Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BPS Notes
BPS Notes
2. Externally
Create closer linkages and better communication with customers, suppliers, and
partners
Serve as a public relation tool
Unit 2
Environmental Analysis & Diagnosis
Analysis of Company’s external environment
Whether a firm has high external focus or high internal focus, their products compete
in the market for buyer’s attention and appreciation. A company thereby needs to
analyze and diagnose its environment, to keep up with its dynamicity, and sustain its
business. With this premise, we can define certain dimensions of an external business
environment:
1. Market is free-for-all, giving opportunities to firms to try out, survive and
grow. The firms thereby have a tendency of developing specialized divisions
within its boundary, corresponding to the divisions that exist in the external
environment. (Finance division interacts with financial institutions, production
deals with suppliers, end customers etc.)
2. Firms can consider their market globally, spreading across countries, cultures
for both sourcing inputs, and selling the outputs. On the contrary, companies
can also operate in limited geographical spread or niches. The global-national-
local criteria serves as another dimension of external environment (EE)
3. Macro-environment is the interplay of PESTEL forces where as the
microenvironment is the industry level environment, both bearing different
implications on the firm’s strategy.
4. Dynamicity of EE can happen due to technology, legalities, nature etc. The
environment is turbulent, hence the strategy process must be focus on
anticipating the unanticipated opportunities and problems in the external
environment.
5. Fifth dimension of EE includes the industries and sectors meeting the various
needs of the society. Each industry may be catering to the specific needs of the
market segment, with products having certain core features. The boundary of
an industry (say customer segment, or position in the value chain) may change
when firms expand. Trade associations of industries are cooperative
arrangements that can influence the environmental factors to industries’
advantage.
Impact of EE on Business
Anything and everything outside the boundary of a firm is EE. As a firm is embedded
in an environment from where it draws inputs and to which it ejects outputs, EE
impacts the firm in multiple ways. For instance:
Change in government policy say GST can initially impact the bottom line of
the heavily taxed industries (Kite & Gold)
Research claiming Lead in Maggi which is harmful to public health, can crash
down the business overnight
Firms that collect strategic intelligence constantly from the EE can make internal
adjustments quickly in order to synergize its internal environment, and change its
strategy.
A focal firm, that sells a product in the market has interaction with A, B, C, D in terms
of collaboration, competition or cooperation. The firm also has interaction with
suppliers who provide inputs. The input market is affected by PESTELD factors (D-
Demographic) that would directly or indirectly affect the focal firm. The outputs of
the firm go to market directly or indirectly through the other firms as well, who are
also affected by the PESTELD factors. Therefore, a firm’s strategy should consider
this multi-faceted interaction system, so that it is in-line with all the external forces
and influences.
Remote Environment
It consists of a set of forces that originate beyond a firm’s operating situation.
Analysis of remote environment is done by PESTELD analysis.
PESTELD Framework: Divide the external environmental into the following
parameters: Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, Legal,
Demographic (Macroenvironment)
Specific Environment
Refers to the forces and institutions outside the organization with which it interfaces
during the course of conducting its business. They are directly relevant to the
achievement of the organization goals, because they have a very direct and immediate
impact on the decisions and actions of the managers. Analysis of specific environment
is done Porter’s 5 Force Model.
Porter’s 5 Force Model
It is a model that analyzes five competitive forces that shape every industry, and helps
determine an industry’s weaknesses and strengths. Porter’s model can be applied to
any segment of the economy to search for profitability and attractiveness, and thus
determine the appropriate corporate strategy.
There are 5 undeniable forces that shape every market and industry in the world:
1. Competition in the industry: Refers to the number of competitors, and their
ability to compete. Larger the number of competitors, offering similar products,
lesser is the power of the company. Suppliers/Buyers can seek a competitor if
they offer a better deal or lower prices. Conversely, when competition is low,
the company (say C) has grater power to charge higher prices, and achieve
higher sales & profits.
Intense competition is characterized by:
Many competitors
High exit barriers
Equal size competitors
Lack of product differentiation
Low customer loyalty
2. Potential of new entrants: C’s power is affected by new entrants in the market.
The less time and money it cost for a new entrant to enter the market and become a
competitor, lesser would be the power of C (making industry less attractive). If there
are strong barriers to entry, say expensive patents, heavy infrastructural/technological
investment, then C has more power to charge higher prices, and can negotiate at better
terms.
Easy entry is characterized by:
Low amount of capital to enter market
No patents, trademarks with existing firms
No government regulation
Low customer switching costs (firm can easily switch to other industry)
3. Power of Suppliers: The more the number of suppliers, and less unique is the
input they are offering, greater would be the power of C (as it can easily switch its
supplier). Conversely, if the number of suppliers is low, and inputs they are offering is
unique, this would lead to higher switching costs, and less power of C.
