24

Chapter – 2

LITERATURE
SURVEY
 25

2.0 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

Classification is a method of separating mixtures of particles of different sizes,

shapes, and specific gravities into two or more products based on difference in their
settling velocities in a medium. The medium may be fluid, air or gas (Cho et al.,
2004;Crespo .E.F .,2009; Doroodchi et al.,2002; Doroodchi et al.,2004; Doroodchi
et al.,2006;Egarr et al., 2009; Eisenmann et al., 2001; Elder et al.,1999 ). For
industrial operations water medium is preferred when sizes treated are finer
(Crespo.E.F.,2009; Doroodchi et al.,2002).

2.1 Role of classification in mineral processing

Specific size ranges of particles are desired for a particular unit operation to achieve
the optimum separation efficiency for which classification plays a significant role in
the mineral industry. Few of these advantages are

 For closed circuit comminution of most lean grade ores/sulphide bearing

minerals, rock phosphates, etc.

 For removal of the slime prior to flotation operation.

 For improving the separation efficiency of the gravity concentration units such
as spiral concentrator, wet tables etc. in processing of chromite, manganese, iron
and other heavy mineral industries.

 For producing high solid concentration feed to dewatering units prior to

filtration

Presently the processing plants are designed to treat intermediate size particles
requiring fine grinding for improved liberations. Therefore fine particle
classification is becoming complicated with conventional classifiers. This has
necessitated to the development of an efficient classifying unit for the recovery of
fine particle values. Despite significant research work in the area of hindered
 26

settling classification, the focus towards the FDS or Teeter Bed Separators has to be
amplified. The detailed conducted on of these units reveals that there exists an
avenue to improve their classifying performance.

2.2 Fundamentals of classification

A particle attains constant acceleration when it falls in vacuum irrespective of its

size and density, (Richards, R., and Locke; C.E., 1940; Taggart 1945). This
behavior is quite unlike in a medium, such as air or water, where the resistance
increases with the velocity until equilibrium between gravitational and fluid
resistance is achieved called terminal velocity. Technically, the terminal velocity is
defined as that maximum velocity at which the drag force equals the driving force
(Taggart 1945). Under viscous or laminar flow; Stokes has shown that, the terminal
settling velocities ( VT ) for fine particles of size less than 100 µm can be expressed
as:
2    'r 2 g
VT  (1)
9 
In other words VT  r 2 (2)
The settling velocity of coarse sized particles above 1000 µm micron, as given by
Newton is,

  8 Q     '  
VT    g  r  (3)
  3   '  

Indicating VT  r (4)
In mineral processing, the intermediate regime (2000 μm to 100 μm) of particle size
(where neither Stokes nor Newton’s law is applicable) is of considerable
importance. In this region, the predominating drag force changes from skin drag
(drag due to surface roughness) to form drag (viscous pressure drag) and many
equations have been developed to correlate drag coefficient and Reynolds number
(Allen 1990; Wiesenberger et al., 1923). One such type is
 27

Cd = (0.63+ (4.8/√Re)) 2 (5)

Many alternative methods have been proposed by different researchers for
calculating the terminal settling velocities of particles. Dietrich derived a correlation
where shape and angularity factors have been incorporated (Gupta et al., 2006) and
expressed as:

W = (VT3*ρ’2)/ ((ρ – ρ’) g µ) (6)

Dietrich's dimensionless parameters are related by the expression:
W = R310R1+R2 (7)

Where R1 = Coefficient describing the effect of particle density and is given by

R1 = -3.76715 + 1.92944 (log D) - 0.09815 (log D)2 - 0.00575 (log D)3
+ 0.00056 (log D)4 (8)
Where D can be defined as:
D = ((ρ- ρ’) gdN3 *ρ’)/ µ2 (9)

Where dN = nominal diameter of the largest projected area. An irregular particle will
settle in a stable orientation when the largest projected area is perpendicular to the
settling direction.

R2 = Coefficient describing the effect of particle shape mathematically expressed as:

Log ((1-(1-CSF)/0.85) (10)
CSF = Corey shape factor = dmin/ (dmax* dmid) 1/2
and
 3.5 P 
 1 
  CSF   2.5 
R3   0.65   tanhlog D  4.6  (11)
  2.83 
P = Powers roundness factor, equal to 6 for perfect rounded particles (spheres)
and 2-3 for highly angular particles.

Jimenez and Madsen simplified Dietrich's approach defining the dimensionless

parameters (Gupta et al., 2006) as
 28

vT
V*  (12)
   ' 
  gd
 ' 
and

S* 
d '    'gd (13)
4 '
A linear regression between (1/V*) and (1/S*) gave the equation:
1 B
*
 A * (14)
V S
The coefficients A and B allowed a solution for the drag coefficient
2
1 16 B 
C D   A  A2  (15)
3  Re 

Any particle settling in a medium, depending on its surroundings, may undergo free
or hindered settling.

