Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Fatigue failure of a Slickline wire induced by corrosion pits

W. Hormaza a,⇑, G.M. Castro Güiza b, L.M. Méndez Moreno c
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Campus Universitário Trindade, CP 476,
CEP 88040-900, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
b
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universidad de los Andes, Cr 1 Este No. 19A40, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
c
Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering Department, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Cra 30 N°45-03 Ed. 411 Of. 205, Bogotá D.C., Colombia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A Slickline wire failed after nearly 400 h of service. In order to find out the main causes and
Received 24 June 2013 the sequence of this failure, a detailed analysis was carried out on a fracture fragment of
Received in revised form 22 November 2013 this component. This analysis revealed that the operation of the wire produced a series
Accepted 5 December 2013
of superficial discontinuities, comprising corrosion pits, fatigue cracking and wear grooves,
Available online 12 December 2013
that provided several stress raisers which served as the initiation point for the failure.
Additionally, the manufacturing process introduced some longitudinal cracks that helped
Keywords:
in the propagation of the final fracture. Finally, due to the presence of dimples in the last
Fatigue failure
High tensile wire
portion of the failure, it could be concluded that the ductility of the material was not
Pitting corrosion compromised.
Surface cracks Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Wear

1. Introduction

A Slickline is a high strength steel wire used to collect samples, perform services and deliver tools into an oil well [1,2]. In
order to do so, this component must withstand conditions including corrosive environments, adhesive and abrasive wear,
and fatigue loads. These conditions, which are usually combined, have been recognized by many authors as common causes
of failure of steel wires and ropes used in different applications [3–9].
For example, Nürnberger [3] pointed out that surface roughness is one of the most important factors relating to the fa-
tigue resistance of steel wires, due to the increased notch sensitivity presented by high strength materials. Furthermore, pit-
ting corrosion, as a localized surface damage, is identified as a very deleterious factor that leads to preferential nucleation
points for fatigue cracking in carbon steel wires. Another example is the work made by Verpoest et al. [4], which stated that
the most relevant factors regarding the fatigue resistance of steel wires are the decarburization and the surface roughness of
the component. Finally, studies such as the ones made by Lambrighs et al. [5], and Beretta and Matteazzi [6] demonstrated
that manufacturing induced surface defects as small as 5–25 lm in depth could initiate fatigue cracks that led to a cata-
strophic failure of pearlitic high strength steel wires.
Regarding the fatigue failures of steel wires, Toribio and Valiente [7] found that, in highly drawn pearlitic steel wires used
in the manufacturing of prestressed concrete, failures present a mixed propagation mode. This propagation starts as a pre-
crack, which grows in a direction perpendicular to the drawing axis of the wire (Mode I) during the stable crack growth stage.

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica, Bloco A Campus Universitário, Caixa Postal 476, CEP 88040-900 Florianópolis,
SC, Brazil. Tel.: +55 (48) 3721 9415; fax: +55 (48) 3721 4120.
E-mail addresses: wilsonhormaza@gmail.com (W. Hormaza), gm.castro72@gmail.com (G.M. Castro Güiza), lmmendezm@unal.edu.co (L.M. Méndez
Moreno).

1350-6307/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2013.12.001
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 97

Fig. 1. General view of the fractured fragment. The concave and convex sides are defined.

Then, during the unstable crack growth, the propagation direction changes from perpendicular to parallel to the drawing axis
of the wire.
These findings are in agreement with other studies, such as the one made by Toribio [8] and Toribio et al. [9]. The first
study concluded that the change in the propagation direction of fatigue fractures in drawn pearlitic wires is caused by
the aligned structure of highly cold drawn pearlite wires; and takes place either in anomalous pearlite colonies, which have
high interlamelar spacing, or in microcracks and defects consisting of prefractured plates which are caused by a very high
stress imposed on the manufacturing process [8]. The second study showed that the microscopic morphology of the overload
fracture surface changes from brittle cleavage, on hot rolled pearlitic steels, to a mixture of microvoid coalescence (dimpled
fracture) and brittle cleavage, on highly cold drawn pearlitic steels. It also revealed that the amount of dimples on the frac-
ture surface of the wire increases as the drawing process becomes more aggressive. Finally, it affirmed that residual stresses
were imposed by the manufacturing process on the wire [9]. These stresses were compressive on the core, and tensile on the
surface of the component.
The present study investigates the probable failure causes and fracture sequence of a Slickline, which withstood nearly
400 h of service. During its last duty, the wire was being used to retrieve a sampler device from an oil well.

