Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Blacks Veterinary Dictionary 21st Edition PDF Free PDF
Blacks Veterinary Dictionary 21st Edition PDF Free PDF
VETERINARY
DICTIONARY
B L AC K’S
VETERINARY
DICTIONARY
2 1 ST E D I T I O N
Edited by
Edward Boden
MBE, HonAssocRCVS, MRPharmS
ISBN-10: 0–7136–6362–6
ISBN-13: 978–0–7136–6362–4
eISBN-13: 978-1-4081-0418-7
© 2005, 1964, 1967, 1970, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1982, 1985,
1988, 1992, 1995, 1998, 2001 A & C Black Publishers Limited
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
E.B. 2005
Note: The use of small capitals, for instance, ANTIBODY, in the text,
refers the reader to the entry of that name for additional
information.
Black’s Veterinary Dictionary, first published in 1928, owes its
existence to the late Professor William C. Miller, who was also
responsible for the 1935 edition. When on the teaching staff of the
Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh, he saw the need for
such a book and modelled it on Black’s Medical Dictionary.
Professor Miller held the chair of animal husbandry at the Royal
Veterinary College, London, and completed a distinguished career
by becoming Director of the Animal Health Trust’s equine research
station at Newmarket. Editorship from the 1953 to 1995 editions
was in the hands of Geoffrey P. West MRCVS, veterinary writer and
journalist.
Non-infectious causes
Mares
Infections
Claviceps purpurea (ergot in feed)
Viruses
Stress
Equine herpesvirus 1 (Equine rhinopneu-
Recessive lethal gene
monitis)
Malnutrition
Equine viral arteritis
Haemolytic disease
Bacteria
Vitamin A deficiency
Aeromonas hydrophilia
Iodine deficiency
Salmonella abortus equi
Brucella abortus (rarely)
Ewes Haempophilus equigenitalis (contagious equine
Infections
metritis)
Viruses
Leptospira spp (sometimes in association with
Border disease/Thogoto virus
equine herpesvirus 1)
Chlamydia
Listeriosis
C. psittaci (ovis) (Enzootic abortion)
Non-infectious causes
Rickettsiae
Twin foals
Ehrlichia phagocytophilia (tick-borne fever)
Plant poisoning (e.g. by Locoweed)
Coxiella burnetti (Q fever)
Bacteria Bitch
Bacillus licheniformis Neospora caninum
Salmonella dublin, typhimurium, montivideo, Brucella canis (not UK)
S. abortus ovis and others Streptococcus spp
Listeria monocytogenes Canine herpesvirus
Arizona spp
Actinomyces pyogenes Queen
Brucella abortus and (not in the UK) B. ovis Feline leukaemia virus, feline herpesvirus
Abscess 3
Causes The direct cause of an acute abscess is Signs Swelling may be noticeable on the sur-
either infection with bacteria, or the presence of face of the body (as in actinomycosis), or it may
an irritant in the tissues. show no signs of its presence until the animal is
4 Abyssinian
Abyssinian
A breed of short-haired cat similar in appear-
ance to those depicted in illustrations from
ancient Egypt. It is favoured for its quiet vocal-
isation. Familial renal amyloidosis has been
found in this breed.
First-aid for owners: how to carry an injured cat
with a suspected limb fracture. A dog may be
Acacia Poisoning carried similarly if not too large. An alternative
Acacia poisoning has been recorded in cattle for a bigger dog is to draw it gently on to a coat
and goats. Signs include ataxia, excitation and or rug, ready for lifting into the back of a car for
prostration. transport to a veterinary surgeon. (Photo, Marc
Henrie / Pedigree Petfoods.)
Acanthosis Nigicans
A chronic condition of the skin found mainly in injection of Revivon (diprenorphine hydrochlo-
dogs, especially Daschunds. The skin becomes ride). A veterinary surgeon who had no Revivon
thickened with loss of hair and excessive pig- with him died within 15 minutes of accidental
mentation, and is velvety to the touch. The self-injection, when a colt made a sudden violent
condition often starts in the axillae (armpits) but movement. Even a scratch with a used needle can
the abdomen has also been seen as the primary cause collapse.
location. The cause is unknown. It may respond
to corticosteroids or radiation therapy. Accidents
Any part of the animal may be injured in an
Acapnia accident. Often the damage is obvious, such as
Acapnia is a condition of diminished carbon a broken limb. Serious internal injury may not
dioxide in the blood. be immediately apparent. Road traffic accidents
are the commonest cause of accidents to dogs
Acaricide and cats. Care must be taken in handling
A parasiticide effective against mites and ticks. injured animals, as mishandling may make the
injury worse. (See also ELECTRIC SHOCK, ‘STRAY
Acarus VOLTAGE’ AND ELECTROCUTION; FRACTURES;
A forage mite only accidentally parasitic. BLEEDING; INTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE; BURNS
AND SCALDS; SHOCK; EYE, DISEASES AND
Accidental Self-Injection INJURIES OF.)
This has led to human infection with BRUCEL-
LOSIS, ORF, plague, Q FEVER, and TUBERCULO- Accommodation
SIS (TB). (see EYE)
Accidental self-injection with an oil-based
vaccine is painful and dangerous; it requires Acepromazine
immediate medical attention. (Acetylpromazine)
If the accident involves IMMOBILON, the Acepromazine (Acetylpromazine) is a phenoth-
effects can be reversed by an immediate self- iazine-derived tranquilliser. Given by injection
Acetonaemia 5
before anaesthesia, it enables low doses of barbi- By contrast, the severe forms of ketosis met
turates to be used. 1 to 3 mg per kg bodyweight, with in the lactating cow and the diabetic cow, A
given by mouth a quarter of an hour or more and characterised by high concentrations of
before food, may be used for the prevention of ketone bodies in the blood and urine, are obvi-
travel sickness in small animals. ously harmful pathological conditions where
Acepromazine lowers blood pressure, and so is the quantities of ketone bodies formed grossly
contra-indicated in accident cases. Noradrenaline exceed possible needs.
is recommended for reversing any fall in blood
pressure. Signs The cow shows rapid weight loss,
reduced appetite and favours roughage to con-
Acetabulum centrates. Rumen activity is reduced and faeces
Acetabulum is the cup-shaped depression on the become harder. The animal is markedly dull,
PELVIS with which the head of the femur forms with a dull coat and reduced milk yield. The
the HIP-JOINT. DISLOCATION of the hip-joint breath has a sickly sweet smell of acetone, which
sometimes occurs as the result of ‘run-over’ acci- may also be detected in the milk and urine.
dents, and FRACTURES of the pelvis involving Sometimes nervous signs are present, with
the acetabulum frequently result from the same the animal licking walls, head rope and other
cause. objects, and overexcitement. Most animals
recover with treatment.
Acetaminophen
(see PARACETAMOL) Diagnosis Rothera’s test on milk; urine may
be used but can cause false positives.
Acetic Acid
Acetic acid is used as a treatment for alkalosis, First-Aid Treatment consists in giving 1⁄2 a
which may be caused by urea poisoning. Acetic pint of glycerine or propyleneglycol, diluted
acid may form naturally in pig mash feeds in water, or a preparation containing sodium
allowed to stand, or in silage and fermented propionate.
hay, when it can cause illness or even death. The feeding of cut grass or flaked maize, the
It is one of the normal breakdown products of addition of a little molasses to feed, and exercise
cellulose digesting bacteria in the rumen. all aid recovery. Injections of dextrose or corti-
costeroids are used under veterinary control.
Acetonaemia Resistant cases are met with which defy all
This, and ketosis, are names given to a meta- treatment; the cow improves up to a point
bolic disturbance in cattle and sheep. It may but does not feed properly and dies in 10 to 20
be defined as the accumulation in the blood days.
plasma, in significant amounts, of KETONE
BODIES. The disorder may occur at any time, Prevention In the 2nd half of a lactation, the
but is commonest in winter in dairy cows kept diet of a dairy cow should contain a greater pro-
indoors when receiving a full ration of concen- portion of home-grown foods with a lower
trates. The condition is very rare in heifers and digestibility than that in the diet fed during
seldom occurs before the 3rd calving. It can be peak lactation.
seen in cows in the 1st month after calving and At the beginning of the dry period, the cows
is most commonly apparent at 3 weeks. should be fit but not fat (condition score 2.5 to
3). The cows should be kept in this condition
Cause The disturbance is caused by the cow’s during the dry period by a diet of relatively
demands for carbohydrate exceeding that avail- poor-quality forage or heavy stocking and
able from the feed. Whenever the glucose level should be given a vitamin/mineral supplement.
in the blood plasma is low, as in starvation or Production rations should be introduced in the
on a low-carbohydrate diet, or when glucose is last 2 weeks of the dry period and contain both
not utilisable, as in diabetes, the concentration the forage and concentrate elements to be fed
of free fatty acids in the plasma rises. This rise after calving. Cattle should not be ‘steamed up’
is roughly paralleled by an increase in the con- but should receive up to 3 kg (61⁄2 lb) (dry) of
centration of ketone bodies, which provide a the milking ration.
3rd source of energy. In other words, the mod- After calving, the quantity of production
erate ketosis which occurs under a variety of ration fed should be steadily increased as the
circumstances is to be looked upon as a normal milk production increases. For high-yielding
physiological process supplying the tissues with cows the production concentrate ration should
a readily utilisable fuel when glucose is scarce. contain 16 to 18 per cent crude protein with a
6 Acetone
high metolisable energy. The carbohydrate in in Boston terriers, English springer spaniels,
A the ration should be readily digestible. The smooth fox terriers, wire-haired fox terriers,
inclusion of some ground maize may be partic- German shepherd dogs and Rhodesian ridge-
ularly helpful in ketosis-prone herds, since some backs.
of the starch escaping rumen fermentation is
digested and absorbed as sugars. Production Achondroplasia
concentrates should contain a balanced vitamin Achondroplasia is a form of dwarfing due to
and mineral supplement. disease affecting the long bones of the limbs
Cows must not be given free access to straw. before birth. It is noticed in some calves of cer-
Concentrates can be fed between meals from tain breeds of cattle such as the Dexter, in some
out-of-parlour feeders, as a constituent of a breeds of dogs, and in lambs. (See GENETICS,
complete diet, or layered in silage. High-yield- HEREDITY AND BREEDING – Genetic defects.)
ing cows should not be penned for a long time
in yards, but be given ample opportunity for Achorion
exercise. (see RINGWORM)
After the first 10 to 12 weeks of lactation,
the feeding routine of the high-yielders can Acid-Fast Organisms
be modified. The home-grown forage can be Acid-fast organisms are those which, when once
slowly increased in the ration with a corre- stained with carbol-fuchsin dye, possess the
sponding decrease in the more expensive highly power to retain their colour after immersion in
digestible carbohydrates if the cow’s perfor- strong acid solutions, which decolorise the
mance is not affected. This change-over must non-acid-fast group. The important acid-fast
be a gradual process. bacteria are Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which
causes tuberculosis in humans and other pri-
Acetone mates; M. bovis, which causes tuberculosis in
A ketone with characteristic smell found in cattle and some other mammals; M. piscium,
small amounts in some samples of normal which causes tuberculosis in fish; and M. avium
urine, and in greater quantities during the var. paratuberculosis (johnei), which causes
course of diabetes, acetonaemia, pneumonia, Johne’s disease in ruminants.
cancer, starvation, and diseases of disturbed
metabolism. Acidosis
A condition of reduced alkaline reserve of the
Acetonuria is the excretion of ketones in the blood and tissues, with or without an actual
urine. fall in pH. Sudden death may occur in cattle
from acidosis after gorging on grain, or follow-
Acetylcholine ing a sudden introduction of cereal-based
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, an impor- concentrates. It is a common complication
tant link in the transmission of nerve impulses of diarrhoea, particularly in young animals. (See
between the nerves themselves (at the synapses) also BARLEY POISONING.) Sheep may similarly be
and between the nerve and the muscle. Paralysis affected.
results if the body’s ability to produce acetyl-
choline is affected by shock, injury or certain Acids, Poisoning by
drugs, such as curare. Pharmaceutical prepara- Strong acids are intensely destructive of animal
tions of such compounds are used in anaesthesia tissue. If accidentally consumed, the effects are
to produce muscle relaxation, which facilitates immediate and drastic.
surgical procedures.
