Forces Acting on Dislocations

¾ Peach - Koehler equation

¾ External force - constant Peach - Koehler force
¾ Forces acting between dislocations
¾ Interactions between dislocations
¾ Energy of dislocation configurations
¾ Climb and chemical forces
¾ Image force
¾ Self-force (or line tension)

References:
Hull and Bacon, Ch. 4.5-4.8
Kelly and Knowles, Ch. 8

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Force acting on dislocations: Peach - Koehler equation
Application of external stresses and stresses generated by other crystal defects may cause
movement of a dislocation on its glide plane. As a result, work may be done by the applied
stresses. Let’s consider dislocation motion in a sample with dimensions Lx×Ly×Lz due to the
shear stress τ :
y τ b τ b τ

Lx
x
τ τ τ b

The work done by the shear stress τ in changing the system from the initial to the final state is
equal to τSb = τLxLzb. If we consider the process as movement of a dislocation under the action
of force F acting on a unit length of the dislocation, the same work can also be written as
( force FLz ) × ( distance Lx) = FLzLx
Thus F = τb

The force acting on a dislocation line is not a physical force (like mechanical force of a spring or
electrostatic force acting on a charged particle) but a way to describe the tendency of dislocation
to move through the crystal when external or internal stresses are present.
This work done at the slip plane is dissipated into heat (similar to work done by friction forcers)
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
Force acting on dislocations r
F
F = τb
F is always perpendicular to the dislocation
line even though τ is constant on the glide
r
plane F
τ

r r
b F

r
F

to produce the same deformation, the

same τ generates force on a screw
dislocation that is perpendicular to the
force on an edge dislocation

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Force acting on dislocations: Peach - Koehler equation
τ is the shear stress in the glide plane resolved in the direction of b and F acts
F = τb normal to the dislocation line
Since the dislocation moves on its glide plane, we only need to consider the shear stress on this
plane. Stress components normal to the glide plane do not contribute to the dislocation movement

Moreover, only the shear stress components in the direction of b (called the resolved shear
stress τ) are contribution to the movement of the dislocation.

F is perpendicular to the dislocation line

σ yy
τ is constant on the glide plane

( )
r r r
y In general: F = σ ⋅b × l Peach-Koehler equation
r r
r b F - force per unit length at an arbitrary point P
F
along the dislocation line
τ
σ - local stress field
r
l - local line tangent direction at point P
x r
σ yy σ ⋅ b - local force per unit length acting on a plane
(of area b) normal to the Burgers vector
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Force acting on dislocations: Peach - Koehler equation
Example: edge dislocation runs along y-axis and Burgers vector is in the negative direction of x-axis
r
glide plane is (001) b = (b x , b y , b z ) = ( − b ,0,0 )
r
z l = (l x , l y , l z ) = ( 010 )
( )
r r r
y F = σ ⋅b × l
r
g = (gx, g y , gz )
σ xx σ yx
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z = − σ xx b
r σ zx x
g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z = − σ yx b
b
g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z = − σ zx b
traction on the surface normal to b is defined by stress components σxx, σyx, σzx

g x = − σ xx b is ⊥ to l ⇒ σxx produces |F| = σxxb downwards, perpendicular to the glide plane

r
if σxx < 0 (compression) ⇒ F is directed upwards ⇒ climb force F
r r
g y = − σ yx b is || to l ⇒ σyx makes no contribution to F l g

g z = − σ zx b is ⊥ to l ⇒ σzx produces |F| = σzxb along the x-axis ⇒ glide force

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Force acting on dislocations: Peach - Koehler equation
Example: screw dislocation runs along x-axis and Burgers vector is in the negative direction of x-axis
r
glide plane is (001) b = (b x , b y , b z ) = ( − b ,0,0 )
r
l = (l x , l y , l z ) = (100 )
( )
r r r
F = σ ⋅b × l
r r r
b l x g = (gx, g y , gz )
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z = − σ xx b
g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z = − σ yx b
g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z = − σ zx b
traction on the surface normal to b is defined by stress components σxx, σyx, σzx

g x = − σ xx b is || to l ⇒ σxx makes no contribution to F

g y = − σ yx b is ⊥ to l ⇒ σyx produces |F| = σyxb up- or down-wards (depending on the sign