2.2.1 Free Settling

When individual particles fall freely in a medium without getting obstructed by

other particles in the near vicinity, it is termed as free settling. In free settling, the
particle velocity is controlled by gravity; drag and dominated friction creates
medium resistance. The equipment operating in this condition is merely a sizing
device to support the comminution circuits. The exterior fluid flow patterns of
medium resistance are related to the Reynolds number (Re). Particle free settling
velocity is defined as (Gui et al., 2010).
y z
   '  
VT  kd 
x
   (16)
 '  
The values of constants ( k , x, y and z) vary based on Reynolds number, as
tabulated in the Table 2.1. Figure 2.1 shows the particles of different sizes and
specific gravities settle under free settling conditions (Subba Rao 2011).
 29

Table 2.1 - Parameters of particle settling under free settling condition

(Gui et al., 2010).
Name k x y z Re
Stoke’s law 54.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 0 – 0.50
Transition Zone
23.6 1.5 5/6 2/3 0.5 - 30
(Initial Segment)1.5
Allen’s Law 25.8 1.0 2/3 1/3 30 – 300
Transition Zone
37.2 2/3 5/9 1/9 300 – 3000
(End Segment)
Newton’s Law 54.2 0.5 0.5 0 >3000

2.2.2 Hindered Settling

The particle of mixed sizes, shapes and specific gravities, in a crowded mass, are
sorted in a rising current of water and is not strictly a sizing operation alone but a
concentrating operation, is called hindered settling. From the Figure 2.1, it is
evident that heavier (or lighter) particles can be separated when they settle by
hindered settling as the effect of specific gravity gets amplified. As the particle
concentration and particle size increases the forces closely related to particle
movement, such as order of different resistance magnitude, mass force, force
between particles and effective gravity gradually increases.

A B
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of particle settling by (A) free (B) hindered settling
conditions.
 30

Forces acting on particles undergoing hindered settling are described (Gui et al.,
2010; Li, and Zhang, 1992; Yao 1992; Luo and Zhao, 2002; Wei 2002) below

i. Gravity force:
The force of gravity is exerted by the gravitational field of a massive object on a
body within the vicinity of its surface and is defined as
1
Fg  d 3 g (17)
6
ii. Buoyancy Force:
It is a force exerted by a fluid that opposes an object's weight. In a column of
fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying
fluid given by
1
Fb  d 3  ' g (18)
6
iii. Compressive Stress:
It is force which developed in moving particles in flow under a pressure
gradient, not only develop resistance caused by fluid flow, but also pressure
gradient force defined as
1  '
FP  d 2 (19)
3 x
If acceleration of particles and fluid is more or less the same, the pressure
gradient force is smaller and can be ignored.

iv. Resistance:
This is related to the particle motion and defined as:
Fd  3d f  v f  vc  (20)

v. Added Mass Force:

This is numerically equal to fluid quality with same volume of particles, along
with half of the inertial force of particles acting on the same acceleration, and
closely relate to particle movement
 31

Fa   12d 3  '
d
v f  vs  (21)
dt
vi. Basset Force:
This refers to resistance of particles forced on hard phases of acceleration (or
non stable movement) in viscous fluid and is defined as
dvt dvs
t 
2 2
FB  d  ' V  dt dt (22)
3 0 t 1
vii. Magnus Force:
This force is lateral force caused by particle spinning and defined as

FM  d 3  ' V f  Vs 
1
(23)
8
viii. Saffman Force:

When particles move in a flow field with velocity gradient, as the velocity of
upper part of particles is higher than of lower part. So, the upper pressure is less
than lower pressure which forced by lift known as Saff man force. It is defined
as

Fs  1.62d 2  'V V f  Vs 
dV f
(24)
dh
It is caused by the gradient in flow field. As speed of lifting water in flow
fluidised bed is low and stable, basically there is no velocity gradient, implying
that the force can be ignored.
ix. Forces between grains:
This force cannot be ignored, when the concentration of particles in separation
processes increases beyond a certain value.
The requisite particle size ratio of the two minerals (having different specific
gravities and shapes) to fall at equal rates is called free settling ratio. So
m
r1   2   ' 
  (25)
r2  1   ' 

Where (Newton) 1 > m > ½ (Stokes)

 32

Hindered settling ratio (exhibited only when particle concentrations exceed 20% by
volume of total slurry) is the ratio of apparent specific gravity against the
suspension raised to a power between one half and unity. Therefore
m
r1   2   ' 
  (26)
r2  1   ' 

Where (Newton) 1 > m > ½ (Stokes)

The general principles of classification in a fluid medium are

 The relative settling velocity of particles depends on size, shape and specific
gravity. If any two factors of the above are more or less uniform, the settling
velocity of particle depends only on the third factor. For example if the
particle having same specific gravity and shape in a given liquid the relative
settling velocity is dependent on the size of the particle.
 Initial differential acceleration of the particle influences the classification
 Resistance to fall increases with density and viscosity of the liquid
 Velocity of a particle falling in a liquid depends on the square of the particle
sizes when they are small; it depends on the square root of the particle sizes
when they are large. But for intermediate particle sizes the power varies
between 2 and 0.5.

