Lesson 6.
1 The Greeks’ Three Types of terrestrial Motions COPERNICAN MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE
The idea of the Greeks regarding terrestrial motion was highly
influenced by the thoughts of Aristotle. His philosophy was far more
speculative than experimental. In Aristotle's world, everything on Earth
had its appointed place and function. Every object in this world could
be categorized under the following four elements: earth, water, air, and
fire. Aristotle also postulated that planets and stars were made of a fifth
element called “quintessence”. The natural motion of these objects was
a circular path, not up or down. Early people had observed that these
celestial objects were moving in a circular path.
3 types of Terrestrial Motion according to the Greeks:
NATURAL MOTION
Natural motion was the result of the movement of things trying to get
to where they belonged.
FORCED MOTION
Forced motion was motion that required intervention of an outside
mover.
REST
An object is said to be at rest if its position does not change with time.
DIURNAL MOTION
• An everyday recurrence
• Daily motion of the sky from east to west
• These phenomena resulted from Earth's rotation from the east to the
west. The axis of this apparent motion coincides with Earth's axis of
rotation
ANNUAL MOTION
• Referred to the events or phenomena that came annually or once a
year.
• Specifically, it refers to the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun
because it takes a year to complete one revolution.
• The changing of the seasons was attributed to the revolution of Earth
around the Sun.
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES
• Refers to gradual shift in the orientation of Earth’s axis of rotation.
• This so called precession moves westward along the ecliptic relative to
the fixed stars. This is opposite the motion of the Sun along the ecliptic.
• Credit for discovering precession of the equinoxes was given to
Hipparchus. His observations date back to 147-127 B.C.
What is Plato’s “saving the appearances”?
Refers to those observed anomalies of imperfection of the planets that
must be replaced by saving appearances through discourse and logic.
The Problem of Plato
• The appearances of the motions of the sun, moon, and planets were
not perfect.
• He observed that planets do not move at a constant rate and moved in
irregular retrograde loops.
Lesson 6.2 Models of Astronomical Phenomena
ARISTOTLE MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE
• Proclaimed that circular motion was natural.
• The planet s and s tar s moved in perfect circles about Earth and their
motions were not caused by forces.
• Earth located at the center, the earth itself was layered with earth,
water, air, and fire.
PTOLEMAIC MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE
• The geocentric system is often called the Ptolemaic model of the
Universe.
• Geocentric means that the earth is in the center.
• Ptolemy lived in Alexandria in Egypt during the second century A.C.
• He advocated the Ptolemaic model system, the earth is located at the
center and the rest of the planets revolve around it, including the sun.
• Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model
developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. The Sun is
the center of the Universe.
• Astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus explained that earth rotates on its
axis.
• Earth revolves with the other planets around the sun in circular orbits.
The Ptolemaic Model and Copernican model of the Universe
VIEWS OF THE UNIVERSE
Geocentric Model Heliocentric model
Ptolemy Copernicus
EXAMPLES OF ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA BEFORE THE
ADVENT OF THE TELESCOPE
• Tycho Brahe observed 777 stars and several planets using only large
sextant and compass.
• He was able to find the accuracy in defining the positions of the
planets Jupiter and Saturn.
• He also found the 1577 comets moving in space among the planets
which meant that these heavenly bodies were not supported on fixed
spheres.
• He also developed accurate tables of planetary motions.
Comparison of Copernican, Ptolemaic, and Tychonic Models of
Astronomical Phenomena
PTOLEMAIC MODEL
• It is geocentric, Earth is the center of the universe
COPERNICAN MODEL
• It is Heliocentric, Sun is the center of the universe
TYCHONIC MODEL
• The sun and the moon circled earth while the planets orbited the sun.
KEPLER'S DISCOVERY OF HIS LAWS OF PLANETARY
MOTION
1) The planets move in elliptical orbits.
2) Planets move fastest when they are closest to the Sun.
3) The ratio of the squares of the periods (T) of the planets are
proportional to the cubes of their mean distances (R) from the Sun.
T2 / R3 = k or T2 = kR3