In the healthy animal, acetylcholine is Signs Excessive salivation, great pain, and
destroyed by the enzyme cholinesterase as soon destruction of the mucous membrane lining the
as the nerve impulse has passed. When this mouth (which causes the unfortunate animal to
reaction is prevented, as in poisoning by keep its mouth open and protrude its tongue)
organophosphorous insecticides, convulsions are seen. After a short time convulsive seizures
follow. Excessive salivation is an important and vomiting occur, and general collapse fol-
symptom in dogs so poisoned. lows; while if a large amount of acid has been
taken, death from shock rapidly supervenes.
Achalasia of the Oesophagus
Absence of progressive peristalsis and failure Treatment Alkaline demulcents should be
of the lower oesophageal sphincter to relax. It given at once and in large quantities; bicarbon-
has been reported as an inherited condition ate of soda given in gruels or barley-water or
Acropachia 7
Acinus
Acinus is the name applied to each of the minute
sacs of which secreting glands are composed.
Aciduria
Aciduria is the excretion of acid urine. It may
occur as a result of feeding a specialised diet to
reduce the fomation of urinary calculi (stones)
in the dog and cat.
Acne
An inflammation of sebaceous glands or hair
follicles, with the formation of pustules. In the
horse, a contagious form of acne is sometimes
due to infection with Corynebacterium ovis.
Acne often accompanies canine distemper, and Aconite (Aconitum napellus). The flowers are
is seen on the chin of the cat. either blue or yellow, and each has a petal which
is in the shape of a helmet or hood; hence the
name ‘monkshood’ which is often applied to the
Aconite plant when growing in gardens. Height: 65 cm to
(Aconitum napellus) Also known as monkshood, 2 m (2 to 6 ft).
it is a poisonous plant cultivated in gardens, but
also growing wild in the cooler mountainous stomach-tube may be passed in the large herbiv-
parts of both hemispheres. It is frequently culti- orous animals that do not vomit. Stimulants,
vated in gardens in Britain for its decorative such as strong black tea or coffee, should be
appearance. All parts of the plant are poisonous, given by mouth.
the parts above the ground being often eaten by
stock (see ACONITE POISONING). Aconite owes Acoprosis
its poisonous properties to an alkaloid (aconi- Absence or scantiness of faeces.
tine), mainly found in the tuberous root, but
present in smaller amounts in other parts of the Acorn Calves
plant. Aconitine is irritant in large doses, but A congenital problem most commonly seen in
smaller doses have a sedative and paralysing calves from suckler cows fed on an unsupple-
effect on the sensory nerves. mented silage diet. Affected calves have domed
heads and other facial deformities, and stunted
Aconite Poisoning limbs.
Aconite poisoning is apt to occur when herbiv-
orous animals gain access to gardens. Acorn Poisoning
In pigs poisoning sometimes occurs through (see under OAK POISONING)
eating the horseradish-like roots.
Acp
Signs The chief symptoms shown are general Acronym for ACEPROMAZINE.
depression, loss of appetite, salivation, inflam-
mation of the mucous membrane of the mouth Acromegaly
and jaws, grinding of the teeth; pigs are nause- A condition caused by excess of the growth
ated and may vomit; and horses become restless hormone STH, produced by the anterior lobe
and may be attacked with colic. Animals walk of the pituitary gland, leading to enlargement
with an unsteady gait, and later become paral- of the extremities and to overgrowth of con-
ysed in their hind-limbs. The pulse becomes nective tissue, bone and viscera. (See also
almost imperceptible, and unconsciousness is SOMATOTROPHIN.)
followed by convulsions and death.
Acropachia
Treatment An emetic must be given to the Also known as hypertrophic osteopathy, or
pig, dog and cat to induce vomiting, and a Marie’s disease, it is a condition in which
8 Acrosome
superfluous new bone is laid down – first in the Treatment Antibiotics are often effective. In
A limbs and later in other parts of the skeleton. It intransigent cases, intravenous sodium iodide is
may accompany tumours and tuberculosis in used.
the dog.
Pigs The disease has been recorded both in
Acrosome the UK (very rarely) and overseas, caused by
A cap over the anterior part of the head of Actinobacillus equuli (Bacterium viscosum equi).
spermatozoa; it contains enzymes which aid Actinobacillus suis has been recorded occasion-
penetration of the ovum. ally; it causes septicaemia in piglets and lesions
in various organs. Actinobacillus pleuropneumo-
ACTH niae (formerly Haemophilus pleuropneumoniae)
Acth is the abbreviated form of ADRENOCORTI- causes pleuropneumonia in pigs.
COTROPHIN. (See also CORTICOTROPHIN.)
Horses Actinobacillus equuli causes septi-
Actinobacillosis caemia and internal lesions in foals (see under
Actinobacillosis is a disease of cattle similar in FOALS, DISEASES OF).
some respects to ACTINOMYCOSIS, and some-
times mistaken for it. Precautions The disease can be transmitted to
Generally only 1 or 2 animals in a herd are man. Accordingly, care must be taken over wash-
affected at one time. ing the hands, etc., after handling an animal
Swellings may be seen on lips, cheeks, with actinobacillosis.
jaw, and at the base of the horn. Pneumonia,
infection of the liver or alimentary canal may Actinomycosis
lead to death in untreated cases. The disease This has been recorded in very many species of
occurs also in sheep and occasionally in pigs animals, including man, dogs, pigs, birds and
and foals. reptiles.
The lesions produced bear a considerable
Cause Actinobacillosis is due to infection resemblance to those of actinobacillosis (see
with Actinobacillus lignièresi. Infection occurs above), and are often indistinguishable from
through injuries, abrasions, etc. of soft tissues, them, but typically actinomycosis affects the
and when lymph nodes are affected through cheeks, pharynx and especially the bone of
invasion along the lymph vessels. Abscesses the jaws (it is known as ‘lumpy jaw’ in cattle),
form. while actinobacillosis is more likely to attack
Lesions may also involve the lungs, rumen, soft tissues only.
omasum, abomasum, and reticulum.
Actinobacillus seminis was discovered in a Cause Actinomyces bovis. This anaerobic bac-
sheep in Australia. The infection, sometimes terium is present in the digestive system of
subclinical, has since been recognised in several cattle, and it is probable that it can only become
countries including the UK, and causes pathogenic by invading the tissues through a
polyarthritis. wound. It is common during the ages when the
permanent cheek teeth are cutting the gums
Signs With Actinobacillus lignièresi the tongue and pushing out the milk teeth.
may become infected and painful, hence its The liver is sometimes affected, while actin-
common name ‘wooden tongue’. When lymph omycosis and actinobacillosis have both been
nodes in the throat are affected, the swelling found in lungs and bronchi.
and pressure caused may make swallowing Yellow sulphur granules are found in the
and breathing difficult; if the lesion is in the lesions.
skin and superficial tissues only, it may attain to Actinomyces (Corynebacterium) pyogenes is a
a great size without causing much trouble; major cause of abscesses and suppurative condi-
when the tongue is affected the animal has tions.
difficulty in mastication and swallowing and
there is usually a constant dribbling of saliva Signs The swelling in bone and other tissue,
from the mouth. If this is examined there may mainly composed of dense fibrous tissue, may
be found in it small greyish or greyish-yellow reach a considerable size causing interference
‘pus spots’, in which the organism can be with mastication, swallowing, or breathing,
demonstrated by microscopic methods. Later, depending on the situation of the lesion. In
the saliva may become thick, purulent, and foul most cases when the mouth or throat is affected,
smelling. there is a constant dribbling of saliva in varying
Addison’s Disease (Hypoadrenacortism) 9
amounts from the mouth. In the earlier stages treating intractable pain in horses. The injections
this saliva is normal in its appearance, but later were repeated at weekly intervals for upto 8 A
becomes offensive. weeks.
Actinomycosis of the bone of the upper and In China, acupuncture has been used for
lower jaws produces an increase in the size of surgical analgesia in animals and man.
the part and a rarefication of its bony structure,
the spaces becoming filled with the prolifera- Acute Disease
tion of fibrous tissue which is characteristic of A disease is called acute – in contradistinction
the disease. to ‘chronic’ – when it appears rapidly, and
When the udder is affected, hard fibrous either causes death quickly or leads to a speedy
nodules may be felt below the skin, varying in recovery. (See also under DEATH, CAUSES OF
size from that of a pea to a walnut or larger, SUDDEN.)
and firmly embedded in the structure of the
gland itself. These swellings enclose soft Ad Lib Feeding
centres of suppuration which, on occasions, This is a labour-saving system under which pigs
may burst either through the covering skin, or or poultry help themselves to dry meal, etc.,
into an adjacent milk sinus or duct. The milk and eat as much as they wish. It is also used in
from such a cow should not be used for human dairy cattle and for intensive beef production.
consumption because of the danger of the (See also DRY FEEDING.)
consumer contracting the disease.
Adamantinoma
Treatment Antibiotics may be effective. In A tumour affecting the jaw and composed of
intransigent cases, intravenous sodium iodide cells that normally produce dental enamel.
may be used.
Adder
Precautions The disease can be transmitted The common viper (Vipera berus). About 50
to man; hygienic precautions are necessary after cm (20 in) in length, it has dark markings on
handling infected animals. a paler ground. If disturbed, this snake may
bite farm or domestic animals. The bite is
Acuaria Uncinata dangerous; an antiserum is available.
This roundworm has caused outbreaks of disease
in geese, ducks, and poultry. The life-cycle of this Addison’s Disease
parasite involves an intermediate host, Daphnia (Hypoadrenacortism)
pulex, the water flea. On post-mortem examina- Addison’s disease (hypoadrenacortism) is caused
tion of affected birds, worms may be found in by failure of the ADRENAL GLANDS to produce
nodules scattered over the mucous membrane of adequate amounts of corticosteroids. It may
the oesophagus and proventriculus. Mortality be caused by congenital defects in, injury to,
may be high. or disease of the cortex of the gland, when it
is known as primary hypoadrenocorticism.
Acupuncture Secondary hypoadrenocorticism results from
The centuries-old Chinese technique of excessive or prolonged dosage of an animal with
needle insertion at certain specified points on cortisone products, which depresses the natural
the surface of the body has become a part of production of the hormone.
Western veterinary medicine for treatment,
analgesia, and resuscitation. Acupuncture can Signs In the dog or cat, where it most com-
produce the morphine-like natural substances monly occurs, the animal may be lethargic,
called ENDORPHINS which are, in effect, anal- depressed and weak; diarrhoea and vomiting
gesics. may be seen. In severe cases left untreated,
Adaptations have been made, such as the use death may result.
of lasers instead of needles. Ultrasonics and heat In cattle, it is associated with a high
have also been applied to the points. incidence of aborted, weakly or still-born
Acupuncture is commonly used to relieve calves.
painful conditions; also in treating poor circu-
lation, tissue damage, and smooth muscle dys- Treatment The condition responds rapidly to
function. However, it is not a panacea and must administration of hydrocortisone or other
be applied by experts. appropriate corticoid product to restore levels
Success has been reported for the use of injec- of cortisol in the blood; numerous formulations
tions of sterile saline at acupunture points in are available.
10 Additives
Typical fat cell formed by intake of fat globules. (Reproduced with permission from R. D. Frandson,
Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, Lea & Febiger, 1986, after Ham and Leeson, Histology, J. B.
Lippincott Co.)
Inflammation of the lymph nodes may fattened and killed between 21⁄2 and 3 years. In
occur, and lesions may be found also in abdom- the majority of herds, few cows live to be more A
inal organs and tissues, and in the chest. than 8 or 10 years of age. Pedigree bulls may
reach 12 or 14 years of age before being dis-
Treatment Isolation of the affected animals carded. Records are in existence of cows up to
and strict segregation of the in-contacts should 39 years old, and it is claimed that one had 30
be carried out. calves.
blood. It is used as a measure of liver damage in Signs include: loss of weight; malaise; chronic
dogs and cats. respiratory infection; and paresis or paraplegia. A
Bleeding from the mouth and anaemia may
Alaskan Malamute also be observed. Death usually follows within
A breed of dog developed from the husky. a month. The disease can be confused with the
Dwarfism (chondrodysplasia) is inherited in later stages of rabies.
some litters. Day blindness may also be inherited
and congenital haemolytic anaemia occurs. Diagnosis In ferrets the counter-current
electrophoresis test has been used.