of σyx), perpendicular to the xy slip plane - can induce cross-slip

g z = − σ zx b is ⊥ to l ⇒ σzx produces |F| = σzxb along the y-axis ⇒ glide force along xy slip
plane
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Force acting on dislocations: Peach - Koehler equation
Example: screw dislocation runs along y-axis and Burgers vector is in the positive direction of y-axis
r
z glide plane is (001) b = (b x , b y , b z ) = ( 0, b ,0 )
y r
r l = (l x , l y , l z ) = ( 010 )
( )
l r r r
F = σ ⋅b × l
r σ xy r
b x g = (gx, g y , gz )
σ zy σ yy
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z = σ xy b
g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z = σ yy b
g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z = σ zy b
traction on the surface normal to b is defined by stress components σxy, σyy, σzy

g x = σ xy b is ⊥ to l ⇒ σxy produces |F| = σxyb up- or down-wards (depending on the sign

of σxy), perpendicular to the xy slip plane - can induce cross-slip r
F
r r
g y = σ yy b is || to l ⇒ σyy makes no contribution to F l g

g z = σ zy b is ⊥ to l ⇒ σzy produces |F| = σzyb along the x-axis ⇒ glide force along xy slip
plane
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Forces between dislocations
Force due to the interaction with other dislocations = sum of all Peach–Koehler forces between
the segments of all other dislocations in the system

Example: interaction between two (1) (2)

parallel straight edge dislocations r
( ) b = (b x , b y , b z )
r r r
F = σ ⋅b × l r disl. (2)
(2) l = (l x , l y , l z )
y r
g = (gx, g y , gz )
(1)
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z
x g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z
z g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z

Edge dislocation (1) produces a stress field that dislocation (2) responds to
Peach–Koehler gives force acting on dislocation (2) due to the presence of dislocation (1)
Must use consistent convention to describe dislocations (direction of the Burgers circuit,
line direction into page, start-finish)

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Forces between dislocations
Example: interaction between two parallel straight edge dislocations

(2) r r (1) (2)

(1) b = (b1 ,0 ,0 ) (2) b = (b2 ,0,0 )
( )
r r r
y r r F = σ ⋅ b2 × l 2
l1 = ( 0,0,1) l 2 = ( 0,0,1)
(1) r
x g
Step 1: Step 3:
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z = σ xx b2 use expressions for stresses generated
g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z = σ yx b2 by dislocation (1):
g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z = 0 Gb1 y (3 x 2 + y 2 )
σ xx = −
2 π (1 − ν ) (x 2 + y 2 )2
r
b = (b2 ,0 ,0 ) for disl. (2)
σ xy =
Gb1 (
x x2 − y2 )
σ from disl. (1)
r (
2 π (1 − ν ) x 2 + y 2 2)
g = ( σ xx b2 , σ yx b2 ,0 )
r
F =
(
Gb 1b2 x x 2 − y 2
xˆ +
)Gb1b2 y 3 x 2 + y 2 (yˆ
)
Step 2:
r r r (
2 π (1 − ν ) x + y
2 2 2
) 2 π (1 − ν ) x + y
2 2
(
2
)
F = g × l 2 = ( σ yx b2 , − σ xx b2 ,0 )
a × b = c = c1i + c2j + c3k

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Forces between dislocations
Example: interaction between two parallel straight edge dislocations

(2)
r
F =
(
Gb 1b2 x x 2 − y 2 )
xˆ +
(
Gb1b2 y 3 x 2 + y 2
yˆ
)
(1)
y
( )
2 π (1 − ν ) x 2 + y 2 2 ( )
2 π (1 − ν ) x 2 + y 2 2
x

glide plane attraction repulsion

y (2) r
Fx = 0 - unstable equilibrium (Fx < 0 when x < y and Fx > 0 when x > y )
x= y r Gb1b2 1
Fy = - climb force (need diffusion)
2 π (1 − ν ) y
45 °

(1) x
attraction attraction
y (2) r
Fx = 0 - stable equilibrium (Fx > 0 when x < 0 and Fx < 0 when x > 0 )
x=0 r Gb1b2 1
Fy = - climb force (need diffusion)
2 π (1 − ν ) y
90 °

(1) x
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Forces between dislocations
Example: interaction between two parallel straight edge dislocations

(2) r r (1) (2)

(1) b = (b1 ,0 ,0 ) (2) b = ( − b2 ,0 ,0 )
( )
r r r
y r r F = σ ⋅ b2 × l 2
l1 = ( 0,0,1) l 2 = ( 0,0,1)
(1) r
x
same as before, but opposite sign of (2) g

