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Final Na Final Paper
Final Na Final Paper
by Multiple-Effect Distillation
by
College of Engineering
Project Adviser
College of Engineering
March 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, the Authors want to express their sincere Gratitude to the people
behind the success of this project study. In particular, the authors would like to thank Dr.
Melito A. Baccay, Director, Graduate Programs and External Studies, their Adviser, who
continuously supported the authors for this research, for his patience, motivation,
enthusiasm and immense knowledge. His guidance helped the Authors chose on what
particular research topic would be perfect for them. From start until the completion of this
study.
The Authors also like to give their thanks to the mother of their Co-Author, Mrs.
Edith Manaog, who welcomed them to their humble home for the fabrication of the system.
Her support not only for his Son but also for the Co-Authors is unmeasurable.
Besides the Author’s Adviser, they would also like to give words of appreciation
to the rest of their thesis committee. Engr. Benedicto N. Fortaleza, Dean of the College of
Engr. Arnolfo Arcibal, Engr. Rommel Arapo, Engr. John Paulo Bersamina for their
In a similar manner, the Authors would like to give thanks to specific persons and
groups who helped and contributed huge in the development and execution of this research.
To the research group of Ms. Leanor Anne S. Olivar, and Allen Paolo M. Estor who helped
physically during the Appreciate program conducted by the University, to the entire BSCE-
5B who always ask for the progress of the Authors research and constantly gave their
This Research is not possible without the support of the Author’s respective parents
and family, specifically to Mr. and Mrs. Esteban D. Dela Cruz JR., Mr. and Mrs Ronnie
Zaldua, Mr. and Mrs. Gary Capiral, Mrs. Edith Manaog, and Mr. and Mrs. Tuiroc. Their
Above all, to our Heavenly God Father for all the support, blessings, love, wisdom,
PU - Polyurethane
Chapter 1
scope and delimitations, conceptual framework, and the definition of terms used.
1.1 Introduction
About 50 percent of the world’s population lives in the coastal areas. Little of them
have access to clean and safe drinking water. Even though a large percentage of water
makes up this planet, only a small part of it is potable and clean. Scientists have made a
solution regarding this dilemma and that is saline water can be made into freshwater. The
removing salts and minerals from seawater or brackish water to make it suitable for human
consumption and/or industrial use. Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and
submarines. The desalination process on cruise is either flash evaporators or osmosis which
"effects". In each stage, the feed water will be heated by steam in tubes. Some of the water
evaporates, and this steam flows into the tubes of the next stage, heating and evaporating
more water. Each stage essentially reuses the energy from the previous stage.
1.2 Background of the Study
Water is one of the most important substances on earth and it provides sustenance
and life to all living creatures in this planet. Water covers about 71% of the Earth’s surface,
96.5% of all the Earth's water is contained within the oceans as salt water, while the
remaining 3.5% is freshwater lakes and frozen water locked up in glaciers and the polar ice
caps(https://water.usgs.gov/edu/drinkseawater.html).
Human beings have the largest water consumption, they use it for drinking and
cooking, and then the rest is for watering lawns and gardens and most for flushing toilets,
and washing cars. They also use it for irrigation systems, industries and factories,
The population is directly proportional to its needs. Once the populace grows, the
demand for food, shelter, clothing and other necessities are all increasing too. The
consumption of water will also increase and the shortage for fresh water will be on trend.
The notion that water is a freely available resource will no longer be encountered anywhere
in the world in years’ time. It is for this reason the importance of looking at worldwide sea
water desalination, which has been a very effective and economical way of producing
30, 2015, there are 18, 426 desalination plants worldwide, which produces 86.8 million
cubic meters per day, providing water for 300 million people. It is also anticipated that this
number will still increase due to the continuously high demand of fresh water in the world.
The growth of the market for desalination reflects the fact that coastal communities are
The scarcity of freshwater resources and the demand for additional fresh water
supplies is already critical in many dry regions of the world and will be increasingly
important in the future. According to the group of B of A (2014), humans have already
reached "peak water." It means they are at the limit or approaching the limit, the limit of
said, “At the moment, around 1% of the world’s population is dependent on desalinated
water to meet their daily needs, but by 2025, the UN expects 14% of the world’s population
to be encountering water scarcity.” In order to prevent the water scarcity from happening,
people keeps on finding another fresh water resource that would supply the demand for
clean water.”
Historically, large-scale desalination has mainly been built in the Gulf region where
there is no alternative for public water supply. Nevertheless, desalination is now practiced
in 150 countries, from Australia to China and Japan, the United States, Spain and other
though large bodies of water surround it. Those companies that are practicing desalination
are using the reverse osmosis (RO) water filtration process. But one of the major
disadvantages of RO systems is that they remove most of the minerals from the water
leaving it with an acidic pH which will affect the cellular system due to toxic wastes, and
this will result in death of cells. Also, during the purification process, up to 20 gal of water
is flushed down the drain for every gallon of filtered water produced (W&WD, 2012).
Unlike using a solar-powered desalination, the consumed energy is only from the sun.
Since people at coastal areas often suffer from the scarcity of fresh water and the demand
for this precious resource will significantly increase in the near future, providing another
source of potable water can satisfy the increasing demand for potable water.
1.3 Objectives
from seawater.
system. By the use of sustainable energy and by integrating the concept of hydrologic
cycle as a basis of natural desalination process, production of fresh water was easier.
On using the system, people on coastal areas can have an access to alternative
clean water. Unlike other distillation methods, desalinated water by MED process does
not leave water with acidic pH which makes the water safe for human consumption.
This study also promoted deeper understanding and awareness on the use of
other sources of water like the treated seawater as an alternative source of clean water
information to design and develop a water system with low energy consumption
because each phase essentially reuses the energy from the preceding stage. In addition,
the system can be used with the help of solar power, by charging the batteries, which
This research study focuses on the design and development of the technical and
The materials that were used were locally available. The system was composed
of steel angle bars with screw holes’ element and stucco sheet metal for the system’s body,
24-cm induction pressure cooker with submersible 900 watts water heater as main
evaporator, hydraulic pump and plastic containers for the cooling system, 8 millimeter
Polyurethane (PU) tubes and Polypropylene Random (PPR) Copolymer as the primary
tubing. The stainless steel canister with clear acrylic clamped lids and coiled ¼ inch
diameter 0.22mm thick copper tubes will serve as the main condensing part of the system,
two 12 Volts 65 Ah rechargeable battery as the power receiver, and 30 watts solar panel as
power supply.
There were two saltwater samples and it was gathered in the following
locations: Anilao in Batangas and Ternate in Cavite. Anilao is connected to Balayan Bay
In this study, the test on the seawater before and after passing the system was
divided and limited into two. The first phase was focused on the microbiological quality
general, are limited to bacteria, viruses and pathogenic protozoa. The parameters were
Fecal Coliform, Heterotrophic Plate Count, and Total Coliform. The second and last phase
was the physical and chemical quality test wherein the Chloride, Chromium, Color,
Copper, Fluoride, Iron, Lead, Manganese, Nitrate, Odor, pH Value, Sulfate, Taste, Total
Hardness, and Turbidity of the treated water were determined. The tests were based on the
The stated tests above were conducted at the Mach Union Water
As illustrated in the flow chart below, the run of the study was divided into three
The first phase includes the problem, the scarcity of fresh water resource,
knowledge and concept about solar desalination and the breakdown of the materials that
was used in the system. The second phase covered the preparation of the said materials,
system design, fabrication of the system, preparation of the seawater samples treated on
the system, and testing of the product in terms of the water yield, physical, chemical and
microbiological properties of water. The last phase is the determination of the results and
PROBLEM
Scarcity of fresh water SYSTEM METHOD
resources and the demand Desalination
for additional fresh water Multiple Effect
supplies. Distillation
Evaporation
KNOWLEDGE AND
CONCEPT Condensation
1. Solar energy as the
main source of
sustainable energy. WORKABILITY OF
SYSTEM DESIGN THE UNIT
2.Multiple-effect
distillation to amplify the Body of the System
collected yield. Evaporator RESULTS OF
3. Vapor filtration for Tubings
WATER QUALITY
better water quality. TEST
Condenser
Chemical and Physical
MATERIALS Cooling System Water Quality
1. Angle bars Power Supply Microbiological Water
2. Sheet metal Quality
3. Nuts and Bolts, Corner FABRICATION OF
Plates, and Steel Footer THE SYSTEM RESULTS OF
4. Roller typed wheels EFFICIENCY OF
5. Water Heater PREPARATION OF THE SYSTEM
6. Pressure Cooker SAMPLES Water Yield
7. PPR Pipe Salt water from Cavite
and Batangas COST ANALYSIS
8. PU Tubes
9. Canisters
TESTING OF THE
10. Copper Tubes SYSTEM
11. Hydraulic Pump Dry Run of the System
12. Plastic Pail Chemical and Physical
13. Lead Acid Batteries Water Quality
14. Inverter Microbiological Water
Quality
15. Solar Panel
Water Yield
16. Water Container
For the study, the following definition of terms are used in the context and have
Chemical Water Quality Test – water quality test where pH, hardness, presence of a
selected group of chemical parameters, biocides, highly toxic chemicals, and B.O.D are
estimated (http://www.fao.org)
(www.merriam-webster.com)
Condensation – water that collects as droplets on a cold surface when humid air is in
Desalination –refers to any of several processes that remove the excess salt and other
minerals from water in order to obtain fresh water suitable for animal consumption or
irrigation, and if almost all of the salt is removed, for human consumption, sometimes
when water is boiled in a retort and the steam is condensed in a cool receiver.
