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Bread From Composite Cassava-Wheat Flour-Effect of Baking Time
Bread From Composite Cassava-Wheat Flour-Effect of Baking Time
www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Alabata Road, Abeokuta, Ogun, Nigeria
b
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
c
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
The use of composite cassava-wheat (CCW) flour for commercial breadmaking purposes and consumption of CCW bread are rela-
tively new in Nigeria. This study investigated the effect of baking temperature and time on some physical properties of bread from com-
posite flour made by mixing cassava and wheat flour at ratio of 10:90 (w/w). A central composite rotatable experimental design was used
while the baking temperature and time investigated ranged from 190 to 240 C and 20 to 40 min, respectively. Loaf volume, weight and
specific volume varied significantly (p < 0.001) from 440 to 920 cm3, 162 to 183 g and 3.31 to 5.32 cm3/g, respectively. The tristimulus
color parameters such as L* (lightness) and brownness index (BI) of the crust varied significantly (p < 0.01) from 31 to 72 and 68 to
123, respectively. Moreover, Fresh crumb moisture, density, porosity and softness as well as the dried crumb hardness were also signif-
icantly (p < 0.01) affected by both the baking temperature and time with values ranging from 34% to 39%, 0.16 to 0.20 g/cm3, 0.69 to
0.80, 13.00 to 18.05 mm and 0.90 to 2.05 kgf, respectively. Due to the complex effect of temperature and time combination, most of
the measured properties could not be reliably predicted from the second order response surface regression equations except the loaf
weight and crumb moisture. Further studies are required to optimize the CCW bread baking process based on some storage and con-
sumption qualities.
2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Bread loaf properties; Composite flour; Cassava; Wheat; Response surface methodology
2.4.4. Crust color The bread crumb was dried at 35 C overnight in a lab-
The tristimulus color parameters L* (Lightness), a* oratory oven. The dried crumbs were carefully pulverized
(Redness to Greenness), b* (Yellowness to Blueness) of with a mild force to small grits. To determine the RVA vis-
the baked loaves crumbs were determined using a digital cosities, approximately 3 g of the grit were weighed into
colorimeter (Color Tec PCM, Accuracy Micro census RVA canister; about 25 mL of distilled water was added
T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290 283
to make slurry prior to viscosity analysis using a rapid ied significantly (p < 0.001) with both baking time and tem-
visco analyzer (RVA) (Newport Scientific Pty. Ltd., War- perature. A quick way to compare the effect of baking
riewood, Australia) to determine the peak, trough, break- temperature and time on the loaf size from this experiment
down, setback and final viscosities as well as the time to is to determine linear response of sample by varying one of
reach peak viscosity. the factors and making the other constant. Generally, Bak-
ing time had more significant linear effects compared to
2.7. Data analyses that of baking temperature. Some of these effects are dis-
played in Figs. 1–3.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), correlations, and Higher loaf weight and volume have positive economic
descriptive data analysis were carried out using the SPSS effect on bread at the retail end. Therefore, loaf weight
11.0 (Michigan State University, USA) while the response reduction during baking is an undesirable economic quality
surface regression was performed using S-PLUS 2000 Pro- to the bakers as consumers often get attracted to bread loaf
fessional Release I (Mathsoft Inc., Seattle, WA, USA) sta- with higher weight and volume believing that it has more
tistical softwares as guided by Anon (1999). The accuracy substance for the same price. The specific volume, which
of the response surface models developed for predicting is the ratio of the two properties, has been generally
each property was verified by calculating the absolute aver- adopted in the literature as a more reliable measure of loaf
age deviation (AAD) (Bas & Boyaci, 2007) defined as: size. Loaf volume is affected by the quantity and quality of
Pp jY i;exp Y i;cal j protein in the flour (Ragaee & Abdel-Aal, 2006) as well
i¼1 Y i;exp as proofing time (Zghal, Scanlon, & Sapirstein, 2002).