2.3 Classifier

Classifiers are the separating device which generates two or more products and are
of two types based on the media used i.e. water or air. The classifier in which water
is used as media is called wet classifier, widely used in mineral industry (Egarr et
al.,2009). The wet classifiers broadly can be divided into two types based on their
basic principle. (Egarr et al., 2009; Eisenmann 2001; Elder et al.,1999). Such as

a) Gravitational classifier. b) Centrifugal classifiers.

 33

Gravitational classifiers are simple and easy to operate. Some of the salient features
of this type are as follows.

 These types of classifiers are best suited for coarser classification.

 It is having higher in capacity for coarser cut points with good separation
efficiency.
 It can classify the particles up to 75 µm.
 These classifiers consume little power and are of higher capacity.
 In this type, capacity and cut size are not dependant variables, enabling
small size equipment to be used for coarse cut size, but cut size and
overflow density are related to each other, preventing fine high density
overflow products.

Gravitational classifiers are can be subdivided into two sub types based on the fluid
movement and the direction of the particle settling. Such as
1. Sedimentation Classification: In this type, the fluid movement is
horizontal and forms an angle with the particle trajectory. This types of
classification is also called as pool or cross flow classification.

2. Hydraulic Classification: In this type, the fluid movement and particle

movement directions are opposite to each other. This type of
classification is also called as hydraulic or counter flow classifier.

2.3.1 Sedimentation Classifiers

The sedimentation classifiers are subdivided into two types, based on the fluid
movement and the direction of the particle settling, as sedimentation classification
(where the fluid movement is horizontal like in rake and spiral classifiers) and
hydraulic classification (where the fluid and particle movement directions are
opposite to each other).
 34

Figure 2.2: Classifier Tree

Essentially sedimentation is a pool in which the slurry fed at one end and discharges
(by overflow) at the other end with the slurry of much lower percent solids (Kelly
and Spottiswood, 1982). This is of free settling nature and again grouped into two
categories, depending on the mechanism of segregating the solids, as mechanical
and non-mechanical classifiers.

2.3.1.1 Mechanical Classifiers

These classifiers have an inclined settling tank (generally positioned at an angle of

18 to 20 degrees) and a raking mechanism to remove the settled particle bed from
the bottom of the tank while the overflow is collected in launders (Gaudin 1971;
Pryor 1965; Kelly and Spottiswood, 1982). The classifiers of this category are of
rectangular-trough type such as Akin’s spiral, rake or Esperanza, drag classifier, log
washer, scrubbers etc. Since these classifiers primarily perform sizing, so these are
also called as sizing classifiers. The feed slurry introduced to the classifier at the
 35

rectangular cross section for quick spread along the width and heading towards the
top end. The schematic diagram of the typical mechanical classifier is shown in
Figure 2.3. The coarse denser particles in the slurry settle at a faster rate to the
bottom initially and form a layer (as shown in region 5). Region 4 is the moving
zone i.e dragging the settled particles to the under flow using the raking mechanism.
Above this region 3 was marked, where hindered settling takes place and
continuously vary the particle concentration arised in this region such as the upper
portion contained minimum particle concentration whereas the lower portion having
the maximum particles concentration. The dragging mechanism helps in breaking
the agglomerated fines and helps in segregation process. The region 2 is the
maximum turbulent zone, where the lighter or smaller particles are separated and
discharged to the over flow launder. The surface of the top layer is the region 1 and
at this zone the light particles flow over to the over flow launders. These are widely
used for sizing of intermediate size range particles i.e. between 100 – 500 µm and
are mostly employed in cleaning sinter fines in iron ore mines and in closed circuit
with grinding mills. Log washers and scrubbers are widely used to remove the
surface adhered slimes from lumpy ores of iron, chromite, manganese etc.

