Mechanics of Machines

ME-224
Lec Hamza Asif
Let’s Formalize Some Definitions
• Synthesis vs Analysis:
• Synthesis: Design something to achieve a specific purpose
• Analysis: Determine the position, velocity, acceleration, forces etc.
• Mechanisms:
• A system of elements arranged to transmit motion in a predetermined
fashion
• For Example: Can be made of a group of links connected with joints, in this
case called a linkage
• Machines:
• A system of elements arranged to transmit motion and energy in a
predetermined fashion
Links
• A mechanism is a collection of links connected by joints arranged to
transmit a specific type of motion.
• Unless it is specified, we consider a link as a rigid body which possesses at
least 2 nodes. Where nodes are the points of attachment to other links.
• Links are classified according to the number of nodes
Joints
• Joints: A connection between 2 or more links at their nodes that
allows some motion or potential motion
• Mobility: It is defined as the number of degrees of freedom a
mechanical system possesses
• Joint Classification: Joints can be classified on the basis of
• Types of motion or Degrees of Freedom allowed (Joint Constraints)
• Number of Links Joined (Order of the Joint)
1. Classification on the basis of Joint
Constraints
• Types of joints:
• Lower pair: Joints with surface contacts
• Higher pair: Joints with point or line contact
• Lower pair joints have the advantage of better lubrication as
lubricants are more easily squeezed out of higher pairs due to
greater pressure
• A one degree of freedom joint is called a full joint while a two
degree of freedom joint is called a half joint (We shall see
why)
• one and two freedom joints are common in planer
mechanisms, while three or more freedom joints are common
in 3-D systems
• Can you identify lower pair and higher pair joints in the figure
2. Classification on the basis of Order of the
Joint
• Joint order is the number of links in a joint minus 1
• The simplest joint is made of two links and has a joint order of 1
Joint Closure
• A form-closed joint is kept closed by its
geometry
• e.g. A pin joint is totally constrained by its
geometry
• A force-closed joint requires some external
force to keep it together and intact
• e.g. A slider on surface
• Can you identify Form and Force Closed
Joints in the figure?
Some Notes on Kinematic Diagrams
• Real links can be of any shape
• Kinematic links or link edges are defined as
a line between joints that allows relative
motion between adjacent links
• Joints can allow rotation, translation or both
• The possible joint motion must be clear in a
kinematic diagram
• Grounded links must clearly be indicated
(e.g. by cross-hatching)
Kinematic Chains
• An assemblage of links and joints that are inter-connected in a way to
provide a controlled output in response to an input
• Kinematic chains may be open or closed
• Mechanism: It is that kinematic chain that has at least one grounded link
• An open mechanism has at least one open or free node
• A closed mechanism will have no open attachment point or free node
• An open kinematic chain of 2 binary links and one joint is called a dyad
Kinematic Chain Terminology
• A crank is a link that makes one complete revolution and is pivoted to
the ground
• A rocker is a link that has oscillatory motion and is pivoted to the
ground
• A coupler is a link that is not pivoted to the ground and has complex
motion
• Ground or grounded link is any link that is fixed with respect to a
reference frame, even when the reference frame may itself be in
motion
1. Gruebler’s formula for Mobility in Planar
Mechanisms
• Mobility or Degrees of Freedom (DOF) can be predicted from an
investigation of the Gruebler condition:
1. Any link in a plane has 3 DOF
2. A system of L interconnected links has 3L degrees of freedom
3. When these links are connected by J number of full joint degrees of
freedom are combined leaving less degrees of freedom
4. When a link is grounded, the three DOF’s associated with it are removed
• On the basis of this the mobility of a system M is given as: M = 3L-2J-3G
• Since ground can not be split into two or more (Physically impossible
to have a mechanism involving 2 or more planets), even if more than
one link is grounded, these combine to form one higher order ground
link. Therefore, M = 3(L-1) - 2J
2. Kutzbach’s Modification
• Half joints only count as half towards mobility reduction since they
have 2 degrees of freedom; effectively they remove only one degree
of freedom
• Kutzbach’s modification to Gruebler equation:
• M = 3(L-1) - 2J1 – J2
• Where
• M is the Mobility or DOF of the system
• L = No. of links
• J1 = number of full joint (1 DOF joints)
• J2 = number of half joints (2 DOF joints)
3. Mobility in 3D Mechanisms
• In 3D the maximum degrees of freedom a link can have = 6
• Using the same approach as for planer mechanisms but involving
higher DOF joints:
M = 6(L-1) – 5 J1 – 4J2– 3J3– 2J4– J5
Paradoxes in Mobility
• The mobility formulae mentioned above may not always hold true.
For instance:
More About Degrees of Freedom
• Two definitions:
• For a mechanism: The number of inputs that are to be provided in order to
create a predictable output or to fully define the position of a mechanism.
• The number of independent parameters or coordinates required to define
the position of a system
• They are not always the same…
• Differ on the basis of input. Inputs are a source of motion.
• Rotary Input: revolute/rotary actuator like motor or engine
• Linear Input: linear motion link a linear actuator or pneumatic/hydraulic
system
Difference Between Mechanisms and
Structures
• Mechanisms and structures can also be defined and differentiated in terms of the number of
degrees of freedom or mobility of the system
• If the DOF > 0, the system will be a mechanism
• If DOF = 0, the system will be a structure
• If DOF < 0, the system will be a preloaded structure
• A preloaded structure is one where no motion is present and some stress may also be present at
the time of assembly

