Materials and components for masonry

1.What is Masonry ?

Masonry is a building system meant to last, which is why it has been such a valued craft throughout
history. The Pyramids, the Roman Coliseum, the Taj Mahal, the Great Wall of China – much of the
world’s significant architecture has been built with masonry. Throughout civilization, architects and
builders have chosen masonry for its strength, versatility, and durability. Masonry resists the destructive
effects of time and weather, and remains beautiful for centuries.

Almost everywhere you look, you see masonry – in homes, schools, office buildings, churches, hospitals,
factories and more
2.Basic terminology

Units: brick or block-sized pieces of stone, fired clay, concrete or calcium silicate bonded aggregate that
are assembled to make masonry. Usually, but not invariably, these are in the form of rectangular prisms.

Mortar: a material that is plastic and can flow when fresh but sets hard over a period of hours to days.
Mortar is compounded from a binder (e.g. cement) and a filler/aggregate (usually sand).

Binder: a finely ground material which when mixed with water reacts chemically and then sets hard and
binds aggregates.

Work size: the size of a masonry unit specified for its manufacture, to which its actual size should
conform within specified permissible deviations.

3.Materials used for the manufacture of units and mortars

RoCks, sand and filleRs:

Sedimentary rocks,formed from compressed sediments on the bottom of ancient seas Metamorphic
rocks,formed by the action of pressure and high temperature on other rock deposits,

igneous rocks,formed by melting of rock during volcanic activity.

the strength and durability of rocks are very variable and will depend on the porosity and the
distribution of the pores. Rock or stone is used in three main ways – as thin sheet cladding, as solid
building units and in the form of crushed aggregate to make concretes and mortars.

Sand

-Sand is used widely as a constituent of masonry. It is a mixture of rock particles of different sizes from
about 10 mm diameter down to 75 µm diameter.

-The commonest sands are those based on silica (SiO2), partly because of its wide distribution in rocks
such as sandstones and the flint in limestones, and partly because silica is hard and chemically resistant.

-Sands should be mostly free of particles of clay (with a size of between 75 and 30 micrometres), which
causes unsatisfactorily high shrinkage characteristics and chemical interactions with binders. Most sand
constituents are also fairly hard and are resistant, in themselves, to mechanical abrasion and erosion by
windblown dust or waterborne particles.
-Mortar sand must not contain particles with a diameter greater than about half the thinnest joint
thickness, e.g. around 5 mm for masonry with 10 mm. It should also have a good range of particle sizes
from the largest to the smallest (an even grading) since this leads to good packing of the particles to give
a dense, strong mass resistant to erosion, permeation and chemical attack.

-The shape of the particles is also important for mortar sands. Very flaky materials such as slates and
micas are not very suitable as it is difficult to make them workable. Very porous absorbent materials are
also unsatisfactory for dry-mixed mortars since they cause rapid falls in workability during use by
absorbing the mixing water.

-ground sand Finely ground silica sand is used particularly in the manufacture of aircrete (AAC) materials
and as an inert filler.

Clays

Clay is a very widely distributed material that is produced by weathering and decomposition of

acid alumino-silicate rocks such as the feldspars, granites and gneisses,

The clays used for clay brick manufacture normally comprise only partly clay minerals, which impart
plasticity when wetted, the balance being made up of other minerals. The properties of clays result from
their layer structure, which comprises SiO4. The layers form loosely bound flat sheet-like structures that
are easily parted and can adsorb and bond lightly to varying amounts of water between the sheets. As
more water is adsorbed the clay swells and the inter-sheet bonds become weaker

lightweight aggRegates

• Furnace clinker, a partially fused ash from the bottom of solid fuelled industrial furnaces.

• Furnace bottom ash. Most large modern furnaces, especially those used to raise steam in power
stations, burn finely ground coal dust as a dust/ air mixture.

• Perlite, volcanic ash that is deposited as a fine glassy dust that can be converted to a lightweight
aggregate by hot sintering.