1
Under flow

2
3
4
Over flow 5

Hindered
settling

Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of the mechanical classifier

 36

2.3.1.2 Non-Mechanical Classifiers

The non-mechanical gravity type comprise of various types of settling cones with or
without auto controlling discharge of underflow and these classifiers utilizes free
settling conditions to effect sizing whereas specific gravity and shape factors do not
interfere(Galvin et al.,2009). Feed intake is from the top through a centrally placed
feed-well which facilitated to prevent short-circuiting of the feed to the overflow
fraction and spigot discharge is through the bottom(Crespo .,2009). The schematic
diagram of this type of classifier is shown in Figure 2.4. The classifiers of this
category are Allen’s sand cone, spitzkasten, Hukki’s classifier, Linatex desliming
tank, Akorel classifier etc. Generally this category of classifier is employed where
there is very high particle density difference. These are used for desliming the feed
material in heavy mineral industry as well as in silica sand washing purpose.

Over flow
Feed

Under flow

Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of a typical non-mechanical classifier

2.4 Hydrocyclones

Hydrocyclones are continuous operation classifying devices that utilize centrifugal

force to accelerate the settling rate of particles and have gained popularity in fine
particle classification particularly grinding circuits due to numerous advantages
such as ease of operation, high throughput, less maintenance cost, less floor space
 37

requirement, ease of installation etc. A typical hydrocyclone consists of a conical

shaped vessel open at its apex joined to a cylindrical section, which has a tangential
feed inlet as shown in Figure 2.5.The top of the cylindrical section is closed with a
plate through which an axially mounted overflow pipe emerges out. This pipe is
extended into the body of the cyclone by a short removable section known as vortex
finder, which prevents short-circuiting of feed directly to overflow. The feed is
introduced tangentially at a pressure that causes a swirling motion and generates a
vortex inside the cyclone, with a low-pressure zone along the vertical axis known as
Air-Core, developed along this axis is connected to the atmosphere through the apex
opening . Thus the particles held within the swirling motion are subjected to two
opposing forces - an outward centrifugal force and an inward acting drag force. The
centrifugal force accelerates the settling rate of the particle in the radial direction by
facilitating the particle to get discharge through apex. Whereas the slower-settling
particles, influenced by the drag force, move towards the zone of low pressure along
the axis which eventually carried upward through the vortex finder to the overflow.

Figure 2.5: Schematic diagram of a typical Hydrocyclone

2.5 Hydraulic Classification

Hydraulic classification is relatively an advanced technique and is consisted of a

single or series of sorting columns in which a vertical current of rising water is
against settling the settling of particles. In which the separation is sought based on
 38

size, shape and density. These are also named as counter current or cross flow
separators since the feed pulp flows in opposite to that of rising current of water as
shown in Figure 2.6. Depending on the mode of operation and design features
hydraulic classifiers are classified further into two types. The first type is of
classifiers that operate without formation of fluidization. The classifiers in this
category are Lewis classifier, Linatex M classifier, Linatex S classifier, Lavodune
classifier etc. The other one is characterized by a controlling device to control the
underflow discharge and to achieve a uniform bed density of teeter column.
Overflow
(particles with terminal velocities <V)

Fluid
velocity V

Spigot product
(particles with terminal velocities >V)

Figure 2.6: Schematic diagram of particle classification in hydraulic classifier.

Hence these classifiers are called as fluidized bed hydraulic classifiers. The
classifiers under this category are stroke’s hydrosizer, amberger kaolin werke TAK
classifier, floatex density separator, cross flow separator, reflux classifier etc. For
processing of Indian iron ore slimes using fluidized bed classifier followed by
hydrocyclone and low speed spiral classifiers envisaged that a concentrate of quality
with 62.5% Fe(t), 4.2% SiO2, and 2.23% Al2O3 from the feed slime assaying 50.8%
Fe(t), 11.86% SiO2 and 9.84% Al2O3 at a material yield of 30% (Pan et al., 2008).
In coal/mineral industries for gravity classification purpose usually the particles are
fluidized in water media. The separation is a consequence of the stratification
witnessed by hindered settling properties (Himsworth 1974). The feed slurry enters
 39

these classifiers through a feed well and the teeter water is added from the bottom of
the spigot. Particles form a fluidized bed or a teeter bed above the water distribution
pipes and at steady state particles of density lower than the teeter bed float and are
carried by the stream of water to the over flow. The remaining particles penetrate
through the bed and reports to the under flow. In teeter column particles are graded
in the order of decreasing terminal velocity, the slow settling particle at the top and
the fast settling particles at the bottom (Drummond and Swanson 2002; Heiskanen
1993).

When the rising fluid, at low velocities, is passed through a bed of solid and
fluidizes it, then the pressure drop across the bed will be directly proportional to the
rate of the fluid flow. According to Darcy’s relation the average velocity as
measured over the whole area of bed is directly proportional to the thickness of bed.

