SEMICONDUCTORS

Definition.

 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct
electrical current. Conductor is a material that easily conducts electricity while insulator is a
material that does not normally conduct current.

 Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a

good conductor and that of an insulator.

 The three semiconductors used most frequently in the construction of electronic

devices are Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs).

Characteristics and the P & N Layers

 Semiconductor atoms have four valence electrons. Silicon is most widely used semi-conductive
material.

 Semiconductor atoms bond together in a symmetrical pattern to form a solid material called a
crystal. The bonds that hold a crystal together are called covalent bonds. Within the crystal
structure, the valence electrons that manage to escape from their parent atom are called conducting
electrons or free electrons. They have more energy than electrons in the valence band and are free
to drift throughout the material. When an electron breaks away to become free, it leaves a hole in
the valence because the electron has acquired enough energy from external heat to break away from
its atom.

 A free electron will eventually lose energy and fall back into a hole. This is called recombination.

 The term intrinsic is applied to any semiconductor material that has been carefully
refined to reduce the number of impurities to a very low level—essentially as pure as
can be made available through modern technology.

 A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an
extrinsic material.

 The process of adding pentavalent or trivalent impurities to a semiconductor is called doping.

 An n-type semi-conductive material is created by adding impurity atoms that have five valence
electrons. These impurities are pentavalent atoms. Diffused impurities with five valence electrons
are called donor atoms. The number of electrons far outweighs the number of holes. For this reason,
the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole is the minority carrier.

 A p-type semiconductor is created by adding impurity atoms with only three valence electrons.
These impurities are trivalent atoms. The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms. For the p-type material the number of holes far outweighs the number of electrons.
For this reason, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.

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 PN JUNCTION DIODES

Definition.

The semiconductor diode, with

applications too numerous to mention, is
created by simply joining an n-type and a p-type
material together, nothing more, just the
joining of one material with a majority carrier of
electrons to one with a majority carrier of
holes.

Biasing.

The term bias refers to the application of an external voltage across

the two terminals of the device to extract a response.

 No Applied Bias ( V= 0 V)

The region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due
to the “depletion” of free carriers in the region.

In the absence of an applied bias across a semiconductor diode, the net flow of charge
in one direction is zero.

 Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V) & Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)

1. The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse saturation
current and is represented by IS.
2. When forward-biased, a diode conducts current. The free electrons in the n region move across
the pn junction and combine with the holes in the p region.
3. To forward-bias a diode, the positive side of an external bias voltage is applied to the p region and
the negative side to the n region.
4. To reverse-bias a diode, the positive side of an external bias voltage is applied to the n region and
the negative side to the p region.
5. When reverse-biased, a diode does not conduct current except for an extremely small reverse
current.
6. The depletion region for forward bias is much narrower than for reverse bias.
7. Majority carrier current is produced by forward bias.
8. Reverse current is produced by the minority carriers.
9. Reverse breakdown occurs when the reverse-bias voltage equals or exceeds the breakdown of
voltage of the pn junction of a diode.
10. Avalanche is the rapid multiplication of current carriers in reverse breakdown.
11. An ideal diode represents open when reverse-biased and short when forward-biased.

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RECTIFIER

 Half-wave rectifier – a circuit that converts an AC sinusoidal input voltage into pulsating dc voltage
with one output pulses occurring for each input cycle.
 Full-wave rectifier – a circuit that converts an AC sinusoidal input voltage into pulsating dc voltage
with two output pulses occurring for each input cycle.
 Bridge rectifier – a type of full-wave rectifier consisting of diodes arranged in four-cornered
configuration.
 Center-tapped rectifier – a type of full-wave rectifier consisting of a center-tapped transformer and
two diodes.
 The single diode in a half-wave rectifier is forward biased and conducts for 180° of the input cycle.
 The output frequency of half-wave rectifier equals the input frequency.
 PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) is the maximum voltage appearing across the diode in reverse bias.
 The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice the input frequency.
 The peak output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is approximately one-half of the total
peak secondary voltage less one diode drop.

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 The PIV for each diode in a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is twice the peak output voltage plus one
diode drop.
 The peak output of a bridge rectifier equals the total peak secondary voltage less two diode drops.
 The PIV for each diode in a bridge rectifier is approximately half that required for an equivalent center-
tapped configuration and is equal to the peak output voltage plus one diode drop.

ZENER DIODE

A Zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for operation in the reverse-
breakdown region.

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 The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown.
 There are two breakdown mechanisms in a zener diode: avalanche breakdown and zener breakdown.
 Avalanche breakdown occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage.
Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage
 When VZ < 5 V, zener breakdown is predominant.
 When VZ > 5 V, avalanche breakdown is predominant.
 A zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of zener
currents.
 Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators and limiters.
 Zener diodes are available in many voltage ratings ranging from 1.8 V to 200 V.

VARACTOR DIODE

A varactor is a diode that always operates in reverse-bias and is doper top maximize the inherent
capacitance of the depletion region. The depletion region, widened by the reverse bias, acts as a capacitor
dielectric because of its nonconductive characteristic. The p and n regions are conductive and act as the
capacitor plates.

 A varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor under reverse-bias conditions.

 The capacitance of a varactor varies inversely with reverse-bias voltage.
 Capacitance Tolerance Range. The minimum and maximum values of CT are based on 10%
tolerance.
 The varactor tuning ratio is called the capacitance ratio. It is the ratio of the diode capacitance at a
minimum reverse voltage to the diode capacitance at a maximum reverse voltage.
 The figure of merit or quality factor ( Q ) of a reactive component is the ratio of stored and then
returned by a capacitor (or inductor) to the energy dissipated in the resistance. The IN5139 has a

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 minimum Q of 350 at VR = 4 V, which indicates that the energy stored and returned by the diode
capacitance is 350 times greater than the energy lost in the resistance of the device.
 Temperature Coefficients. The diode capacitance has a positive temperature coefficient so CT
increases a small amount as the temperature increases. The figure of merit has a negative temperature
coefficient, so Q decreases as the temperature increases.