Higher power of suppliers is characterized when:
Few suppliers, many buyers
Suppliers threaten to forward integrate
Suppliers hold scarce resources
Raw materials are not easily substitutable
4. Power of Buyers: Small and more powerful customer base means they can
negotiate for lower prices and better deals. Large number of fragmented customers
can be charged higher prices to increase profitability. Power of buyers is high when:
Buyers purchase large quantities
Few buyers
Buyers threaten to backward integrate
Large number of substitutes
Price sensitivity of buyers
5. Threat of Substitutes: Substitute pose as a threat for C. If there are a smaller
number of close substitutes, then C can increase prices. When substitutes products are
available, C’s power over its pricing is reduced, ad customers can easily switch to an
alternative. Threat of substitutes is highest when (refer to same points as high
competition in industry i.e. 1 point)
st
Internal Analysis
Internal analysis highlights an organization’s strengths and weaknesses in the areas of
their competencies, resource and competitive advantage. An organization can have a
clear idea of where they are excelling, where they are average, and where they are
underperforming. Thereby, a firm can exploit its strengths and opportunities, while
eliminate any threats and weaknesses, by the means of an appropriate strategy.
Internal analysis can be done by the following tools:
1. SWOT Analysis: Analyze the Strengths and Weaknesses that are intrinsic to an
organization, and the Opportunities and Threats that are extrinsic to it.
2. McKinsey 7S Framework: Used to assess the organization’s current state, the
proposed state and the gaps that lie between them. The 7 internal aspects that
must be studied are: Strategy, Structure, Systems, Share Values, Skills, Style,
Staff.
NOTE: In SWOT & PESTEL, we haven’t ventured in much detail, primarily because
they are simple concepts. It is better to read their cases, to gain better applicability of
the models.
Competitive Advantage
The conditions that allow a company to produce a product of equal value at a lower
price or in a more desirable manner. Competitive Advantage (CA) allow the company
to generate more sales or earn higher margins compared to its rivals. CA can be
attributed to a variety of factors, including cost structure, branding, quality of product
offerings, distribution network, intellectual property, customer service and so on.
The more sustainable a CA is, the more difficult it is for competitors to neutralize it.
The two main types of CA are:
i.Comparative Advantage: A firm’s ability to produce a good or service more
efficiently than its competitors, which leads to greater profit margins, creates a
Comparative Advantage. (Economies of Scale, efficient internal systems, geographic
locations are a few reasons) A comparative advantage does not imply a better product
or service, it only shows the firm can offer a product at a lower price. (Chinese firm
can manufacture at lower labor costs, than one in US)
Ex. Amazon has built and sustained its comparative advantage by having a level of scale
and efficiency that is difficult for retail competitors to replicate, allowing it to rise
primarily through price competition.
ii. Differential Advantage (DA): DA is when a firm’s product differs from its
competitors and is seen as superior. (Advanced technology, Patents, Superior
personnel, Strong brand identity) drive DA. These factors support wide
margins and large market shares.
Ex. Apple is famous for creating innovative products, and supporting their market
leadership with savvy marketing campaigns to build an elite brand. Major drug
companies can also market branded drugs at high prices, because they are protected
by patents.
Core Competence
Core competencies are a firm’s collective knowledge about how to coordinate diverse
production skills and technologies. CK Prahalad and Gary Hamel propose three tests
to identify core competencies:
1. Provide potential access to a wide variety of markets
2. Make a significant contribution to the perceived customer benefited of the end
product
3. Difficult for competitors to imitate
A core competency is about harmonizing streams of technology, the organization of
work, and the delivery of value. It takes considerable time to develop a core
competency, as reaching a stable equilibrium state of a configuration of technological
streams and work processes is time consuming. Once developed, they enable a
company to produce core products and one core product may lead to production of
many end products for the company.
Ex. Honda has developed core competence to produce effective engines, and this
leads to a core product i.e. engine. This gives many end products such as bikes, cars,
boat engines etc. (Firm should take diversification decision not by seeing
attractiveness of market but from core competencies of the firm). Certain
characteristics of a competency such as complexity, tacitness and interconnectedness
are the reasons for causal ambiguity of a competency and its performance outcomes.
Causal Ambiguity – The inability to fully specify the factors about why a given action
results in a given outcome is causal ambiguity. All competing firms must have an
imperfect understanding of the link between the resources controlled by a firm and a
firm’s core competency in order for causal ambiguity to be a sustainable competitive
advantage.
Michael E. Porter’s Value Chain Analysis
Value Chain analysis is a process of dividing various activities of the business in
primary and support activities and analyzing them to determine their contribution in
terms of the value creation to the final product.
(Value Chain represents the internal activities that a firm engages in when
transforming inputs into outputs)
Primary Activities: The goal of these activities is to create value that exceeds the cost
of that activity, therefore generating a higher profit.
1. Inbound Logistics: Includes a range of activities like receiving, storing,
distribution etc. which makes the goods and services available for operational
processes.
2. Operations: Activity of transforming input raw material to the final product
ready for sale. E.g. Machining, assembling, packaging.