Step 1: Step 3:
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z = − σ xx b2 use expressions for stresses generated
by dislocation (1):
g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z = − σ yx b2
Gb 1 y (3 x 2 + y 2 )
g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z = 0 σ xx = −
2 π (1 − ν ) (x 2 + y 2 )2
r
b = ( − b2 ,0,0 ) for disl. (2)
σ xy =
Gb1 (
x x2 − y2 )
σ from disl. (1)
r
(
2 π (1 − ν ) x 2 + y 2 2)
g = ( − σ xx b2 , − σ yx b2 ,0 )
r
F =−
(
Gb 1b2 x x 2 − y 2
xˆ −
)
Gb 1b2 y 3 x 2 + y 2 (
yˆ
)
Step 2:
r r r
(
2 π (1 − ν ) x + y
2 2 2
)2 π (1 − ν ) x + y
2 2 2
( )
F = g × l 2 = ( − σ yx b2 , σ xx b2 ,0 )
the sign is reversed when the
dislocations are of opposite sign
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Forces between dislocations
Example: interaction between two parallel straight edge dislocations

r
F =±
(
Gb 1b2 x x 2 − y 2 )
xˆ ±
(
Gb 1b2 y 3 x 2 + y 2
yˆ
)
( )
2 π (1 − ν ) x 2 + y 2 2 (
2 π (1 − ν ) x 2 + y 2 2 )
(2) y (2`) (2*) (2#) (2º)

45 °

(1) x

(2)
y (2`) (2*) (2#) (2º)

Gb1b2
force in units of from Hull and Bacon
2π(1 − ν ) y 45 °

(1) x

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Forces between dislocations
Example: interaction between two parallel straight screw dislocations
(2) r r (1) (2)
(1) b = ( 0 ,0 , b1 ) (2) b = ( 0 ,0 , b2 )
( )
r r r
y r r F = σ ⋅ b2 × l 2
(1) l1 = ( 0,0,1) l 2 = ( 0,0,1)
r
x g
Step 3:
Step 1:
use expressions for stresses generated
g x = σ xx b x + σ xy b y + σ xz b z = σ xz b2 by dislocation (1):
g y = σ yx b x + σ yy b y + σ yz b z = σ yz b2 Gb y Gb sin θ
σ xz = σ zx = − = −
2π x 2 + y 2 2π r
g z = σ zx b x + σ zy b y + σ zz b z = 0
r Gb x Gb cos θ
b = ( 0 ,0 , b2 ) for disl. (2) σ yz = σ zy = =
2π x 2 + y 2 2π r
σ from disl. (1) r Gb1b2 x Gb1b2 y
r F = ˆ
x + yˆ
g = ( σ xz b2 , σ yz b2 ,0 ) 2π x + y
2 2
2π x + y
2 2

r Gb1b2
Step 2: F = (cos θ xˆ + sin θ yˆ )
r r r 2 πr
F = g × l 2 = ( σ yz b2 , − σ xz b2 ,0 )
repulsive for screws of the same sign and
attractive for screws of opposite sign
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Summary on interactions between dislocations
General basic rules:
The superposition of the stress fields of two dislocations as they move towards each other can
result in
(1) larger combined stress field as compared to a single dislocation (e.g., overlap of the
regions of compressive or tensile stresses from the two dislocations) ⇒ increase in the
energy of the configuration ⇒ repulsion between dislocations.
(2) lower combined stress field as compared to a single dislocation (e.g., overlap of regions of
compressive stress from one dislocation with regions of tensile stress from the other
dislocation) ⇒ attraction between dislocations.

Arbitrarily (curved) dislocations on the same glide plane:

Dislocations with opposite b will attract each other and annihilate
Dislocations with the same b will always repel each other
Edge dislocations with identical or opposite Burgers vector b on neighboring glide planes
may attract or repulse each other, depending on the precise geometry.

The force between screw dislocations is repulsive for dislocations of the same sign and attractive
for dislocations of opposite sign.