2. Materials and methods

One of the fractured fragments of the Slickline (Figs. 1 and 2), having a measured length and diameter of 850 mm and
2.68 mm respectively, was characterized in order to evaluate the material and the manufacturing process. Also, a fracto-
graphic examination was carried out with the purpose of establishing the failure causes and sequence. Finally, a finite ele-
ment simulation was implemented to explore the effect of the loading conditions on the fracture of the Slickline. The
techniques employed on these analyses are shown in Table 1.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Chemical composition

The results obtained both from the fractured and the undamaged regions (Table 2 and Fig. 1) revealed a homogeneous
chemical composition corresponding to a high carbon steel. Moreover, the content of sulphur and phosphorus impurities

Fig. 2. Detailed view of fracture. The concave and convex sides are recalled.
98 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

Table 1
Experimental and analytical techniques employed in this study.

Stage Techniques description

Chemical composition The quantitative chemical composition of the Slickline was assessed using a Thermo ARL Quantodesk OES spectrometer
Microstructural analysis Metallographic samples from the wire were taken and prepared according to ASTM E3 standard. Those specimens were
observed both before and after chemical etching using an Olympus BX-51M optical microscope and a Phillips Quanta 200
scanning electronic microscope. The images obtained were analysed by an analysisFive image analysing software
Mechanical properties An ASTM E8 tensile test was carried out in two specimens cut from the wire. In them, the strain was measured as the cross
head displacement, as a suitable extensometer was not available. These tensile tests were complemented with
microhardness measurements carried out on the cross section of the component following the ASTM E384 standard
Fractographical analysis Macro and microfractographical examinations of the fracture surface and its surrounding areas were carried out. These
observations were made using an Olympus SZX9 stereomicroscope and a Phillips Quanta 200 scanning electronic
microscope
Finite element Three loading conditions were modelled with the purpose of assessing the mechanical behaviour of the Slickline. The FES
simulation (FES) was implemented in AnsysÒ WorkbenchÒ 14.5

Table 2
Chemical composition of the wire, obtained both from the fractured (FR) and the undamaged (UD) regions (weight percentage).

Elementa C Si Mn P S Cu
UD 0.96 0.28 0.77 0.03 0.03 0.12
0.94 0.42 0.76 0.02 0.03 0.11
FR 0.99 0.28 0.82 0.04 0.06 0.11
a
Fe was in mass balance.

Fig. 3. Curly grain structure found on the transversal view of the Slickline 1000.

inside the Slickline was low. Both characteristics are common and desirable in the materials used in the production of high-
strength steel wires [10,11].

3.2. Microstructural analysis

The microstructure found on the Slickline was composed by a curly grain morphology (Fig. 3), on the transverse view, and
by a highly oriented structure (Fig. 4), on the longitudinal view. In both cases, the structures were made of a very fine pearlite
(Fig. 5), with an interlaminar spacing in the order of 150 nm (Fig. 6). This microstructure is characteristic of a manufacturing
process consisting of a patenting heat treatment and a cold drawing, both giving a remarkable strength and an acceptable
ductility to the wire [10–12].
On the other hand, three types of discontinuities were found on the wire: (i) superficial transverse cracks, with lengths
between 100 and 150 lm were observed (Figs. 4 and 7), (ii) a few longitudinal cracks (Figs. 6 and 8), with a maximum size of
900 lm, were found on the centre of the wire and (iii) a large number of pits were detected on the surface of the Slickline
(Figs. 4 and 7). Transversal cracks were usually initiated in these pits and ran through the material, producing an approxi-
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 99

Fig. 4. Highly orientated structure found on the longitudinal view of the Slickline. Some defects (corrosion pits and cracks) are shown 100.