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OPTICAL DIODES
 An LED (Light-emitting diode) emits light when forward-biased.
 LEDs are available for either infrared or visible light.
 The photodiode exhibits an increase in reverse current with light intensity.

 LED (LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES) AND IR (INFRARED) EMITTING DIODES

All diodes emit some electromagnetic radiation when forward biased. Diodes made from certain
semiconductors (like Gallium Arsenide Phosphide) emit considerably more radiation than silicon
diodes. They’re called Light-Emitting Diodes.

 When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and
recombine with holes in the p-type material. These free electrons are in the conduction band and at
a higher energy than the holes in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the
recombining electrons release energy in the form of heat and light.
 A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semi-conductive material permits the photons to
be emitted as visible light. This process is called electroluminiscence.
 Various impurities are added during the doping process to establish the wavelength of the emitted
light. The emitted light determines the color of the light and if it is visible or infrared (IR).

 LED Semiconductor Materials The semiconductor gallium arsenide (GaAs) was used
in early LEDs and emits IR radiation, which is invisible. The first visible red LEDs were
produced using gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) on a GaAs substrate. The efficiency
was increased using a gallium phosphide (GaP) substrate, resulting in brighter red LEDs
and also allowing orange LEDs. Later, GaP was used as the light-emitter to achieve pale green light.
By using a red and a green chip, LEDs were able to produce yellow light. The first super-bright red,
yellow, and green LEDs were produced using gallium aluminum arsenide phosphide (GaAlAsP).
By the early 1990s ultrabright LEDs using indium gallium aluminum phosphide (InGaAlP) were
available in red, orange, yellow, and green.

 LED Biasing The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon diode.
Typically, the maximum VF for LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on
the material. Reverse breakdown for an LED is much less than for a silicon rectifier diode
(3 V to 10 V is typical). An increase in IF corresponds proportionally to an
increase in light output. The light output (both intensity and color) is also dependent on temperature.
Light intensity goes down with higher temperature as indicated in the figure.

 Light Emission An LED emits light over a specified range of wavelengths. The curves in part (a)
represent the light output versus wavelength for typical visible LEDs, and the curve in part (b) is for a
typical infrared LED (See the figure at the bottom part next page). The wavelength is expressed in
nanometers (nm). The normalized output of the visible red LED peaks at 660 nm, the yellow at 590
nm, green at 540 nm, and blue at 460 nm. The output for the infrared LED peaks at 940 nm.

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  One common application of an infrared LED is in remote control units for TV, DVD, gate
openers, etc. The IR LED sends out a beam of invisible light that is sensed by the receiver in
your TV, for example. For each button on the remote control unit, there is a unique code. When
a specific button is pressed, a coded electrical signal is generated that goes to the LED, which
converts the electrical signal to a coded infrared light signal. The TV receiver recognizes the

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 code and takes appropriate action, such as changing the channel or increasing the volume.
Also, IR light-emitting diodes are used in optical coupling applications, often in conjunction with
fiber optics. Areas of application include industrial processing and control,
position encoders, bar graph readers, and optical switching.

 High-Intensity LEDs. LEDs that produce much greater light outputs than standard LEDs are
found in many applications including traffic lights, automotive lighting, indoor and outdoor
advertising and informational signs, and home lighting.

 PHOTODIODE

All diodes respond to some degree when illuminated by light. Diodes designed specifically to
detect light are called photodiodes. They include a glass or plastic window through which the light
enters. Often they have a large, exposed junction region. Silicon makes good photodiodes.

The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias where 𝐼𝜆 is the reverse light current.
Recall that when reverse-biased, a rectifier diode has a very small reverse leakage current. The
same is true for a photodiode. The reverse-biased current is produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs in the depletion region, which are swept across the pn junction by the electric
field created by the reverse voltage. In a rectifier diode, the reverse leakage current increases with
temperature due to an increase in the number of electron-hole pairs. A photodiode differs from a
rectifier diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the

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 light intensity. When there is no incident light, the reverse current, is almost negligible and is called
the dark current. An increase in the amount of light intensity, expressed as irradiance (mW/cm2),
produces an increase in the reverse current.

TUNNEL DIODE

 The tunnel diode exhibits a special characteristic known as negative resistance. This feature makes
it useful in oscillator and microwave amplifier applications. Tunnel diodes are constructed with
germanium or gallium arsenide by doping the p and n regions much more heavily than in a
conventional rectifier diode. This heavy doping results in an extremely narrow depletion region.
The heavy doping allows conduction for all reverse voltages so that there is no breakdown effect
as with the conventional rectifier diode. Also, the extremely narrow depletion region permits
electrons to “tunnel” through the pn junction at very low forward-bias voltages, and the diode acts
as a conductor. This is shown in the figure below between points A and B. At point B, the forward
voltage begins to develop a barrier, and the current begins to decrease as the forward voltage
continues to increase. This is the negative-resistance region.

∆𝑉𝐹
𝑅𝐹 =
∆𝐼𝐹

This effect is opposite to that described in Ohm’s law, where an increase in voltage results
in an increase in current. At point C, the diode begins to act as a conventional forward biased diode.

DIODES SYMBOLS

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