AAD ¼ ; ð7Þ Whereas loaf weight is basically determined by the quantity
p
of dough baked and the amount of moisture and carbon
where Yi,exp and Yi,cal are the experimental and calculated dioxide diffused out of the loaf during baking. In this
responses, respectively, and p is the number of experimen- study, higher temperature and longer baking period caused
tal run. reduction of loaf weight (Fig. 1) while the opposite effect
was shown on loaf volume and specific volume. Since the
3. Results and discussion bread samples studied here have been produced from the
same formulation, proofing time and dough size, the vari-
3.1. Loaf size ation in loaf volume could be attributed mainly to different
rate of gas evolution and the extent of starch gelatinization
The results of size-related parameters of the cassava- due to differences in baking temperature and time. It must
wheat bread are shown in Table 3. Loaf volume, weight also be mentioned that baking temperature and time
and specific volume ranged from 550 to 1125 cm3, 162 to parameters affects moisture retention capacity of bread
183 g and 3.0 to 6.6 cm3/g, respectively. These values var- crumb (Eggleston et al., 1993).
Table 3
Effect of baking temperature and time on size-related and color characteristics of composite cassava-wheat loaf
Temperature (C) Time (min) Loaf weight Loaf volume Specific volume Crust L* Crust a* Crust b* Brownness
(g) (cm3) (g/cm3) index
190.00 32.50 175.87 560.00 3.41 56.45 13.12 31.51 95.55
190.00 41.00 172.69 920.00 5.32 52.32 13.97 31.80 108.36
197.00 24.00 181.98 640.00 3.52 67.45 4.76 32.27 68.18
197.00 41.00 169.35 760.00 4.72 48.07 14.45 29.38 111.51
215.00 20.00 182.17 440.00 2.42 71.20 3.18 21.47 38.44
215.00 32.50 173.32 600.00 3.56 54.08 13.73 31.41 101.72
215.00 32.50 176.06 640.00 3.52 57.58 12.93 31.90 86.49
215.00 45.00 167.35 800.00 5.02 46.58 14.22 29.195 115.22
233.00 24.00 178.05 840.00 4.72 47.20 14.90 30.94 122.47
240.00 32.50 162.04 560.00 3.31 31.76 6.68 15.18 78.79
Main effect:
*** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Temperature (T)
*** *** *** ** *** ***
Time (Tm) NS
Interaction:
*** *** *** ** *** * ***
T · Tm
Values are means of four replicate determinations.
*
Significant effect at p < 0.05.
**
Significant effect at p < 0.01.
***
Significant effect at p < 0.001.
284 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290
180 40.0
175
170 38.0
165 37.0
160 36.0
155 35.0
190 215 240 190 215 240
Baking temperature (deg C) Baking temperature (deg C)
185 38
175 36
170 35
34
165
33
160
32
155 20 32.5 45
20 32.5 45
Baking time (min)
Baking time (min)
Fig. 3. Effect of temperature (T) and time (Tm) on crumb moisture [Tm:
Fig. 1. Effect of temperature (T) and time (Tm) on loaf weight [Tm: r2 = 0.693; T: r2 = 0.333].
r2 = 0.978; T: r2 = 0.723].
50.0
parameter L* reduced with increasing time and tempera-
40.0 ture (Fig. 2). This is expected because as the rate of brown
30.0 pigment formation increase with temperature and time.
20.0 The brownness index (BI) of the loaf crust ranged from
38.44 to 122.47. The BI was negatively affected by baking
10.0
time (p < 0.01) while temperature effect was less significant
0.0 (p > 0.05) (Table 3). The results also indicate that bread
190 215 240
crust color can essentially be described as a composite of
Baking temperature (deg C) red and yellow pigments.