(www.dictionary.com)
Evaporation – the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
(www.water.usgs.gov)
Fluorosis– a cosmetic condition that affects the teeth. It’s caused by overexposure to
(www.water.usgs.gov)
Hydrologic cycle – the sequence of conditions through which water passes from vapor in
the atmosphere through precipitation upon land or water surfaces and ultimately back into
(stages), which are all equipped with heat exchanger pipe bundles. The raw water is
sprayed onto these bundles, which are heated on the inside by condensed steam
(www.wabag.com).
(www.corrosionpedia.com)
Salt – a crystalline compound NaCl that consists of sodium chloride and is abundant in
nature (www.merriam-webster.com)
Sodium – a silver-white soft waxy ductile element of the alkali metal group that occurs
webster.com)
(www.sciencedirect.com)
Steam – the vapor into which water is converted when heated to the boiling
point(www.merriam-webster.com)
and is an expression of the amount of light that is scattered by material in the water when
Water Quality –describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics, usually with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose
(floridakeys.noaa.gov).
Yield –to supply or produce something positive such as a profit, an amount or information
(dictionary.cambridge.org).
Chapter 2
This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-
depth search done by the researchers regarding to solar powered desalinating system by
distillation. This will also present the insights and synthesis to fully understand the research
to be done.
2.1 Desalination
In ancient times, Aristotle a Greek philosopher, observed that the “salt water, when
it turns into vapor, becomes sweet and the vapor does not form salt water again when it
condenses” from his book Meteorology. From that time, there are numerous
experimentation about desalination performed by different scientists but it was not feasible
Over the years, a number of desalination methods have been developed, one of
of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-
The biggest plants are generally in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and
Israel. The single largest desalination project is Ras Al-Khair in Saudi Arabia, which
produced 1,025,000 cubic meters per day in 2014, although this plant is expected to be
surpassed by a plant in California. Kuwait also produces a higher proportion of its water
than any other country, totaling 100% of its water use. (International Desalination
Saudi Arabia has some the largest desalination facilities in the world including the
Shoaiba complex, producing over 880 million litres per day, and the Al Jubail complex
producing over 800 million litres per day. These plants use a variety of desalination
Australia, as one of the dry countries in Asia, they traditionally have relied on
collecting rainfall behind dams for water but as they improve and develop desalination as
their water source, there are about 270 desalination plants now and most of them are small-
scale plants to desalinate seawater or brackish water for a range of uses. This includes
drinking water supplies for communities or tourist destinations (e.g. Kangaroo and Rottnest
islands), industrial processes, irrigation of sports grounds, and agricultural uses. Australia's
experience with desalination includes wood-fired stills at the Coolgardie goldfields 100
years ago, solar ponds at Coober Pedy, and electro dialysis for the first plant at Yulara.
produce large amounts of drinking water for urban populations. (Victoria State
Government. (2017).
2006 to produce 45 billion litres per year (130 million litres per day). A second plant has
been built adding a further 100 billion litres per year (274 million litres per day) to Perth's
supplies. The same size plant has been developed in Adelaide. (Victoria State Government.
(2017).
Sydney's plant can produce 91 billion litres year (250 million litres per day), and
the Gold Coast can produce 48 billion litres year (133 million litres per day). The Victorian
Desalination Plant is capable of producing 150 billion litres year (444 million litres per
2.2 Distillation
gasoline, distilled water, xylene, alcohol, paraffin, kerosene, and many other liquids. Gas
may be liquefied and separate. For example: nitrogen, oxygen, and argon are distilled from
air.
In this paper, simple distillation is the process going to be used where the liquid
mixture is heated and the vapor rises through a tube and is collected and recondensed. The
recondensed liquid will have a higher concentration of the more volatile component than
the original mix. If the two liquids in the original mix have widely different boiling points,
a one-step evaporation and recondensation process is all that is necessary. This process is
minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration
remove most, or virtually all, minerals. This results in demineralized water, which has not
been proven to be healthier than drinking water. The World Health Organization
investigated the health effects of demineralized water in 1980, and its experiments in
humans found that demineralized water increased diuresis and the elimination of
Recommendations for magnesium have been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30
mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–80 mg/L optimum, and a total
water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2–4 mmol/L. At water hardness above
5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and
arthropathies have been observed. For fluoride the concentration recommended for dental
health is 0.5–1.0 mg/L, with a maximum guideline value of 1.5 mg/L to avoid dental
a model of triangular double sloped solar still by using the materials of steel basin
has 34cm length and 20cm width, transparent plastic cover and PVC Pipe for
fabricating the frame. A 50 Watt solar panel and a 40 Watt Dc heater were
combined as the source of solar energy capture for converting it to electrical energy
were done by combining 50Watt solar photovoltaic panel and 12volt solar battery
as an auxiliary system of solar power energy system to the 40Watt Dc heater inside
Fig. 2.2 (Hourly water production values versus ambient and water
temperatures:[Article]. Retrieved, January 7, 2018 from:
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/16/1/012135/pdf)
According to their study, the value of 100 ml potable water was produced
during 7 hours in UTP, Perak, Malaysia by heating 1.5 Liter of brackish water and
second experiment was done by using 50Watt solar panel and 40 Watt Dc heater in
radiation and water temperature are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The value of 150 ml
distilled water was produced during 4 hours of heating 2 Liter of brackish water in
UTP, Perak, Malaysia on December 3, 2012 by using thermal energy of solar
radiation and Dc heater. By using 12Volt solar battery and 40Watt Dc heater in
UTP, Perak, Malaysia the last experiment was done on December 6,2012. The
values of hourly water production, solar radiation intensity, ambient and water
desalination system with evacuated tube collectors and use multi-effect distillation
system. They do the thermal and economic analysis of system and they found that,
With the increase of heating steam temperature as the first effect, the area of
evaporator and fresh water cost reduce the volume of storage tank increases, but
fresh water production and fresh water production per unit of collector area all
change slightly. By the increasing of the number of effects, the volume of storage
tank changes slightly, but the area of evaporator and fresh water production
increase, fresh water cost reduces greatly. Among the cost constitution of ETC solar
desalination system, the proportion of the cost of evacuated tube collector is the
largest (31%), then the cost of civil installation and auxiliary equipment and the
did the simulation work on this system and find the physical properties of the
system. The vacuum in the system was maintained by the internal hydrostatic
pressure balanced by the atmospheric pressure. The simulation results showed that
running the system at higher flash temperatures with a fixed flash chamber size will
result in faster vacuum erosion, increased solar collection area, increased boiling
point elevation, faster equilibrium attainment, shorter run time, and less production,
which is leading to less overall evaporation, the changing of liquid into a gas under
system works when the humidified air flows in a circuit driven by natural or forced
The air is distributed on a wetted media and then moves in either co-current or
counter-current flow to the hot feed (seawater) through the humidification chamber
and becomes saturated. In the dehumidification chamber, water vapor from the
humid air condenses on a heat exchanger. The distillate runs down the heat
to the cold seawater feed flowing through the heat exchanger. Thus, the temperature
of the feed in the condenser rises. This feed can be discharged or further heated in
collector. In this experiment, they checked the performance of the system by using
different type of air heating solar collector such as use of highly transmissive
polymer film, low iron glass, very absorptive absorber etc. in the collector. A
collector with a double glazing, a highly roughened absorber, and a carbon black
0.06 K m2/W
The said article was inspired based on an open-water closed air cycle that was
integrated with an approach of having a light-weight materials that made the system
lighter in weight.