Fig. 5. Curly grain structure, evidencing the pearlite plates. 10,000.

Fig. 6. Highly oriented pearlitic structure, where the alternated lamellae are completely resolved. It is also shown a longitudinal crack 23,000.
100 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

Fig. 7. Superficial defects found on the Slickline: transversal cracks and corrosion pits 100, unetched sample.

Fig. 8. Longitudinal internal cracks found on the wire 1500, etched sample.

mate defect depth of 100 lm. The morphological differences and distinct distributions of these three types of discontinuities
indicate that they have diverse causes:

 Fatigue: Transverse cracks, either superficial or originated from pits, have a planar morphology, indicating a mode I prop-
agation that has been previously observed in patented and drawn wires [8,9].
 Corrosion: Corrosion pits are a common environmental attack suffered by high strength steel wires. These pits are com-
mon initiation sites for fatigue cracking [3].
 Manufacturing Defects: Longitudinal cracks could be generated by the very high stresses applied on the Slickline during
the cold drawing. These stresses produce fractures on the pearlite plates [8].

In order to evaluate the severity of the discontinuities found on the Slickline, it is necessary to take into account the load-
ing conditions imposed by the operation. Since the wire was being used for lifting tools and equipment from the well, tensile
stresses would be expected. Also, due to the coiling and uncoiling operations in the sheaves and pulleys, bending stresses
might have been common in the operation. These loading conditions can easily propagate the transversal cracks found on
the Slickline, thus becoming the most severe defects on the material.

3.3. Mechanical properties

The tensile test carried out on the material showed an ultimate tensile strength of 1744 MPa (Fig. 9). This value reveal a
diminished loading carrying capacity compared to the data usually reported [10,11]. With the purpose of explaining this re-
duced mechanical strength, the specimen was examined fractographically.
The fracture surface of the tensile specimen (Fig. 10) revealed some fatigue cracks that were present in the wire prior to
the test. These cracks are readily identified by their planar morphology and by their semi elliptical shape, which are common
features in the initial states of a fatigue fracture in these steels [7,9]. Additionally, there were found some ratchet marks asso-
ciated to each fatigue crack, therefore indicating that they were originated by multiple nucleation sites. This can be related to
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 101

Fig. 9. Stress–strain curve obtained from the Slickline wire.

Fig. 10. General view of the fracture surface of the tensile test specimen. Four fatigue cracks can be observed (ratchet marks inside the cracks) 78.

Fig. 11. Microhardness measurements carried out on the transversal plane of the Slickline wire.

the multiple defects that were previously found (Figs. 4 and 6–8). On the other hand, the presence of these cracks markedly
reduces the mechanical properties of any component, thus explaining the poor strength found in the wire.
The microhardness measurements obtained from the transversal plane of the wire (Fig. 11) showed that the mechanical
properties of the Slickline were homogeneous throughout the cross section of the component, thus discarding any decarbu-
rization problem that might have arisen during the conformation of the wire.

3.4. Fractographical analysis

The fractographical examination of the failure revealed four distinct regions on the fracture surface (Fig. 12). The first and
second regions were in a transversal plane of the wire while the third and fourth ones were in the axial direction. There was
102 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

Fig. 12. General view of the fracture surface of the Slickline (four analysis regions) 80.

Fig. 13. General view of the discontinuities found on the first region 48.

Fig. 14. Detailed view of the first and second regions of the fracture. Two discontinuities (D), and the surface morphology of the 2nd region are shown 600.
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 103

Fig. 15. Surface morphology of the second region. Some dimples can be clearly resolved 2500.

Fig. 16. General view of the third and fourth regions on the fracture surface. The crack propagation in this area is clearly longitudinal 50.