3. Outbound Logistics: Activities that help in collecting, storing and delivering
the final product to the customer is outbound logistics.
4. Marketing & Sales: Activities like advertising, promotion, sales, marketing
research, public relations etc. performed to make the customer aware of the
product and create a demand for it.
5. Service: Service provided to the customer so as to improve or maintain the
value of the product. (financing, after-sales service etc.)
Support Activities: Activities that support the primary activities as stated above, thus
playing a role in each activity.
1. Procurement: Supplying all the necessary inputs to perform primary activities
like material, machinery etc.
2. Technology Development: This requires heavy investment, and can take years
of R&D, however its benefits can be enjoyed for several years.
3. Human Resource Management: Managing human resource, as required in all
the primary activities.
4. Infrastructure: Management system which provides its services to the entire
organization, by the means of planning, finance, information management,
quality control, legal, government affairs.
Advantages of Value Chain Analysis: Flexible tool, can be used to compare business
models, helps in understanding organizational issues
Disadvantages of Value Chain Analysis: Oriented towards manufacturing business,
requires expertise, Business Information systems may not be heavily developed
How to Use Value Chain Analysis
1. Identify sub activities for each primary activity. There are three different types
of sub activities:
Direct Activities: Create value by themselves. E.g. For a book publisher
marketing activity, direct activities include advertising, selling online etc.
Indirect Activities: Allow direct activities to run smoothly. E.g. For a book
publisher, these would include keeping customer record, managing sales force
etc.
Quality Assurance: Activities that ensure that direct and indirect activities meet
necessary standard. E.g. Proofreading books, editing advertisements etc.
2. Identify sub activities for each support activity: Similar to step 1
3. Identify Links: Find connections between all the activities that you’ve
identified. These links are key in increasing a competitive advantage from the value
chain framework. E.g. Links may exist between Sales Force (HR) and Sale volumes
(Marketing)
4. Look for opportunities to increase value: Review each sub activity and links
that you’ve identified, and think how you can change or enhance it to maximize the
value you offer to customers. (customers of support activities can be internal as well
as external)
Examples of Key Value Chain Elements
1. Food & Beverage (Starbucks):
Selecting and sourcing high-quality coffee bean
Developing loyalty though excellent customer service
Aggressively marketing their brand
3. Retail (Walmart)
Regularly evaluates suppliers and integrating in-store and online shopping
experiences
Driven by their commitment to help people save money
Cost Leadership Strategy: It calls for being the low-cost producer in an industry for
a given level of quality. The firm sells its products either at an average industry price
to earn an abnormal profit, or sells it below the industry average price to gain a higher
market share. In the event of a price war, the firm can maintain some profitability,
while the competition suffers losses. A firm succeeding in cost leadership have
following internal strengths:
Access to the capital required to make significant investment in production
assets
Skill in designing products for efficient manufacturing
High level of expertise in manufacturing engineering
Efficient distribution channels
This strategy bears a risk, that if the technology improves, the competitor may
leapfrog the production, thus eliminating any advantage that existed.
Differentiation Strategy: Involves developing products that offer unique attributes
that are valued by customers and that customers perceive to be better or different from
competitor products. The value added due to uniqueness of product may allow the
firm to charge a premium price for it. The firm can then hope that the higher price can
cover the extra costs incurred in offering the unique product. (In situation where
suppliers increase price, the firm can increase the costs to it customers who cannot
find substitute products easily)
Firms with differentiation strategy have following internal strengths:
Access to leading scientific research
Highly skilled and creative product development team
Strong sales team with ability of communicating the perceived strength of the
product
Corporate reputation for quality and innovation
This strategy bears the risk of change in customer taste, imitation by competitors etc.
Focus Strategy: This strategy focuses on creating a narrow segment, and within that
segment attempts to achieve cost advantage or differentiation. The logic is that the
needs of the group can be better serviced by focusing entirely on it. A firm using focus
strategy enjoys a high degree of customer loyalty, which discourages other firms from
competing directly.
The firms having narrow market focus, have lower volumes, and therefore less
bargaining power with their suppliers. However, the ones pursuing a differentiation
focused strategy may be bale to pass higher costs to customer due to lack of
substitutes.
Firms that succeed in a focus strategy are able to tailor a broad range of product
development strengths to a relatively narrow market segment that they know very
well.
Some risks include imitation, and changes in target segments. Further, a broad market
cost leader can also adapt its product to the targets segment (of the narrow cost focus
business) to compete directly.
Note: These generic strategies are not necessarily compatible with one another. If a
firm attempts to achieve an advantage on all fronts, it may achieve no advantage at all.
Therefore, Porter argues, that to be successful over the long-run, a firm must select
only one of these three generic strategies, otherwise the firm will be stuck in the
middle and will achieve no competitive advantage. (Alternatively, a firm can succeed
at multiple strategies by creating separate business units for each of them, having
different polices and different cultures.)