Albinism
Albinism is a lack of the pigment melanin in Alexin
the skin – an inherited condition. (see COMPLEMENT)
Albumins Alfadalone
(see PROTEINS; CONALBUMIN; ALBUMINURIA) (see ALFAXALONE)
Albuminuria Alfaxalone
The presence of albumin in the urine: one Used in combination with alfadalone (in Saffan
of the earliest signs of NEPHRITIS and cystitis [Schering-Plough]) as a general anaesthetic in
(see URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF). cats; it must not be used in dogs. Given by
intravenous injection, It produces sedation in
Alcohol Poisoning 9 seconds and anaesthesia after 25 seconds. It is
Acute alcoholism is usually the result of too also given by deep intramuscular injection as an
large doses given bona fide, but occasionally the induction for general anasthesia for long opera-
larger herbivora and pigs eat fermenting wind- tions. It must not be given with other injectable
falls in apple orchards; or are given or obtain, anaesthetics.
fresh distillers’ grains, or other residue permeat-
ed with spirit, in such quantities that the ani- Algae
mals become virtually drunk. In more serious Simple plant life of very varied form and size,
cases they may become comatose. ranging from single-cell organisms upwards to
large seaweed structures. Algae can be a nui-
Aldosterone sance on farms when they block pipes or clog
This is a hormone secreted by the adrenal nipple drinkers. This happens especially in
gland. Aldosterone regulates the electrolyte warm buildings, where either an antibiotic
balance by increasing sodium retention and or sugar is being administered to poultry via
potassium excretion. (See CORTICOSTEROIDS.) the drinking water. Filters may also become
blocked by algae.
Aldrin The colourless Prototheca species are patho-
A persistent insecticide; a chlorinated hydrocar-
genic for both animals (cattle, deer, dogs,
bon used in agriculture and formerly in farm
pigs) and man. (See MASTITIS IN COWS – Algal
animals. Its persistence has prevented its veteri-
mastitis.)
nary use. Signs of toxicity include blindness,
The non-toxic algae of the Spirulina group
salivation, convulsions, rapid breathing. (See
are used in the feed of some ornamental fish.
GAME BIRDS.)
and the filamentous forms Anabaena flos-aquae, litmus blue. Many alkaloids are used in medi-
A Aphanizomenon and Oscillatoria agardhii. cine, and their names almost always end in ‘ine’
– e.g. atropine, morphine, quinine, etc.
Signs vary according to the dominant
Aconitine from monkshood (Aconitum napellus).
cyanobacterium present. Anabaena flos-aquae,
for example, can form alkaloid neuromuscular
Aconine }
Arecoline, from areca nut (Areca catechu).
toxins which can produce symptoms within Atropine, from belladonna, the juice of the deadly
half an hour; these being muscular tremors, nightshade (Atropa belladonna).
stupor, ataxia, prostration, convulsions, some- Caffeine, from the coffee plant (Coffea arabica) and
times opisthotonus, and death. Dyspnoea and from the leaves of the tea plant (Thea sinensis), also
salivation may also be seen. found in the kola nut, guarana, and species of
Mycrocystis strains produce a slower-acting holly, etc.
peptide toxin, which may cause vomiting and Cocaine, from coca leaves (Coca erythroxylon).
Digitoxin* from foxglove (Digitalis purpurea).
diarrhoea, salivation, thirst, piloerection, and
lachrymation. Survivors may show LIGHT
Digitalin* }
Ephedrine, from various species of Ephedra.
SENSITISATION, with inflamed white skin and Ergotoxin* from ergot (Claviceps purpurea).
oedema of ears and eyelids. Ergometrine }
Poisoning by algae has been recorded in dogs Hyoscyamine, from henbane (Hyoscyamus niger).
that have been in the sea off Denmark. In Hyoscine or also from henbane.
America a colourless alga is reported to have Scopolamine }
}
caused dysentery, blindness and deafness, and Morphine
sometimes ataxia and head-tilting. Codeine from opium, the juice of the opium
Thebaine poppy (Papaver comniferans).
In Victoria, Australia, 17 sheep died and
Heroin
many others showed signs of light sensitivity Nicotine, from tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tobaccum).
after drinking from a lake affected by a thick Physostigmine from Calabar beans (Physostigma
bloom of M. aeruginosa. The deaths were spread }
or Eserine venenosum).
over 6 months after removal from access to Pilocarpine, from jaborandi (Pilocarpus jaborandi).
the lake. Quinine, from cinchona or Peruvian bark (Cinchona,
Poisoning in cattle was suspected in the UK and Cinchona rubra).
after a spell of hot weather in East Anglia caused Santonin*, from wormwood (Artemesia pauciflora).
an algal bloom in field ponds and 50 per cent of Sparteine, from lupins (Lupulinus, sp.) and from
broom (Cytisus scoparius).
the cows in a herd suddenly showed nervous
Strychnine, from Nux vomica seeds (Strychnos nux
signs. BSE was ruled out as the cause. vomica).
Veratrine, from cevadilla seeds (Cevadilla officinale, or
Alimentary Canal Schoenocaulon officinale).
(see DIGESTION)
Those marked * are neutral principles.
Alkali A first-aid antidote for poisoning by an
A substance which neutralises an acid to form a alkaloid is strong tea.
salt, and turns red litmus blue. Alkalis are gen-
erally the oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, or Allantois
bicarbonates of metals. A sac extending from the hind gut of the early
embryo and containing urine-like fluid. The
Varieties Ammonium, lithium, potassium, allantois fuses with the chorion to become
and sodium salts are the principal alkalis, their part of the PLACENTA. (See also PERVIOUS
carbonates being weak and their bicarbonates URACHUS.)
weaker.
Alleles (Allelomorphs)
Uses In poisoning by acids, alkalis in dilute Alleles (allelomorphs) are genes which influence
solution should be administered at once. (See a particular development process, processes, or
ACIDS, POISONING BY; STOMACH, DISEASES OF; character, in opposite ways, and can replace one
DISINFECTION; DETERGENTS.) another at a particular locus on a chromosome.
They result from a previous mutation, and the
Alkaloids original gene and its mutated form are called an
Alkaloids constitute a large number of the ‘allelomorphic pair’. Another definition is: one
active principles of plants and all possess a pow- of a pair or series (multiple alleles) of genes
erful physiological action. Like alkalis, they occupying alternatively the same locus. (See also
combine with acids to form salts, and turn red GENETICS, HEREDITY AND BREEDING.)
Alt 17
Altitude Amblyopia
A Animals unaccustomed to high altitudes can be Diminution of vision.
adversely affected by them. Like humans, ani-
mals suffer hypoxia. Testicles of cats, rabbits Amelia
and rats atrophy with resulting fertility prob- An information bulletin published by the
lems. Hens and geese lay infertile eggs or cease Veterinary Medicines Directorate. The title is
laying. Ascites caused by high altitudes has been an acronym for Animal Medicines European
reported in all types of poultry. Acclimatisation Legislation Information and Advice.
to high altitudes results in the formation of
more and smaller red blood cells so that American Box Tortoises
oxygen-binding capacity is increased. (See also A ban on the importation into the UK of tor-
‘MOUNTAIN SICKNESS’.) toises from Mediterranean countries led dealers
and pet shops to seek an alternative, and the
Altrenogest choice was Terrapene carolina. These are terres-
A prostaglandin analogue used for the synchro- tial, but like to take an occasional dip in water
nisation of oestrus in mature sows (Regumate about 3 inches deep. Poor swimmers, they dis-
Porcine) and the suppression of prolonged like water deeper than that. The recommended
oestrus in mares (Regumate Equine). diet for them is ‘earthworms, mushrooms,
beans, beansprouts, cucumber, grapes, banana,
Aluminium Toxicity and some leafy vegetables’. In winter a vitamin
In the rat, research in South Africa has shown and mineral supplement is advisable.
that aluminium toxicity might be due to
(experimental) porphyria. In Israel it has American Cocker Spaniel
been shown that rats given aluminium salts, A breed smaller than the English spaniel and
and then examined under ultra-violet light, with longer hair. Cataract is an inherited trait.
show fluorescence of eyes, long bones, brain Other inherited conditions may include dis-
and peri-testicular fat. In rats at least, therefore, tichiasis, entropion, haemophilia, patellar luxa-
aluminium cannot be regarded as a harmless tion and prognathia.
element.
American Quarter Horse
Alveld A breed derived mainly from dams of Spanish
A disease of lambs in Norway, associated origin, for long bred by American Indians,
with the eating of bog asphodel Narthecium and from Galloway sires brought by the early
ossifragum. Signs are photosensitisation and settlers. ‘It was Barb blood spiced with a Celtic
jaundice; it is thought to be due to poisoning infusion and refined with a dash of Eastern
by microfungi present on the plant. blood that fashioned the Quarter Horse.’
(R. M. Denhardt.)
Alveolus
A tooth socket in the jaw. The term is also Amine
applied to the minute divisions of glands and to An organic compound containing ammonia
the air sacs of the lungs. (NH3).
The pig and rat require, for rapid growth: (navel), and completely encloses the fetus but is
lysine, tryptophane, leucine, isoleucine, separated from actual contact with it by the A
methionine, threonine, phenylalanine, valine, amniotic fluid, or the ‘liquor of the amnion’,
and histidine. The chick needs glycine in which in the mare measures about 5 or 6 litres
addition to these. The cat needs TAURINE. (9 to 10H pints). (See PLACENTA.)
This ‘liquor amnii’ forms a kind of hydrosta-
Aminoglycosides tic bed in which the fetus floats, and serves to
A group of bactericidal antibiotics produced protect it from injury, shocks, and extremes of
from Streptomycin species including strepto- temperature. It allows free though limited
mycin, neomycin, framycetin and gentamicin. movements, and guards the uterus of the dam
from the spasmodic fetal movements which,
Aminonitrothiazole late in pregnancy, are often vigorous and even
A drug used against Blackhead in turkeys. violent.
At birth it helps to dilate the cervical canal
Aminotransferase of the uterus and the posterior genital pas-
An enzyme which catalyses transfer reactions sages, forms part of the ‘waterbag’, and, on
involving amino acids. bursting, lubricates the maternal passages.
(See PARTURITION.)
Amitraz
An ectoparasiticide for the treatment of lice and Amoebic Encephalitis
tick infestation and mange in farm animals and Amoebic encephalitis due to Acanthamoeba
dogs. It must not be used on chihuahuas, nor castellani was found after the euthanasia of a
on cats or horses. It is sold under a variety of 4-month-old puppy. Fits and hyperkeratosis of
trade names. the foot pads suggested that the cause was the
distemper virus, but A. castellani was recovered
Ammonia (NH3) from an area of suppurative necrosis in the
A few drops of ammonia on a piece of cotton- brain.
wool held a few inches from the nostrils have a (In human medicine, several species of this
good effect in reviving animals which have col- amoeba are recognised as an important cause of
lapsed. (Inhalation of concentrated ammonia granulomatous encephalitis.) (Pearce, J. R. &
can prove fatal.) Ammonia fumes from litter others, JAVMA 187, 951.)
may adversely affect poultry. (See DEEP LITTER;
also QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS.) Amoxycillin
An excess of ammonia in the rumen has been An antibiotic resembling ampicillin, but its
cited as a cause of hypomagnesaemia in spring action is quicker and it is excreted more rapid-
following massive applications of nitrogenous ly. Amoxycillin is often used in combination
fertiliser. (See also UREA.) with clavulanase, which makes it more effective
by blocking the effect of penicillinase, by which
Ammonia poisoning Hydrolysis of urea to ampicillin is destroyed. It is used in all species.
ammonia in the rumen may occur very rapidly
in cattle receiving excessive amounts of urea. If Amphistomes
more ammonia reaches the blood and then the Synonym for Paramphistomes (see PARAMPHIS-
liver than the latter organ can detoxify, then TOMIASIS).
ammonia poisoning will result. (See UREA.)