Fig. 17. Lateral view of the failure surface, illustrating the propagation directions of the fracture: radial (R, 1st and 2nd regions) and axial (A, 3rd and 4th
regions) 24.
104 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

Fig. 18. Detailed view of the fourth region, showing a distinct smooth surface 300.

Fig. 19. Detailed view of the surface of the fourth region. A smooth surface (no evidence of dimples) 5000.

Fig. 20. Examination of the surface of the Slickline, showing a corrosion pit, wear grooves and a crack initiating in one defect 240.
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 105

Fig. 21. Tiny cracks (cross-checks) found on the surface of the wire 1200.

Table 3
Discontinuities analysed in the FE model.

No Shape Radius (mm) Description

1 Semi-circular
2 Semi-circular
3 Semi-circular
4 Ellipsoidal
5 Ellipsoidal
0.1 Superficial pre-crack (Fig. 13)
0.2 Superficial pre-crack (Fig. 13)
0.28 Superficial pre-crack (Fig. 13)
Minor: 0.28, major: 0.75 Crack front of the joined pre-cracks
Minor: 0.45, major: 1.5 Last crack front before the change in the propagation direction

Fig. 22. Equivalent stresses (in MPa) found on the discontinuity No. 1, for the first loading condition. The black regions exceeded the tensile strength of the
component.

also identified an area where the fracture surface was badly deformed, as a consequence of a mechanical damage that prob-
ably occurred after the failure (Fig. 12).
The first region, which was located on the convex side of the Slickline, presented several superficial discontinuities
(Fig. 13) that were originated separately. These defects might have been produced by pitting corrosion, which could have
been induced by the working environment [3]. Once generated, the corrosion pits initiated fatigue cracking due to the high
stresses imposed by the coiling and uncoiling operations of the wire around the sheaves and pulleys. Then, after several
106 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

Fig. 23. Equivalent stresses (in MPa) found on the discontinuity No. 2, for the first loading condition. The black regions exceeded the tensile strength of the
component.

Fig. 24. Equivalent stresses (in MPa) found on the discontinuity No. 3, for the first loading condition. The black regions exceeded the tensile strength of the
component.

working cycles, the defects joined together to generate a single crack front, which propagated transversally through the cross
section of the Slickline (Fig. 14).
The second region was characterized by a dimpled morphology (Figs. 14 and 15), which is commonly found on the over-
load stage of fatigue fractures of heavily drawn pearlitic steel wires [7–9].
The third region (Fig. 16) showed a marked change in the fracture propagation direction, from a radial to an axial direc-
tion (Fig. 17). This happened due to the alignment of the pearlite plates parallel with the drawing axis and it is common in
fatigue failures of patented and cold drawn wires [7–9]. Besides, it could also be linked to the longitudinal cracking that was
observed in the wire.
The fourth region, surrounding the third zone (Fig. 16), revealed a planar and smooth surface (Fig. 18). There was no evi-
dence of dimples or any other characteristic of ductility (Fig. 19). This could be related to residual stresses imposed by the
drawing process on the wire, which might have not been efficiently relieved during the fabrication of the Slickline [9].
Starting from this failure hypothesis, a detailed observation was carried out on the surface of the wire in order to search
for discontinuities on the adjacent regions of the fracture. Three different defects on the surface were found. First of all,
several corrosion pits were observed (Fig. 20). Some of this pits initiated transverse cracks, as it was previously seen.
Second of all, very small transverse cracks were detected (Fig. 21), which might be related to a drawing process defect called
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 107

Fig. 25. Equivalent stresses (in MPa) found on the discontinuity No. 4, for the first loading condition. The black regions exceeded the tensile strength of the
component.

Fig. 26. Equivalent stresses (in MPa) found on the discontinuity No. 5, for the first loading condition. The black regions exceeded the tensile strength of the
component.

cross-checks [13]. Finally, numerous wear scars were found (Fig. 20), indicating that the wire was being operated in an abra-
sive environment.

