Chapter 3 Vectors in

2-Space and 3-Space

Chapter Contents

 3.1 Introduction to Vectors (Geometric)

 3.2 Norm of a Vector; Vector Arithmetic
 3.3 Dot Product; Projections
 3.4 Cross Product
 3.5 Lines and Planes in 3-Space
3.1 Introduction to
Vectors (Geometric)
 Geometric Vectors
 Symbolically, we shall denote vectors in lowercase
boldface type. All our scalars will be real numbers and
will be denoted in lowercase italic type

terminal point • The vector of length

zero is called the zero
initial point vector and is denoted
by 0.
• Since there is no
natural direction for
the zero vector
• the negative of v, is
defined to be the
vector having the
same magnitude as v,
but oppositely directed.
Definition
 If v and w are any two
vectors, then the sum v+w
is the vector determined as
follows: Position the vector
w so that its initial point
coincides with the terminal
point of v. The vector v+w
is represented by the arrow
from the initial point of v to
the terminal point of w.
Definition

 If v and w are any

two vectors, then the
difference of w from
v is defined by
v – w = v + (-w)
Definition
 If v is a nonzero vector and
k is nonzero real number
(scalar), then the product kv
is defined to be the vector
whose length is |k| times
the length of v and whose
direction is the same as that
of v if k > 0 and opposite to
that of v if k < 0. We define
kv =0 if k = 0 or v = 0.

 A vector of the form kv is

called a scalar multiple.
Vectors in coordinate Systems(1/2)

 In Figure 3.1.6, that v has

been positioned so its
initial point is at the origin
of a rectangular
coordinate system. The
coordinates v1 , v2 of
the terminal point of v are
called the components of
v, and we write
v  (v1 , v2 )
 Vectors in coordinate
Systems(2/2)
 If v  (v1 , v2 ) and w  (w1 , w2 )
 two vectors are equivalent if
and only if v1  w1 and v2  w2
 and
 Vectors in 3-Space (1/4)
coordinate axes
• Each pair of coordinate
axes determines a plane
called a coordinate
origin plane. These are
referred to as the xy-
plane, the xz-plane,
and the yz-plane.

• To each point P in 3-
space we assign a triple
of numbers (x, y, z),
called the coordinates
rectangular coordinate system of P.
Vectors in 3-Space (2/4)

 Rectangular coordinate
systems in 3-space fall
into two categories,
left-handed and right-
handed.
 In this book we shall use
only right-handed
coordinate systems.
 Vectors in 3-Space (3/4)
 A vector v in 3-space is positioned
so its initial point is at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system. The
coordinates of the terminal point of
v are called the components of v,
and we write v  (v1 , v2 , v3 )

 If v  (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w  (w1 , w2 , w3 ) are two vectors

in 3-space, then
v and w are equivalent if and only if v1  w1 , v2  w2 , v3  w3
v  w  (v1  w1 , v2  w2 , v3  w3 )
kv  (kv1 , kv2 , kv3 ), where k is any scalar
 Vectors in 3-Space (4/4)
Sometimes a vector is positioned so that
its initial point is not at the origin.
If the vector P1 P2 has initial point P1  ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and terminal point P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), then
P1 P2  ( x2 , y2 , z 2 )  ( x1 , y1 , z1 )  ( x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z 2  z1 )

In 2 - space the vector with initial point P1 ( x1 y1 ) and terminal point

P1 ( x1 y1 ) is
P1 P2  ( x2  x1 , y2  y1 )
Example 1
Vector Computations with Components
If v=(1,-3,2) and w=(4,2,1),then

v + w=(5,-1,3), 2v=(2,-6,4) -w=(-4,-2,-1),

v – w=v + (-w)=(-3,-5,1)
Example 2
Finding the components of a Vector

The components of the vector v  P1 P2 with initial point P1  (2,1,4)

and terminal point P2 (7,5,8) are
v  (7  2,5  (1), (8)  4)  (5,6,12)
Translation of Axes
 In Figure 3.1.14a we have translated
the axes of an xy-coordinate system to
obtain an x’y’-coordinate system whose
O’ is at point (x ,y)=(k ,l ).

 A point P in 2-space now has both (x ,y)

coordinates and (x’ ,y’) coordinates.

 x’= x – k , y’= y – l , these formulas

are called the translation equations.

 In 3-space the translation equations

are x’= x – k , y’= y – l , z’= z – m
where ( k, l, m ) are the xyz-
coordinates of the x’y’z’-origin.
Example 3
Using the Translation Equations (1/2)

 Suppose that an xy-coordinate system is translated

to obtain an x’y’-coordante system whose origin has
xy-coordinates (k ,l )=(4,1).