It’s long been known that renewable energy is the way of the future. As the supply
of fossil fuels dwindles and faces increased scrutiny for pollution, climate change, and
health issues, the cost continues to rise. Many local utilities have already begun to use
alternative, renewable energy sources including wind, water, and solar power. (The
Solar power makes it possible for home owners to use the sun to power everyday
life: running your air conditioner, washing clothing, watching TV, cooking dinner. All
while reducing your carbon footprint, and without burning fossil fuels or putting a strain
on the electrical grid. And while the environmental benefits of solar power are significant,
it is found out that the convenience, unique features, and cost savings of using a solar power
There are many advantages of using solar power energy such as it is renewable,
sustainable, it reduces cost operation of operation compare to the other source source of
energy, it produces neither wadte nor pollutants and economically benificial. Despite of its
advantages, there are still disadvantages in using this such as it is difficult to generate large
quantities of electricity and it relies on weather. (The Benefits of Solar Power, 2017)
2.4.1 Solar Powered Systems
conducted the experiment on the solar flash desalination under the condition
system and find the physical properties of the system. The vacuum in the
atmospheric pressure. The simulation results show that running the system
at higher flash temperatures with a fixed flash chamber size will result in
point elevation, faster equilibrium attainment, shorter run time, and less
Water & Energy Systems (2002). They investigate the technical and
fresh water to remote communities in the Middle East and obtain long-term
performance and reliability data on the operation of the plant. The research
operation with few minor maintenance problems that required slight plant
performance.
The economic feasibility of the plant was established by
comparing the cost of water from a solar MED plant with a conventional
MED plant using fossile fuel for plant capacity ranging from 100𝑚3 /day to
1000𝑚3 /day. It was found that the cost of water from solar MED plants is
competitive with that from a conventional MED plant if the cost fuel
continues to rise.
ambient air or cooling water as the cold utility. The process stream may be cooled using an
air-cooled heat exchanger to a temperature about 20 degrees Celsius hotter than the ambient
air temperature to achieve a smaller temperature difference than this would require
significantly more heat transfer area. Fans or blowers increase the effectiveness of the
coolers but consume power., cooling water is the most common cooling medium. The
cooling water system, uses cooling towers, in which evaporation of the water takes place,
causing the temperature of the remaining water to fall. The temperature of the cooling water
is in practice higher than the wet-bulb temperature of the ambient air. The process stream
can be cooled to around 10 degrees C warmer than the cold cooling water, therefore, a
They indicated that the operating cost of cooling using cooling water depends
strongly on the operating context. The operating cost per unit of cooling is typically 1% of
the cost of power per unit of energy, or 3 – 5% of the unit cost of the unit cost of heating
University of Manchester, (2003) stated in the research that, Heat released by the steam on
condensing (dominated by the latent heat of condensation of the steam, rather than its
sensible heat), is transferred to the process stream being heated.On condensing, the steam
needs to be hotter than the stream being heated, by the second law of thermodynamics.
There is an upper limit to the temperature at which the steam can condense, since the
critical temperature of steam is 374 °C In practice, steam is used in the process industries
According to their study, a site steam system can provide heat at several
temperatures. Given that the path or process by which the steam is generated depends on
the pressure at which it is provided to the process, its associated cost does too. A useful
way of evaluating the relative cost of different steam levels is to use marginal costing,
where the value of any power generated offsets the cost of generating the steam using a
given fuel. The unit cost of steam is case specific as it depends on the steam conditions and
flows at each level, the efficiency of the steam turbines, the type and price of fuel, the cost
of importing electricity rather than generating it, etc. Figure 2.6 provides an
illustration, Table 2.1 summarizes the energy flows and Table 2.2 shows that the higher
the temperature at which heat is required, the higher the cost, where conventional steam
tables have been used to determine steam properties such as enthalpies and entropy. (A
drawback of this method for costing steam is that in some cases the value of power
generated can be so high that the cost of the steam at the lowest pressure becomes negative,
which could perversely suggest that using more steam is more energy efficient
Fig. 2.6 Marginal Steam Costing: Illustrative Example. Reprinted from Distillation:
Fundamentals and Principles(p.10) by the School of Chemical Engineering and
Analytical Science, 2002, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Megan Jobson made assumptions that the Overall efficiency of boiler and steam
distribution system: 80%; isentropic efficiency of steam turbines: 80%; cost of fuel (natural
constant pressure.
Table2.1Steam Properties for Illustrative Example of Figure 2.6. Reprinted from
Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles(p.10) by the School of Chemical Engineering
and Analytical Science, 2002, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
According to the research of Megan Jobson, the operating cost of heat delivered by
a heat transfer fluid is based on the cost of the heat from the furnace, taking into account
heat losses of the heat distribution system. The operating cost of electrical heating,
similarly, takes into account the cost or value of the electricity consumed and the efficiency
Previously mentioned to the related studies, it is essential for the process get along
with the renewable source of energy in creating system that will provide boundless
compared to the conventional water desalination process. The design development of the
system affects solar energy utilization for desalination process in a cost effective manner.
Solar powered desalination system have not only proven beneficial for its cost
efficiency in producing potable water for human consumption but also for environment as
it don’t produce waste product nor pollutants, so has minimal impact on the environment.
Prior studies have identified benefits for both human and environment from solar
powered desalination. These benefits include cost efficiency of the system, fortify the use
of renewable energy as main source of power, and helps human to acquire within-reach
In this study and related research, the different systems used for desalination
process unveil convincing results. With the use of solar energy, conducting of desalination
process is an easy matter by means of cost. The capability of the system to produce more
yield without sacrificing the water quality is the main goal to meet.
The insufficiencies that can be found in the prior studies are mainly concern with
the scaling factor, thatrequires vast amount of funds in order to make it possible to develop
and fabricate the system. Also, having an immense amount of yielding capacity and high-
productivity is another aspectthat these studies may considered for it they showed a less
assuring value of results. It only provides cost for the citizen specially those near the shore.
In this proposed study, the main goal is to design and fabricate new system to provide a
clean source of water for daily consumption for every household in affordable cost having
to be time efficient, modular, low maintenance, and production of water is within man’s
control.
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
of process, method used, and system assembly. Preparation of materials is very essential
for the fabrication of the system device for it is one of the researcher’s main objective in
this research. Availability of material is important for the completion of the device, method
desalination by distillation is one of the world’s most popular way of treating water.
Distillation is the process of boiling water, and then capturing the steam or the water
vapor and then condensing it back into fresh water leaving any of the contained
solids of the water sample. This process is related to the natural phenomenon of the
The basic concept of hydrologic cycle sets as a basis for the process of
producing potable water. The sun supplies solar energy directly into lands and
bodies of water that causes evaporation. The vaporis then cooled when it meets
cooler air as it goes up the atmosphere forming dew or rain when it is too heavy,
has a two cooling method to have a better yield. Inside each canister (effect) was a
coiled copper tube that helps the vapor to condense. Also, there’s water flowing on
the body of the container to keep the temperature relatively low on the outside
In this system, multiple effect distillation (MED) was used to amplify the
amount of yield that was harvested.The energy that comes from the sun was
collected by the solar panel and was stored to a rechargeable battery. Two units of
batteries were used in this study, one was to supply the water heater, pump and the
cooler. Another one was used for the transfer of energy from the solar panel to
itself.