TEarth= 365.24days, REarth= 92million miles
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The period of a planet is 200 days. Find its mean distance from the Sun
Given: T=200days, TEarth= 365.24days, REarth= 92million miles
Required to find: RPlanet = ?
Solution: Using the 3rd Law of Planetary Motion, we find...
Aristotle model of the Universe
precession of the equinoxes
LESSON 7.1 Aristotelian versus Galilean views of Motion
ARISTOTELIAN:
• Force is necessary to produced motion.
• He explained that if there is no force, there can be no motion; moving
body will ultimately come to rest.
• The motion of the stone after it leaves the thrower’s hand caused air
to move and this motion of the air carried the stone along.
GALILEAN:
• “thought experiments”- experiments he did not actually perform
except in his mind.
• Galileo argued that, in the absence of friction, an object would move
continuously at a constant speed along straight line.
• INERTIA is the tendency of a body to maintain its state of rest or of
uniform speed along a straight line.
GALILEO INFERRED THAT OBJECTS IN A VACUUM FALL
WITH UNIFORM ACCELERATION
• Aristotle’s view point regarding the motion of freely falling objects
was that if there were several objects released from a certain height at
the same time, the heaviest will reach the surface of Earth first.
• He argued that since a heavy rock fell faster than a leaf, weight must
be a factor affecting the speed of a freely falling object.
• He also said that since objects fell faster in air than in water, then the
resistance of the medium must also be a factor.
GALILEO VIEWPOINT OF FREELY FALLING BODY
Galileo disproved Aristotle’s theory by pure reasoning and logical
arguments. In his thought experiment, he considered three objects were
equal weights. The three objects A, B, and C were placed side by side.
They were allowed to fall at the same time. Using the theory of
Aristotle, they will fall at the same time. If objects A and B were tied
together, and they were made to fall at the same time as C. He argued
that B cannot pull A down faster than C since B alone was moving fast
as C. On the other hand, A cannot push B down because A alone was
moving down as fast as C. So, this only shows that A and B together,
although twice as heavy as C, will fall at the same time as C and reach
the surface of the Earth at the same time as C.
FREE FALL
In Newtonian physics, free fall is any motion of a body where gravity is
the only force acting upon it.
• An object is in free fall only if gravity is pulling it down and no other
forces are acting on it. Because air resistance is a force, free fall can only
occur where there is no air.
• Astronauts are able to float in space due to free fall.
• A vacuum is a place in which there is no matter. Objects falling in a
vacuum are free fall because there is no air resistance.
LAWS OF FREE FALL
First Law: in vacuum and in the same place, all bodies, dense or light
obey the same law of fall.
Second Law: the trajectory followed by a freely falling object is the
vertical, directed towards the center of the Earth.
Third Law: the motion of a freely falling object is uniformly
accelerated of acceleration g.
AIR RESISTANCE
• In a vacuum (on Earth) all objects fall at the same rate. But on Earth
there is air so there is fluid friction, which is called AIR RESISTANCE.
This force is exerted in the upwards direction on a falling object.
• Forces on the object:
Weight (gravity)
Air resistance (friction)
1. The air resistance comes in up direction when it acts on the falling
object. The gravity will push the object down, but the air resistance
pushes the object up.
2. The air resistance is affected 2 factors. Both are shape and size. If
the surface area is bigger, the air resistance is also bigger.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
The acceleration which is gained by an object because of gravitational
force is called its acceleration due to gravity. Its SI unit is m/s2. The
acceleration due to gravity at the surface of Earth is represented as g. It
has a standard value defined as 9.80665
m/s2.
As the ball falls down, its speed increases
at the rate of 10m/s every second
Lesson 7.2 Graphical Representation of Motion ACCELERATION
• The rate of change of velocity with time
SPEED • Acceleration denoted by small a
• is the measure of how fast an object moves.
• If an object moves from one position to another in a measured time, 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
its average speed (v) is obtained by dividing the distance (d) travelled by ∆𝑣 𝑣2 −𝑣1
the time (t) taken to cover the distance or in mathematical form. α= =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 EXAMPLE PROBLEM FOR ACCELERATION