Several cows died after being fed straw which Ampicillin
had been treated with ammonia for 5 days only A semi-synthetic penicillin, active against both
and came direct from the treatment box. (It is Gram-positive and GRAM-NEGATIVE bacteria. It
recommended that the treatment should be is not resistant to penicillinase, but can be given
for 10 days, with a 2-day interval before the by mouth.
product is fed to livestock.) Laryngeal oedema
and emphysema of the lungs were caused. The Ampoule
level of ammonia in the atmosphere of animal A small glass container having one end drawn
housing must not exceed 14 ppm. out into a point capable of being sealed so as
(See also LITTER, OLD.) to preserve its contents sterile. It is used to con-
tain solutions of drugs for hypodermic injec-
Amnion tion, while many vaccines and other biological
The innermost of the 3 fetal envelopes. It is products are also distributed in ampoules. A
continuous with the skin at the umbilicus potential hazard of glass embolism has been
20 Amprolium
recognised in human medicine, and the wis- give rise to changes in the liver and its function-
A dom of allowing glass particles to settle, before ing in both animals and man; with, in some
filling a syringe, has been stressed. instances, tumour formation. Changes in the sex-
ual organs may follow misuse. (See STILBENES.)
Amprolium
A drug used for the prevention and treat- Anadromy
ment of coccidiosis in turkeys, guinea fowl and An anadromous fish is one that spends most of
chickens. its adult life in the sea but returns to fresh water
to spawn. Salmon are anadromous.
Amputation
Removal of a limb. If a long bone of dog or cat Anaemia
has been shattered into several pieces, or is the A reduction in the number and/or size of the
site of cancer, amputation is usually the only red blood corpuscles or the haemoglobin in the
humane course to take (other than euthanasia). blood. It is a sign rather than a disease, and it is
It is certainly kinder than leaving the animal a important to establish the cause (obvious only
permanent cripple, perhaps suffering some in the case of acute external haemorrhage due
degree of pain for the rest of its life. to trauma), so that a prognosis and suitable
A three-legged dog or cat can be expected to treatment can be given.
revise its technique of balance and movement, The animal may be suffering from a chronic
and to become not merely nimble but fast as loss of blood due to internal bleeding, e.g. from
well; and to demonstrate a capacity for enjoying the urinary or digestive tracts; and the owner
life. of a cat, for instance, may fail to notice the
A questionnaire was submitted to the owners presence of blood in the urine, and so not bring
of 55 dogs and 18 cats which had undergone the animal for treatment until other signs of
amputation of a limb. In 26 animals the reason illness have become obvious.
was cancer, and in the others it was severe Anticoagulants, such as Warfarin, may cause
injury. internal haemorrhage and hence anaemia.
All the owners stated that they were pleased An iron-deficient diet (and one lacking also
the operation had been performed, although the trace elements cobalt and copper, which
many had found it a difficult decision to make. aid the assimilation of iron) is another cause
of anaemia; likewise a deficiency of folic acid,
Amylase (Amylopsin) vitamin B6 and vitamin B12.
A starch-splitting enzyme. (See DIGESTION.) Both external and internal parasites (lice,
fleas, ticks, liver flukes, roundworms and tape-
Amyloidosis worms) can cause anaemia.
The deposition of an insoluble starch-like pro- Parasites of the bloodstream are an important
tein (amyloid) which affects the functioning cause, and include trypanosomes, piroplasms,
of the tissues in which it is deposited. It may rickettsiae. (See also FELINE INFECTIOUS ANAEMIA.)
be associated with inflammatory conditions or For an incompatability between the blood of
chronic infections. sire and dam, see haemolytic disease (under
FOALS, DISEASES OF).
Anabolic Aplastic anaemia means a defective, or a
Relating to anabolism, which means tissue cessation of, regeneration of the red blood
building, and is the opposite of catabolism or cells; it may be drug-induced. (See also RETICU-
tissue breakdown. LOCYTES.) (In human medicine, the drugs
An anabolic steroid is one derived from involved have included chloramphenicol,
testosterone in which the androgenic character- phenylbutazone, and rarely penicillin and
istics have been reduced and the protein- aspirin; deaths have resulted.)
building (anabolic) properties increased in Bracken poisoning, exposure to X-rays or
proportion. Examples are nandrolone and other forms of irradiation are other causes; also
ethylestrenol. These are used in cases of malnu- salicylates (including aspirin).
trition, wasting diseases, virus diseases, and In auto-immune haemolytic anaemia the ani-
severe parasitism. mal forms antibodies against its own red cells.
Synthetic anabolic steroids have been used as Heinz-body haemolytic anaemia (see HEINZ
growth-promoter implants in commercial beef BODIES) may result from kale poisoning in
production, but this is prohibited in the UK and cattle, and from paracetamol or methylene-blue
EU. They are also prohibited in competition ani- poisoning in cats; sometimes also from lead
mals. It has been found that anabolic steroids can poisoning.
Anaesthesia, General 21
Signs Pallor of the mucous membranes, loss of muscle relaxants such as gallamine or suxam-
energy and of appetite, and PICA. Dogs and cats ethonium may also be used to facilitate certain A
may feel the cold more than usual, and seek procedures. If the animal is a food animal, care
warm places. In some cases fever is present, and must be taken to observe any precautions indi-
liver enlargement. The heart rate may increase. cated by the drug manufacturer to avoid drug
residues accumulating in meat or milk. In all
Treatment In the smaller animals especially, cases, the manufacturers’ recommendations as
vitamin Bl2 or liver extract is often a valuable to dosage must be followed.
method of treatment. Where cobalt or copper or
iron are lacking, these must be supplied. Lice or Endotracheal anaesthesia This tech-
ticks and fleas should be destroyed, and treatment nique depends upon the introduction into the
against internal parasites undertaken if they are trachea of a tube which connects with the out-
the cause. (See also PIGLET ANAEMIA; FELINE and side. The tube is passed via the mouth under a
EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANAEMIA; CANINE BABESIO- narcotic or anaesthetic, such as pentobarbital,
SIS; HEARTWORMS; ROUNDWORMS; FLUKES.) given intravenously, and may then be used as
the route for an inhalant anaesthetic mixture.
Anaerobe The method ensures a clear airway throughout
The term applied to bacteria having the power the period of anaesthesia, and thus obviates the
to live without oxygen. Such organisms are danger of laryngeal obstruction (e.g. by the
found growing freely, deep in the soil, as, for tongue falling backwards), which sometimes
example, the tetanus bacillus. causes death. The method has several other
advantages, e.g. it permits an unobstructed
Anaesthesia, General operation field during lengthy major opera-
The use of general anaesthetics to produce loss tions, achieves better oxygenation, facilitates an
of consciousness and sensation for operations even level of anaesthesia, and permits of posi-
on animals dates back to 1847, when several tive pressure ventilation of the lungs in the
veterinary surgeons used ether. Chloroform was event of respiratory failure.
also used in 1847. Both have now been largely Endotracheal anaesthesia is administered in
superseded by more effective anaesthetic agents. one of two ways. Insufflation anaesthesia
A wide choice is now available. The selection, involves the use of air/oxygen and anaesthetic
dosage and means of administration will be vapour delivered into the tube by means of a
influenced by such considerations as the pump or, more commonly, a mixture of gases
species, size, and habitat of the individual as supplied from cylinders (and sometimes bub-
well as by the procedure to be undertaken. bled through a volatile anaesthetic liquid in
Anaesthetic drugs all act by limiting the oxy- addition). Autoinhalation anaesthesia involves
gen uptake of tissues. The effect on an individ- the use of a wide-bore endotracheal tube
ual tissue is proportional to its normal oxygen through which the animal inhales the anaes-
requirement. Since the oxygen requirement of thetic mixture by its own respiratory efforts. A
nervous tissues is disproportionately high, these ‘rebreathing bag’ may be used.
tissues are the first to be affected by anaesthetic As an alternative to general anaesthesia,
drugs. Unconsciousness, abolition of reflexes, EPIDURAL ANAESTHESIA (involving the injection
muscular atony, and respiratory paralysis are of a local anaesthetic into the spinal canal) is
due to depression of the cerebral cortices, the used for some surgical procedures.
mid-brain, the spinal cord, and the medulla
respectively. Cattle Many procedures are performed under
General anaesthesia is usually induced by local anaesthetic. Where general anaesthesia is
inhalation of a volatile or gaseous anaesthetic, indicated, after premedication with, for exam-
or by intravenous or intramuscular injection. ple, xylazine, halothane is administered via
Inhalation anaesthetics are often administered an endotracheal tube. Cattle take chloroform
via an endotracheal tube; volatile anaesthetics well, and recovery is rapid; however, it is little
such as chloroform can be simply administered used now. Thiopental and phenobarbital, by
by sprinkling the liquid on cotton wool and injection, may also be used on occasion.
allowing the animal to inhale the vapour. Endotracheal intubation is recommended in
Anaesthetic agents are often used in combi- order to preserve a free airway, and to prevent
nation with a premedicant, such as hyoscine or inhalation of regurgitated rumen contents.
atropine, to reduce salivation. Two agents may
be used to enhanced effect; ketamine is often Horses By inhalation, halothane or isoflu-
used with xylazine, for example. In addition, rane may be used, administered through an
22 Anaesthesia, Local and Regional
endotracheal tube. By intravenous injection, mine and xylazine, may be used; pentobarbital
A ketamine, given after premedication with is another choice.
xylazine, romifidine or detomidine is effective;
ketamine must not be used as sole anaesthetic Birds Ether has been used but its explosive
in the equine. The use of thiopental, via intra- nature necessitates great care; halothane or
venous catheter, also requires premedication. isoflurane are more suitable. For restraint, the
Great care must be taken that the recumbent bird may be placed in a large, clear polythene
anaesthetised horse does not suffer muscle or bag, into which the tube for the anaesthetic gas
nerve damage, caused by the pressure of its own is introduced.
weight, while unconscious. For anaesthetic injections of ketamine or
pentobarbital, the bird may be immobilised
Sheep Pentobarbital, by slow intravenous with a cylinder of paper rolled around it and
injection at a dosage of 24 mg per kg body- secured with adhesive tape.
weight, produces anaesthesia for up to 30 min-
utes, with recovery over a similar period. Reptiles Small reptiles may be anaesthetised
Halothane may be given by inhalation. by bathing in a weak solution of phe-
Alphaxolone/alphadone has been used, as well noxyethanol, benzocaine or tricaine mesilate.
as other agents, although there are few licensed They are transferred to clean oxygenated water
anaesthetics for sheep. for recovery. Ketamine, by injection, is also
used but recovery may be prolonged.
Goats Pentobarbital, by slow intravenous
injection, alphaxolone/alphadolone, etorphine Fish Phenoxyethanol, benzocaine or tricaine
(Immobilon), and halothane have also been mesilate, dissolved in the water, are commonly
suggested for such procedures as the disbudding used for both exotic and farmed fish. Exotic
of kids. fish species vary in their tolerance of these
substances; water temperature and quality also
Dogs and cats A wide choice is available. affect their efficacy. Clean oxygenated water
Pentobarbital by intravenous injection is rapid should be available to aid recovery.
in action. Thiopental, also given intravenously,
is a short-acting general anaesthetic. Anaesthesia, Local and
Ketamine hydrochloride, given by intramus- Regional
cular injection, is another choice. When given For many minor operations and diagnostic
to cats, it must be used with xylazine to prevent procedures, local anaesthetics are used in pref-
excitability on recovery. erence to general anaesthesia. They act by
Alfadolone/alfaxalone (Saffan), by intramus- blocking conduction along the nerve fibre,
cular or intravenous injection, is used either for producing loss of sensation and/or muscle
the induction of anaesthesia by other drugs, or paralysis. Drugs used include lidocaine (ligno-
as an anaesthetic itself. It should be used with caine) and bupivacaine. The method and site of
caution in dogs as it may cause a histamine administration can be targeted according to the
reaction. specific procedure to be carried out.
Propofol (Rapinovet), an intravenous anaes- Perineural anaesthesia is used when the pre-
thetic for dogs and cats, is useful for minor out- cise location of the nerves serving the area to be
patient procedures and caesarian section. anaesthetised is known. For example, when dis-
Recovery is generally smooth but retching, budding calves, the area may be anaesthetised
sneezing, and pawing of the face may be seen. by injecting the agent about 2.5 cm below the
base of the horn bud.