The stored energy in the batteries was consumed by the water heater to start
the heating process, which in return boils the feed water (salt water). As the water
boils, it destroys the bacteria and pathogens that could harm the body but it does
not act like a filter to remove the particulate matter. In the same process,
evaporation occurs and leaving the salt and any other heavy metals included in the
tubes to the three separate containing chambers or the effects. At the timevapor
inside the effect met the cooling surface, the vapor condensed and returned to its
original phase which in this case, distilled water. When the water was heavy
enough, it dripped down and passed through the polyurethane (PU) tubesthen the
water was collected into a separate water container. Multiple chambers were used
On topmost part of the system, the supply of feed water was in a container.
It continuously supplies the water that was being heated in the pressure cooker since
the amount of water that was being evaporated per hour was assumed to be
consistent. The flow of water was controlled by the water flow controller valve, it
The figure 3.2 shows the front view of the system. It contains the feed water above, the
three condensers, the evaporator, water container shelf, and the battery and inverter. On
the figures 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 shows the zoomed and detailed part of the system.
Fig 3.3 Water Container and Power Source Fig. 3.4 Panel, Condenser and Evaporator
Fig. 3.5 Front view of Panel, Condenser and Evaporator
The figure 3.6 shows the labelled parts of the system. Also, on table 3.1
Feed Water
Tubing
Condenser
Solar Panel
Container Shelf
Evaporator
Battery
To amplify yield
of flowing water
the batteries
system
Efficiency
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡
Ƞ= 𝑥 100 (1)
𝑊𝑖𝑛
Where
Ƞ is the efficiency
This part includes different material used to assemble the system device, brief
description of its purpose, specifications of the material and where the particular material
On the framing of the system, the figure below shows a 14 gauge 1-1/2 and
1-1/2 slotted steel angle bars were used and were provided by Prestige Industrial
Supply, Inc. at Sta. Cruz, Manila. When the steel was used as horizontal members,
it was estimated to carry a load of 1100 pounds (lbs) or 4.89 kilonewtons (kN) on
a span of 24 inches (in) or 609 millimeters (mm). When acted as column, it has a
covering of the cabinet part of the system and was shown on the figure below. The
sheet metal was bought at Gab Stainless, Glass and Aluminum Supplies located at
There were varieties of sizes of bolts and nuts used in the system
and were shown on the figure below. They were all used to keep the system fixed
and able to carry the load applied. The bolts and nuts, corner plates, and steel footer
The four 8-cm diameter roller-typed nylon wheels were used to support the
whole system and were and were recommended for its capacity to carry a load over
voltage input of 220-240 volts was the main evaporator of the system. The heater
The saltwater was boiled inside the aluminium 24-cm induction pressure
cooker, shown on the figure 3.13, with leak proof silicone rubber sealing ring that
prevented the vapour from getting out of its container. Aluminum has much better
thermal conductivity than other metals. The pressure cooker was purchased from
Alabang, Muntinlupa.
The figure above shows the actual ¾-inch polypropylene random (PPR)
copolymer pipe that was used as the primary tubing of the system. It was obtained
from 3M Industrial Supply at Sta. Cruz, Manila. The tube has a thermal stability of
110 °C at 1.90 MPa hoop stress by hydrostatic pressure testing and was tested by
the manufacturer. It has a melting point of 230 °C. For the connection, elbow, tee
The yield would drip into the flexible 8-mm diameter polyurethane (PU)
tubes. The tube was connected with the PU tee joint and was shown in the figure
below. The tube was also bought from 3M Industrial Supply at Sta. Cruz, Manila.
The figure 3.15 and 3.16 shows the PU tube and the Tee joints used.
Fig. 3.15 PU Tubes Fig. 3.16 Tee Joints
The steam that has travelled through the PPR tubes would condense inside
the stainless steel canister with clear acrylic clamped lids with the help of the
cooling system. The canister was purchased from Handyman at Alabang Starmall,
Muntinlupa and the box was shown on figure 3.17. Stainless steels are most
commonly used for corrosion resistance. The selection of material was crucial since
Copper tubes are most often used for supply of hot and cold water and as
refrigerant line in systems. Copper also offers a high level of corrosion resistance.
A ¼ inch diameter 0.22 mm thick copper tube was used in the system as a condenser
The cooled water was pump with the use of 18.5 watts Rio+ Aqua
Pump/Power head. It has a maximum head of 6.5 feet or 195 centimeters and is
powerful, efficient mag drive construction. was provided by Gerry’s Pet shop at
The 9-liter white plastic pail was used as a component of the second cooling
The figure above shows the two batteries that were used in the system. Each
battery has a capacity of 65Ah and a nominal voltage of 12 volts. The battery
supplies energy to the submersible water heater, thermoelectric cooler and the water
pump.
3.2.14 Inverter
Figure 21 shows a TBE pure sine wave power inverter with a maximum
capacity of 2000 watts sufficient to invert energy given by the lead acid batteries
shown on the figure 20. Pure sine wave inverters produces clean power unlike the
of the world and is available every day. The solar panel that was used in the system
The yield was collected at a one-gallon water container with faucet. The
feed water was also stored on another water container with the same capacity. The
3. 3. 1 System’s Body
One of the most abundant and readily available type of metal in the market
that is widely used in fabrication is the 1-1/2 and 1-1/2 slotted steel angle bars. It
was known for being a high strength steel. It was used as framing of the system and
For the easy transport of the system, four 8-cm diameter roller-typed wheels
were used.
Fig. 3.25 Framing of the System Fig. 3.26 Covering of the Lower Part
The 950 watts submersible water heater was placed in the 24-cm induction
pressure cooker. The water vapor was restricted to escape the container because of
the leak proof silicone rubber sealing ring of the pressure cooker.
3.3.3 Tubing
The water vapor travelled through the ¾-inch polypropylene random (PPR)
copolymer tubes and the condensed water dripped on the flexible 8-mm diameter
polyurethane (PU) tubes. The PPR has a maximum service temperature of 110 °C
which is a very important property of the tube to this study. PPR with the PU, which
is naturally flexible and has high tensile and elongation values, made up the primary
3.3.4 Condenser
The stainless steel canister with clear acrylic clamped lids served as the
container of the vapor before it turned into condensed water. There were three steel
canisters, a 36 ounce (1.10 liter), one with 47 ounce (1.30 liter), and 62 ounce (1.80
liter) capacity.
There were coiled ¼ inch diameter 0.22mm thick copper tubes inside each
container. The water from the cooling chamber passes through the coil and helped
The steam needs contact to a cold surface to condense. Other than the
copper coil, there was water flowing on the body of the canister to keep the
temperature relatively low on the outside for the steam to condense easily. It was
pushed by the 18.5 Watts Aqua pump and the container were inside the 9-liter
plastic pail that catches the cooling water. The water that circulates in the copper
coil and on the body of the canisters was supplied by the cold water.
The two YUASA SWL 1850 12 volts 65Ah valve regulated lead acid
batteries were the main power supply of the whole system. The 2000 watts TBE
power inverter receives its operating power through the DC plug and 12-volt power
The 30 watts solar panel acted as the source of energy to charge the
batteries.
Fig. 3.32 Battery and Inverter installed in the System
before and after desalination process. Also, the actual testing of the system with the
seawater feed was necessary to determine the efficiency of the fabricated desalinating
system. It was essential to run the system with different kinds of samples to determine the
There were two salt water samples, one from Anilao in Batangas, and the
other was from Ternate in Cavite. The samples differ from its appearance, in terms
of its turbidity, and also by considering its location. Ternate is connected to Manila
The volume of sample should be adequate to carry-out all the tests required,
sampling bottles should be provided with either ground glass stoppers or plastic
screw caps. The samples were collected on PET bottles that have been cleansed and
rinsed carefully, given a final rinse with distilled water and sterilized as directed in
avoided. The bottle sample was stored and kept unopened until it was ready for
filing.