(a) Find the x’y’-coordinate of the point with

the xy-coordinates P(2,0)
(b) Find the xy-coordinate of the point with
the x’y’-coordinates Q(-1,5)
Example 3
Using the Translation Equations (2/2)
 Solution (a). The translation equations are
x’=x-4, y’=y-1
so the x’y’-coordinate of P(2,0) are x’=2-4=-2 and
y’=0-1=-1.
 Solution (b). The translation equations in (a) can be
written as
x=x’+4, y=y’+1
so the xy-coordinate of Q are x=-1+4=3 and
y=5+1=6.
3.2 Norm of a Vector;
Vector Arithmetic
 Theorem 3.2.1
Properties of Vector Arithmetic

 If u, v and w are vectors

in 2- or 3-space and k
and l are scalars, then
the following relationship
Norm of a Vector (1/2)
 The length of a vector u is often called
the norm of u and is denoted by u .

 Figure (a): it follows from the Theorem

of Pythagoras that the norm of a vector
u  (u1 , u2 ) in 2-space is u  u12  u22

 Figure (b): Let u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) be a

vector in 3-space.
u  u12  u22  u32

 A vector of norm 1 is called a unit vector.

Norm of a Vector (2/2)
 If P1  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
are two points in 3-space, then
the distance s between them is
the norm of vector P1 P2
P1P2  ( x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1 )

 Similarly in 2-space:

 the length of the vector ku : ku  k u

Example 1
Finding Norm and Distance
The norm of the vector u  (-3,2,1 ) is
u  (3) 2  (2) 2  (1) 2  14
The distance d betwwen the points P1 (2,-1,5) and P2  (4,3,1) is
d  (4  2) 2  (3  1) 2  (1  5) 2  44  2 11
3.3 Dot Product; Projections
The Angle Between Vectors
 Let u and v be two nonzero vectors in 2-space or
3-space, and assume these vectors have been
positioned so their initial points coincided. By the
angle between u and v, we shall mean the
angleθ determined by u and v that satisfies 0 ≤
θ ≤ π.
 Component Form of the Dot
Product (1/2)
Let u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v  (v1 , v2 , v3 ) be two nonzero vectors.
If as shown in figure 3.3.3,  is the angle between u and v,
then the law of cosines yields
2
PQ  u  v - 2 u v cos
2 2
(2)

Since PQ  v  u, we can rewrite (2) as

u v cos  ( u  v  v  u )
1 2 2 2
2

u v  ( u  v  v u )
1 2 2 2
or 2
Component Form of the Dot
Product (2/2)
Substituting
u  u1  u2  u3 , v  v1  v2  v3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

2
and v  u  (v1  u1 ) 2  (v2  u2 ) 2  (v3  u3 ) 2
we obtain after Simplfying
u  v  u1v1  u2 v2  u3v3

Similarly in 2 - space : u  v  u1v1  u2 v2

 The formula is also valid if u=0 or v=0.

Finding the Angle Between
Vectors
 If u and v are nonzero vectors then
u  v  u v cos (1)

it also can be written as

u v
cos 
u v
Example 2
Dot Product Using [3]
Example 4
Finding Dot products from Components
Orthogonal Vectors
 Perpendicular vectors are also called
orthogonal vectors.
 In light of Theorem 3.l.1b, two nonzero
vectors are orthogonal if and only if
their dot product is zero.
 To indicate that u and v are orthogonal
vectors we write u ⊥v.
Example 5
A Vector Perpendicular to a Line
 Show that in 2-space the nonzero vector n=(a,b) is
perpendicular to the line ax+by+cz=0.
 Solution
Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be distinct points on the line, so that
ax1  by1  c  0
ax2  by2  c  0 (6)
Since the vector P1 P2  ( x2  x1 , y2  y1 ) runs along the line (Figure 3.3.5),
we need only show that n and P1 P2 are perpendicular. But on subtracting
the equations in (6) we obtain
a ( x2  x1 )  b( y2  y1 )  0
which can be expressed in the form
(a, b)  ( x2  x1 , y2  y1 )  0 or n  P1 P2  0
Thus, n and P1 P2 are perpendicular.
Theorem 3.3.2
Properties of the Dot Product

If u, v and w are vectors in 2- or 3-space

and k is a scalar, then:
 An Orthogonal Projection (1/2)
 To "decompose" a vector u into a sum of two
terms, one parallel to a specified nonzero vector
a and the other perpendicular to a.
 Figure 3.3.6: Drop a perpendicular from the tip of
u to the line through a, and construct the vector
w1 from Q.
 Next form the difference: w2  u  w1 then w1  w2  w1  (u  w1 )  u
An Orthogonal Projection (2/2)
 The vector w1 is called the orthogonal projection
of u on a or sometimes the vector component of
u along a. It is denoted by proj u (7)
a

 The vector w1 is called the vector component of

u orthogonal to a. Since we have w2  u  w1 ,
this vector can be written in notation (7) as

w2  u  proja u
 Example 6
Vector Component of u Along a
Let u  (2,1,3) and a  (4,1,2). Find the vector component of u along a
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a.