Also Note: There exists a viewpoint which says that a single strategy is not always
best, because within the same product, customers often seek multi-dimensional
satisfaction such as quality, price, style etc.
Implementing Competitive Strategy
Offensive & Defensive Moves
Defensive Strategies: Set of strategies used to make possible attacks unattractive or
discourage competitors. The motives are primarily to protect market share, position or
profitability, while maintaining leadership in market and retaining the customer
loyalty and faith in the brand. These strategies involve less risk, and ensure that the
share of the market is retained. By emphasizing the benefits of the brand, one can
devalue the competitor and secure a niche for your product.
Types
1. Position Defense: Involves trying to hold the current position in market, and
continue investing in the current market and building brand name and customer
loyalty. (Johnson & Johnson cut the price of its product Tylenol when a cheap
alternative Datril was launched by Bristol-Myers.)
2. Mobile Defense: Makes constant changes in business and keeps innovating, by
introducing new products, entering new markets or making changes in existing
products. Includes market broadening and market diversification strategies.
(ITC ltd. has expanded into several segments, following a heavy diversification
strategy)
3. Flanking Defense: Market leader attempts to identify and strengthen its own
weak points, commonly geographic areas or market segments before a smaller
rival can mount an attack against it (Johnson & Johnson example also fits here)
4. Counter-Offensive Defense: When a market leader is attacked by another
company, it retaliates by attacking main territories of the competitor. (Launch
of Lexus by Toyota to challenge Mercedes strong hold in India)
5. Contraction Defense: A market leader gives up a segment which is not so
profitable to concentrate on other segments. This happens when there is
extreme competition or when there is not enough expertise in the leader to
handle the situation. (TATA motors gave up passenger vehicle market to focus
on commercial vehicle market)
Offensive Strategies: Involves improving own position by taking away the market
share of the competitor. It can include direct ad indirect attacks on competition, or
moving into new market segment. The primary objective is to destabilize the current
market leader and acquire a greater market share. The company can benefit from the
first mover advantage, exploit the untouched/neglected market segments.
Its types are stated as below:
1. Frontal Attack: Attacking a competitor head-on, with similar products, price,
quality, promotion etc. This is highly risky unless the attacker bears a clear-cut
competitive advantage. It focuses on competitor’s strength rather than his
weakness. (Pepsi introduced Diet Pepsi when Coke introduced Diet Coke)
2. Flank Attack: Attacking the competitor at the weak point or blind spot. This is
less risky compared to a frontal attack. Here company follows the path of least
resistance where the competitor is incapable of defending itself. (Canon took
over Xerox’s copier market by focusing on small size coper market that
couldn’t afford Xerox’s large copiers)
3. Encirclement Attack: Combination of Frontal & Flank attack. Here attacker
must have superior resources, and must surround the competitor with various
brands, which results in the defender’s attention getting spread across various
products. (Honda Super Cub costed 75% less than Harley Davidson bikes, and
casual bikers with little interest in large or powerful bikes purchased them)
4. Bypass Attack: Involves overtaking the competitors by introducing new
technology and innovating its product. (Leap Frog Strategy) (iPod attacking the
Sony Walkman)
5. Guerilla Attack: Making small changes, which repeatedly put your brand in the
forefront, and slowly makes it a huge name in the market. Intention here is to
destabilize, harass or demoralize the competitor. (Hello Happiness phone booth
installed by Coca Cola that accepts bottle caps and gives goodies) (Israel wins
war, Palestine wins hearts)
Formulating Corporate Strategies
Strategies that are used to make decisions regarding the allocation of resources or
pursue an operational strategy are often categorized as stability strategies, expansion
(growth strategies), retrenchment strategy or combination strategy.
Stability Strategies
The strategy seeks to maintain operations, market size and position. This strategy is
characteristic of the small risk averse firm or firms that operate in a very uncertain
market that is comfortable with its current position. It can be further broken down
into:
No Change Strategies: Firm makes no considerable changes to its objectives or
operations. The firm examines the internal and external factors affecting the
firm in its current environment and makes a conscious decision to maintain its
current strategic objective. This is observed commonly in low competitive
environments, with no major market shifting occurrences. (Firms operating in
niche markets choose a cost/differentiation strategy until internal/external
factors necessitate a change)
Profit Strategies: Endorses any action necessary to maintain or improve
profitability. This may include cutting costs, raising prices, increasing sales etc.
It is used by firms that are profitable but face temporary pressures that threaten
their profitability (say recession, inflation, competition). If pressures become
long term, then the profit strategy risks harming the firm by reducing
competitiveness. (Strategy does not involve the investment of new resources)
Caution Strategies: It requires a firm to wait and continue to assess the market
before employing any particular strategy. This is a temporary strategy
employed for a limited time while deciding on the formal strategy to pursue
further. It avoids making any significant investment, and discontinues any
strategy pursued till now, until the firm has full understanding of market, and
the effects of former strategies. (common in manufacturing companies
evaluating the launch of new products)
Growth Strategy
Strategy adopted with an aim to achieve faster growth, achieve higher profits, grow a
brand, occupy a larger market share and so on. It can be classified into:
1. Concentrated Growth: Focusing resource allocation and operational
efficiency on selected business units. Concentration may include:
Penetrating existing market with an existing value proposition
Developing new market by attracting new customers to an existing value
proposition
Developing a new value proposition to introduce in the existing market
This allows the firm to focus on areas where it already has a level of competency.