Average speed=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑 1.) A car accelerates from rest to a speed of 36 km/h in 20 seconds.
V= where (v) is the average speed, (d) is the distance travelled, What is the acceleration of the car in m/s 2?
𝑡
(t) is the time taken to cover the distance SOLUTION:
The initial velocity is 0 (from rest) and the final velocity is 36 km/h.
THE SI UNIT FOR SPEED IS METER PER SECOND OR M/S Hence,
If a car has covered 1200 meters in 60 seconds, then its average speed 36𝑘𝑚/ℎ−0 36𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Average acceleration = =
is... 20𝑠 20𝑠
𝑑 We now convert 36 km/h into m/s as follows
V= = 1200m/60 s 36 km/h = 36 x 1000 m / 3600 s = 10 m/s
𝑡
V = 20m/s 10𝑚/𝑠
Hence, Average acceleration = = 0.5m/s2
20𝑠

DISTANCE, TIME AND SPEED WORD PROBLEMS

A cyclist covers a distance of 15 miles in 2 hours. Calculate his speed. 2.) What acceleration is needed to accelerate a car from 36 km/h to 72
SOLUTION: km/h in 25 seconds?
𝑑 15 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 SOLUTION:
Speed = = The initial velocity is 36 km/h and the final velocity is 72 km/h, hence,
𝑡 2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Speed = 7.5 miles per hour 72𝑘𝑚/ℎ−36 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 36𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Average acceleration = =
25𝑠 25𝑠
36 ×1000𝑚
A boy walks at a speed of 4 kmph. How much time does he take to 36 km/h = = 10m/s
3600 𝑠
walk a distance of 20 km? Average acceleration =
10𝑚/𝑠
= 0.4 m/s2
SOLUTION: 25𝑠
𝑑 20 𝑘𝑚
Time = = DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS OF FOUR BUSES IN MOTION
𝑠 4 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
Time = 5 hours • Motion graphs are useful tools that can tell you how far a body has
travelled, how fast it is moving, and all the speed changes that takes
A car takes 4 hours to cover a distance, if it travels at a speed of 40 place.
mph. What should be its speed to cover the same distance in 1.5 hours? • To measure the distance covered by a moving body from a starting
SOLUTION: position, say, every second, and then plot the values of the distance
Distance = time x speed or d = t x v covered against the corresponding time readings, one obtains a
Distance covered = 4hours x 40mph = 160 miles distance-time (d-t) graph.

Speed required to cover the same distance in 1.5 hours = 160/1.5

Speed = 106.67 mph

If a sprinter runs 100 m in 10 seconds, what is his average speed?

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
Average speed=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

100𝑚
Speed = = 10m/s
10𝑠

VELOCITY
• Velocity is a vector quantity and it is defined as the rate of change The distance-time graphs shown in Figure 7.8 describe the motion of
of displacement. the four buses as follows.
• Speed in a given direction is called velocity. 1. Bus A travels at a constant speed of 50m/s. The graph is a straight
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑
Average velocity = V= line which increases 50m on the y-axis (distance) for each 1s on the x-
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑡
axis (time).
VELOCITY SAMPLE PROBLEMS 2. Bus B travels at a higher constant speed of 100m/s. The graph is a
A man walks 7 km in 2 hours and 2 km in 1 hour in the same direction. straight line which is steeper and rises 100m on the y-axis for every 1s
What is the man's average velocity for the whole journey? on the x-axis.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 3. Bus C is accelerating. The speed rises, so the bus travels further each
Average velocity =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 second. The line curves upward.
7 𝑘𝑚 + 2 𝑘𝑚 9 𝑘𝑚
= = 4. Bus D has stopped. It is parked 50m from the starting point. So the
2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 + 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 3 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Average velocity = 3 km/h distance stays the same as time progresses.

John drove South 120 km at 60 km/h and then East 150 km at 50 You will notice that the slope of the d-t graph gives the speed of the
km/h. Determine what is the average velocity for the whole journey? body. Recall that the speed is the ratio of the total distance traveled to
SOLUTION: the time interval.
∆𝑦 ∆𝑑
The time t1 to cover 120 km at a speed of 60 km/h is given by Slope of d-t graph = =
120 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑡
t1 = = 2 hours Graph A has a slope of 50m/s, which is the speed of bus A. Graph B
60
The time t2 to cover 150 km at a speed of 50 km/h is given by has a higher slope of 100m/s which corresponds to the speed of bus B.
t2 =
150
= 3 hours The slope of graph C rises continuously indicating that the speed of bus
50
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
C increases. The slope of graph D is zero showing that bus D has
Average velocity = stopped. Note that graphical analysis can be used to describe the
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
120 𝑘𝑚+150 𝑘𝑚 270 𝑘𝑚 motion of an object. One can plot the distance traveled against time to
= =
2 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠+3 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
find the relationship between two quantities. The slope of this graph is
Average velocity = 54 km/h
equal to the speed of the moving object.
LESSON 7.5 Mass, Momentum, and Energy Conservation LESSON 8.2 The Photon Theory of Light