3.4.2.4 Identification of Samples
Sampling bottles was labelled with complete and definite identification and
description. The information about the samples can be recorded in a request form
conducted at the Mach Union Water Laboratory, Inc., in 335 Zapote-Alabang Road, Talon,
Las Piñas City. The procedure and method for sampling were in accordance to the
Anilao and Ternate, and was stored in a clean container for the water testing. It was
also cooled for preservation for more reliable results. The sample container was
labeled and was provided with the source and time and date of sampling. The
samples were immediately transported to the testing facility to lessen the growth of
For the analysis of microbiological tests, around 350 milliliters of water was
given to the personnel of the testing facility. The sample container was tagged with
contamination.
A yield of 1.5 Liters was gathered after several hours of running the system.
The first sample was stored in a clean container and was cooled to avoid
discrepancy to the next yield. After the second sample, it was immediately
container was properly labeled according to the time and date of procurement
Another 350 milliliters of sample was distilled on the system for analysis of
microbiological water quality tests. The first sample was stored in a clean container
and was cooled to avoid discrepancy to the next yield. After the second sample, it
Table 3.2 Standard Values for Physical and Chemical Quality for Acceptability
Aspect
Characteristic
Sensory
No objectionable The cause of taste must be
Taste Evaluation
Taste determined.
Technique
Sensory
No objectionable The cause of odor must be
Odor Evaluation
odor determined.
Technique
Decomposition of organic
coloring substances to
Visual
water; Tannins, humic
Color Comparison
acid, and humates from the
Colorimetric
decomposition of lignin;
manganese; colored
suspended matters
matters in water.
intrusion.
presence of naturally
such as calcium,
in certain areas.
distribution.
systems. Manganese is
Particularly in anaerobic
or low oxidation
conditions.
6.5-8.5
aesthetic consideration
or distillation parameter.
process
Turbidimetric
groundwater. Gravimetric
Method.
Table 3.3 Standard Values for inorganic chemical constituents with health
significance
Maximum
(mg/L)
Nitrate concentration in
Nitrate Cd Reduction
50 groundwater and surface water can
method; IC;
reach high levels as a result of
Capillary Ion
leaching or run-off from
electrophoresis
agricultural land or contamination
Colorimetric
from human or animal wastes.
(diazotization); IC;
Anaerobic conditions may result
Flow injection
Nitrite 3 in the formation and persistence of
Analysis
nitrite.
3.6.2 Parameters for Microbiological Quality
2017.
Table 3.4 Standard Methods of Detection and Values for Microbiological Quality
Service
reservoirs
Water
treatment
works
Multiple Tube
Consumer’s
Fermentation < 1.1 MPN/ 100 mL
Total coliform Taps
Technique (MTFT)
Refilling
Stations
Water Haulers
Water Vending
Machines
Service
reservoirs
Water
treatment
works
Heterotrophic Consumer’s
Pour Plate < 500 CFU/mL
Plate Count Taps nearest
the meters
Refilling
Stations
Water Vending
Machines
Service
reservoirs
Water
treatment
Refilling
Stations
Point Sources
(Level I)
Water Haulers
Water Vending
Machines
be known in order to maintain the production. Also, knowing the correct wattage of the
solar panel to be used is a variable to consider in order to charge the batteries faster.
When the battery ran out of charge, the solar panel was the source of power.
To determine the number of hours to charge the battery, the equation is shown
below:
Charge Time
∆𝐸(𝐶)(%𝐶)
T= (2)
𝐴
Where:
∆E is the difference between the final and the initial charge of the battery
in percent (%)
A is the ampere
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
A= (3)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Knowing how long the batteries will last is a very important factor in this study.
The operation of the system depends on the life of the battery. To compute the time
Running time
𝐶
t=𝐴 (4)
Where
Upon testing of the system unit, brine material will be one of the variables needed
to be considered by the researchers. Disposal of the brine will not be a problem for it may
probably use as a primary component of the newly invented solar powered lamp developed
by the Filipina Engineer AisaMijeno. The Invention uses salt brine as a primary constituent
in the Saltlamp that produces light. Currently, the Inventor is producing more units to be
given away to people who live in remote areas where there is not enough supply of
electricity, which means more brine will be needed for the production of units. In that way,
there is no waste material neither created nor disposed for this system.
There are also several ways on how to properly dispose Brine output of the system.
It may require permits or any other regulatory compliance. Surface water discharge, where
brine can be disposed to some surface water such as ponds, lakes, rivers and reservoirs but
this requires strict compliance with the local government national pollutant elimination
system. Brine can also be a good dust control agent for dryer climates for summer season
When saltwater is heated, the water vaporizes and most of the salts remains which
increases the concentration of salt on the feed water. If not taken care of, less and less water
The estimated running time of the system was 12 hours. The present brine should
be disposed and the water heater should be cleaned. It was expected to have scale deposits
for the seawater is hard water. Hard water is a common quality of water which contains
dissolved minerals and those mineral deposits does not evaporate but remains in the brine
that often lead to scaling. It could affect the performance of the system and also deteriorate
This chapter presents physical and chemical analysis of water samples before and
after run in the system and interpretation of results of the water flow rate based on
calculations.
4.1 Efficiency
The system can run in thirteen hours using a full charged 65aH battery. The
30 watts solar panel that is used in the system can recharge the battery life in about
23.92 hours from equation (1). Therefore, the system can use while charging it since
the battery is high capacity and the system used 65aH two batteries.
4.1.2 Yield
per hour exclusive of the preheat time of about thirty minutes. During the process,
the feed water evaporated 1L per hour constantly. All the variables used in the
system was able to contribute for a better yield such us the condenser and cooling
system.
The parameters used in the experiment are Chloride, Chromium, color, Copper,
Fluoride, Iron, Lead, Manganese, Nitrate, odor, Sulfate, Taste, Total Hardness and
Turbidity. There are two samples that were collected to run in the system having a different
quality, the first one is clear water and collected far from the shore line which is the Anilao,
Batangas water sample and the second one is brackish water collected from the shore line
After both samples were run in the desalination system and produce required yield,
the initial water and the final sample run in the system undergone laboratory testing to
know if the system is effective in the aspect of leasing or cleaning all the samples through
the system itself and if it can satisfy the criteria of Philippine National Standards for
Drinking Water.
4.2.1 Chloride
shown that Ternate has higher amount of Chloride than Anilao sample. According
to PNSDW, the maximum acceptable value of Chloride is 250 mg/L. From the
result after it was tested in the laboratory, water samples from both Anilao and
Ternate met the standards of PNSDW and both have acceptable values after it was
15000 15000
5000 5000
250 2.11 250 0.411
-5000 INITIAL LIMIT FINAL -5000 INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
ANILAO TERNATE
Fig. 4.1 Chloride Content of Anilao Fig. 4.2 Chloride Content of Batangas
risk of cancer and also it is reported to produce hypertension in a human body. High
4.2.2 Chromium
Table 4.2 shows the amount of Chromium present in the water samples. It
is shown that the Chromium present in both samples was almost at same count.
From the result after it was tested in the laboratory, water samples from both Anilao
and Ternate met the standards of PNSDW and both have acceptable values after it
CHROMIUM
0.15
0.115
0.1
0.05 0.05
0 < 0.03
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
water may result to health problems such as irritation, pulmonary congestion and
4.2.3 Color
From the final result that was run in the system as shown in Table 4.3, water sample
Initial <5 5
COLOR COLOR
6 6
5 5 5
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 <5 <5 0 <5
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
Fig. 4.5 Color Result of Anilao Fig. 4.6 Color Result of Batangas
The color of water represents the chemical presented in it. For example, if
4.2.4 Copper
Table 4.4 shows the amount of Copper present in the water samples.