Previous works have shown that instrumental measure-
80
ment of baked products’ color is an inevitable quality
Crust Lightness, L
surface. It was shown that 10% increase oven temperature to establish the amount of energy that may be required
caused about 12% increase in surface density, 3% increase to fracture a given volume of the dried crumb. It was found
in proportion of mass in crust and about 10% reduction that baking time had more significant positive effect on the
in crust thickness. However, the combined effect of oven hardness of dried bread crumb (r = 0.611, p < 0.01). Dried
temperature and baking time was not studied. crumb hardness correlated positively with loaf volume (and
specific volume) (p < 0.01, Table 5). The presence of plasti-
3.3. Crumb properties cizing agent like water, known to affect mobility of the food
polymers, has also been reported to be responsible for dif-
The results showing the effect of baking temperature and fering mechanical behavior of solid foods (Luyten, Plijter,
time on crumb characteristics of composite cassava-wheat & Vliet, 2004). Also, higher moisture content is known to
bread are shown in Table 4. The moisture content of bread increase plasticization and reduce the tendency of solid
crumbs ranged from 32% to 39%. It was found that effect foods to fail under brittle fracture, implying increased
of temperature on the residual moisture content in the hardness. In order remove the effect of different crumb
loaves was more significant than that of time. The amount moisture on the hardness test, the crumb samples were
of moisture in bread crumb has some implication on the dried under a slow and mild condition to moisture level
mechanical (Zghal et al., 2002) and keeping qualities below 3.0%. Since it has been shown earlier that bread with
(Defloor et al., 1993). It is also determined by the extent higher volume resulted from longer baking time, it is
of gelatinization of starch in dough during baking. It was expected that such bread will undergo higher level of poly-
found that higher crumb moisture had a positive correla- meric plasticization which takes place at the cell wall. The
tion with crumb softness. However, the relationship was increased plasticization of the cell wall of bread crumb
not significant (Table 5, r = 0.443, p > 0.05). combined with moisture removal as experienced in this
The crumb density is primarily affected by the volumet- experiment, could have disposed the samples to higher brit-
ric expansion of dough due to gas evolution during proof- tle fracture hence the reduced hardness. Results further
ing. However, early onset of gelatinization causes faster indicated that a soft crumb could give fairly brittle dried
plasticization of the starch–protein network on gas cell crumb as fresh crumb’s softness correlated negatively with
walls formed and increases mechanical strength of dough dried crumb’s hardness as shown in Table 5 (r = 0.233,
near the surface thereby making further expansion difficult p > 0.05).
(Singh & Bhattacharya, 2005; Zhang & Datta, 2006). The The amylograph pasting viscosities (measured in RVU)
highest crumb density (lowest gas cell formation) was of the dried bread crumb generally reduced with increasing
found in bread baked at the highest baking temperature baking temperature and time (Table 4). However, the sin-
(240 C) and relatively longer time (32.5 min). Such loaf gular effect of baking time and the interaction between tem-
is characteristically heavy with ‘stony’ crumb. This is evi- perature and time was significant on all the viscosity
dent from the lowest porosity (0.634) of the same sample. parameters. Lower peak and final viscosities directly indi-
Apart from the direct consumption of bread, bread- cate higher heat damage to the starch granule due to gela-
crumb is another bye-product of bread made by drying tinization and plasticization of starch–protein structure
fresh bread crumb usually with near ambient conditions earlier mentioned. Specifically, the breakdown, final and
purposely to avoid further decomposition and gelatiniza- setback viscosities were not affected by the baking
tion of starch. The dried stuff is then gently milled to avoid duration.