• Pumice, a light foamed rock formed when volcanic lava cools.

BindeRs

The binder is the component that binds together mixtures of sands, aggregates, fillers, plasticisers,
pigments, etc. used to make mortars, concrete units, sandlime units and grouts

Portland cement Currently, the most popular binder for general

purposes is a CEM I Portland cement or a sulphateresisting Portland cement

Masonry cement

This is a factory prepared mixture of Portland

cement with a fine inert filler/plasticiser (around 20%) and an air-entraining agent to give additional
plasticity

lime and hydraulic lime

-It is produced by heating pure limestone to a high temperature and then ‘slaking’ with water to
produce hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2.

-The initial setting action of this mortar depends only on dewatering by contact with the units so it is not

suitable for the construction of slender structures that require rapid development of flexural strength.

but it is never as hard or durable as properly specified hydraulic cement mortars: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 →
CaCO3 + H2O.

-Hydraulic lime was widely used in the past and is frequently specified for repairing historic buildings to
match the original mortar. Most of the hydraulically active cements and limes may be blended with pure
hydrated lime in various proportions to make hybrid binders, which give mortars with a lower strength
and rigidity but still maintain the plasticity of the 1:3 binder:sand ratio. This leads to mortars that are
more tolerant of movement and more economical.

-Sandlime The binder used for sandlime bricks and aircrete (autoclaved aerated concrete – AAC) blocks
is lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), which reacts with silica during autoclaving to produce calcium
silicate hydrates. The reaction, in a simplified form, is: Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 → CaSiO3 + H2O (33.2) The lime is
usually added directly as hydrated

calcined limestone or may be derived in part from Portland cement incorporated in small quantities to
give early age strength to the unit.

4 other constituents and additives

4.1 oRganiC plastiCiseRs

Many organic compounds improve the plasticity, or workability, of mortars, rendering mortars, infilling
grouts and concrete used for the manufacture of units.

All the classic mortar plasticisers operate by causing air to be entrained as small bubbles. These bubbles
fill the spaces between the sand grains and induce plasticity. Typical materials are based on Vinsol resin,
a by-product of cellulose pulp manufacture, or other naturally available or synthetic detergents. They
are surfactants and alter surface tension and other properties

4.2 latex additives

A number of synthetic copolymer plastics may be produced in the form of a ‘latex’, a finely divided
dispersion of the plastic in water usually stabilised by a surfactant.

When combined with hydraulic cement mixes these materials have a number of beneficial effects: they
increase adhesion of mortar to all substrates; increase the tensile strength and durability; and reduce
the stiffness and permeability.

4.3 pigMents
Through-coloured units and mortars of particular colours may be manufactured either by selecting
suitably coloured ingredients or by adding pigments. Units may also be coloured by applying surface
layers but this is more common for fired clay than for concrete or calcium silicate units.

Pigments are in the form of inert coloured powders of a similar fineness to the binder, so they tend to
dilute the mix and reduce strength. Most pigments should be limited to a maximum of 10% by weight of
the binder in mortars.

4.4 RetaRdeRs

Retarders are used to delay the initial set of hydraulic cement mortars. They are generally
polyhydroxycarbon compounds. Typical examples are sugar, lignosulphonates and hydroxycarboxylic
acids

4.5 aCCeleRatoRs

Accelerators based on calcium chloride (CaCl2) have, in the past, been used in small amounts in
concrete block manufacture and for mortars.

All current codes of practice and standards do not permit the addition of chlorides because they are
corrosion accelerators for embedded steel fixings. Accelerators are not effective when building with
mortar in frosty weather and are no substitute for proper protection of the work.

5 Mortar

Mortar has to cope with a wide range of sometimes conflicting requirements. To obtain optimum
performance the composition must be tailored to the application

-Mortars with a high content of hydraulic cements are stronger, denser, more impervious and more
durable, bond better to units under normal circumstances and harden rapidly at normal temperatures.
They also lead to a high drying shrinkage and rigidity of the masonry.