From the result after it was tested in the laboratory, water samples from both Anilao
and Ternate met the standards of PNSDW and both have acceptable values after it
COPPER COPPER
0.12 0.15
0.11
0.1 0.122
0.08 0.1
0.06
0.05 0.05
0.04 0.05
0.02 0.016 0.0119
0 0
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
Fig. 4.7 Copper Content of Anilao Fig. 4.8 Copper Content of Batangas
If too much copper is presented in water, it can cause adverse health effect
such as stomach cramps, nausea and diarrhea. Copper’s presence in water can also
4.2.5 Fluoride
From the laboratory test result shown in Table 4.5, the value doesn’t change or
FLUORIDE FLUORIDE
1.2 1.2
1 1 1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0.04 0.04 0 0.04 0.04
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
Fig. 4.9 Fluoride Content of Anilao Fig. 4.10 Fluoride Content of Batangas
Excessive amount of Fluoride in water can have long term effects in a body
4.2.6 Iron
Table 4.6 shows that the initial sample from Ternate has high amount of
Iron than in Anilao but after running it in the system, it meets the standard and also
didn’t reach maximum acceptable value of PNSDW which is 1mg/L, thus both
IRON IRON
1.2 4
1 1 3.23
3
0.8
0.6 2
0.4 0.445
1 1
0.2
0 0.036 0 0.019
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
Fig. 4.11 Iron Content of Anilao Fig. 4.12 Iron Content of Batangas
result to heart and pancreatic damage as well as diabetes. It may also affect the
4.2.7 Lead
0.0.1mg/L. From the laboratory result in Table 4.7, both water sample from Anilao
and Ternate met the standards and has a very acceptable value.
Table 4.7 Lead Result
Sample LEAD (mg/L)
LEAD 0.5
LEAD
0.5
0.4 0.408
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.01 < 0.006 0.01
0
0 < 0.006
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
Fig. 4.13 Lead Content of Anilao Fig. 4.14 Lead Content of Batangas
High amount of lead in water can affect in the development of human brain
and nervous system. It has higher risk in children than adults. Blood disorders and
hypertensions may also occur if the lead content has high concentrations.
4.2.8 Manganese
Table 4.8 shows that the amount of Manganese minimizes a lot as it runs
through the system and both samples has acceptable values in PNSDW.
Table 4.8 Manganese Result
Sample MANGANESE (mg/L)
MANGANESE
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 0.084
0 < 0.01
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
MANGANESE
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.2 0.226
0.1
0 < 0.01
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
High amount of Manganese can have side effect in a body such as body
shaking or tremors. It also produces bitter taste in water if it has high concentration.
4.2.9 Nitrate
in Table 4.9, both samples met the standards and has acceptable values since both
of them already contain only minimal amount of Nitrate aside from running it in
the system.
NITRATE NITRATE
60 60
50 50 50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0.07 0.07 0 0.07 0.07
INITIAL LIMIT FINAL INITIAL LIMIT FINAL
Fig. 4.17 Nitrate Content of Anilao Fig. 4.18 Nitrate Content of Batangas
Excessive amount of Nitrate can cause hemoglobin changes that can result
unobjectionable which means that the sample tested doesn’t gives off a foul smell.
The result shown in Table 4.10 met the standards of the PNSDW.
Odor may not be a cause to harm the health of community, but it must be
4.2.11 Sulfate
Table 4.11 shows that the both initial samples contain very high amount
of Sulfate but after running it in the system, it is clearly shown that the Sulfate
present in the final sample was very minimal and satisfies the standards of
PNSDW.
Fig. 4.19 Sulfate Content of Anilao Fig. 4.20 Sulfate Content of Batangas
Amount of Sulfate can affect the odor of the water but it is not harmful to
4.2.12 Tastes
In Table 4.12, it is shown that the initial and final sample from Anilao was
both unobjectionable. It is also shown that the initial sample of Ternate was not fit
to taste but after it run in the system, from the final sample, it is unobjectionable.
related to the quality of water itself. It can also be a criterion to know if there are
300mg/L. Table 4.13 shows that both initial samples had a high value of total
hardness and after it runs in the system, final samples gave a considerable amount
From the results obtained, the hardness level in Anilao is slightly hard and
Ternate is soft. The level which most people find the hardness of a water is in range
of 7.5 to 10.5.
water contains high amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium. It occurs when
4.2.14 Turbidity
Table 4.14 shows that the turbidity level of Anilao samples is acceptable
initially and after running it in the system while the sample of Ternate has high
turbidity level initially and after it runs in the system, it satisfies and has acceptable
value to PNSWD.
scatter light making the water appear murky or cloudy. The clarity of sample can
Bacteria in sea water were still present in the final water sample after running it in
the in the Desalination system. Microbiological Analysis was conducted to know range of
bacteria presented in samples. In this case, Total Coliform Bacteria, Fecal Coliform
In Table 4.15, it is shown that both samples are positive to the presence of Total
Coliform. The acceptable value of PNSWD is less than 1.1 only, therefore, the final sample
in high level of Total Coliform may have cholera and hepatitis in worst case.
In Table 4.16, it is shown that both samples are positive to the presence of Fecal
Coliform. The acceptable value of PNSWD is less than 1.1 only, therefore, the final sample
Anilao <1.1 8
Ternate <1.1 >8
In Table 4.17, the Heterotrophic Plate count is shown. The acceptable value of
PNSWD is less than 500, therefore, the sample in Anilao was not able to meet the
In Table 4.15, 4.16 and 4.17, it is shown that after the feed water run in the system,
the microbiological properties of it became unacceptable as it was able to have high amount
of Coliforms and Hetero Plate Result. It is because of the high temperature surface.
Salt Solution has been used as the feed water in the system in able to know the
In the Table 4.18, it is shown that the amount of salt that has been with the solution
is still almost the same amount after, considering that some residues has stick in the cooker
itself. Therefore, it can be said that the system efficiency regarding with the salt
𝑆𝑖
𝑆𝑓
𝑥100% (5)
Table 4.18 Salt Solution Concentration
Amount of
Amount of Amount of Salt Remains after
TRIAL Salt, si
Water (ml) Boiling, sf (grams)
(grams)
In fabricating the system, all the materials used were available commercially in the
market. In a minimum amount of twenty-four thousand three hundred eighteen pesos and
amount, the system can be able to use in around five to ten years depending on how it is
In Table 4.19, the total cost spent for the materials of the system is shown.
In this computation, it can prove that the system is worth using for, aside from its
environmental help, it can help the community in saving financially by spending minimally
in providing water.
container of water is 25 pesos, every month has four weeks and every year has twelve
months, therefore, total cost per year is seven thousand two hundred. In five years, the total
This chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations based on the results of
the study.
5.1 Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn after the system has been run and test.
system by Multiple effect distillation has been tested. Moreover, the functionality
specifications. The idea of having two cooling system provides great improvement
2. In terms of the technical capability, the system was able to get a better yield when
the cooler was installed as an additional effect. It is efficient as it was able to collect
steam after preheating the water for thirty minutes. Compared to the previous
researches about distillation and desalination system, this study performs better
considering its design and area. Also, considering the operational efficiency of the
system, it is more efficient when all variables presented is working. Better yield is
produced when both of the cooling system works, the one that runs through the
copper coil and the other one that drips through the stainless canister. The built-in
It is advice to check if the tubing is still open for the flow for both feed water and
yield and if the condenser and evaporator is not yet occupied with residues. Also,
the power system that must be maintained, considering the depletion of storage
capacity of the battery through time. Similarly, for the cost of installation, minimal
amount is required considering that the materials are all commercially available.
Regarding the energy consumption of the system, it was able to run through the use
of solar panel that collects solar energy and stored to a battery having a direct
current and inverted it to an alternating current needed to run the system. The
battery was able to sustain the system’s power for 15.44 hours.
was able to provide a positive and acceptable results in line with the Philippine
National Standards for Drinking Water with regards to physical and chemical
analysis. The Chloride content of both samples was about 25000mg/L initially and
after it run in the system, the amount was less than 5. For the salt concentration,
brine solution was used as feed water and after it run in the system, it is concluded
5. For the economic considerations, the total cost spent for the system unit was 24,
318.25 pesos. If the maintenance cost was 3 percent and annual depreciation was
Based on the findings and results of the study, the following were recommended:
it requires greater amount of energy to power up the system. For these, use
system faster. The greater the capacity of the solar panel, the greater the
the water. Considering that this system used desalination method alone, it
only focused on separating salt from water. Knowing that salt water
contains not only salt, it requires other process or method to remove all the
water. By minimizing the size of the system and developing a modular unit,
it affects the volume of the water to be treated. But, by having larger volume
of a water tank it also maximizes the amount of feed water and yield
collected.
