APPENDIX 2. Formulas and Graphs for Wall-Frame and Core Structures: ‘A2.1. Formulas and Graphs for Deflections and Forces A2.1.1 Uniformly Distributed Horizontal Loading A212. Triangularly Distributed Horizontal Loading A2.1.3 Concentrated Horizontal Load at the Top Bibliography Index 502 502 502 (MME CHAPTER 1 Tall Buildings ‘This book is concerned with tll building structures. Tallness, however, isa rel- ‘ive matter, and tll buildings cannot be defined in specific tems related justo height orto the numberof floors. The taliness ofa building isa matter ofa person's or community's cicumstance and their consequent perception: therefore, a mea- surable definition of a tll building cannot be universally applied. From the struc- {ural engineer's point of view, however, a tall building may be defined as one that, trcause ofits eight, i affected by lateral forces due o wind or earthquake actions {o an extent that they play an important role inthe structural design. The influence ofthese actions must therefore be considered from the very beginning of the design process. 4.4. WHY TALL DUILDINS? Tall towers and buildings have fescinated mankind from the beginning of civilic zation, their construction being initially for defense and subsequertly for ecclesi- ‘stical purposes. The growth in modem tll building construction, however, which began in the 1880s, has been largely for commercial and residential purposes. ‘Tall commercial buildings are primarily a response to the demand by business activities to be as close to each other, and to the city center, as possible, thereby putting intense pressure on the available land space. Also, because they form dis- Linctive landmarks, tall commercial buildings are frequently developed in city cen= ters as prestige symbols for corporate organizations. Further, the business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility, has fuelled a need for more, fre= quently high-rise, city center hotel accommodations. ‘The rapid growth of the urban population and the consequent pressure on lim lied space have considerably influenced city residential development. The high cost of land, the desire 0 avoid 2 continuous urban sprawl, and the need to pre~ serve important agricultural production have all contributed to drive residential buildings upward. In some cites, for example, Hong Kong and Rio de Janeiro, local topographical restrictions make tall buildings the only feasible solution for housing needs.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH, HEIGHT, AND STRUCTURAL FORM The feasibility and desirability of high-rise structures have always depended on the available materials. the level of construction technology, and the state of de velopment of the services necessary for the use of the building, As a result, sig nificant advances have occurred from time to time with the advent of a new ma terial, construction facility. or form of service Multistory buildings were a feature of ancient Rome: four-story wooden tene- ‘ment buildings, of post and lintel construction. were common. Thase built after the great fire of Nero, however, used the new brick and concrete materials in the form of arch and barrel vault structures. Through the following centuries. the two basic construction materials were timber and masonry. The former lacked strength for buildings of more than about five stories, and always presented a fire hazard. The later had high compressive strength and fire resistance, but its weight tended to overload the lower suppons. With the rapidly increasing number of masonry high-rise buildings in North Americe toward the end of the nineteeath century, the limits ofthis form of construction became apparent in 1891 in the 16-story Mon: adnock Building in Chicago. With the space in its lower floors largely occupied by walls of over 2 m thick, it was the last tall building inthe city for which massive load-bearing masonry walls were employed. ‘The sociceconomic problems that followed industialization in the rineteenth cemiury, coupled with an increasing demand for space in the growing US. cities, created a strong impetus to tall building construction. Yet the ensuing growth could ‘ot have deen sustained without two major technical innovations thal occurred in the middle of that century: the development of higher strength and structurally ‘more efficient materials, wrought iron and subsequent stel, and the introduction of the elevator (cf. Fig. 1.1). Although the elevator had been developed some 20 years earlier, its potential in high-rise buildings was apparently not realized until is incorporation in the Equitable Life Insurance Building in New York in 1870. For the first time, this made the upper stories as attractive to rent as the lower ‘ones, and, consequently, made the taller building financially viable. ‘The new materials allowed the development of lightweight skeletal structures, permitting buildings of greater height and with larger interior open spaces and windows, although the early wrought-iron frame structures still employed loud- bearing masonry facade walls. The first high-rise building totally suppomted by a metal frame was the 11-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago in 1883, fol- lowed in 1889 by the first all-steel frame in the 9-story Rand-McNally Build ‘Two years later, in the same city, diagonal bracings were introduced in the facade frames of the 20-story Masonic Temple to form vertical trusses, the forenunnes of ‘modem shear wall and braced frame construction. It was by then appreciated that a that height wind forces were an important design consideration, Improved de sign methods and construction techniques allowed the maximum height of steel frame structures to increase steadily. reaching a height of 60 stories with the con struction of the Woolworth Building in New York in 1913. This golden age of a ee ee v00 ore stent | yaiied eettins i i © | I | 1 - | ! 5 i i! #4 Cast veonere | cnieaqo | i inert | é I : i | 20b ou’ elerator —————————— vei 8s 0 Fig 11 Growth in igh of the fist great er of American skyscraper, ‘American skyscraper construction culminated in 1931 in its crowning glory. the Enmpire State Building, whose 102-story braced steel frame reached a height of 1250 ft (381 m). ‘Although reinforced concrete construction began sround the tum of the century. itdoes not appear to have been used for multistory buildings until after the end of Worid War I. The inherent advantages of the composite material. which could be readily formed to simltanecusly satisfy both aesthetic and load-carrying require ments, were not then fully appreciated, and the early systems were purely imita- tions of their steel counterparts, Progress in reinforced concrete was slow and intermittent, and, at the time the steel-framed Empire State Building was com- pleted, the tallest conezete building, the Exchange Building in Seattle, had attained ‘height of only 23 stories. ‘The economic depression of the 1930s put an end to the great skyscraper era, and it was not until some years after the end of World War Il that the constriction ‘of high-rise buildings recommenced, with radically new structural and architec+ tural solutions, Rather than bringing significant increases in