Monkeys Pentobarbital sodium may be given Field block (nerve block) is produced when a
intravenously. Ketamine hydrochloride is an series of injections is made along a line to
alternative, given by subcutaneous, intramuscu- remove sensation from the tissue distal to that
lar, or intravenous injection. A mixture of keta- line. Field block is typically used in the diagno-
mine and xylazine has been recommended also. sis of laminitis in horses and temporary relief of
Halothane is suitable. the pain it causes.
Regional anaesthesia may result from per-
Rabbits, rats, mice, guinea pigs ineural or field anaesthesia. To anaesthetise a
Inhalation anaesthetics such as isoflurane are limb, a tourniquet is applied above the part of
safe and effective; rabbits should be sedated the limb to be anaesthetised and the drug given
first. Injectable anaesthetic combinations, such intravenously; prilocaine is the agent of choice.
as fentanyl-fluanisole and midazolam, or keta- Loss of sensation lasts until the tourniquet is
Anaphylactic Shock (Anaphylaxis) 23
released. The precautions applying to the use instruments, which involves interference with
of tourniquets must be observed (see under the sensitive tissues or the bone structure of an A
TOURNIQUET). animal. (See also DOCKING.)
Surface anaesthesia is useful for facilitating
certain procedures. It may be applied to a Anaesthetics, Residues in
mucous surface by spray. For example, a cat’s Carcases
throat may be sprayed with local anaesthetic Dogs and cats have shown severe symptoms
before introducing a tracheal tube. To facilitate of poisoning after being fed on meat from ani-
introduction of a venous catheter, the skin of mals humanely slaughtered by means of an
smaller species can be anasthetised by applying overdose of a barbiturate anaesthetic, or chloral
an anaesthetic cream, after shaving the area. hydrate.
The cream is protected by a waterproof dress-
ing; the anaesthetic may take up to an hour to Anal
work. Local anaesthetics may also be used in Relating to the ANUS.
eye drops.
Epidural (or spinal) anaesthesia results when Anal Glands
a local anaesthetic is injected into the space (see under ANUS)
surrounding the spinal cord – the epidural
space. This produces a loss of sensation in Analeptics
the tissues served by the spinal nerves. The spe- Drugs that stimulate the central nervous system
cific area affected depends on the site of injec- (see STIMULANTS).
tion. In the caudal spinal cord, anaesthesia of
the perineal area results; the technique is used Analgesics
e.g. in difficult calvings. Epidural anaesthesia Drugs which cause a temporary loss of the sense
applied to the anterior part of the spinal cord of pain without a loss of consciousness, i.e.
may be used for operations on the recumbent analgesia.
animal. Analgesics include non-steroidal anti-
Intra-articular anaesthesia, by injection into inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin,
a joint, is mainly used diagnostically to identify paracetamol and phenylbutazone. (They are
a joint that is causing pain. contraindicated if heart, kidney or liver disease
Local anaesthetics must not be used indis- is present.)
criminately, since poisoning can result, and The most effective of the opiates is MOR-
affect the brain and heart. Symptoms of poi- PHINE. (See also BUPRENORPHINE; DETOMIDINE;
soning include sudden collapse, or excitement, ACUPUNCTURE.)
vomiting and convulsions.
Anamnesis
Anaesthetics, Legal Anamnesis is the past history of a particular
Requirements patient.
The Protection of Animals (Anaesthetics) Act
1964 made it obligatory to use an anaesthetic Anamnestic Response
when castrating dogs, cats, horses, asses, and The rapid rise in antibody level in a previously
mules of any age. immunised animal in response to a ‘booster’
dose of the same vaccine. The immune system
Castration has ‘remembered’ what to do.
Only a veterinary surgeon, using an anaesthet-
ic, is permitted to castrate any farm animal Anaphrodisia
more than 2 months old; with the exception of Impairment of sexual appetite.
rams for which the maximum age is 3 months.
The use of rubber rings or similar devices for Anaphylactic Shock
castrating bulls, pigs, goats, and sheep, or for (Anaphylaxis)
docking lambs’ tails, is forbidden unless applied The reaction to a foreign protein which some-
during the 1st week of life. The Act of 1964 times follows bee or wasp stings, injections
also requires that an anaesthetic be used when of an antibiotic or antiserum, etc., after the
de-horning cattle; and also for disbudding patient has become hypersensitised to the
calves unless this be done by chemical cautery substance. There is often a rapid fall in blood
applied during the 1st week of life. pressure; anaphylactic shock can prove fatal.
An anaesthetic must be used for any opera- (See also ANTIHISTAMINES; HYPERSENSITIVITY;
tion, performed with or without the use of WARBLES.)
24 Anaplasmosis
Anaplasmosis Anatoxin
A This is an infectious disease of cattle, charac- A toxin rendered harmless by heat or chemical
terised by anaemia and caused by a parasite of means but capable of stimulating the formation
the red blood cells, Anaplasma marginale. of antibodies.
This parasite is found in Africa, Asia,
Australia, Southern Europe, South America, Anchor Worm
and the southern States of the USA. A. centrale (Lernaea cyprinacea) An exotic parasite of gold-
(in cattle) and A. ovis (in sheep and goats) are fish now to be found in some indoor ornamen-
other species. tal pools in the UK. The worms can penetrate
the fish’s skin. Their removal needs to be done
Signs The disease resembles Texas fever; fre- under anaesthesia.
quently anaplasmosis coexists with babesiosis,
but pure infections may also occur. It is charac- Anconeal Process
terised by acute anaemia, fever, jaundice, and Part of the elbow joint, being a projection of
degeneration of the internal organs; haemoglo- the ULNA. In several breeds of dog it may not
binuria does not occur as the rate of red-blood- develop properly.
cell destruction is not fast enough to produce
free haemoglobin in the circulating blood. Ancylostoma
Young animals appear to be resistant, and cases (see HOOKWORMS)
in calves under 1 year old are rare. In older ani-
mals the disease may be acute or chronic, and in Androgen
the former case they may die within 2 to 3 days (see HORMONES)
after the appearance of the first symptoms. The
disease starts with a high temperature of 40.5° Anergy
to 41.5°C (105° to 107°F) and after a day or Failure or suppression of the cellular immune
two anaemia and icterus appear. In the acute ill- mechanism. This may occur in e.g. human bru-
ness, aggressiveness and abortion are other cellosis, and in other chronic diseases. Anti-
symptoms. anergic treatment with levamisole has been
found successful in some patients. (R. D.
Transmission is by ticks, e.g. Boophilus, Thorne, Veterinary Record, 101, 27.) (See also
Rhipicephalus, Hyalomma, Ixodes, Dermacentor, IMMUNOSUPPRESSION.)
and Haemaphysalis. Infection is passed through
the egg to the next generation of ticks. Tabanid Aneuplody
flies and mosquitoes are carriers. The presence of an irregular number of chro-
Animals which recover from anaplasmosis mosomes (not an exact multiple of the haploid
are in a state of premunition, and remain carri- number). It may arise through faulty cell
ers for long periods, probably for life. division.
In the South African States the less serious A.
centrale has been found to give protection Aneurin
against the serious A. marginale, and both there A synonym for THIAMIN.
and in other countries successful results follow
its use as an immunising agent. In other areas Aneurysm
where Texas fever and anaplasmosis frequently A dilatation of an artery (or sometimes of a vein)
occur together, cattle are often immunised by following a weakening of its walls. The result is
blood of a bovine infected with A. centrale, a pulsating sac which is liable to rupture.
which produces a mild infection, and with a Aneurysms occur in the abdomen, chest, and
mild form of Babesia bigemina. brain, and may result from a congenital weak-
ness of the blood vessel, from disease of its
Anasarca lining cells, from injury, etc.
Anasarca is a condition of oedema, particularly
of the tissues below the skin. Causes Sudden and violent muscular efforts
are regarded as the chief factors in the produc-
Anastomosis tion of aneurysms, and as would be expected,
The means by which the circulation is carried the horse is more subject to this trouble than
on when a large vessel is severed or its stream any of the other domesticated animals.
obstructed. In anatomy the term is applied to a
junction between 2 or more arteries or veins ‘Verminous aneurysm’ is a misnomer
which communicate with each other. for verminous arteritis of horses caused by
Animal Welfare Codes 25
immature strongyle worms. (See EQUINE VER- kept in accommodation suitable as respects con-
MINOUS ARTERITIS.) struction, size of quarters, number of occupants, A
exercising facilities, temperature, lighting, venti-
Angiogenesis lation, and cleanliness’. The Act also requires
A method of treating a tumour by depriving it that animals boarded ‘will be adequately sup-
of its blood supply. plied with suitable food, drink, and bedding
material, adequately exercised, and (so far as
Angiography necessary) visited at suitable intervals’. Isolation
A radiographic technique which enables the facilities and fire precautions are covered by the
blood-flow to and from an organ to be visu- Act, which empowers the Local Authority to
alised after injection of a contrast medium. inspect both the boarding establishment and the
register which must be kept there.
Angioma
A TUMOUR composed of a large number of Animal Data Centre
blood vessels. They are common in the livers of This is located at the National Centre for
cattle. (See also HAEMANGIOMA.) Animal Statistics, Westside, Newton,
Stocksfield, Northumberland NE43 7TW.
Angiostrongylus
(see HEARTWORMS) Animal Food
(see CONCENTRATES; DIET; RATIONS; PROTEINS;
Angitis POISONING; VITAMINS; ADDITIVES; PET FOODS;
Inflammation of a blood vessel, lymph vessel, also DOGS’ DIET; CAT FOODS, etc.)
or bile duct.
Animal Health Act 1981
Angleberry This consolidated the Diseases of Animals Acts
An old name for WARTS. 1950, 1953 and 1975.
may not occur. Mashes, green food, and a vari- Cause The Bacillus anthracis. Under certain
ety in the food stuffs offered, are indicated. adverse circumstances, each rod-shaped bacillus A
When the paralysis has occurred a considerable is able to form itself into a spore. The spores of
time before parturition is due, it is often anthrax are hard to destroy. They resist drying
necessary to produce artificial abortion of the for a period of at least 2 years. They are able to
fetus and so relieve the uterus of its heavy live in the soil for 10 years or more and still be
encumbrance. capable of infecting animals. Consequently pas-
tures that have been infected by spilled blood
Anthelmintic Resistance from a case that has died are extremely difficult
Routine use of an anthelmintic tends to estab- to render safe for stock.
lish resistance to its effects. Resistance to Earth-worms may carry the spores from
anthelmintics in sheep has become a serious deeper layers of the soil up to the surface.
problem in Australia and is increasing in other Spores have been found in bone-meal, in blood
countries where livestock are regularly dosed. fertilisers, in wool and hides and in feeds. (See
The development of resistance can be discour- also STREAMS.)
aged by changing the class of anthelmintic used The bacillus itself is a comparatively delicate
for each year’s dosing programme. Worming organism and easily killed by the ordinary dis-
products are labelled with the following codes infectants.
that identify their chemical type.
1-BZ Benzimidazoles, probenzimodazoles Method of Infection In cattle, infection
2-LM Imidazothiazoles, tetrahydropyrimidines nearly always occurs by way of the mouth and
3-AV Avermectins, milbemycins alimentary system. Either the living organisms
Products with the same codes should not be or else the spores are taken in on the food or
used on the same animals in successive seasons. with the drinking water. Flies can spread the
disease. Anthrax has been caused through inoc-
Anthelmintics ulation of vaccine contaminated by spores;
Anthelmintics are medicines which are given to sheep should not be inoculated, therefore, in
expel parasitic worms. There is a large range of a dusty shed. Unsterilised bone-meal is an
substances and formulations from which to important source of infection.
choose. Anthelmintic drugs include abamectin,
albendazole, dichlorvos, doramectin, haloxon, Signs Three forms of the disease are recog-
levamisole, moxidectin, nitroxinil, tetramisole, nised: the peracute, the acute, and the subacute.
morantel tartrate, thiophanate. Niclosamide,
dichlorophen and praziquantel preparations are Cattle In most peracute cases the animal is
used against tapeworms in the dog. (See also found dead without having shown any notice-
DRONCIT.) Fenbendazole and albendazole are able symptoms beforehand. Acute: a tempera-
broad-spectrum anthelmintics usually effective ture of 41° to 41.6° C (106° or 107°F), a thin,
against inhibited fourth-stage ostertagia larvae rapid pulse, coldness of the ears, feet, and
in cattle. horns, and ‘blood-shot’ eyes and nostrils. After
Certain criteria apply in the selection of a few hours this picture is followed by one of
anthelmintics. For example, will the drug in prostration, unconsciousness, and death. In
question kill worm eggs? Is it effective against either of the above types there may have been
immature worms? Is it effective against adult diarrhoea or dysentery.
worms of the economically important species? In the subacute form the affected animal may
Does the drug discolour or taint milk? Can it be linger for as long as 48 hours, showing nothing
given to pregnant, or emaciated, animals? In more than a very high temperature and
cows, for how long must the milk be discarded laboured respirations. Occasionally cattle may
after administration? be infected through the skin, when a ‘carbuncle’
Methods of dosing include drenching; injec- follows, similar to that seen in man. Diffuse,
tion (e.g. in the case of tetramisole); in the feed. painless, doughy swellings are seen in other
(See also WORMS, FARM TREATMENT AGAINST.) cases, especially about the neck and the lower
part of the chest.