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Energy of dislocation configurations
stable configuration for parallel straight edge dislocations
y σ xx superposition of compressive and tensile stresses of
dislocation wall dislocations in the wall ⇒ screening radius R ~ h
Gb 2 L ⎛ R ⎞
Wdisl = Wel + Wcore = ⎜⎜ ln + Z ⎟⎟
4πK ⎝ r0 ⎠
h
h h
for h = 75b, ≈ 50, and ln ≈ 4
r0 r0
Rmax energy of dislocation in the wall
x ln ≈ 16
r0 is up to 4 times lower than energy
this configuration has strong of an individual dislocation
long-range stress field

dislocation walls form during recovery, when stored internal

energy accumulated during plastic deformation decreases as the
dislocations form low-energy (stable) configurations
a wall of edge dislocations corresponds to a low-angle tilt grain
boundary ⇒ the rearrangement of dislocations into low-angle
grain boundaries can lead to the formation of cellular sub-
grain structure
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Energy of dislocation configurations
stable configuration for parallel straight edge dislocations

pile-ups of dislocations of opposite sign

chessboard structure (Taylor lattice)

dislocation dipoles these configurations have weak long-range stress field

τ
1 2 3 4 .... n dislocation pile ups can be generated at the initial
stage of plastic deformation (unstable configuration)
L

at large distances from pile-up (r >> L), the stress field created by the pile up is analogous to a
super-dislocation with B = nb

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Low-energy of dislocation configurations
2D computer simulation of a low-energy dislocation configuration
(“Taylor lattice”): (a) relaxed quadrupole configuration and (b)
configuration under critical stress for disintegration into dipole walls

P. Neumann, Mater. Sci. Eng. 81, 465, 1986

Doris Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, in
Dislocations in Solids, Vol. 11, Ch. 59

Model for formation of a Taylor lattice: (a) activation of a

dislocation source in a volume element, (b) coordinated
shape change of the volume elements as a similar sequence
of dislocations arrives from a neighboring element, (c)
University
formation of Virginia,
dipoles MSE 6020:
and (d) formation Defects
of a Taylor and Microstructure
lattice. Formation of in Materials,
Taylor lattice in Leonid
α-brass Zhigilei 1μm
 Climb force
glide plane climb force
y r
(2)
F = ( σ yx b2 , − σ xx b2 ,0 )

climb force originates from normal stress, e.g., σxx in the figure to the
left, acting to squeeze the extra half plane of dislocation from the crystal

(1) x normal stress can also be created by external forces, line tension, etc.

edge or mixed dislocation can move away from its slip plane only with the help of point defects
(vacancies or interstitials) - such motion is called non-conservative motion or climb (in contrast to
the conservative motion within the slip plane)
motion of a screw dislocation is always conservative (never involves point defects)

prismatic loop of partial dislocation
“conservative climb” is also possible for small prismatic
loops of edge dislocations. The loop can move in its
plane without shrinking or expanding at low T, when
bulk diffusion of point defects is negligible.
the motion is due to the pipe diffusion of vacancies
produced at one side of the loop and moving along the
dislocation core to another side.

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Chemical force

y r
σ xx r σ xx σ xx σ xx
Fclimb Fchem
x

r r
vacancies
Fclimb = − σ xx b Fclimb

let’s consider a volume of material where dislocation is the only sink and source of vacancies
without external stress, the equilibrium concentration of vacancies is maintained by absorption
or birth of vacancies on the dislocation
when σxx is applied, |Fclimb| = σxxb acts downwards and dislocation moves by emitting vacancies
vacancy concentration increases above the equilibrium concentration c0 and it is increasingly
difficult to create new vacancies
eventually, at vacancy concentration c, the movement stops; we can consider a chemical force
acting against the climb force and opposite in direction, i.e., r r
Fchem = − Fclimb at c > c 0

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Chemical force
the work done when a segment l climbs distance s in response to Fclimb is Wclimb = Fclimbls and
the number of vacancies emitted is nclimb = bls/Ωa, where Ωa is volume per atom

the effective change in the vacancy formation energy is Wclimb/nclimb = FclimbΩa/b

⎛ Δs ⎞ ⎛ Δh ⎞ ⎛ F Ω /b⎞ ⎛ F Ω /b⎞
c = exp ⎜⎜ v ⎟⎟ exp ⎜⎜ − f ⎟⎟ exp ⎜⎜ − climb a ⎟⎟ = c0 exp ⎜⎜ − climb a ⎟⎟
⎝ kB ⎠ ⎝ k BT ⎠ ⎝ k BT ⎠ ⎝ k BT ⎠

r r bk BT ⎛ c ⎞ r r
since Fchem = − Fclimb Fchem = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Fclimb Fclimb
Ωa ⎝ c0 ⎠

negative climb (Fclimb < 0) ⇒ vacancy emission ⇒ c > c0

positive climb (Fclimb > 0) ⇒ vacancy absorption ⇒ c < c0

r r
Fchem Fchem
supersaturation of vacancies ⇒ chemical force ⇒
dislocation climb until Fchem is not compensated by
Fclimb due to external/internal stresses or line tension