Solution :
u  a  (2)(4)  (1)(1)  (3)(2)  15
a  4 2  (1) 2  2 2  21
2

Thus, the vector component of u along a is

ua
proja u  2
a  15
21 ( 4,1,2)  ( 7 , 7 , 7 )
20 5 10

a
and the vector component of u orthogonal to a is
u  proja u  (2,1,3)  ( 20
7 , 7 , 7 )  (  7 , 7 , 7 )
5 10 6 2 11

Verify that the vector u  proja u and a are perpendicular by showing that
their dot product is zero.
 Example 7
Distance Between a Point and a
Line (1/2)
Find a formula for the distance D between point P0 ( x0 , y0 ) and the line ax  by  c  0.
Solution :
Let Q( x1 , y1 ) be any point on the line and position the vector n  (a, b) so that its initial
point is at Q.
By virtueof Example5, the vector n is perpendicular to the line (Fig 3.3.8).
As indicated in the figure, the distance D is equal to the length of the orthogonal
projection of QP0 on n; thus,
QP0  n
D  projn QP0 
n
But QP0  ( x0  x1 , y0  y1 ), QP0  n  a( x0  x1 )  b( y0  y1 ), n  a2  b2
 Example 7
Distance Between a Point and a
Line (2/2)
Solution (count)
so that
a( x0  x1 )  b( y0  y1 )
D (12)
a b
2 2

Since the point Q( x1 , y1 ) lies on the line, its coordinates satisfy

the equation of the line, so
ax1  by1  c  0 or c  ax1  by1
Substituting this expression in (12) yields the formula
ax0  by0  c
D (13)
a b
2 2
 Example 8
Using the Distance Formula
It follows from Formula (13) that the distance D from the point (1,-2)
to the line 3x  4y - 6  0 is

(3)(1)  4(2)  6  11 11
D  
32  4 2 25 5
3.4 Cross Product
Cross Product of Vectors
 Recall from Section 3.3 that the dot
product of two vectors in 2-space or 3-
space produces a scalar.
 We will now define a type of vector
multiplication that produces a vector as
the product, but which is applicable only
in 3-space.
Example 1
Calculating a Cross Product
Example 2
u×v Is Perpendicular to u and to v
Determinant Form of Cross
Product (1/2)
 A cross product can be represented
symbolically in the form of 3 × 3 determinant:

 For example : if u  (1,2,-2) and v  (3,0,1), then

i j k
u  v  1 2  2  2i  7 j  6k
3 0 1
Example 5
Calculating a Scalar Triple
Product (1/2)
 Independence of Cross
Product and Coordinates (2/2)
 Question: two fixed vectors u and v might have different cross
products in different coordinate systems.
 Recall :

the direction

the length

 Since these properties of u x v depend only on the lengths and

relative positions of u and v and not on the particular right-
hand coordinate system being used.
 Thus, we say that the definition of u x v is coordinate free.
 This result is of importance to physicists and engineers who
often work with many coordinate systems in the same problem.
3.5 Lines and Planes
in 3-Space
Planes in 3-Space
 One can specify a plane in 3-space by giving its inclination
and specifying one of its points.
 A convenient method for a plane is to specify a nonzero
vector, called a normal, that is perpendicular to the plane.
 We want to find the equation of a plane passing through
the point P0  ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ; and have a nonzero vector n =
(a. b. c) as a normal. From Figure 3.5.1:
the vector P0 P is orthogonal to n, that is,
n  P0 P  0
a( x  x0 )  b( y  y0 )  c( z  z0 )  0
We call this the point-normal form of the equation
of a plane.
Example 1
Finding the Point-Normal
Equation of a Plane
 The Solution of a System in 3-
Space

the solution of a system

ax  by  cz  k1
dx  ey  fz  k 2
gx  hy  iz  k3

correspond to the
points of intersection
of three planes.
Example 2
Equation of a Plane Through
Three Points (1/2)
Example 2
Equation of a Plane Through
Three Points (2/2)
Vector Form of Equation of a
Plane
 Referring to Figure 3.5.3, let r=( x, y, z) be the vector
from the origin to the point P (x , y, z),

let r0  ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the vector from the origin

to the point P0 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and let n  (a, b, c) be
a vector normal to the plane. Then P0 P  r - r0 , so
n  (r  r0 )  0

 This is called the vector form of the equation of a plane.

Example 3
Vector Equation of a Plane
Using(5)
 Lines in 3-space
We shall now show how to obtain equations for lines
in 3 - space. Suppose that l is the line 3 - space through
the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel to the nonzero
vector v  (a, b, c). It is clear (Figure 3.5.4) that l
consists precisely of those points P( x, y, z )
for which the vector P0 P is parallel to v,
that is, for which there is a dalar t such that
P0 P  tv (6)
Example 4
Parametric Equations of a Line
Example 5
Intersection of a Line and the xy-
Plane
Example 6
Line of Intersection of Two
Planes
Vector form of Equation of a
Line
Example 7
A Line Parallel to a Given Vector
Example 8
Distance Between a Pont and a
Plane
Example 9
Distance Between Parallel Planes