Anthisan As sudden death of an animal is often
An antihistamine. wrongly attributed to lightning strike, a
farmer should consult a veterinary surgeon
Anthrax (who will carry out a rapid blood test) to
An acute, usually fatal, infection found in mam- make sure that the cause of death is not
mals; it is commonest among the herbivora. anthrax – before handling the carcase, cutting
28 Anthrax Order 1991
into it, moving it, or letting farm dogs, dressing of a carcase must always be considered
A hounds, cats, etc., feed upon it. suspicious of anthrax until the contrary has
been established. The need for reporting illness
Sheep and goats Anthrax in these animals to the medical authorities by all persons whose
is almost always of the peracute type. work brings them into contact with carcases of
animals cannot be too strongly stressed.
Horses There are two notable forms of
anthrax in the horse. In one there is a marked Anthrax in human patients Anthrax is
swelling of the throat, neck, and chest. In the now very rare in humans, only a handful of
2nd form of equine anthrax, a fit of shivering cases having been notified in recent years. It
ushers in the fever. The pulse-rate becomes may take the form of an inflamed pustule
increased, the horse lies and rises again with accompanied by fever and prostration, if infec-
great frequency; it shows signs of slowly increas- tion is via the skin – e.g. through a cut. In cases
ing abdominal pain by kicking at its belly, by of internal infection, by inhaling or swallowing
gazing at its flanks, or by rolling on the ground. the spores, pneumonia or intestinal ulceration
usually cause death within 2 days if not treated
Pigs The disease may follow the feeding of promptly. The infection is more often contract-
slaughter-house refuse or the flesh of an animal ed by workers handling infected meat or meat
that has died from an unknown disease (which and bone-meal than by farmers.
has really been anthrax), or raw bone-meal
intended as a fertiliser. There is sometimes Anthrax Order 1991
swelling of the throat; the intestine may be This order requires the person in charge of an
involved. In this abdominal form the symptoms animal or carcase suspected of being infected
may be very vague. Otherwise the pigs are dull, with anthrax to notify the divisional veterinary
lie a good deal, show a gradually increasing dif- manager (DVM). Investigation by a veterinary
ficulty in respiration, and present in the early inspector will follow and the premises may be
stages a swelling of the throat and head which declared an infected place. The local authority
later invades the lower parts of the neck. has the responsibility of disposing of the carcase
Recovery is not unknown. by incineration or other suitable method. The
DVM supervises cleansing, disinfection, vacci-
Dogs and cats A localised form, with oede- nation, etc. If the owner refuses to carry out
ma of the head and neck (similar to that in the these procedures, the DVM can have them car-
pig), is characteristic. ried out and recover the cost from the owner.
The Anthrax (Amendment) Order 1996
Prevention and Treatment In Great enables the veterinary inspector to require the
Britain, as in most developed countries, anthrax incineration of things that have been in contact
is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE. Vaccines are not avail- with or used by an infected animal.
able commercially. In Brtitain, DEFRA may be
contacted for information about emergency Anthroponoses
supplies of vaccine. Antibiotics, if given early Diseases transmissible from man to lower
enough, may be effective. animals. Such diseases include: tuberculosis;
In so far as its prevention is concerned, the mumps (to dogs); scarlet fever (giving rise to
important points to remember are (1) disposal mastitis in dairy cows); tonsillitis (giving rise to
of the carcase by efficient and safe means (see calf pneumonia, etc.); infestation with the beef
DISPOSAL OF CARCASES) and (2) frequent obser- tapeworm; influenza in pigs and birds. (Compare
vation of other animals which have been in ZOONOSES.)
contact with the dead one; also their isolation if
showing a rise in body temperature. Antibiotic
Sodium hypochlorite (or bleaching powder A chemical compound derived from living (or
in a hot 10 per cent solution) kills both bacilli synthesised) organisms which is capable, in
and the spores almost instantaneously. small concentration, of inhibiting the life
The milk from in-contact animals must be process of micro-organisms. To be useful in
regarded as dangerous until such time as these medicine, an antibiotic must (1) have powerful
are considered to be out of danger. The law for- action in the body against 1 or more types of
bids anyone who is not authorised to cut an bacteria; (2) have specific action; (3) have low
anthrax carcase for any purpose whatsoever. toxicity for tissues; (4) be active in the presence
Cases of death from this procedure are by no of body fluids; (5) not be destroyed by tissue
means unknown, and illness following the enzymes such as trypsin; (6) be stable; (7) be
Antibiotic Supplements 29
not too rapidly excreted; (8) preferably not give their effects. Bacteria can become drug-resistant
rise to resistant strains of organisms. (Professor in 1 of 2 ways. Chromosomal resistance devel- A
F. Alexander.) ops through mutation and is probably rare.
Antibiotics are much used in veterinary med- Bacteria which achieve this kind of resistance
icine to overcome certain infections, and they are unable to transfer it to other bacteria, but
have been of notable service, for instance, in the pass it on to their own future generations
control of certain forms of mastitis in dairy cat- through the ordinary process of cell division.
tle, in the avoidance of septicaemia following The 2nd method is transmissible drug resis-
badly infected wounds, deep-seated abscesses, tance (TDR). This is achieved by means of
peritonitis, etc. Abdominal and other surgery PLASMIDS.
has been rendered safer by the use of antibi- Many bacteria carry, in their cytoplasm,
otics. The prophylactic use of antibiotics has resistance or R factors. These are pieces of DNA
been an important factor in the intensive pro- which include genes coding for resistance to
duction of livestock and poultry. They must antibiotics and other genes which facilitate the
not, however, be used indiscriminately, be transit of the R factor to other bacteria. Both
regarded as a panacea, or be given in too low a groups of genes are carried on plasmids.
dosage. It is unwise to use antibiotics of the A GRAM-NEGATIVE bacterium which possess-
tetracycline group in either pregnant or very es an R factor is able to conjugate with other
young animals owing to the adverse effects Gram-negative bacteria. This involves intimate
upon bone and teeth which may result. contact through a protoplasmic bridge called
Certain antibiotics are effective GROWTH a sex pilus. When this occurs a duplicate of the
PROMOTERS. R factor is transmitted to the 2nd, recipient,
cell, which thereby acquires both the drug
Selection of Antibiotic It is often necessary resistance and the ability to transmit it to other
to begin antibiotic therapy before the results of bacteria.
bacteriological examinations are available, and Inside the gut of an animal being dosed with
therapy must depend on the clinical features. an antibiotic, these resistant bacteria survive
However, the taking of material for culture and and multiply at the expense of the antibiotic-
carrying out sensitivity tests are most important sensitive bacteria. Cross-infection can then
procedures. Another factor in veterinary practice bring about a similar situation in other animals.
is the cost of the drug. The persistence of TDR in the animal gut
Only in a very few instances are mixtures of has been related to the pattern of antibiotic
antibiotics superior to a single drug. In those usage. Continuous low-level administration of
cases in which more than 1 antibiotic is antibiotics has been shown to increase the inci-
required, the full dose of each of the individual dence of resistant organisms. The emergence of
antibiotics should be given so as to exceed resistant strains of salmonella in calves receiving
the MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION. in-feed antibiotics has been of concern. As long
Combined antibiotic therapy does not improve ago as 1972, a MAFF study of 2166 strains of
the outlook in chronic urinary infections or, salmonella isolated from farm animals found
indeed, many chronic infections. Mixtures that 90 per cent were resistant to streptomycin.
of antibiotics have been most successful when There has been concern that the use of antibi-
used in local applications or in infections of otics as growth promoters could encourage devel-
the alimentary canal. (See ADDITIVES, and opment of resistant organisms. Consequently,
under MILK.) Ten of the most widely used antibi- antibiotics used in this way should be selected
otics in veterinary medicine are: BENZYLPENI- from those not used therapeutically in animals or
CILLIN, procaine penicillin (under PROCAINE humans.
HYDROCHLORIDE), AMPICILLIN, AMOXYCILLIN, On the other hand, specific full-dose treat-
STREPTOMYCIN, NEOMYCIN, TETRACYCLINES, ments for acute conditions are less likely to
CHLORAMPHENICOL, ERYTHROMYCIN, GRISE- create persistent resistance problems. For exam-
OFULVIN. (See also CEPHALOSPORIN ANTIBI- ple, administration in dairy herds of an antibi-
OTICS, TIAMULIN, SALINOMYCIN; and below.) otic via the teat, over short periods of time, or
For advice on selection of antibiotics for as a preventive during the dry period, seems to
treatment, see The Veterinary Formulary have had little effect on drug-resistance in the
(RPSGB/BVA). herd.
Anticonvulsants Antihistamines
Drugs used in the treatment of epilepsy to con- Drugs which neutralise the effects of histamine
trol seizures. (See also ANTISPASMODICS; PHENY- in excess in the tissues. They are used in treat-
TOIN SODIUM.) ing allergic disorders, e.g. some cases of: lamini-
tis, urticaria, light sensitisation, anaphylaxis,
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) rhinitis in cats, etc. Antihistamines are often
Also called vasopressin, ADH is secreted by the used to prevent travel sickness in dogs and cats.
posterior lobe of the PITUITARY GLAND. It stim- They include diphenhydramine hydrochloride
ulates absorption of water by the renal tubules, (Benylin), mepyramine maleate (Anthisan),
thus concentrating the urine. A deficiency of chlorpheniramine maleate (Piriton), and
ADH leads to DIABETES INSIPIDUS. promezathine hydrochloride (Phenergan). They
Antisialics 31
should not be used except under professional hygiene. They include cetrimide and benzalko-
advice. nium chloride. A
Dettol*, Solution of Chloroxylenol, BP
Antihormones Powerful bactericide of relatively low toxicity.
True antibodies formed consequent upon the Useful for skin cleansing, obstetrical work, and
injection of hormones. disinfecting premises. The bactericidal action is
reduced in the presence of blood or serum.
Antiketogenic Crystal violet in 1 per cent solution forms a
Antiketogenic is the term applied to foods useful antiseptic for infected wounds, burns,
and remedies which prevent or decrease the fungal skin diseases, and chronic ulcers.
formation of ketones. Similarly, gentian violet.
Common salt (a teaspoonful to a pint of
Antimony (Hb) boiled water) is useful as a wound lotion and is
Antimony (Hb) is a metallic element belonging usually easily obtainable when other antiseptics
to the class of heavy metals. Antimony may be lacking.
salts are less used now in veterinary medicine Sulphonamides have proved of great use in
than formerly, less toxic substitutes being wounds infected with streptococci and certain
preferable. other organisms (see SULFONAMIDES).
Iodoform* is a powerful, poisonous but
Uses Tartar emetic, the double tartrate of anti- soothing antiseptic formerly often used for
mony and potassium, was used for intravenous dusting on to wounds as a powder with boric
injection against certain trypanosomes and acid.
other protozoon parasites. (See ANTIDOTES.) Iodine* in an alcoholic solution is more
penetrating and irritant, especially to delicate
Antioxidants skins. For use on the unbroken skin only.
(see VITAMINS – Vitamin E) Alcohol is a very powerful antiseptic chiefly
used for removing grease and septic matter
Antiphlogistics from the hands of the surgeon and the skin of
(see POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS) the patient.