4. To search and apply additional materials that can help increase the
desalination system is greatly affect by its cooling system. The water that
runs through the system cools the vapor, but applying additional materials
that can maintain the low temperature of the flowing water could possibly
yielding water also occurs and considering the processes involve adding a
https://en.m.wikipedia.org
https://water.usgs.gov/edu/drinkseawater.html
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov
https://www.corrosionpedia.com
https://www.dictionary.cambridge.org
https://www.ewg.org
https://www.fao.org
https://www.google.com
https://www.health.state.mn.us
https://www.lenntech.com
https://www.livescience.com
https://www.martinwater.com
https://www.merriam-webster.com
https://www.pbwatersoftening.com
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/desalination.htm
https://www.sciencedirect.com
https://www.wabag.com
https://www.water.usgs.gov
https://www.webmd.com
APPENDIX
A
CALCULATIONS
APPENDIX A
CALCULATIONS
I. Efficiency
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡
Ƞ= 𝑥 100
𝑊𝑖𝑛
Trial 1:
Water in = 1000 mL
600
Efficiency = 1000 𝑥 100
= 60 %
Trial 2:
Water in = 1000 mL
750
Efficiency = 1000 𝑥 100
= 75 %
Trial 3:
Water in = 1000 mL
= 70 %
∆𝐸(𝐶)(%𝐶)
T= 𝐴
∆E = 20 % or 0.20
C = 65 Amp-hour
%C = 1.15
A = Watts / Volts
= 4.209 Amp
𝐶
t=𝐴
C = 65 Amp-hour
A = 4.209 Amp
following criteria:
A. Drinking-water must be clear and does not have objectionable taste, odor
and color. It must be pleasant to drink and free from all harmful organisms,
while periodic examination shall be done for existing water sources Water
samples for initial and periodic examination from all water sources shall cover
supply.Refer to Annex C.
C. The collection of water samples shall comply with the standard sample
requirements.
D. Only certified sampling personnel shall collect water samples for regulatory
purposes.
E. All water samples for regulatory purposes shall be examined only in DOH
on the ‘22nd edition (2012) of the Standards Methods for the Examination
A. Drinking-water from refilling stations, vending machines, mobile tanks and bulk
water supply shall be subject for initial and periodic examinations for
from refilling stations and vending machines, except for the standard values of pH
and total dissolved solids(TDS). The pH value shall be 5-7 while the TDS levels of
C. Water from mobile tanks shall have chlorine residual (as free chlorine) of at
D. Bulk water supply shall maintain chlorine residual (as free chlorine) level between
to distribution.
E. All water-refilling stations, vending machines, mobile tanks and bulk water supply
shall comply with the standard minimum number of samples and frequency of
4. Evaluation of Results
A. Expression of Results
b. All results from physic-chemical and radiological examinations that are not
detected shall be reported as less than the method detection limit (MDL).
For trace analysis, the MDL and level of quantitation (LOQ) shall be
B. Interpretation of results
drinking-water supply.
consecutive months where in all results must comply with the standards. If
the results still exceed, further study must be done to determine the cause of
A. Mandatory parameters
directly affect health through acute or chronic exposure and/or will render
the water unacceptable for drinking; indicate the possible presence of other
data of the previous years; have wide spatial distribution across the
Philippines based on local monitoring data; and viable indicators for general
every three years if the LDWQMC found the consolidated water quality
reports showed undetectable levels below MDL of a particular mandatory
parameters may include additional parameters from the list of primary and
be based on the result of the risk assessment of the water sources where
occur.
B. Primary parameters
C. Secondary parameters
a. Secondary parameters are those that render the water unacceptable for
drinking.
treatment processes
b. The water supply shall be monitored daily for atleast seven days by the LGU
acceptable level of residual chlorine shall be 0.5 mg/L and the maximum
c. Regular monitoring shall resume after normal condition has been declared
access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030, the population
b. This entails that the population uses a drinking water source which is
located on premises, available when needed, and free of fecal and priority
chemical contamination.
B. All accredited laboratories shall provide highest quality service through the
DOH.
7. Water Safety Plan (WSP) and Drinking –water Quality Surveillance
utilizes a risk assessment and risk management approach that encompasses all steps
by the DOH Administrative Order No. 2014 – 0027 “National Policy on Water
Safety Plan for All Drinking-Water Service Providers”, dated September 4, 2014
C. The WSP of a drinking-water service provider shall be subject for review and
“Guidelines for the Review and Approval of the Water Safety Plans of Drinking-
D. The WSP shall be developed to meet health-based target consistent with the
E. The drinking-water quality surveillance agency shall ensure the monitoring of the
WSP implementation and its effectiveness meets the Philippine National Standard
for Drinking Water. The surveillance activity shall include audit and direct
assessment approaches.
Table C-1: Standard Values and Methods of Detection and Point of Compliance for
Point of
Methods of Analysis
Parameter Standard Values Compliance
(SMEWW 22nd ed.)
- Consumer’s
taps
9221 Multiple Tube
Treatment
9223 Enzyme Substrate
MTFT:
Coliform Test - Work’s plants
< 1.1 MPN/100 mL.
9222B Standard Total - Water refilling
EST: Absent or <1
Coliform Membrane station’s
1. Total Coliform MPN/100 mL
Filter Technique
- Water vending
MFT: < 1 Total
9222 C Delayed machines
coliform colonies /
Incubation Total
- Mobile
100 mL
Coliform and E Coli by
treatment
Dual Chromogen
devices
- Point use
treatment
- Water haulers
- Bulk Water
- Point sources
- Consumers
taps
- Water
9221 Multiple Tube
MTFT: Treatment
Fermentation Technique
< 1.1 MPN/100 mL. works
9221 E1
EST: Absent or <1 - Water
Thermotolerance
MPN/100 mL Refilling
Coliform Test (EC
2. Thermotolerant
stations
medium)
Coliform/E.coli MFT: < 1
devices
- Point use
treatment
- Water haulers
- Bulk Water
- Food
Establishments
- All Buildings
- Ice Plants
- Consumers
taps
- Water
Treatment
works
9215 C Spread Plate
3. Heterotrophic - Water
Method
Plate Count < 500 CFU/ mL Refilling
9215 D Membrane Filter
(HPC) stations
Method
- Water vending
machines
- Mobile
treatment
devices
- Point use
treatment
- Water haulers
- Bulk Water
- Food
Establishments
- All Buildings
- Ice Plants
Table C-2: Summary of Standard Values and Methods of Analysis for Inorganic
Chemical
Maximum
Abstracts
Parameter Allowable Methods of Analysis
Service (CAS)
Level (MAL)
No.
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
- 3030 F. Nitric Acid-
- 3030 K. Microwave-
Assisted Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometric Method
- 3120 B. Inductively
- 3125 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Assisted Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Generation/Atomic
Absorption
Spectrometric Method
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometric Method
- 3120 B. Inductively
- 3125 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
- 3030 F. Nitric Acid-
- 3030 K. Microwave-
Assisted Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Oxide-Acetylene Flame
Method
Spectrometric Method
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometric Method
- 3120 B. Inductively
- 3125 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
- 3120 B. Inductively
- 3125 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Assisted Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometric Method
- 3120 B. Inductively
- 3125 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
- 3030 K. Microwave-
Assisted Digestion
B. Instrumentation
- 3113 B. Electrothermal
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometric Method
- 3120 B. Inductively
- 3125 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
- 4500-CN D. Titrimetric
Method
- 4500-CN F. Cyanide-
A. Sample Preparation
- Preliminary Distillation
- 4110 B. Ion
Chromatography with
Chemical Suppression of
Eluent Conductivity
Conductively Detection
- 4550-F C. Ion-Selective
Electrode Method
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
- 3030 K. Microwave-
Assisted Digestion
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometric Method
- 3120 B. Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
- Spectrometric Method
Spectrometric Method
Spectrometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Spectrometric Method
Spectrometric Method
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Spectrometric Method
Spectrometric Method
Injection Method
- 4140 Capillary Ion electrophoresis
Table C-3: Summary of Standard Values and Methods of Analysis for Physical and
Chemical Maximum
Parameter Methods of Analysis
Abstracts Allowable
Service Level (MAL)
(CAS)
No.