U K*
 p  (27)
l
In fluidized bed the particle segregation is on the basis of their specific gravity
differences against the raising teeter water through a bed of heavy medium and
settled high density particles are accumulated at the bottom. Since the size and
density of the particles are not uniform, the particles are segregated according to
their mass. In general, the coarser heavier particles form a layer at the bottom of the
bed and the coarser lighter forms the top layer and all other particles are distributed
throughout the bed depending on their density and size. Both the apparent density
and viscosity of the bed of solid particles are higher than the liquid medium and
hence the resistance to settling is more because of the drag force and the buoyant
force to a moving particle. Unlike in dense media separation, where the medium
density is the apparent density, both the effective suspension density and upward
liquid velocity have substantial influence on the apparent density. Since the settling
velocity of particles during hindered settling is quite different from free settling
conditions, the terminal settling velocity of the particles need to be adjusted to
obtain the actual velocity of particles, which is commonly termed as slip velocity.
 40

Therefore the particle velocities can be described by the relative velocity of each
particle with respect to the velocity of water, which is called slip velocity. Particles
having a slip velocity equal to the raising velocity of the water have equal chances
of settling or being transported upward by water. However, if the slip velocity of a
particle is greater than the raising water velocity, the particle settles downwards and
reports to the under flow otherwise, it is carried away to the over flow. Galvin et al.
(1999), proposed the following equation for calculating the slip velocity of any
species in a homogeneous suspension (Galvin et al., 1999),
ni1
    sus 
Vi  VT  ' (28)
  
As per the above equation, the suspension density will have a strong effect on
segregation, when particles are of different density. The dependence of the constant
(ni) on the Reynold’s Number is given in explicit form of equation obtained by
Graside and A1-Dibouni (1977)
5.1  0.27 Re 0.9
ni  (29)
1.0  0.1Re 0.9
The Reynold’s Number (Rei) of the particle at its terminal settling velocity (Uti) is
obtained from the equation proposed by Zigrang and Sylvester (1981)
2
 
0.5

Re i  14.51  g  ps  p  p  *1.83dp
1.5
 3.81
0.5

u
(30)
 
Using equation (30) to calculate the Reynolds Number, terminal settling velocity of
a particle (VT) can be calculated as

VT  Re i * u (31)
dp * p
Generally these classifiers are operating based on the teeter column pressure
difference which is a function of bed porosity, bed thickness, particle and fluid
density along with the settling velocity. Therefore the pressure difference can be
used to control the bed thickness along with the discharge of under flow fraction.
The fluidized bed hydraulic classifiers are of different types based on their design
such as single compartment, or multi compartment (Kohmuench et al., 2006;
 41

Luttrell et al., 2006). The dynamic hindered-settling model was successfully

developed by Kim and Klima et al. using a modified Concha and Almendra’s
hindered settling equation. By utilizing the model, predicting the settling velocities
of the particles and the finite difference solution for mass balance while
incorporating continuous mass input and output streams. Another model was
proposed by Kwon et al based on discrete element Method (DEM) was used to
simulate the movements of the particles in settling column (Kwon et al., 2008).

2.5.1 Teeter Bed Separator

The teeter bed separators (TBS) were developed from the concept of hydrosizer and
the evolutions in the instrumentation field was made the segregation possible
primarily on the basis of density; this has enabled specific gravity cut points as low
as 1.35, while maintaining good separation efficiency. Consequently these units
have gained the acceptance for recovery of coal from waste piles and tailing ponds
as well as to treat run of mine coal.

The schematic diagram of the TBS is shown in Figure 2.7. The feed slurry enters
tangentially through a feed well and a fluidized or teetered bed is developed due to
the upward water current. When steady state is reached, the particles which are
lighter than the density of the teetered bed will float and report to the overflow
stream whereas, the higher density particles will percolate and report to the under
flow stream.

In order to operate effectively the average relative density of the teetered bed within
the tank is kept constant through a simple PID control and a capacitance type
differential pressure cell receives a 4-20 mA signal from the probe. The effective
density is compared to the operating set-point and the spigot valve will be actuated
to discharge excessive solids, if the effective density is too high. Conversely, the
control system acts to restrict the solids discharge if the effective density is too low
(Drummond et al 2002; Stuart 1998).
 42

ACTUATOR PID CONTROLLER

FEED INLET

FEED WELL

OVER FLOW
TEETER ZONE

High RD Particle
Settling through Bed

Low RD Particle
Rising through Bed

UCW flow PROBE

Fluidizing Bed

Spigot Valve
UCW Inlet
Valve

Spigot Discharge

Figure 2.7: Schematic diagram of teeter bed separator.