However, strategy is analogous to putting too many eggs in one basket, i.e. changes in
market may cause the strategy to become unsuccessful.
2. Expansion through Diversification: Involves diversifying the value offering of
the company by either of the two ways listed below:
Concentric Diversification – entails developing a new value proposition related
to the existing value proposition
Conglomerate Diversification – entails entering into new markets (with
existing value proposition or combining with another industry competitor)
This strategy reduces specific industry risks, such as an economic downturn. The profits
of one value offering might offset the losses arising due to another.
Examples: Virgin Media moved from music to travel and mobile phones, Walt Disney
moved from producing animated movies to theme parks and vacation properties,
Canon diversified from a camera-making company, into producing whole new range
of office equipment
3. Expansion through Integration: Involves the consolidation of operation
units anywhere along the value chain to create greater efficiency and
produce economies of scale. There are two types:
Vertical Integration: Forward integration involves consolidating closer to the
point at which value is delivered to the consumer. Backward integration is
consolidating closer to the genesis of the value chain (say point of
manufacturing)
Horizontal Integration involves consolidating operations ate the same point in
the value chain. The consolidation may be between business units or by
acquiring/merging with competitors.
c. Joint Ventures: Joint venture is an entity created when two or more firms pool
a portion of their resources to create a separate jointly owned organization. The
two parent companies do not cease to exist. Each of the participants is
responsible for profits, losses and costs associated with the project. JV can take
on any legal structure, say corporations, partnerships, LLP companies. (New
technological knowledge, greater flexibility, shared risks are advantages)
Ex. Sony-Ericsson was a joint venture between Sony (mobile phone manufacturer)
and Swedish Company Ericsson which is a manufacturing company. Also, tata motors
have formed a 51:49 JV in bus body building with Marco polo of Brazil
Acquisitions
It is a corporate action, where company buys most if not all of the target firm’s
ownership stakes to assume its control. It is done as a part of company’s growth
strategy, when it is more beneficial to take over an existing firm’s operation rather
than expand on its own.
Friendly Acquisition: It occurs when the target firm expresses its agreement to be
acquired. They often work towards a mutual benefit for both the acquiring and target
firms, and companies develop strategies to ensure that acquiring firm purchases
appropriate assets, including the review of financial statements and other valuations.
Once both parties agree to the terms, the purchase moves forward.
E.g. Johnson & Johnson undertook a friendly acquisition of a Dutch vaccine maker
Crucell, Facebook acquiring WhatsApp
Hostile Acquisition: There isn’t an agreement from the target firm, and acquiring firm
must actively purchase large stakes of the target, to have a majority stake. The
acquiring company can produce a tender offer designed to encourage current
shareholders to sell their holdings in exchange for an above market value price.
E.g. L&T bought a 20.4% stake in leading services firm Mindtree.
Defending against a Hostile Acquisition
Poison pill – A form of defense tactic utilized by a target company to prevent hostile
takeover, where the target corporation makes its stock less attractive to the acquirer,
by making its’s stock more expensive. (e.g. allowing the existing shareholders to buy
more stocks at a discount, this increases the number of shares acquirer will have to
buy)
1. Golden Parachute – Substantial benefits given to top executives if the company
is taken over by another firm and the executives are terminated as a result of
the takeover. It is an anti-takeover measure, taken by a firm to discourage an
unwanted takeover.
2. Pac-Man Defense – Target firm tries to acquire the company that has made the
hostile takeover attempt, with its efforts made at reversing the whole game, and
using its war chest (reserves for unexpected opportunity) to buy the majority
stake of the acquirer firm.
Benefits of Mergers & Acquisitions
1. Economies of Scale – Combined firm can become more cost-efficient and
profitable
2. Greater pricing power from reduced competition and higher market share
3. Combining different functional strength say marketing and production
processes
4. Firm with excess cash, can fund a firm with high return projects yet lack of
funds
5. Debt capacity can increase, as the new firm’s cash flows can become more
stable and predictable
6. Tax benefits earned by a profitable firm that acquires a money losing firm,
using the net operating losses of the latter
7. Diversification of the products, services and long-term prospects of the
business
Unit 4
Strategic Framework
Strategic Analysis & Choice
Strategy analysis and choice focuses of generating and evaluating alternative
strategies, as well as selecting strategies to pursue. Here we seek to determine the
alternative course of action that could best enable the firm to achieve its mission and
objectives.