a) Mechanism – DoF = +1 b) Structure – DoF = 0 c) Preloaded structure – DoF = -1

Inversions
• It is the act of grounding a different link in a kinematic chain.
• Usually produces different motions of the mechanism
Four Bar Linkage
• A 4-bar linkage or a 4 bar mechanism is the simplest possible pin-
jointed mechanism. It is made out of four links.
• its variants include slider-crank and cam-follower mechanisms
• Since a 4-bar mechanism is the simplest machine design, it is
preferred as being the least expensive and most reliable engineering
solution for mechanical systems
Grashof Condition
• A relationship that predicts the rotation behavior (rotatability) of a 4-bar
mechanism:
 S = Length of the shortest link
 L = Length of the longest link
 P = Length of one remaining link
 Q = Length of the other remaining link
• if S + L < P + Q
 This is a Grashof Linkage: At least one link will be able to make a complete revolution with
respect to the ground plane
 Is known as a Class I Kinematic chain
• if S + L > P + Q
 This is a Non-Grashof Linkage: No link will be able to make a complete revolution
 Is known as a Class II Kinematic chain
• if S + L = P + Q
 This is a Special Case: There will be change points and all links will be colinear
 Is known as a Class III Kinematic chain
 What happens when L<(S+P+Q)?
Inversions
• The motion possible from a 4-bar linkage depends on both Grashof
condition and Inversion
• Class I: S + L < P + Q
• Ground link adjacent to the shortest link: Crank-rocker
• Ground link is the shortest: Double-crank
• Ground link opposite the shortest link: Grashof Double-rocker
• Class II: S + L > P + Q
• All inversions will be triple rockers
• Class III: S + L = P + Q
• All inversions will either be double-cranks or crank-rockers but will have change
points twice per revolution of the input crank, where all links become colinear
Class I Inversions
Class II Inversions
Class III Inversions
Four Bar Mechanisms Classification Table
Rules of Linkage Transformation
1. Revolute joints (rotational 1 DOF) in any loop can be replaced by
prismatic joints (translational 1 DOF) with no change in DOF, provided
that at least 2 revolute joints remain in place
2. Any full joint (1 DOF) can be replaced by a half joint (2DOF), but that will
increase the DOF by 1 and vice versa
3. Removal of a link will reduce DOF by 1 and vice versa
4. The combination of rules 2 and 3 will nullify the effect on the DOF
5. Any ternary or higher-order link can be partially shrunk to lower order
link by coalescing nodes. This will create multiple joints but DOF remains
unchanged
6. Complete shrinkage of higher order link is equivalent to its removal. A
multiple joint will be created and DOF will be reduced
1. Linkage Transformation of a Grashof Crank
Rocker
2. Linkage Transformations of a crank-slot
mechanism
3. Linkage Transformations of a Cam-Follower
Can you find the linkage transformations of
the following into 4-bar mechanisms?