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Image forces
The stress field generated by a dislocation is modified near a free surface, leading to extra
forces acting on the dislocation (dislocation-surface interaction).
The normal and shear stress at a free surface are zero (there is “nothing” on one side of the
boundary to provide reaction forces ⇒ there must be no normal or shear stress on the inside)

let’s consider a straight screw dislocation parallel to z axes located at

image y a distance d from a free surface at x = 0
dislocation
to satisfy the condition of zero traction on plane x = 0,
i.e., σxx = σyx = σzx = 0, we can add stress field of an
x imaginary screw dislocation of opposite sign at x = -d
d d
the stress field inside the body (x > 0) is then
Gb ⎡ y y ⎤
σ zx = ⎢ − ⎥
2 π ⎣ ( x + d )2 + y 2 ( x − d )2 + y 2 ⎦
force acting on the screw dislocation
from the surface = force acting from the Gb ⎡ x+d x−d ⎤
image dislocation: σ zy = − ⎢ − ⎥
2 π ⎣ ( x + d )2 + y 2 ( x − d )2 + y 2 ⎦
Gb 2
Fx = σ zy ( x = d , y = 0 ) b = −
4 πd
only stress due to the image dislocation is accounted for

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 image y
Image forces
dislocation
For edge dislocation, adding an image dislocation at x = -d
cancels σxx and x = 0, but not σyx. Thus, an extra term
x should be added to match the boundary condition.
d d

The shear stress is then:

Gb ⎡ (x + d )2 − y 2 (x − d )2 − y 2 2 d ( x − d )( x + d ) 3 − 6 x ( x + d ) y 2 + y 4 ⎤
σ yx =− ⎢( x + d ) − (x − d ) + ⎥
2 π (1 − ν ) ⎢⎣ ((x + d ) + y
2
)
2 2
(
(x − d ) + y
2 2 2
) (
(x + d )2 + y 2 )
3
⎥⎦

extra term to ensure σyx = 0 at x = 0

force acting on the edge dislocation from the surface = force due to the 1st and 3rd terms
Gb 2
Fx = σ yx ( x = d , y = 0 ) b = − (contribution from the 3rd term is zero)
4 π (1 − υ ) d
dislocations are attracted to the surface ⇒ image forces can remove dislocations from the surface
regions given that slip planes are oriented at large angles to the surface
Interactions of curved dislocations, dislocation loops and dipoles, etc. can result in very complex
stress fields that are often difficult to evaluate analytically
University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Line tension
Gb 2 L ⎛ R ⎞
Recall the result of our analysis of the dislocation energy: Wdisl = Wel + Wcore = ⎜⎜ ln + Z ⎟⎟
4πK ⎝ r0 ⎠
or, for energy per unit length, Wdisl Gb 2 ⎛ R ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ln + Z ⎟⎟ ≈ αGb 2 α ≈ 0 .5 − 1 .5
L 4πK
⎝ r0 ⎠
The line energy (energy per length) has the
same dimension as a force and corresponds to
line tension, i.e., a force in the direction of the
r
line vector which tries to shorten the dislocation FT

The resulting force FT acting on an element dl

Wdisl
of a dislocation line is related to the line tension T= ≈ αGb 2
L
T at the ends of the element and is perpendicular
to the dislocation line r
FT = 2T sin( dθ / 2) ≈ Tdθ dθ ≈ dl
R
for small dθ
r
force Fτ acting on the same element dl due to the external shear stress is Fτ = τbdl

balance of forces to maintain Td θ T α Gb

Td θ = τbdl τ= = =
radius R of the curved dislocation: bdl bR R

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei
 Line tension
What happens when τ > αGb/Rmin ?
τ
2 R min R
min

dislocation segment pinned at its ends

How the dependence of the energy of dislocation on its type

(edge vs. screw) affects the shape of the dislocation loop?
b
τ

University of Virginia, MSE 6020: Defects and Microstructure in Materials, Leonid Zhigilei