-Mortars with decreased or no content of hydraulic cements are weaker and more ductile and thus
more tolerant of movement. They are matched better to low-strength units but at the cost of a
reduction in strength, durability and bond

-Mortars made with sharp, well-graded sands can have very high compressive strength, low

permeability and generally good bond but poor workability.

-Lime confers plasticity and, particularly for the wet stored mixes, water retentivity (the ability of the
mortar to retain its water in contact with highly absorbent bricks), which facilitates the laying process
and makes sure that the cement can hydrate

-Air entrainment improves the frost resistance of green mortar and allows lower water:cement ratios to
be used, but such plasticised mixes may be less durable and water-retentive than equivalent lime mixes.

-Pigments weaken mortar and their content should never exceed the doses given in section 33.3.3. 7.
Polymer latex additives can markedly improve some properties (see section 33.3.2), but they are
expensive.
- Retarders are widely used in the manufacture of ready-mixed mortars, delivered to site in the same
way as ready-mixed concrete. The retarder is dosed to give a ‘pot life’ of between 1 and 3 days.

-Mortar has a relatively high thermal conductivity and thus causes heat loss in walls of insulating units.
Insulating mortars, which use a low-density replacement for the coarse sand particles, can give
improved performance. Another option is to use 1–5 mm thick joints of high-bond ‘thin-bed mortars’
with units with close tolerances on their size

5.1 pRopeRties of fReshly-Mixed (unset) MoRtaR

A key property of unset mortar is the workability,ie how easy it is to handle and place on to the
masonry. This is covered either by the flow test, measured on a standard 254 mm diameter (ASTM) flow
table covered by BS EN1015-3 (1999) or by consistence, measured by the plunger penetration test in
EN1015-4 (1999). The compressive strength is measured by a cube-crushing test and the flexural
strength is measured by the threepoint bend (or modulus of rupture) test.

5.2 pRopeRties of haRdened MoRtaR

The bond strength to typical units can be measured by the parallel wallette test. In this test a small wall
is built and tested in the vertical attitude by

a four-point bend test using articulated loading arms and supports, to prevent the application of any
twisting moments, and resilient bolsters to prevent uneven loading. The alternative bond wrench, which
has been included in some codes and standards (such as ASTM C1072-86 (1986) and Standards
Association of Australia (1988)), is now the basis of BS EN1052-5 (2005). It is a simpler way to measure
bond strength than the wallette test although it may give slightly higher values. Table 33.3 gives the
common formulations of mortars in contemporary use and also lime mortars for restoration work. The
table gives some ranges for the performance of mortars in terms of the range of their compressive,
flexural and bond strengths.

It is clear from the table that a very wide range of strengths is possible for any nominal mix ratio and
that parameters other than just the binder type and content influence the strength, including the
water:cement ratio, sand grading and air content.

A further factor, which only affects the properties of the mortar in the bed (and not, of course, mortar
specimens cast in impervious moulds), is the amount of dewatering and compaction by the units

6. Fired clay bricks and blocks

Fired clay units are made by forming the unit from moist clay by pressing, extrusion or casting followed
by drying and firing (burning) to a temperature usually in the range 850–1300°C. During the firing
process complex chemical changes take place and the clay and other particles that go to make up the
brick are bonded together by sintering (transfer of ions between particles at points where they touch) or
by partial melting to a glass

6.1 foRMing and firing

soft mud process The clay is dug, crushed and ground then blended with water using mixers to make a
relatively sloppy
mud. A water content of 25–30% is required for this method. In some plants other additives may be
incorporated such as a proportion of already fired clay from crushed reject bricks (grog), lime, pfa,
crushed furnace clinker and organic matter to act as fuel. The mud is formed into lumps of the size of
one brick and the lump is dipped in sand to reduce the stickiness of the surface.