No
odor
A. Sample Preparation
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
- 3500-Al B. Eriochrome Cyanine
R Method
Plasma Method
Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
4500-CI-D Pootentiometric
Method
Conductivity
Conductivity Detection
Acid Digestion
3030 K. Microwave-Assisted
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Flame Method
3111C. Extraction/Air-Acetylene
Flame Method
Absorption Spectrometric
Plasma Method
Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
3500-Cu C. Bathocuproine
Method
8. Total
N/A 300 mg/L 2430 C EDTA Titrimetric method
Hardness
Method
Method
A. Sample Preparation
3030 K. Microwave-Assisted
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
3111 B. Direct Air-Acetylene
Flame Method
3111C. Extraction/Air-Acetylene
Flame Method
Absorption Spectrometric
Plasma Method
Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
Photometric Method
A. Sample Preparation
Acid Digestion
3030 K. Microwave-Assisted
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Flame Method
3111C. Extraction/Air-Acetylene
Flame Method
Absorption Spectrometric
Plasma Method
Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
Photometric Method
Detection
4500-S042 E. Turbidimetric
Method
4500-S042 F. Authomated
A. Sample Preparation
3030 K. Microwave-Assisted
Digestion
B. Instrumentation
Flame Method
3111C. Extraction/Air-Acetylene
Flame Method
Absorption Spectrometric
Plasma Method
Plasma-Mass
Spectrometric Method
Photometric Method
1,2-Dibromo-3-choloroprophane
1 29 Dibromochlomethane (DBCM)
(DBCP)
2 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 30 Dibromoacetonitrile
3 1,2-Dichloroethane 31 Dichloroacetate
4 1,2-Dichloroethene 32 Dichloroacetonitrile
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
5 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 33
(DDT)
6 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol 34 Dichloromethane
7 Acrylamide 35 Endrin
11 Antimony 39 Flouride
12 Barium 40 Glyphosate
13 Benzene 41 Lindane
16 Boron 44 Monochloroacetate
17 Bromate 45 Nickel
21 Carbofuran 49 Sulfate
22 Chlorate 50 Selenium
23 Chlordane 51 Styrene
24 Chlorite 52 tetrachloroethene
25 Chloroform 53 Trichloroacetate
1 Aluminium 7 Manganese
2 Chloride 8 Odor
3 Copper 9 Sodium
4 Hardness 10 Taste
5 Hydrogen sulphide 11 Xylenes (total_)
6 Iron 12 Zinc
Drinking-Water
Minimum Minimum
Frequency of Frequency of
Source and
Population Sampling for Total Sampling for Point of
Mode of
Served Coliform and heterotrophic Compliance
Supply
Thermotolerant Plate Count
coliform/E.coli (HPC)*
1 sample every ?
1. Level I - Not required Point Source
three (3) months
1 sample every
treated)
monthly samples
monthly
population + 12
additional samples
monthly
Collection of
Required at
Samples should be
More than least 40% of Consumer’s
spread out within a
10,000 the sampling tap
month
points
Compliance to total
coliform: At least
95% of standard
samples taken in
distribution point is
total coliform
negative, provided
that thermotolerant
coliform is absent
Compliance to
thermotolerant
coliform:
No samples should
positive for
thermotolerant
coliform
industrial and
More than Consumer’s
institutional 1 sample monthly Once a month
600 tap
buildings)
5. Food 1 sample every other 1 sample every Consumer’s
-
Establishments month other month tap
Table C-8: Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Mandatory Physical and Chemical
Parameters
Nuber of
Source and Mode of Population Sampling
Samples/Frequency of
Supply Served Location
Sampling
49,999 and
3. Level III 1 sample per year Refer to table
below
B-1
utilities:
water:
All mandatory
6. Ice Plants
parameters
source:
Al mandatory
parameters
Minimum Frequency
Source Parameters
of Sampling
Microbiological (total
Minimum
Mode of Holding
Parameters Container Material Volume of
Preservation time
Sample
Plastic/Polyethelyne or
1. Add HNO3 to
Glass containers rinsed 100 ml 28 days
Antimony pH<2
with 50% HNO3
Plastic/Polyethelyne or
Add HNO3 to
2. Arsenic Glass containers rinsed 100 ml 28 days
pH<2
with 50% HNO3
Plastic/Polyethelyne or
Add HNO3 to
3. Barium Glass containers rinsed 100 ml 28 days
pH<2
with 50% HNO3
Polyethelyne bottles or
Plastic/Polyethelyne or
Add HNO3 to
5. Cadmium Glass containers rinsed 100 ml 28 days
pH<2
with 50% HNO3
6. Plastic/Polyethelyne or
Add HNO3 to
Chromium Glass containers rinsed 100 ml 28 days
pH<2
(total) with 50% HNO3
Add NaOH to
pH>12,
Dark
7. Cyanide Remove
Polyethelyne/Plastic or 500 ml 28 days
(total) sulphide,
Glass bottle
Refrigerate in
the dark
Preffered:
Polyethelyne bottles
flouride solutions
Polytetraflouroethylene
not suitable
Add HNO3 to
9. Lead 100 ml 28 days
pH<2
Acidify
pH<2
Add HNO3 to
pH<1
Minimum
Mode of Holding
Parameters Container Material Volume of
Preservation time
Sample
Add K2Cr2O3
pH<2
Refrigerate
14.
Filter on site 1 month –
(0.45m consult
freeze) method
Plastic/Polyethelyne or
16. Add HNO3 to
Glass containers rinsed 100 ml 1-2 days
Selenium pH<2
with 50% HNO3
Minimum
Container Mode of
Parameters Volume of Holding time
Material Preservation
Sample
enclosures
Glass-
TFE lined
enclosures
Acid-washed
plastic bottles
Glass bottles
25 ml or a
Acid-rinsed portion
Examine
5. diluted to 25 Examine sample
plastic bottles sample
Aluminum ml (in immediately
immediately
absence of
fluoride and
complex
phosphates)
100 ml
(maximum
sample
No special
Plastic bottles portion) or a
6. Chloride preservation is 28 days
Glass bottles suitable
necesary
portion
diluted to
100 ml
Use 0.5 ml 1 +1
Acidified HCI/100ml
HNO3
frozen
samples
time of collection
in solution and
absorption or
deposition on the
walls of the
sample container
Analyse
immediately or
sample
collection
Polyethylene
12. Sodium 1L None required 28 days
bottle
polyethylene
13. Sulfate 100 ml Keep cool at 4oC 7 days
bottles
Glass bottles
14. Total
Resistant-glass
Dissolved 500 ml Keep cool at 4oC 7 days
Plastic bottles
Solids
Quartz or TFE
containers
cap 4oC
Borosilicate
glass
Preparation of Materials:
Figure: D.1 Cut Slotted Angle Bars Figure: D.2 Knots and Bolts for Angle Bars
Figure: D.3 Corner Plate for stand Figure: D.4: 900w Heater
Figure: D.5: PPR Tubing Figure: D.6: Connectors of PU Tubes
Fabrication:
Figure: D.15 Attaching the Battery Figure: D.16 Attaching PU Tubes to the Canister
Figure: D.17 Drying the Silicone Figure: D.18 Attaching PU Tubes
Figure: D.26: Salt for Brine Solution Figure: D.27: Boiling of Brine Solution
Figure: D.28: Salt concentration while boiling Figure: D.29: Salt collected after boiling
HI BE. HAHAH
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