These units have been employed since the 1960s for recovering coal from waste
piles and tailing ponds and have been used to treat run of mine coal in the UK from
mid 1980s. Presently over 200 such units have been installed worldwide, in mineral
processing applications including silica sand for construction grade, foundry and
glass making purpose, mineral sands and hematite processing (Ratlou, 2002). The
main disadvantage of this unit is of the design aspect of the under flow discharge.
The flat bottom and the teeter plate was designed in inclined way over it, so the
underflow solid concentration was low due to the entrainment of ultrafine particles.

2.5.2 Floatex Density Separator

FDS is an advanced hindered settling classifier, also referred as counter-current or
autogenous Teetered Bed Separator. It uses differential particle settling rates to
segregate particles according to size, shape and density, moreover it is capable of
treating the material whose size in between the size of screen and hydrocyclone
(Littler, 1986). The cross sectional view of FDS is shown in Figure 2.8. Floatex
density separator works on the principle of hindered settling and fluidization where
 43

the settling rate of a particle in a liquid suspension is influenced by the presence of

particles and the transition from free to hindered settling occurs as the concentrate
of solids in suspension increases (Galvin et al., 1999). These decrease the distance
between particles and the drag force created by the settling particles that will affect
the surrounding particles. However, if the concentration of solids in the suspension
is too high, entrapment and misplacement of particles will dominate the particles
settling; as a result the heavier particle settles against upward current. If the density
of the fluid is higher the larger/heavier particle that will remain suspended in the
fluid hence, it is a function of particle size, density and fluid viscosity as well as the
pulp density. When pulp density increases abundantly with particles crowded, only
thin film of water and surface tension keeps the mixture together in perfect
suspension is called full teeter. The particles heavier than the viscous pulp can fall
through and settle against the raising teeter water through a bed of artificial heavy
medium and accumulated at the bottom whereas all other particles simply float
above the teeter zone (Epstein, 2005).
The FDS consists of an upper square tank and a lower conical section and is divided
into six main zones (Honaker and Mondal, 1999) as follows
 Over flow collection zone (zone A)
 Upper intermediate zone (zone B)
 Feed zone (zone C)
 Lower intermediate zone (zone D)
 Thickening zone (zone E) and
 Under flow collection zone (zone F)

Feed slurry is introduced through a central feed well that extends to one third of the
length of the main tank and the teeter water is introduced over the entire cross-
sectional area through evenly spaced water distribution pipes at the base of the
teeter chamber. The teeter water flow rate is dependent upon feed particle size
distribution, density and the desired cut-point for the separation. The separator is
equipped with a pressure sensor mounted in zone D above the teeter water pipes and
an underflow discharge control valve. The pressure, as measured by a level sensor,
is transmitted to the underflow discharge control valve using a set-point controller
 44

resulting in maintaining a constant height of the teeter bed and a steady discharge of
the underflow (Elder et at, 1999).

It is effective equipment for discarding the fine impurities like silica and other
gangue minerals from the ore or raw coal. Hearn (SME Publication) discussed the
operational circuit at LKAB, Sweden, to beneficiate iron ore fines using
combination of spiral concentrator with FDS. The primary and secondary FDS are
used for cleaning and a tertiary FDS is employed for scavenging operation to
achieve the performance requirement of 80% iron bearing particle recovery with 1%
silica in the concentrate. The effect of hindered-bed on classification or
beneficiation of minerals and throughput capacity are function of the particle size
distribution of the minerals (Littler 1986).
Overflow Stream
A

B
Feed
C

Teeter Water
E

Underflow Stream

Figure 2.8: Different zones in the floatex density separator.

It was found that a commercial hindered bed unit known as the FDS was very
efficient in the recovery of zircon from wet gravity tailings (Mankosa et al., 1996)
and the circuit efficiency can be increased by introducing the FDS for pre-
classifying or pre-concentrating the spiral feed in heavy mineral recovery (Elder et
al., 1999). Preconcentration of chromite plant tailings was studied by varying some
important process variables of FDS (Raghu Kumar et al., 2009). Optimization
studies conducted on a 75 TPH hindered-bed separator in coal preparation plant
 45

with the separator being used as a cleaner unit for the spiral product (Drummond et
al., 1998), demonstrated separation densities below 1.6 with Ep values in the range
of 0.10 to 0.15. The separation features inside the FDS were described by treating
coal fines, concluding that the performance of the FDS was influenced by both with
particle density as well as size (Sarkar et al., 2008). The separation principle of the
FDS was analysed with simple slip velocity model which incorporates the effects of
suspension density and bed voidage; this model was successfully simulated with
different coal samples (Das et al., 2009). It was also found that in single stage
processing in FDS, 72% of the feed alumina in iron ore could be removed. A
concentrate containing 1.66% alumina from 3.39% run-of-mine alumina was
produced at a yield of 57% using FDS. Higher teeter water was found to improve
alumina removal albeit with a small decrease in iron recovery. It was observed that
higher bed pressure and lower pulp density are favorable for alumina rejection
(Sarkar et al. 2008a). Classification performance of FDS has evaluated by using
pure silica mineral and effect of particle size on particle classification was
established by Raghu Kumar et al.(2011).