Hydrogen peroxide (see under this heading).
Antipyretics
Antipyretics are drugs used to reduce tempera- * Their injudicious use could lead to toxicity in cats, so for
them other antiseptics are preferable.
ture during fevers.
Antiseptics Antiserum
Agents which inhibit the growth of micro- A serum for use against a specific condition is
organisms, and are suitable for application to produced by inoculating a susceptible animal
wounds or the unbroken skin. Preparations with a sub-lethal dose of the causal agent or
designed to kill organisms are properly called antigen and gradually increasing the dosage
‘disinfectants’ or ‘germicides’. Many substances until very large amounts are administered. The
may be either antiseptic or disinfectant accord- animal develops in its blood serum an antibody
ing to the strength used. which can be made use of to confer a temporary
Very strong antiseptic or disinfectant solu- protection in other animals against the bacteri-
tions should not be used for wounds because of um or toxin.
the destruction of cells they cause. The dead The use of antiserum alone confers a tempo-
cells may then retard healing, and in some cases rary immunity, and in most cases this probably
are later cast off as a slough. does not protect for longer than from 10 days
The following are among substances used, to a maximum of about 21 days. Antisera are
suitably diluted or in formulation as creams or used in the treatment of existing disease, and
ointments, as animal antiseptics. also as a means of protecting animals exposed to
Chlorine compounds in several different infection. (See BLACK-QUARTER; TETANUS; JAUN-
forms are used for cleansing wounds from the DICE (Leptospiral) for examples of diseases
presence of organisms. Among the class may be where serum therapy may be useful.) (See also
mentioned eusol, eupad, ‘TCP’*, etc. They ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK; IMMUNITY.)
include sodium hypochlorite and chloramines,
both also used as disinfectants. Antisialics
Quaternary ammonium compounds (see Substances which reduce salivation, e.g.
under this heading) are widely used in dairy atropine.
32 Antispasmodics
Ants Anuran
Ants are of veterinary interest as intermediate Amphibians having no tails in the adult
hosts of the liver fluke Dicroelium dendriticum. stage – frogs and toads. Also known as Salientia.
Apomorphine 33
been recovered from scouring sheep, from ewes presence or otherwise of food in the digestive
which died in pregnancy and from aborted system, and on the susceptibility of the A
fetuses. Food-poisoning in man and diarrhoea animal.
in monkeys have been attributed to Arizona
infection. Signs include violent purging, severe colic,
straining, a staggering gait, coldness of the
Arrhythmia extremities of the body, unconsciousness, and
Arrhythmia means that the heartbeat is not convulsions. When the poisoning is the result
occurring regularly, or that a beat is being peri- of the taking of small doses for a considerable
odically missed. It may be only temporary and period, cumulative symptoms are observed.
of little importance; on the other hand it may These include an unthrifty condition of the
be a symptom of some form of cardiac disease. body generally, swelling of the joints, indiges-
tion, constant or intermittent diarrhoea, often
Arsanilic Acid with a fetid odour, thirst, emaciation, and
One of the organic compounds of arsenic distressed breathing and heart action on
which has been used as a growth supplement moderate exercise.
for pigs and poultry; now no longer used in
the EU. Causes
It should not be given within 10 days of
slaughter, nor should the recommended dosage Cattle have died after straying into a field of
rate be exceeded, as residues – especially in the potatoes sprayed with arsenites to destroy the
liver – may prove harmful if consumed. The haulm. Others have died following the applica-
permitted maximum of arsenic in liver is 1 part tion to their backs of an arsenical dressing, and
per million. In a random survey (1969), 4 of 93 of the use of arsenic-contaminated, old bins for
pig livers contained from 1.2 to 3.5 ppm of feeding purposes.
arsenic.
Blindness, a staggering gait, twisting of the Sheep Probably most cases of arsenic poison-
neck, progressive weakness and paralysis are ing in sheep occurred from the use of arsenical
symptoms of chronic poisoning with arsanilic dips before other compounds were introduced.
acid in the pig. The source of this poisoning is in many cases
the herbage of the pastures which becomes
Arsenic (As) contaminated either from the drippings from
Arsenic (As) is a metal, but the term is com- the wool of the sheep, or from the washing
monly used to refer to arsenious acid. It has of the dip out of the fleece by a shower of rain
2 forms: the trivalent, which is toxic; and the on the 2nd or 3rd day after the dipping.
pentavalent (found in most organic compounds Absorption through wounds or laceration of
of arsenic), which is not. Arsenic is found in the skin may result in arsenic poisoning, and
Scheele’s green and emerald green – the two when dips are made up too strong, absorption
arsenites of copper; Orpiment or King’s yellow, into the system may also occur. The obvious
and Realgar – sulphides of arsenic; Fowler’s precautions, apart from care of the actual dip-
solution (liquor arsenicalis, BP), which contains ping, are to ensure that the sheep are kept in
arsenic trioxide. It used to be used in older vari- the draining pens long enough to ensure that
eties of sheep-dip, rat-poisons, fly-papers, and their fleeces are reasonably dry (some 15 to
even wall-papers. 20 minutes) and subsequently are not allowed
to remain for long thickly concentrated in small
Uses Arsenic has been used in some compound fields or paddocks. Where double dipping is
animal feeds in order to improve growth rate carried out, the second immersion in an arsenic
and to prevent histomoniasis (blackhead in dip must be at half-strength.
turkeys). The disposal of dung containing
arsenic residues causes problems: small doses Dogs and cats are particularly susceptible
over a long period may give rise to cancer. (See to poisoning by arsenic. The symptoms
also ARSANILIC ACID.) are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark
fluid evacuations, and death preceded by
Arsenic, Poisoning By convulsions.
Arsenic is an irritant poison producing in all
animals gastroenteritis. The rapidity of its Antidotes Sodium thiosulphate is a better
action depends on the amount that is taken, antidote than ferric hydroxide, and a solution
on the solubility of the compound, on the can be given intravenously. (See also DIPS.)
36 Arteries
For the method to be effective, the procedure be difficult to attain if carried out under farm
is as follows: (1) hold the piglet by its hind legs conditions – despite care in sterilising instru- A
with head down in order to drain any fluid from ments and the use of sterilised dressings, rubber
its air passages; (2) turn the piglet with its head gloves, etc. Moreover, it is an exceptionally
upwards and apply the funnel; (3) blow force- difficult matter to prevent accidental infection
fully into the funnel; (4) remove the funnel and in a surgical wound after the operation, for
allow the piglet to breathe out; (5) repeat the the animal cannot be put to bed, and it
operation. After several repetitions, the piglet may object to the dressings and do all in its
should kick or show other signs of life. Lay the power to remove them. (See ANTISEPTICS;
animal on its side or stomach and massage its SULFONAMIDES; PENICILLIN.)
chest and mouth. Piglets apparently stillborn
may sometimes be revived by this method. Ash Poisoning
Piglets have been revived up to half an hour Poisoning by Fraxinus species has been reported
after treatment began. Of course, the heart must in cattle after eating the green leaves and fruits
be beating and resuscitation started promptly to from a broken branch of a tree. Symptoms
achieve success. include: drowsiness, oedema involving ribs and
flanks, purple discoloration of perineum.
Dogs and cats A modification of the
Schafer system is to lay the dog on its side with Aspergillosis
the head at a lower level than the rest of the A disease of mammals and birds produced
body, place a hand flat over the upper side of by the growth of the fungus Aspergillus in the
the abdomen and the other on the rib-cage, tissues of the body.
lean heavily on the hands, and in a second or Infection probably occurs chiefly through
two release the pressure. inhalation of the fungal spores, which may be
The motions of artificial respiration should abundant in hay or straw under conditions of
in all cases be a little faster than those of normal dampness. Entry of the spores into the body
respiration, but a slight pause should always be may also be by way of the mouth; in herbivo-
observed before each rhythmic movement. Use rous animals from contaminated fodder or
less pressure for cats. bedding; and in cat and dog from the eating of
A respiratory stimulant may be given by infected birds or rodents.
injection. A carbon dioxide ‘Resuscitator’ may Once in the animal’s tissues, hyphae grow
be used. out from the spores, as happens also in ring-
worm; and from the branching filaments more
Ascaridae spores are produced. Local necrosis and abscess
A class of worms belonging to the round variety
formation are caused.
or Nemathelminthes, which are found parasitic
Numerous organs and tissues can become
in the intestines of horses, pigs, dogs, and cats
infected, including the nose and nasal sinuses,
particularly, although they may affect other ani-
the lungs, brain, uterus, and mammary glands.
mals. They attain a size of 38 or 45 cm (15 or
18 inches) in the horse, but are small in other
Cattle and horses Aspergillus may cause
animals. (See ROUNDWORMS.)
abortion and lung sensitisation or pneumonia.
Ascites
OEDEMA involving the abdomen; a very com- Dogs and cats Aspergillosis is a common
mon complication of abdominal tuberculosis, cause of chronic nasal disease, and should be sus-
of liver, kidney, or heart disease, as well as of pected when there is a discharge from one nostril.
some parasitic infestations. In poultry, ascites is
sometimes associated with hypoxia (‘high alti- Poultry Respiratory disease or enteritis may
tude disease’) although there are other causes occur. In young turkey poults brain involve-
including toxins or, in individuals, heart defects ment has led to an unsteady gait, walking back-
or abdominal tumours. It is also seen in ducks wards, and turning the head to one side.
with furazolidone poisoning. Pet parrots may die from aspergillosis, as well
as wild birds.
Ascorbic Acid Brain infection may occur in all species,
Synthetic vitamin C. and give rise to symptoms described under
ENCEPHALITIS. Paresis and ataxia may, rarely, be
Asepsis caused by fungal infections of the spine.
The absence of pathogenic organisms. Aseptic Ketonazole, given by mouth, and irrigation
surgery is the ideal, but among animals it may of the sinuses by enilconazole in sodium
40 Asphodel
chloride solution have been used in cases of the dose not exceeding 10 mg/kg on alternate
A canine nasal aspergillosis. days.
In both cats and dogs, overdosing with
Asphodel aspirin may cause inflammation of the stom-
(see BOG ASPHODEL) ach, haemorrhage, some pain, and vomiting.
The antidote is sodium bicarbonate which
Asphyxia can be given in water by stomach tube; or,
Suffocation may occur during the administra- for first-aid purposes, by the cat-owner, in
tion of anaesthetics by inhalation, during the milk or water. (See SALICYLIC ACID – Salicylate
outbreak of fires in animal houses, where the poisoning.)
fumes and the smoke present are responsible Aspirin has been used to lessen the effects of
for oedema, and in cases of poisoning. (See also porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome
‘KITCHEN DEATHS’.) (PRRS/blue-eared pig disease).
gasps for breath, makes violent inspiratory AHQS, which would appear to have a hered-
efforts without much success, exhibits a fright- itary basis, could be of economic importance A
ened, disturbed expression, and stands till the since it affects carcase conformation, and could
attack passes off. lead to carcase condemnation.
The condition appears to be hereditary in The abnormality does not usually become
some breeds, especially the Maltese terrier. obvious before pigs reach about 30 kg (66 lb)
Cardiac dysfunction also gives rise to ‘asthma’. live-weight, when one thigh may be seen to
(See also ATOPIC DISEASE.) be much smaller than the other though of the
same length. Even in severe cases it was
Treatment Bronchodilators, such as amino- observed that the gait was normal.
phylline, clenbuterol or ephedrine, and antihis- The incidence of AHQS within litters of
tamines or heart stimulants may be of service. affected families varies from 0 to 80 per cent,
The treatment used will depend on the cause and the breeds involved include Large White,
of the problem. Regulation of exercise and diet Hampshire and Lacombe.
is necessary. (See also CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE
PULMONARY DISEASE; RESPIRATORY DISEASE; Asystole
BRONCHITIS.) A failure of the heart to contract, generally due
to the walls having become so weak that they
Astragalus (Talus) are unable to contract and expel the blood, with
Astragalus (Talus) is the name of one of the the result that the organ becomes distended – a
bones of the tarsus (hock), with which the feature found after death.
tibia forms the main joint. The articulation
between these bones is sometimes referred to as Ataxia
the ‘true hock joint’, the others being more or Ataxia means the loss of the power of governing
less secondary and less freely movable joints. movements, although the necessary power for
these movements is still present. A staggering
Astringents gait results. Ataxia is a sign which may be
Substances which contract tissues and stop observed in many diverse conditions; for exam-
discharges; they include sulphate of zinc, alum, ple, rabies, weakness or exhaustion; encephali-
tannic acid, witch-hazel. tis; meningitis; poisoning; a brain tumour. It
may be seen in all animals.