Mass, Weight, and Inertia:
• MASS and INERTIA
INERTIA - the resistance of a body to change its state of rest or
uniform motion. The mass of an object is a measure of inertia:
“The greater the mass, the greater the inertia.”
Under the photon theory of light, a photon is a discrete bundle (or
quantum) of electromagnetic (or light) energy. Photons are always in
motion and, in a vacuum, have a constant speed of light to all observers,
at the vacuum speed of light (more commonly just called the speed of
light) of c = 2.998 x 10 8 m/s or 3.0 x 10 8 m/s

• MASS and WEIGHT According to the photon theory of light, photons

MASS - more fundamental than weight • move at a constant velocity, c = 2.9979 x 10 8 m/s (i.e. "the speed of
- the measure of the actual material present in a body. Mass light"), in free space
depends only on the number and kind of atoms that compose • have zero mass and rest energy.
the body. • carry energy and momentum, which are also related to the frequency
WEIGHT - the gravitational force that acts on the material, and and wavelength of the electromagnetic wave by E = h nu and p = h /
depends on lambda.
where the object is located. • can have particle-like interactions (i.e. collisions) with electrons and
- measured in Newtons (N) other particles, such as in the Compton effect.

If a body falls freely, its weight gives it an acceleration of g. A photon is a particle of light. Each has an energy that is related to the
g = 9.8m/s2 frequency (f) of the light through Planck’s constant (h), or E=hf where
Weight = (mass)(gravitational acceleration) h=6.63x10 -34 Js.
W = mg “A higher frequency light has more energy than a lower frequency light.”

A body of greater mass has a greater resistance to acceleration. But a One example is a comparison between blue light and red light. Blue
bigger gravitational force also acts on it. In the same place on Earth light has a frequency of 6.5x10 14 Hz while red light has a frequency of
𝒘
they all fall freely with the same acceleration. Because g = , this 4.00x10 14 Hz. This means that blue light has a higher energy than red
𝒎
suggests that weight is directly proportional to mass. light.
The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. Its mass on Earth is the
same as its mass on the Moon or in space. However, the weight of a Ultraviolet light has a very high frequency. It is very energetic due to
body, W=mg, is the gravitational force acting on it and it varies from the large amount of photons it contains. Because of this, it is easy to be
place to place. sunburned when exposed to UV light. Visible light has a lower
frequency than UV light, so it is not easy to get burned by visible light.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Find the weight of 50 kg sack of rice. WAVELENGTH-SPEED-FREQUENCY RELATION
Given: mass of the sack of rice= 50kg
Required to find: weight of the sack of rice THE SPEED OF A WAVE
Solution: W=mg • is determined by the number of waves passing through a point at a
W=50kg (10m/s2) certain time interval and the length of the wave or the wavelength
W=500 kg.m/s2 or 500 N • is the product of its frequency and its wavelength.

MOMENTUM Speed = Frequency x wavelength or v = fƛ

• Linear momentum (p)
- strength of motion The speed of the wave is measured in meter per second, when the
- “p” comes from the Latin word “petere” - to go towards or rush upon frequency is measured in hertz (1/s) and the wavelength is measured in
- the quantity that measures the tendency of a body to continue in meters.
motion along a straight path.
- a vector quantity which has both magnitude and direction SAMPLE PROBLEM:
- defined as the product of the mass (m) of an object and its velocity (v). A ray of light is moving in a glass medium. Its velocity in the medium is
In mathematical form, p=mv found to be 2.8x10 8m/s. Find its frequency if its wavelength is 10
The unit of momentum is kilogram meter per second (kg.m/s) meters.
Given: v=2.8x10 8m/s, ƛ=10m
“The greater the mass and the velocity, the more difficult it is to change the object’s Required to find: frequency
speed or direction.” Solution: v = fƛ
f = v/ƛ
To change the momentum of an object, either the mass or the velocity 2.8𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠
f=
10𝑚
is changed, or both are changed. However, it is often the case that the
f = 2.8x107/s or 2.8x107Hz
mass remains unchanged, in which case the velocity changes. Change in
momentum therefore, is the product of the mass (m) and the change in
velocity.
Δp = mΔv