Stiff plastic process The clay is dug, crushed and ground then blended with water using mixers to make
a very stiff but plastic compound with a water content of 10–15%. This is then extruded from the mixer
and cut into roughly brick-shaped pieces and allowed to dry for a short period before being pressed in a
die. The clay is very stiff so when ejected straight from the mould it retains very precisely the shape of
the die.

wire cut process Clay of intermediate consistency is used, with a moisture content of 20–25%, and the
clay is extruded from a rectangular die with the dimensions of the length and breadth of the finished
unit. The ribbon of clay, the ‘column’, is then cut into bricks by wires.

This has the following advantages: 1. Reduction in the weight of clay required per unit so transport costs
at every stage of the production and use of the units and all clay preparation costs,. 2. A reduction in the
environmental impact by reducing the rate of use of clay deposits and therefore the frequency of
opening up new deposits. 3. Reduction in the mass and opening up of the structure of the units thus
speeding up drying and firing, cutting the fuel cost for these processes and reducing the capital cost of
the plant per unit produced. 4. Oxidation of organic matter in the clay is facilitated by increasing the
surface area to volume ratio, and reduces the chance of blackhearting 5. The thermal insulation is
improved. 6. The units are less tiring to lay because of their lower weight.

drying and firing in Hoffman kilns The Hoffman kiln is a multi-chamber kiln in which the bricks remain
stationary and the fire moves. It is mainly used for the manufacture of Flettons. In the classic form it
consists of a row of chambers built of firebricks in the form of short tunnels or arches. In the most
efficient form the tunnels form a circle or oval shape and are connected together and to a large central
chimney by a complex arrangement of ducts. A single ‘fire’ runs round the circle and at any one time one
chamber will be being loaded or ‘set’ ahead of the fire and one will be being unloaded behind the fire.

drying and firing in tunnel kilns Tunnel kilns are the complement of Hoffman kilns in that the fire is
stationary and the bricks move. through the kiln as stacks on a continuous train of cars on rails (Fig.
33.7). In practice a long insulated tunnel is heated in such a way that the temperature rises along its
length, reaches a maximum in the centre and falls off again on the other side

clamps Clamps are the traditional batch kilns, comprising a simple insulated refractory beehive-shaped
space with air inlets at the base and a chimney from the top and fired using solid fuel.

intermittent kilns These are the modern version of the clamp, where the units are fired in batch settings
using oil or gas as a fuel. They are now only used for the production of small runs of specially shaped
brick ‘specials’, some examples of which are shown in Fig. 34.7.

6.2 pRopeRties

important properties are the dimensions, water absorption and porosity, initial rate of water absorption,
density and soluble salts content, which can be measured by methods specified in EN772-16 (2000),
EN772-7 (1998), EN772-11 (2000), EN772-13 (2000) and EN772-5 (2001), respectively. In these
standards the dimensions are measured for individual units with allowed individual tolerances for each
replicate. Water absorption and porosity are measured in the same way as for mortar (see section
33.4.2),. The initial rate of water absorption (IRWA or suction rate) is measured to give some idea of the
effect of the unit on the mortar. Units with high suction rates need very plastic, high water:cement ratio
mortars whereas units with low suction rates need stiff mortars. IRWA is determined by standing the
unit in 3 mm depth of water and measuring the uptake of water in 60 seconds.

7 calcium silicate units

Calcium silicate units are manufactured from firm mixtures of lime, silica-sand and water. Aggregates
such as crushed rocks or flints may be incorporated to alter the performance and appearance, and
pigments may be used to vary the colour.

There is only one basic process, in which the mixture is pressed to high pressures in a die in a static
press, ejected, set on cars and then placed in autoclaves and cured in high-pressure steam for several
hours.

8 concrete and manufactured stone units

8.1 pRoduCtion pRoCesses foR ConCRete units

casting concrete Concrete blocks can be manufactured by pouring or vibrating a concrete mix into a
mould and demoulding after a curing process.