Firm’s present strategies, mission and vision along with external-internal audit
information provides a basis for generating alternative strategies
Alternative strategies hereby derived (from above information) are consistent
with past strategies that have worked well.
Strategic analysis discusses analytical technique at two stages i.e. corporate
level (BCG matrix, GE matrix, Hofer’s matrix, DPM) and business level
strategies (SWOT, Experience Curve, Grand Strategy Selection matrix)
The judgmental factors constitute the other aspect on the basis of which strategic
choice is made.
Strategic Analysis at Corporate Level treats a corporate body constituting a portfolio
of business in a corporate vase. It is relevant to a multi-business corporation. For
single business entities, business level strategic analysis is sufficient.
Strategic Gap Analyses
It is an evaluation of the difference between the desired and actual outcome, and what
must be done to minimize this gap. It attempts to determine what a company should
do differently to achieve a particular goal by looking at the time frame, management,
budget and other factors to determine where the shortcomings lie. After this analysis,
the company should develop an implementation plan to eliminate the gaps.
1. Identifying the gap between the application of resources and the best
possible result from that application of resources.
2. Strategic gap = What the company must do – What the company is doing
3. This procedure stems from a variety of performance assessments, most
notably benchmarking, where if the general performance of an industry is
known then it becomes possible to use that as a benchmark to determine
whether a company’s performance is acceptable or not.
4. With such comparative data along with a strategy for improvement in mind,
the company can allocate resources such as time, money and people to seek
out a specific outcome.
Ex. If a small restaurant wants to become a tourist destination, then a gap analysis
would look at the changes required by the restaurant to meet its goals (say relocation,
altering many, more staff) The analysis would then determine how these changes
would take place, and help the business to strategize to meet its future objectives.
Portfolio Analyses
BCG Matrix
BCG Growth Share Matrix is a portfolio planning model developed by Boston
Consulting Group. It is based on the observation that a company’s business units can
be classified into four categories based on combinations of market growth and market
share relative to the largest competitor. Market growth serves as a proxy for industry
attractiveness, and relative market share serves as a proxy for competitive advantage.
The matrix thus maps the position of a business unity, within these two important
determinants of profitability.
The framework assumes that an increase in the relative market share will result in an
increase in the generation of cash, which often is true because of the experience curve
(described later). Second assumption is that a growing market requires investment in
assets to increase capacity, thus increasing the consumption of cash.
This means the position of business on growth share matrix provides an indication of
its cash generation and its cash consumption.
The four categories that a business unit can be put in (as per the matrix) are:
1. Dogs – Low maker share, Low growth rate. Neither generate nor consume
large amounts of cash. Serve as cash traps because of the money tied up in
business with little potential. Divestment must be done.
2. Question Marks – Grow rapidly, consumer large amount of cash. Low market
share, thus do not generate much cash. Large net cash consumption. Has the
potential to gain market share and become a star, and eventually a cash cow. If
it does not become a market leader, then after years of cash consumption it will
degrade to a dog, when market growth declines.
3. Stars – Generate and consume large amount of cash, both balancing each other
out. If star can maintain its large market share, then it will become a cash cow,
as market growth rate declines. (Portfolio of a well-diversified company should
have stars that will become the next cash cows, and ensure future cash
generation.)
4. Cash Cows – Generate more cash than they consume. Profits should be
extracted, while investing as little cash as possible. They can provide the cash
required by question marks. Their value can be determined with reasonable
accuracy, by calculating the present value of its cash stream using discounted
cash flow analysis.
Limitations:
1. Market growth rate is only one factor in industry attractiveness, and relative
market share only one factor in competitive advantage. (Other factors may also
determine these factors)
2. Each business unit may not be independent of other (which matrix assumes),
for instance a dog unit may help other units gain a competitive advantage.
3. Definition o the market is relative, and can thus produce skewed results.
GE Matrix
The GE Matrix was developed by Mckinsey & Company consultancy group in the
1970s. The nine cell grid measures business unit strength as against industry
attractiveness. Whereas BCG is limited to products, business units in this matrix can
be products, whole product lines, a service or even a brand.
Industry Attractiveness can be measured by:
Market size
Market growth
PESTEL Factors: Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental,
Legal
Porter’s 5 Forces: Competitive Rivalry, Buyer Power, Supplier Power, Threat
of new entrants, Threat of substitution
Business Unit Strength can be measured by:
Market Share
Growth in market share
Brand equity
Profit margins compared to competition
Distribution channel’s strength
Application:
1. Choose the factors you will use as determining factors (both attractiveness and
strength)
2. Give each factor a weight number based on its magnitude (make the total
weight of all factors add up to 1 or 10)
3. Rate each business unit against each factor on a scale of 1 to 5.
4. Calculate the weighted average rating for each business unit.
E.g. For measuring Industry attractiveness of a unit say A, you select market size and
market growth, and a lot a weight of 5 & 5 respectively to each. You give A a rating
of 4 & 5 on the metrics. Then the Industry attractiveness of A is = (4*4 + 5*5)/ (5+5)
= 2.3
Based on above measurements you can plot your business units on the GE matrix, in
the following criteria:
1. Grow/Invest: Unit has high market share and promises high returns, should be
invested in.