This particular unit has been used in mineral sand, low grade iron ore, chromite and
coal preparation industry (Reed et al., 1995; Dunn et al., 2000; Sarkar et al., 2008).
Several studies have been carried out to characterize the teeter water flow rate on
particle separation (Sarkar et al 2008a). Also the particle separation in FDS while
treating different coal was characterized in terms of slip velocity models (Sarkar et
al 2008; Sarkar et al 2008a; Sarkar et al., 2010). Similarly the effect of teeter water
flow rate on particle separation for chromite and iron ore fines was investigated
(Sarkar et al., 2008; Kapure et al., 2007). FDS works based on the difference
between both the particle size and density but its detailed separation mechanism is
not properly understood. A proper understanding of the process variables along with
the feed material characteristics is essential, making it easy to integrate with all
circuits where applicable.
 46

2.5.3 Cross Flow Separator

The Cross Flow separator is an improved version of fluidized bed classifier, which
uses the feed slurry introduction to the system across the top of the separator
through transition box/feed well into the teeter bed to avoid the turbulent mixing
that causes a detrimental impact on performance. The schematic diagram of the
cross flow separator is shown in Figure 2.9. The stilling-well smoothly passes the
feed slurry horizontally across the top of the cell which ensures those variations in
feed slurry characteristics (e.g., solids content) do not impact separation
performance.

A duct plate is also located at the discharge end of the feed introducer to prevent
short-circuiting of solids directly to the overflow launder. Another design feature
incorporated into Cross Flow classifier is the improved water distribution system
viz. a horizontal slotted plate, located at the base of the separation chamber where
water is introduced beneath the plate through a series of large diameter holes (>1.25
cm). This modification essentially eliminates problems associated with distributor
pipe plugging. The combined use of the improved feed injection system and
simplified water distribution system makes it possible to increase both the
separation efficiency and throughput capacity while eliminating mechanical
problems associated with traditional designs. Pilot-scale testing proved that the
CrossFlow separator improved the separation efficiency compared to conventional
hindered-bed classifiers. A full-scale retrofit of an existing hydrosizer with a
CrossFlow feed system verified that at equivalent cut points, the classification
efficiency is improved by more than 33% and employed at barite processing.
Typical results show that over 90% of the available barite can be recovered at a
silica rejection of greater than 90% (Kohmuench et al., 2002). Further it has
demonstrated its supremacy in coal washing with low ash product at a high
combustible recovery.
 47

Figure 2.9: Schematic diagram of cross flow separator (Luttrell et al, 2006)

2.5.4 Reflux Classifier

Reflux classifiers, consist of a conventional fluidized bed with a set of parallel

inclined plates and provides a stable response to the large fluctuations in the feed
solids throughput (Galvin and Nguyentranlam 2002; Galvin et al., 2005). A
schematic representation of the Reflux classifier is shown in Figure 2.10. A pressure
transducer senses the high density suspension, resulting in their discharge when the
suspension density exceeds that of the set point. In the absence of high density
particles the fluidization water maintains a suspension within the vessel and the
excess suspension reports to the overflow. The effective sedimentation area of the
vessel is increased by these inclined plates and fluidized suspension passes up
through the inclined channels. Faster settling particles segregate onto the inclined
plates and slide back down as concentrated to below the fluidized zone (Doroodchi
et al., 2004a; Galvin et al., 2010).
 48

Overflow weir

Inclined section
Over flow

Vertical fluidization
Feed

section
Additional
water
Distributor
Fluidization water Fluidization water

Underflow

Figure 2.10: Schematic diagram of reflux classifier (Zhao et al, 2006) .

The particle separation in reflux classifier is shown pictorially in Figure 2.11.

Extensive laboratory and pilot scale studies have been carried out at Centre for
Advanced Particle Processing and Transport, University of Newcastle. The Reflux
Classifier was used to separate coal and mineral matter in a number of studies,
covering a broad range of vessel geometries and feed conditions.
Overflow
(Product)

Product plates

Feed

Reject plates

Fluidization water

Overflow (Reject)

Figure 2.11: schematic diagram of particle separation in reflux classifier( Galvin et al,
2004).
 49

It also reported that coarse coal particles can also beneficiated effectively by
this unit (Galvin et al., 2009). But this particular unit has been tested for coal
preparation only, so their applications in different mineral industry need to be
explored.