Pressing of concrete This is a widely used method for producing solid and frogged bricks and solid,
cellular and hollow blocks either in dense concrete or as a porous open structure by using gap-graded
aggregates of varying density and not compacting fully. The machine is basically a static mould (or die)
that is filled automatically from a mixer and hopper system, and a dynamic press-head that compacts
the concrete into the die. After each production cycle the green block is ejected on to a conveyor system
and taken away to cure. The press-head may have multiple dies.

curing All aggregate concrete products may be cured at ambient temperature or at elevated
temperature. Elevated temperatures are usually achieved by the use of steam chambers, and allow the
manufacturer to decrease the curing period or increase the strength or both

8.2 ConCRete pRoduCts

dense aggregate concrete blocks and concrete bricks. They are strong, dense products and are often
made with a good surface finish suitable for external facing masonry. They are also suitable for
engineering applications. Blocks are produced as solid, cellular or hollow by varying the quantity of mix
and the shape of the press platen

Manufactured stone masonry units These have an essentially similar specification to dense aggregate
concrete blocks, except that the main aggregate will be a crushed natural rock such as limestone or
basalt and the other materials will be chosen such that the finished unit mimics the colour and texture
of the natural stone
lightweight aggregate concrete blocks These are generally produced as load-bearing building blocks for
housing, small industrial buildings, in-fill for frames and partition walling. High strength and attractive
appearance are rarely the prime consideration but handling, weight, thermal properties and economy
are important.The properties commonly measured include compressive strength with the test face
ground flat or capped. Flexural strength has also been used to evaluate partition blocks that bear lateral
loads, but only self-weight compressive loads.

9 aircrete (autoclaved aerated concrete – aac)

Aircrete is the current term for AAC and it is made by a process, developed originally in Scandinavia, that
produces solid microcellular units that are light and have good insulating properties. Fine sand or
pulverised fuel ash or mixtures thereof is used as the main ingredient. The binder is a mixture of
Portland cement (A CEM I), to give the initial set to allow cutting, and lime, which reacts with the silica
during the autoclaving to produce calcium silicate hydrates and gives the block sufficient strength for
normal building purposes.

9.1 ManufaCtuRing pRoCess

The method involves mixing a slurry containing a fine siliceous base material, a binder, some lime and
the raising agent, aluminium powder, which reacts with the alkalis (mainly calcium hydroxide) to
produce fine bubbles of hydrogen gas:

Ca(OH)2 + 2Al + 2H2O → CaAl2O4 + 3H2↑

This mixture is poured into a mould maintained in warm surroundings and the hydrogen gas makes the
slurry rise like baker’s dough and set to a weak ‘cake’. The cake is then cured for several hours at
elevated temperature, de-moulded, trimmed to a set height and cut with two orthogonal sets of
oscillating parallel wires to the unit size

9.2 pRopeRties

The binder reaction is conventional, as given for sandlime (equation 33.2). The structure, of small closed
spherical cells with walls composed of a fine siliceous aggregate bound together by calcium silicate
hydrates, gives the product a good resistance to permeation by water, good thermal properties and a
high strength:density ratio

10 natural stone units

Stone units are either naturally occurring flints from chalk deposits (used to make rubble masonry),
pieces formed by weathering from the original deposit or partly trimmed pieces used widely for
domestic coursed or semi-coursed masonry or precisely cut blocks used to make ashlar stonework,
usually for prestige or heritage buildings. To ensure optimum performance the layered

rocks are usually cut to maintain the bedding plane perpendicular to the compressive stress field in the
building, e.g. horizontal in normal load-bearing masonry. This also gives the optimum durability

11 ancillary devices

In order to ensure their stability, masonry elements need to be connected either to other masonry
elements to form stable box structures or to other structural elements such as frames, floors, roofs,
beams and partitions. There is a huge range of ties and other connecting devices. The masonry over the
openings has to be supported by constructing a masonry arch, by use of a lintel (beam), or by reinforcing
the masonry in-situ with bed-joint reinforcement to form a beam. Lintels are prefabricated beams made
from steel, timber, concrete and clay-ware designed and sized to co-ordinate with and support masonry
in walls.