2. Hold/Selectivity: Unit is ambiguous, should be invested only if there is money
left over after investing in profitable units
3. Harvest/Divest: Poor performing units in an unattractive industry end up in this
section of the grid. They should be invested in only if they can make more
money than is put into them, otherwise they should be liquidated.
GE matrix allows for more complexity, and helps in analyzing business units against
multiple factors rather than the 2-dimensional approach of the BCG. This can be used
for building your strategy and for allocating resources and expanding products.
Warhorses: When a market begins to exhibit negative growth rate, cash cows become
warhorses. These products still have high market share, and hence can be substantial
cash generators. This might require reduced marketing expenditure, or it may take the
form of selective withdrawal from market segments.
Dodos: These are the products that have low share of declining markets with little
opportunity for growth. The apt strategy is to remove them from the portfolio, but if
competitors have already removed themselves from the market, it may still be
marginally profitable to remain. (Timing is crucial)
Infants: These are pioneering products that possess a high degree of risk. They do not
immediately earn profits and consumer substantial cash resources. The length of
innovation can vary from short time (consumer goods) to an extended period for a
product that is innovative enough to require a shift in buying habits.
Note: Rest classes (old BCG) remains same, Problem Children is synonymous with
Question Marks.
Directional Policy Matrix (DPM)
It is a tool that can help decide which market segment a business wishes to pursue. By
DPM you can understand what you should invest in and the direction your
organization should take. DPM measures the attractiveness of a segment and the
capability of the organization to support that segment.
Attractiveness of Market Segment (includes the following variables (can be more))
Size of the segment (number of customers)
Growth rate of the segment
Profit margins of the segment to the sales
Ongoing purchasing power of the segment
Attainable market share given promotional budget
Required market share to break even
Capability of the Organization: Evaluation of the capability of the organization to
meet the needs of the segments should include (but not be limited to) the below
variables:
Competitive capability of organization against the marketing mix
Access to distribution channels
Capital and human resource investment required to serve the segment
Brand association of the organization in the eyes of the segment
Current market share/likely future market share
Scoring the DPM: To score DPM the goal of yours stagey must be known, which can
be higher profit, higher market share or increased valuation of the organization
1. Weight the relative importance of each factor of attractiveness and capability in
terms of its contribution to the goal of the marketing strategy out of 1
2. Allocate the respective weight out of a total score of 48 points to each factor (if
weight for a factor was 0.2 then points for that factor is 0.2*48 = 10)
3. Score each segment relative to other segments. (For attractiveness factor: size
of segment, score the largest segment 10 and smallest segment 1)
4. Plot the resulting score in excel, and create a bubble chart graph where size of
the bubble represents the size of the segment.
Tactics for each sector are described as:
1. Leader – Focus your resources on the segments in this sector
2. Growth Leader – Grow by focusing just enough resources here
3. Cash Generator – Milk segments in this sector for expansion elsewhere
4. Phased withdrawal – Move cash to segments with greater potential
5. Custodial – Do not commit any more resources to segments in this sector
6. Try harder – Determine if there are ways you can build your capability for
segments in this sector for low levels of cash
7. Double or quit – Invest in your capability or get out of segments in this sector
8. Divest – Liquidate or move assets used is segments in this sector as fast as you
can
Grand Strategy Selection Matrix
Grand Strategy Matrix is a popular strategy tool, in which there are 4 quadrants based
on two important dimensions i.e. Market Growth & Competitive Positions.
QUADRANT I: Strong competitive position and rapid market growth
Strategies: Market Development, Market Penetration, Product Development,
Backward Integration, Forward Integration, Horizontal Integration, Concentric
Diversification
Ex. Gatorade (PepsiCo)
QUADRANT II: Weak competitive position and rapid market growth
Strategies: Market Development, Market Penetration, Product Development,
Horizontal Integration, Liquidation, Divestiture
Ex. AMP Energy Drink (PepsiCo)
QUADRANT III: Weak competitive position and slow market growth
Strategies: Horizontal Diversification, Concentric Diversification, Conglomerate
Diversification, Retrenchment, Liquidation
Ex. Fritos (PepsiCo)
QUADRANT IV: Strong competitive position and slow market growth
Strategies: Horizontal Diversification, Concentric Diversification, Conglomerate
Diversification, Joint Ventures
Ex. Lay’s (PepsiCo)
Behavioral Considerations affecting choice of strategy
Describes the subjective factors that can influence what strategy is chosen by a
manager. The factors are described as below:
1. Role of current strategy:
What is the amount of time and resources invested in previous strategy?
How close are the new strategies to the old ones?
How successful were the previous strategies?