height, however, these ‘modem developments comprised new structural systems, improved material qual= ities and services, and better design and construction techniques. It was not until 1973 that the Empire State Building was eclipsed in height by the twin towers of the L10-story, 1350 fi (412 m) high World Trade Cemer in New York, using framed-tube construction, which was followed in 1974 by the 1450 ft (442 m) high bundied-tube Sears Tower in Chicago. Different structural systems have gradually evolved for residential and office buildings. reflecting their éiffeing functional requirements. In modem office buildings. the need to satisfy the differing requirements of individual clients foroor space arrangements led to the provision of large column-free open areas to allow fexibility in planning. Improved levels of services have frequently neces- sitated the devotion of entire floors to mechanical plant, but the spaces lost can often be utilized also to accommodate deep girders or trusses connecting the ex- teriorand interior strctural systems. The earlier heavy intemal partons and ma- sonry cladding, with their contributions to the reserve of stiffness and strength, have largely given way to light demountable partitions and glass curtain walls, forcing the basic stnicture alone to provide the required strength and stiffiacss against both vertical and lateral loads: Other architectural features of commercial buildings that have influenced struc tural form are the large entrances and open lobby areas at ground level, the mul- tistory atriums. and the high-level restaurants and viewing galleries that may re Quire more extensive elevaior systems and associated sky lobbies. ‘A residential building's basic functional requirement is the provision of self contained individual dwelling units. separsted by substantial partitions that provide adequate fire and acoustic insulation. Because the partitions are repeated from story to story, modem designs have utilized them in a structural capacity. leading to the shear wall, cross wall, or infilled-frame forms of construction. ‘The trends to exposed structure and architectural cutouts. and the provision of setbacks at the upper levels to meet daylight requirements, have also been features of modem architecture. The requirement to provide adequately stiff and strong structures, while accommodating these various features, led to radical develop- ‘ments in structural framing, and inspired the new generation of braced frames. framed-tube and hull-core structures. wall-frame systems. and outrigger-braced structures described in Chapter 4. The latest generation of “*postmodem’” build- ings, with theit even more varied and iregular extemal architectural treatment, has led to hybrid double and sometimes triple combinations of the structural monoforms used for modem buildings. Speed of erection is vital fector in obtaining a retum on the investment in- Volved in such large-scale projects. Most tall buildings are constructed in con- gested city sites, with difficult access; therefore careful planning and organization of the construction sequence become essential. The story-to-siory uniformity of ‘most muitisiory buildings encourages construction throvgh repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques. Progress in the ability to build tall has gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of construction, such as slip- and flying-formwork, concrete pumping. and the use of tower. climbing, and large mobile cranes. 1.3. THE TALL BUILDING STRUCTURE Ideally, inthe early stages of planning a building, the entire design team, including ‘he architect, structural engineer, nd services engineer, should collaborate to agree on a form of structure to satisfy their respective requiremests of function, safety and serviceability, and servicing. A compromise between conflicting demands will SO ee be almost inevitable. In all but the very tallest structures, however. the structural arrangement will be sabservient tothe architectural requirements of space arrange: ment and aesthetics. Often, this will lead to a less-than-ideal structural solution that will tax the ingenuity. and probably the patience. of the strictural engineer, ‘The two primary types of vertical load-resisting elements of tall buildings are solumas and walls, the lattr acting either independently as shear walls or in as: seinblies as shear wall cores. The building function will lead naturally to the pro: Aision of walls to divide end enclose space, and of cores to contain and convey services such as elevators. Columns will be provided, in otherwise unsupported fegions, to transmit gravity loods and, in some types of structure, horizontal loads also. Columas may also serve architecturally as, for example, facade mllions, ‘The inevitable primary function ofthe structural elements isto resis the gravity loading from the weight of the building and its contents. Since the loading on Aifferent floors tends to be similar. the weight of the floor system per unit floor atea is approximately constznt, regardless ofthe building height. Because the grav- ity load on the columns increases down the height of a building, the weight of columns per unit area increases approximately linearly with the building height. The highly probable second function of the vertical structural elements is to resist also the parasitic load caused by wind and possibly earthquakes. whose mag- titles will be obtained from National Building Codes or wind tunnel studies, The tending moments on the building caused by these lateral forces inerease with at least the square of the height, ard their effects will become progressively more ‘important as the building height increases. On the basis of the factors above. the relative quantities of material required in the floors. columns. and wind bracing af ‘traditional steel frame and the penalty on these due to increasing height are ap: proximately as illustrated in Fig. 4.1 Because the worst possitle effects of lateral forces occur rarely. ifever. in the life of the building, it is imperative to minimize the penalty for height to achieve fn optimum design. The constant search for more efficient solutions led 10 the innovative designs and new structural forms of recent years (cf. Chapter 4). In developing a suitable system for resisting lateral forces, the engineer seeks to de~ Vise stiff horizontal interconnections between the various Vertical components 10 form composite assemblies such as coupled walls and rigid frames, which, as dem- ‘onstrated in later chapters, create a total structural assembly having a lateral stiff ‘ess many times greater than the sum of the lateral stffaesses of the individual vertical components. 1.3.1, The Design Process Once the functional layout of the structure has been decided, the design process generally follows a well-defined iterative procedure. Preliminary calculations for member sizes are usually based on gravity loading augmented by an arbitrary in- ¢rement to aczount for wind forces. The cross-sectional areas of the vertical mem- bers will be based on the accumulated loadings from their associated tributary areas, with reductions to account for the probability that not all floors will be