unwanted damage to starch granules. The particles may be
sieved to desired sizes. Breadcrumb has found many appli- 3.4. Response surface models
cations as ingredients in processing of some other food
products. For example, breadcrumb is used as breading Response surface methodology (RSM) is an effective
materials in fries and coating in confectioneries. After statistical technique which has been widely used to opti-
appropriate drying, completely gelatinized crumb may be mize processes or formulations with minimal experimental
so difficult to mill gently as it becomes tough. A recent trials when many factors and their interactions may be
study (Ejiwumi, 2005) investigated the breadcrumb making involved. RSM was applied in studying combined effect
quality of some flour for use as breading material in Scotch of temperature and time on the physical properties of com-
egg production. It was found that it is possible to replace posite cassava-wheat bread produced in this study. Con-
100% wheat breadcrumb with that made from maize– tour plots are 2D graphical outputs of RSM useful in
wheat composite flour to produce scotch-egg with a better showing how dependent variables respond to varying inde-
overall acceptability. Similarly, breadcrumb from cassava- pendent factors and identifying optimal points on a
wheat composite flour could be prospected. However, the response surface. In order to appreciate how the measured
influence of baking condition on the ease of milling must bread properties respond to the process variable, contour
be established. plots were first generated using raw experimental data.
Since gas filled cellular foods like bread are known to Some of these plots are displayed in Figs. 4–9. Most of
fail under mechanical force via brittle fracture (Warner, the contours plots show multiple asymmetric saddling,
Thiel, & Donald, 2000), hardness test was therefore used indicating a rather complex relationship between the
286
Table 4
Effects of baking temperature and time on the CCW bread crumb properties
20
25
30
35
40
20
25
30
35
40
190
190
3 7 .2 37.
9
3 .3
3.9
36.
31.8
4.5
35 4
.6
4 .7
5.0
32.
4.2
5
5.3
200
200
3 3 .3
T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290
3 4 .1
3 4 .9
3 5 .6
210
210
3 6 .4
34.9
2 .7
3 .0
220
220
3 .3
Baking temperature
230
230
Baking temperature (deg C)
3 .6
4 .5
3 7 .9
4 .2
3 .6
4.7
37.2
40 40
Baking time (min)
31.
2 3 . 7 2 2 . 6 2 1 .5 2 0 .3
8
35
0
.7
17.
30 30
9
15.
39
.6
25 18
25
.7
.1
14
17.
67 15. 0
51 4
59
.3 9
14
63
47
55
1 3 .6
.5
71.2
.4
.7
.3
.5
.
20
20
190 200 210 220 230
190 200 210 220 230
Baking temperature (deg C)
Baking temperature (deg C)
Fig. 6. Effect of baking temperature and time on L-value of loaf crust.
Fig. 8. Effect of temperature and time on fresh crumb softness.
2.2
2 .4
2.1
1 .9
40
40
Baking time (min)
35
0 .6
35
1 .7
3
0 .6
5
0 .6
30
6
0.
0 68 30
0 .7 .7 0
2
0 .7 0 .7 3
25 5
0 .7 7
25
0.78
0 .7
1.
3
0 .7
0 .7
0 .7
1 .2 3
0.68 0 0.80
1 .7 5
1 .9
1.
2
20 1.0
190 200 210 220 230 20
Baking temperature (deg C) 190 200 210 220 230
Baking temperature (deg C)
Fig. 7. Effect of temperature and time on the crumb porosity (%).
Fig. 9. Effect of temperature and time on dried crumb hardness.
4. Conclusions
Crust lightness
5.92E02*
7.89E03
(r2 = 0.832
SE = 5.96)
This study has been able to show that varying tempera-
2.85***
6.48***
0.0000
5.6470
34.09%
0.832
8.37*
83.63
ture–time combination during baking leads to significant
differences in the quality of composite cassava-wheat bread
produced. The results clearly reflect complex polymeric
changes caused by the changing temperature–time combina-
Crumb density (g/
2.44E04***
SE = 0.005)
5.94E02
5.90E02
>100%
with the usual quadratic model generally used for response
0.0002
0.0191
0.797
7.40
1.07E03
6.46E04
5.43E0
32.06
>100%
0.0223
0.3674
0.575
0.26
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1.34E04*
SE = 0.017)
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