Thus agro-economic countries have a potential to use agriculture-based residues as their
input ingredients for generating syngas.

Chemical analysis indicated some agricultural wastes are rich in cellulose and some of
them are saturated with hard materials like Ca and Cu. These two things create barrier to
have good quality of syngas. As a result it does not generate sufficient fuel gas. On the
other hand the hard material put a barrier around the carbon compound not to form the
gaseous hydrocarbons. This two constrains required to a big study.

After gasification the gas chambers is full of tar and particulates those are generated
during gasification process. The gas along the tar was sucked from the gasifier to the
venturi scrubber. As a result not only gas comes out but also gas is cleaned through
washing. During this washing the gas is full with moisture and this gas requires drying. In
industrial application sending the gas through dehydrating agent does the drying
phenomenon. Whereas in commercial application normally saw dust is used as a
dehydrating agent. The saw dust absorb the water vapor and makes the gas partially
moisture free. However, still the gas contains moisture. The moisture absorption process
wants to continue. The efficiency of dehydration decreases on the number of charges of
gas induced in this chamber. As a result after sometimes the sawdust becomes full with
moisture and has no capacity to absorb moisture further. Thus charging and discharging
of moisture require studies in details in conjunction with gasifier fabrication. This
problem requires solution from the technical point of view.
 44

In social aspects there are several constrains which are essential to study for allowing
gasifier to emerging into the market. These are acceptability as well as cleanliness.
Acceptability is a psychological phenomena and it is varied upon place to place e.g.,
when an industry are involve in using hydrocarbon based fuel for generating heat and
ones it switch over from oil to syngas the workers adaptability creates the problem.
Although the synthetic fuel that comes out from the gasifier have several technical
advantages than other hydrocarbon-based fuel. The burning of synthetic fuel does not
generate any carbon or related compound at the tip of the burner or injection unit. Thus if
this advantageous points emerges out to the consumer it will bring positive impacts in the
consumer point. Thus these problems require to address while one is opt for gasification
technology.

2.7.1 Specific technical problem

The introduction of a gasifier system into a specific industry is not a simple add-on job.
Experience shows that during gasification process a lot of problems are encountered.
Biomass has a large number of peculiar properties that must be considered in designing
feeding systems that relate to its grain structure, moisture content, bulk density etc. In
devising handling and feeding systems where gas tight seals are required, provision must
be made for particles to fall away or be swept aside since blockage will result in major
physical deformation. This is well known but poorly understood. Pressurized gasifiers are
a special and extreme example of this problem.

The gasification process develops in a high temperature condition in presence of small

amount of oxygen. The temperature has a big role to play, particularly in rice husk
gasification. The silicates in the husk try to react to oxygen and other compound present
in the husk. At lower temperature they shielded the carbon and do not generate good gas
containing carbon monoxide and hydrogen. At higher temperature the silicate formation
appeared which shielded the carbon from reaction with the oxygen [24-27]. Thus, an
appreciable temperature is essential to have a good reaction with carbon and oxygen. This
is the major constrain for rice husk gasification that one has to restrict a particular
temperature for gasification process.

Gasification of biomass produces producer gas of lower heating value. The low energy
density of the producer gas means that the volume of fuel injected will be substantial. In
 45

cases for a dual fuel engine for power generation this is not expected to be a great
problem. However, there is a potential problem when using the producer gas for power
generation purposes in cases of gas engine due to its LHV. So, there requires
enhancement of its heating value. Otherwise in such a situation the system does not work
satisfactorily.

Other possible problems, related to the presence of tar in the fuel gas, are condensation in
the fuel supply system and incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion will result in
the emission of soot. Tar consists of heavy hydrocarbons that may condense below
3000C. Condensation will cause problems (clogging, sticking etc.) in the power
generation system. The tar content in the gas from a downdraft gasifier is typically 7
g/Nm3 [23]. Most applications require tar content below 100 mg/Nm3. Recent results
show that cooling of the gas below 400C and filtering do not reduce the tar content
sufficiently.

The tar is basically a compound of phenolic acid, it is a corrosive reagent and when it is
allowed to enter into the engine, it affects the engine performance. This results in wear
and tear of the engine system. Also during scrubbing process the phenolic acid dissolves
in water and the water becomes strongly acidic. The affluent water affects the
surroundings. Thus, when one is considering the generation of power using gasifier he
has to keep a watch to avoid these problems.

Dust also creates problem to the engine. Dust consists of light ash particles and light
particles of char (mainly carbon that are not converted to gaseous components) that are
carried along with the gas stream. Large particles can be removed by a cyclone where as,
smaller particles by a dust filter. The dust content of the raw gas after the cyclone is about
4-g/Nm3. We assume that the dust content is reduced to 4-mg/Nm3 [23] by the dust filter
and scrubber, i.e., 99.9% of the dust is removed.

As mentioned earlier, the utilization of charcoal gasifiers does, however, imply higher
demands on the biomass resources, resources that are indeed already over-exploited in
many developing countries. On the other hand, at least some designs of charcoal gasifiers
are less likely to cause operational trouble than wood gasifiers or gasifiers for agricultural
residues. This is because one of the potential problems with the latter, the excessive tar
 46

content in the gas, is virtually eliminated by the removal of most of the volatile in the
production process for charcoal.

2.7.2 Root for this problem

It is very unfortunate that some commercial establishments, with little practical

experience, are trying to gain profit from the renewed interest in gasification. They do
advertise the possibility of using almost any kind of biomass even in gasifiers, which will
work well only with fuels meeting fairly strict standards. This has in some cases created
unrealistic expectations and has led to disappointments with the technology.

It has been realized that the current technology is generally based on the designs of the
mid-1940. Few research works were carried out regarding design of reactor for
gasification, material selection and operation and maintenance procedures etc. Many of
the currently active manufacturers have no access to the experience of such persons and
base their designs on information available in the literature, and on recent and
comparatively limited experience. Though there has been some improvement of the
technology, for instance of filter designs based on new materials, but the practical
operating experience with these improved systems is limited. A consequence of this is
that equipment failures caused by design mistakes, choice of the wrong materials, or not
proper operation and maintenance procedures, must be expected in the first period of
reintroduction of gasifiers.

2.7.3 Possible solutions

The specification of the entire gas production process and gas cleaning train requires
careful evaluation and optimization, and generalizations other than overcome of the
aforesaid problems are not possible. The most convincing evidence of plausible design is
data from extensive operation with a quantitative appreciation of deviations from ideality.

In the present work an improved gas cleaning system are designed, developed and tested.
There are some alternative methods for tar removal like catalytic or thermal cracking.
The various methods for effluent treatment are also measured. Details of the experimental
methods are described and presented in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. The efficiency and cost
of these methods are still subject to study and not part of the present work.
 47

This introduction of gasifier system requires proper operation and maintenance

procedures during the system runs. Also, a certain amount of fine-tuning might be
required in the first few months of installation. These will require the presence of both the
manufacturer and technology-provider on the site.
 48

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