3.5. Finite element simulation

A FEM of the mechanical behaviour of the wire was implemented in order to assess the relationship between the growth
of the several defects found on the fracture surface and the cyclic loading conditions imposed on the Slickline. To do so, the
equivalent stress (r) and the stress intensity factor (KI) were found for five discontinuities with different size and shape
(Table 3).
The implemented FE model for the analyses consisted of a 40 mm long wire fragment. In the middle of this fragment, one
of the aforesaid defects was placed. Then, two loading conditions were imposed. The first one consisted of a bending moment
of 2.1 Nm and a tension of 800 N, and represented the instant when the Slickline was passing through a pulley of 500 mm in
diameter. In the second one, only the tensile load was applied and modelled the moment when the wire was into the oil well,
carrying some representative weight.
108 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109

Table 4
KI, DK and da/dn for the five discontinuities analysed.
p p
Discontinuity Maximum KI (MPa m) DK (MPa m) da/dna (mm/cycle)
Condition 1 Condition 2
1 16.0 1.8 14.2 2  105
2 22.9 2.7 20.2 3  105
3 27.0 3.2 23.8 6  105
4 31.3 4.0 27.3 8  105
5 40.0 5.6 34.4 2  104
a
Estimated from the experimental values obtained by Toribio et al. [15].

Fig. 27. Root cause analysis for the failure of the Slickline wire.

The equivalent stresses obtained for the first load condition in the five cracks (Figs. 22–26) clearly revealed that the ten-
sile strength of the material was exceeded,1 thus producing the propagation of the analysed discontinuities. However, the
stress intensity factor for this condition (Table 4) showed that only the fifth crack could grow unstably, since its KI is equal
to a critical value that produces a change in the propagation direction, from radial to axial, in cold drawn pearlitic wires
[14]. This change happens when the crack front encounters either anomalous pearlite colonies [8] or axial defects [8] such
as the ones that were previously found in the Slickline (Figs. 6 and 8). On the other hand, the other four discontinuities could
have had a stable fatigue growth, as observed from the DKI values, with an estimated rate ranging from 2  105 to
2  104 mm/cycle (Table 4).

3.6. Discussion

After all the experimental evidence was collected and analysed, two relevant factors were identified as possible contrib-
uting causes to the catastrophic failure of the Slickline. In order of importance, they were: (i) numerous superficial discon-
tinuities that served as initiation points for transverse cracks; and (ii) internal defects that reduced the strength of the
component and contributed to the change of the propagation direction of the fracture. These factors could be related to
the manufacturing process and the operating conditions of the wire (Fig. 27).
Regarding the failure mechanism, the evidence revealed that a fatigue phenomenon occurred in several points along the
wire, as the tensile test specimens confirmed. This mechanism agrees with the cyclic loading conditions imposed by the fold-
ing and unfolding operations that usually take place during normal service (Fig. 27). Finally, fatigue failures can be originated
and accelerated by the existence of stress raisers, such as the discontinuities found on the Slickline, thus explaining the pre-
mature failure of the wire.

4. Conclusions

A detailed analysis was carried out on a fragment of a Slickline wire, in order to assess its probable failure causes. Based
on its results, it was possible to conclude that the probable cause of failure was the presence of several defects on the surface
of the wire, comprising corrosion pits and wear grooves. These discontinuities produced fatigue cracks, which propagated
into the wire until its catastrophic fracture. Finally, the manufacturing process of the Slickline induced several longitudinal
cracks that contributed to the premature failure of the component, thus becoming a secondary failure mechanism.

1
The tensile strength of the Slickline was 2050MPa, as taken from [11].
 W. Hormaza et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 37 (2014) 96–109 109

Acknowledgements

The work made by the laboratories of the mechanical engineering department of the Universidad de los Andes (Colom-
bia), the validation tests carried out by the laboratories of the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC, Brazil) and the
assistance of the electronic microscopy laboratory of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia is kindly recognized by the
authors.

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