“The greater the net force applied on an object, the greater will be the change in
velocity, and hence, the change in momentum.”

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A bowling ball has a mass of 2kg. Find its change in momentum if it
changes in speed from 10m/s to 20m/s.

Given: m=2kg, v1=10m/s,v2=20m/s

Required to find: change in momentum, Δp
Solution: Δp = mΔv
Δp = 2kg (20m/s - 10m/s)
Δp = 20kg.m/s
LESSON 8.3 Electrons Can Behave Like Waves NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

How are dispersion, scattering, interference, and diffraction different 1. INERTIA

from one another?
DISPERSION OF LIGHT - path separation among the colors
SCATTERING OF LIGHT - the phenomenon that occurs when light
is absorbed and reradiated by particles in the air which are about the
size of gas molecules - when an initially unpolarized sunlight strikes a
molecule, electrons are accelerated and vibrate horizontally and
vertically. They are then reradiated as polarized light.
INTERFERENCE –
DIFFRACTION - the bending of light around corners of obstacles or
barriers - occurs when light waves pass through these obstacles or
barriers or through small openings - diffraction patterns are usually
viewed with the use of diffraction gratings consisting of a large number
of parallel, equally spaced lines or openings on a plastic sheet.
Diffraction gratings of about 6000 lines to 10 000 lines are common
“An object in motion will remain in motion, and an object at rest will
remain at rest, unless acted upon by force.”
2. “Net force is equal to mass times acceleration”
3. “For every action, there’s an equal but opposite reaction.”
Newton knew that however this gravitational force worked, it would
probably behave like any other net force on an object.
When an object is close to the Earth’s surface, like an apple in a tree,
gravity makes it accelerate at about 10 m per second squared.
Basically, things can move because there’s more going on than just the
action and reaction forces.

Contributions of some Scientists to our understanding of Electricity and FORCE OF GRAVITY Fg = mg

Magnetism
1. Benjamin Franklin Force depends on mass and velocity.
- understanding of the nature of electric charges and introduced the
terms positive and negative charges FREE BODY DIAGRAM
2. Charles Coulomb - Coulomb’s law of electrostatics FN – normal force
3. Hans Christian Oersted
- a magnetic field is due to the presence of electric current Fg – force of gravity
4. Andre Marie Ampere
- reported that two current-carrying wires exert forces on one another
5. Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart
- performed quantitative experiments on the force exerted by an electric
current on a nearby magnet
6. Michael Faraday
- discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction now called
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
7. James Clerk Maxwell - established the kinetic theory of gases

LESSON 9.1 Special Theory of Relativity

TWO PRINCIPLES
CONSISTENT LAW PRINCIPLE
The laws of Physics are the same in all frames of reference that are
moving at a constant velocity with the respect to one another.

CONSTANCY OF SPEED PRINCIPLE

The speed of light in empty space has the same magnitude for all
observed regardless of their velocity.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE POSTULATES OF THE SPECIAL

THEORY OF RELATIVITY
These principles have very interesting consequence if you are observing
from the ground. While on the ground, you will find that:
1. An object’s length shortens while moving
2. Clocks run slowly while moving
3. The mass of objects increases while moving

Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity is also called EINSTIEN’S

GEOMENTRUC THEORY OF RELATIVITY.

Mass can now be made to interact with space-time telling how to curve
and how to move.
In a curved space, gravitational interaction is considered a local event of
movement along a GEODESIC which is the shortest distance between
two points on a curved surface.

TWO POSTULATES
All laws of nature have the same form for observers in any frame of
references whether it is accelerated or not.
In the vicinity of any point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an
accelerated frame of references in the absence of gravitational effects.

-t 