2.5.5 All Flux Separator

The Allflux classifier is also a hydraulic classifier having round, central feed
well with a unique combination of rising current and fluidised bed which
divides the feed into three different products. The schematic diagram of a
Allflux classifier is depicted in Figure 2.12. Feed material is suspended in
water in a separate vessel. It flows into the top of the machine and down the
central core. At the bottom the material encounters an upward flow of water.
The velocity of the upward water is set so that the lighter particles fluidize and
are carried upwards whilst the heavy particles are able to settle downwards.
During operation, the water flow rate is adjusted in order to find the optimum
for the separation. The heavy particles will be discharged at the bottom of the
machine. The lighter material flows up and over into the outer section of the
machine where it encounters another upward flow of water.

The water velocity in the outer separation section is less than that in the inner
separation section. The lightest material is fluidized but the middle fraction
sinks, as its settling velocity is greater than the water velocity. The light
material is carried over the weir and is collected. The middle fraction
meanwhile collects in the bottom of the outer section and a valve periodically
opens to allow the material to flow out of the bottom of the machine. The
upward water flow rate in the outer separation chamber depends on the size
and density of the particles to be separated. The machine can be supplied
without the outer separation section if it is only required to separate two
products (heavy and light) (Breuer et al., 1994).
 50

Feed inlet

Fine classification

Fine classification
section

section
Ultrafines Ultrafines
collection collection
launder launder

Coarse classification

Water
injection

Ultrafine Ultrafine
Product Fine Fine Product
Product Product
Water Water
injection injection

Coarse product

Figure 2.12: Sectional view of Allflux classifier (Courtesy: All minerals)

This particular unit can employed in iron ore, coal, industrial minerals, chromite,
slag processing industry for the coarse classification, deslime, thickened and to
separate the particles based on their difference in the slip velocity. The commercial
units are available for the higher throughput up to 2000 m3/hr. It was successfully
employed in the iron ore industry to classify the feed into different products for
subsequent separation (Andreas Horn., 2009) .The main advantage of this unit is for
high throughput, automatic three product discharge system, low power consumption
and minimum maintenance.

2.6 Review on floatex density separator

Littler 1986, evaluated the effect of hindered-beds on the classification of mineral

particles and found that throughput capacity and teeter water requirements are a
function of the particle size distributions of the mineral components being
separated. Mankosa et al 1996. found that a commercial hindered-bed units known
 51

as the FDS was very efficient in the recovery of zircon from wet gravity tailings. A
classifier commercially known as the Allflux Separator has been found to provide
excellent purification of silica sand, iron ore and heavy minerals (Breuer H et al., 1994;
Andreas Horn 2009). The cleaning of fine coal using hindered-bed classifiers has also
been the subject of several recent investigations. Mankosa et al.2007 conducted tests
using a hindered-bed classifier as a pre-concentrator to spiral concentrators for the
treatment of a difficult-to-clean coal. The findings suggest that the hindered-bed-spiral
combination provides an efficient, low density separation that allows the production of
clean coal while maintaining a relatively high recovery of combustibles. Studies
comparing the separation performances achieved by spiral concentrators and two
hindered-bed classifiers (i.e., Stokes and Floatex) found the classifiers to provide more
efficient gravity separations for nominally 1 mm x 150µm coal. Nicol and Drummond
1997 have described the efficiency of hindered-bed density separators and several fine
coal circuits for which application may prove to be beneficial. In fact, Drummond et al
2002 recently reported on the optimization studies conducted on a 75 tph hindered-bed
classifier installed in an operating coal preparation plant in which the separator is being
used as a cleaner unit for the spiral product. This application reportedly allows separation
densities (D50) below 1.6 and probable error (Ep) values in the range of 0.10 to 0.15.
Elder et al.1999 envisaged that the circuit efficiency can be increased by introducing the
floatex density separator as a pre-classification and/or pre-concentrate of the spiral feed in
up gradation of heavy mineral sand. Pan et al. 2008 described that by processing iron ore
slime in Fluidized Bed Classifier followed by hydro-cyclone and Slow Speed Spiral
Classifier, the valuable iron ore particles with 62.5% Fe, 4.2% SiO2, 2.23% Al2O3 could
be recovered from the slime assaying 50.8% Fe, 11.86% SiO2 and 9.84% Al2O3 with a
yield of 30%. The separation features inside the FDS was described by Sarkar et al.2008b
by treating coal. They concluded that the performance of the FDS was influenced by
both with density as well as size. Das et al.2009b described the separation principle of the
FDS by simple slip velocity model which incorporates the effects of suspension density
and bed voidage.