4. Managerial priorities
Agency theory suggests managers frequently place their own interest above
those of their shareholders
Thereby depending upon the managers, and the strategy maybe implemented
that protects their interest prior to that of shareholders
Strict supervision on the managers can ensure that the strategy is in-line with
overall company’s objectives
6. Competitive reaction
Probable impact of competitor response must be considered during the strategy
designing process
Competitor response can alter the success potential of a strategy
“Structure follows strategy.” This means that all aspects of an organization’s structure
from the divisions to the designations should be made keeping in mind the strategic
intent. Strategy decides the markets in which a company will compete, targeting a
customer segment and also asserts the competency in which the company seeks to
differentiate itself. Thereby a need to restructure is triggered by strategic shift driven
by new technologies or market changes.
In essence, the way you organize your company to pursue the strategic objective is an
important part of organizational design.
Design elements such as hiring and HR development, communication and decision-
making systems, reward, recognition and renewal systems all must be aligned around
the chosen structure.
Ex. General Motors progress in the mid-20 century was due to its famous divisions of
th
3. Set C: Random
#Honda – set up distribution in college stationary shops
#1957 – Aircrafts take over waterways
#Cruise ships – Hindenburg, Zeppelin, Blimp
#Concord 2003 crash led to its death
2001- 9/11
2004 – oil prices
#Frank whittle – British engineer who invented jet engine
Boeing 707 – Worlds first transatlantic passenger plane
Anwar Sadak – Yom Kippur War 1973
4. Corporate Imperialism: MNC operate with the assumption that big emerging
markets are new markets for their old product, but don’t look at the same markets
(China, India, Indonesia, Brazil) as sources of technical and managerial talent for their
global operations
Indians on average tried 6.3 brands of the same product in a year,
compared to 2 of US
Failed example of MNCs that tried to bring existing product without
calculating new market dynamics – Ford, Revlon
5.
6.
8. Sustainability
Lloyd’s of London – 1700s – Marine Insurance
Mitsubishi – diversified in different industries, hence difficult to die
Wernher Von Braun – responsible for putting man on moon, director of
NASA during Apollo
First satellite in space was Russian because they stole Werneher’s work
– Sputnik
UH-1 Iroquis – type of helicopter, very versatile
Bletchley Park – think tan for codebreaking
Swiss Watch Industry – moved from volume to value manufacturing
Voortrekkers – German & Dutch immigrants who colonized South
Africa
IDF – Israel Defense Forces – invested huge efforts in battlefield
activities
Jack Welch – 1980 to 2000 – CEO of GE
Pizzara (Spanish who conquered South America) & Cortez (Central
America Conquered)
AK-47 – reliable
IED – Improvised Explosive Devices
TU-95: Large, four engine turbo-powered strategic bomber and missile
platform, first flight 12 November 1952, born from Soviet Union’s
desire to develop its own strategic bomber force to match that of US in
WW II, one of the fastest existing propeller planes, 500 miles/hr.,
dropped the largest every nuclear weapon, detonated over Severny
Islands in 1961
B52 – American long-range subsonic jets powered strategic bomber,
since 1950s, Capable of carrying 32000 kg of weapons, with combat
range of more than 88000 miles, without aerial refueling
Isambard Kingdom Brunel – English mechanical and civil engineer,
built dockyards, Great western railway, series of steamships, numerous
bridges and tunnels, designed 3 ships that revolutionized naval
engineering, prominent figure in industrial revolution, revolutionized
public transport and modern engineering
Saint Nazaire – One of the most damaged town in France during WW-2,
was subject to a British raid in 1942, as a submarine base for Germans
and was heavily bombed until 1945, it was one of the last territories in
Europe to be liberated from the Germans
9.
10.
13. PESTEL
Political Influence: Beef ban, Muslim traders troubled/Angola – large oil
production
NBCC may take up stranded projects of Jaypee, Amrapali (UP- Mayawati,
Akhilesh)
Semi-Dictatorship (Asian Tigers) – Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong,
Singapore
Cuba – dominance in medical standards, lowest infant mortality rate across the
world
Japanese Mafia – Yakuza
Samsung controversy – Samsung shifted its production to Vietnam, because
they offered incentives
Blood Diamond- whole separate case involving DeBeers corporation
Sunderland-Nissan, Swindon – Honda, Derby – Toyota (production places)
Note: I understand it can be complex to sort out the examples relevant from exam
point of view, but that’s how things are. You would have to research a bit deeper, to
find out their backstory and relevance to the theoretical subject matter, in case you
have not attended classes.
14. SWOT
Bluedart
S: Large network, established partnerships
W: Low customer penetration, low advertisements
O: expansion through tie-ups with e-commerce sites
T: Amazon flipkart, delivery system
Sales Agents – manufacture only exists in market, no real penetration. E.g. imported
products that are not customized (Amway, Avon, Tupperware)
Licensing – Described earlier, FIAT’s biggest problem in India – Premier Padmini (Bombay
Taxi)
BNSF – World’s largest private railway operator (North American)
16.
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