Astrocytes
Supporting cells found in the central nervous
system, and each consisting of a cell body and
numerous branching processes. Astrocytes are
thought to be concerned with the nutrition of
neighbouring nerve cells. They may also be
involved in the tissue damage which ocurs in
cases of stroke.
Astrovirus
Astrovirus was first detected in the faeces of
children in 1975, and has since been isolated
from lambs, calves, turkeys, deer, etc. It is not
regarded as a serious pathogen in veterinary
medicine, but studies in gnotobiotic lambs
indicate that the virus multiplies in the epithe-
lial cells of the villi of the small intestine, pro-
ducing some degree of atrophy of the villi, with
diarrhoea.
Asymmetric Hindquarter
Syndrome (AHQS)
Outbreaks of a lop-sided condition of the
hindquarters in the pig, known as asymmetric
hindquarter syndrome, have been described by
J. T. Done and others. This condition has been
seen in Germany, Belgium, and Britain. Asymmetric hindquarter syndrome (AHQS).
42 Atheroma
Atherosclerosis Atropine
A condition in which deposits of cholesterol An alkaloid contained in the leaves and root of
and other material in the inner lining (intima) the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna).
of arteries restricts the blood flow. Preparations of belladonna owe their anti-
cholinergic actions to the presence of atropine,
Atlas which blocks transmission at sensory nerve-
Atlas is the name given to the 1st of the cervical endings and thus relieves pain and spasm
vertebrae, which forms a double pivot joint in parts to which it is applied. It checks secre-
with the occipital bone of the base of the skull tion in all the glands of the body when given
on the one hand, and forms a single gliding internally; and whether given by the mouth
pivot joint with the epistropheus – the or rubbed on the skin it causes a dilatation
2nd cervical vertebra – on the other hand. The of the pupil of the eye and paralysis of accom-
freedom of movement of the head is due almost modation. In large doses it induces a general
solely to these 2 joints. stimulation of the nervous system, but this
action is rapidly followed by depression, and
Atony the primary effect is not noticed in the admin-
Atony means want of tone or vigour in muscles istration of ordinary doses. The action on the
or other organs. (See also TONICS.) heart is one of stimulation, since the inhibition
fibres are paralysed, while the accelerator nerves
Atopic Disease are not interfered with, except when large doses
A hypersensitivity to pollens and other inhaled are given and paralysis of all motor fibres
protein particles. (See ALLERGY.) Hay-fever- occurs.
like symptoms may be produced in the dog
and horse; also intense itching affecting the Uses Atropine is used as a premedicant to
feet, abdomen, and face. As well as sneezing, anaesthesia as it reduces secretions. It is also
conjunctivitis, rhinitis and asthma, there may used to dilate the pupil in order to facilitate eye
be some discoloration of the coat. In allergy examinations. As an antidote to morphine poi-
tests on 208 dogs, about 40 per cent were found soning and also to some of the organophospho-
to be hypersensitive to human dandruff. rus compounds used as farm sprays, it is given
Atopic disease also occurs in cats and cattle as the sulphate of atropine by hypodermic
(see BOVINE ATOPIC RHINITIS). injection.
Aujeszky’s Disease 43
Aujeszky’s disease vaccine virus adapted to is determined by listening to the sounds they
A chicken cells was likely to have been the cause. produce. Auscultation is practised by means of
the stethoscope.
Horses The virus was isolated from the brain
of a horse showing the following signs: excessive Autogenous
sweating, muscle tremors, and ‘periods of Autogenous means self-generated, and is the
mania’. term applied especially to bacterial and viral
vaccines manufactured from the organisms
Public health Aujeszky’s disease virus can found in discharges from the body and used for
infect people, but it seems that only laboratory the treatment of the particular individual from
workers are likely to find this a health hazard. which the bacteria were derived.
Autonomic Avermectins
Polyganglionopathy A group of chemical compounds derived from
(see FELINE DYSAUTONOMIA) a fungus discovered in Japan in 1975, effective
46 Avian Contagious Epithelioma
in very low dosage against nematode parasites among turkeys in Norfolk in 1963; this was the
A and also against external parasites. (See IVER- first recorded outbreak in Britain since 1929. An
MECTIN, which is the most useful of the group.) outbreak occurred in the Republic of Ireland in
The discovery of the fungus in a soil sample was 1983; a slaughter policy followed. Infection may
part of Merck Sharp & Dohme’s international have come from Pennsylvania, where a similar
screening programme. policy was adopted.
Technically, the avermectins are a series of
macrocyclic lactone derivatives produced by Cause Myxovirus influenzae.
fermentation of the actinomycete Streptomyces
avermitilis. Signs In some cases the number attacked is
small, while on the same premises the next year
Avian Contagious Epithelioma 80 or 90 per cent of the total inhabitants of the
(see under FOWL-POX) runs may die. The affected birds often die quite
suddenly. In other instances the sick birds
Avian Infectious isolate themselves from the rest of the flock,
Encephalomyelitis preferring some dark out-of-the-way corner
A disease of chicks and turkey poults; also where they will be undisturbed. They are dull,
known as epidemic tremor. disinclined to move, the tail and wings droop,
the eyes are kept closed; the bird may squat
Cause A picornavirus. (Infection via the egg, on its breast with its head tucked under a wing
as well as bird to bird.) or in amongst the shoulder feathers; food is
refused, but thirst is often shown; the respira-
Signs If infection is egg-borne, signs are seen tions are fast and laboured but not impeded
in the first 10 days after hatching; if infected by mucus; the temperature is very high at the
after hatching, at 2 to 5 weeks old. There is leg commencement (43° to 44°C; 110° to 112°F),
weakness, followed by partial or complete but falls shortly before death to below normal.
paralysis of the legs. The chicks struggle to (The normal temperature of birds is 41°C;
balance with the help of their wings. Trembling 106.5°F.) The comb and wattles become purple
of the head and neck occurs in some cases. or blue, and oedema of the head and neck
is common. The illness seldom lasts more than
Diagnosis An ELISA test. 24 to 36 hours, and often not more than 6.
Mortality A 40 per cent rate is not unusual.
Control Vaccines are available but their use is
Prevention Vaccination has proved very incompatible with an eradication policy. They
successful. are used in parts of the USA and in Italy.
This disease, which has to be differentiated tuberculin test. This infection must be differen-
from Marek’s disease, affects birds of 4 months tiated from Mycobacterium bovis infection by A
upwards and is egg-transmitted, shows variable using avian tuberculin as well as mammalian in
signs but, typically, the liver is enlarged. the test. (See TUBERCULIN TEST.)
It may be identified by the presence of
neutralising antibodies in the serum or by virus Sheep Avian tuberculosis can cause miliary
detection by ELISA. tuberculosis in sheep.
Control High standards of hygiene and flock Pigs A non-progressive infection is often
management; no vaccines are available. found in lymph nodes at slaughter. The source
of infection in housed pigs can be the use of
Avian Malaria peat as litter. M. avium survives in peat for a
(see PLASMODIUM) considerable period.
lung lobe. In a cat with chronic cystitis, 2 awns a sedative when pigs are being transported and
A were found in the bladder; and in another cat may be given as premedication before adminis-
several awns were found at autopsy to have tering an anaesthetic or to reduce excitement
caused peritonitis. (JAVMA, 182, 1201.) when assistance at farrowing is required. Its
effect may be less reliable in Vietnamese
Axilla pot-bellied pigs.
Axilla is the anatomical name for the region It is also used for sedation in ostriches.
between the humerus and the chest wall, which
corresponds to the armpit in the human being. Azotaemia
The presence of urea and other nitrogenous
Axon products in greater concentration than normal
(see NERVES) in the blood, particularly in paralytic myoglo-
binuria in horses.
Azoperone
A neuroleptic drug used in pigs for reducing Azoturia
aggression and preventing fighting. It is used as (see EQUINE MYOGLOBINURIA)
B
The various species are similar, but are specific
to their various hosts. The ticks should probably
be regarded as the true or definite hosts, while
the mammal is the intermediate host.
B. cereus, a cause of food poisoning and also of Post-Mortem examination reveals necrosis
bovine mastitis. (See BACTERIA.) and bleeding, especially in the longissimus
dorsi muscle, as well as the widely recognised
B Bacitracin condition known as PSE or pale soft exudative
An antibacterial formerly used as a feed addi- muscle.
tive; its use for this purpose has been banned in
the EU. Causes The disease is thought to be associated
with stress; it is probable that heredity also
Back-cross comes into the picture.
Back-cross is the progeny resulting from mating
a heterozygote offspring with either of its Bacteria
parental homozygotes. Characters in the back- Microscopic single-cell plants with important
crosses generally show a 1:1 ratio. Thus if a pure functions in nutrition and in disease processes.
black bull is mated with pure red cows (all According to peculiarities in shape and in group
homozygous), black calves (heterozygotes) are formation, certain names are applied: thus a
produced. If the heifer calves are ‘back-crossed’ single spherical bacterium is known as ‘coccus’;
to their black father, their progeny will give organisms in pairs and of the same shape (i.e.
1 pure black to every 1 impure black. If a black spherical) are called ‘diplococci’; when in the
heterozygous son of the original mating is form of a chain they are known as ‘strepto-
mated to his red mother, the progeny will be cocci’; when they are bunched together like
1 red to 1 black. a bunch of grapes the name ‘staphylococcus’
Back-crossing can be employed as a means is applied. Bacteria in the form of long slender
of test-mating, or test-crossing to determine rods are known as ‘bacilli’; wavy or curved
whether a stock of animals is homozygous, forms have other names.
when it will never throw individuals of different
type, or whether it is heterozygous, when it will Reproduction The mode of multiplication of
give the 2 allelomorphic types. (See GENETICS, most bacteria is exceedingly simple, consisting
HEREDITY AND BREEDING.) of a splitting into 2 of a single bacterium. Since
the new forms may similarly divide within half
Back-Fence an hour, multiplication is rapid. (See illustration;
(see STRIP-GRAZING) see also PLASMIDS.)
(4) Animal inoculation This may be neces- base of pectoral fins and on their sides; occa-
sary for positive identification of the organism sionally ‘popeye’ may be seen. In pacific salmon,
present in the culture. One or more labora-tory cavernous spaces may be found in the muscles.
animals are inoculated and, after time allowed Prolonged treatment with sulfonamides in the
for lesions to develop or symptoms to appear, feed may control the disease, which may be
the animal is killed and a post-mortem exami- due to infection by a coccobacillus carried by
nation made. The organisms recovered from wild fish.
the lesions may be re-examined or re-cultured.
Bacteriophages
Bacterial Adhesiveness Bacteriophages are viruses which multiply in
Some pathogenic bacteria adhere to the mucous and destroy bacteria. Some bacteriophages have
membrane lining the intestine, and this charac- a ‘tail’ resembling a hypodermic syringe with
teristic may be an important criterion of viru- which they attach themselves to bacteria and
lence. Bacteria which possess this property through which they ‘inject’ nucleic acid. ‘Phages’
include E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, have been photographed with the aid of the elec-
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Moraxella bovis. tron microscope. The growth of bacteriophages
Many strains of E. coli have a filamentous in bacteria results in the lysis of the latter, and the
protein antigen called K88. This enables K88- release of further bacteriophages. Phage-typing is
positive E. coli to adhere to piglets’ intestinal a technique used for the identification of certain
mucosa and to multiply there. K99 is the main bacteria. Individual bacteriophages are mostly
adhesive antigen in cattle. lethal only to a single bacterial species.
Bacterial Gill Disease Bacteriostatic
A disease of fish caused by poor water quality. An agent which inhibits the growth of micro-
The bacteria-infected gills become swollen and organisms, as opposed to killing them.
coated with mucus; asphyxia follows. As well as
improving water quality, treatment may be Bacteroides
attempted using copper sulphate, and zinc-free Species of this anaerobic bacterium, including
malachite green if fungal infection is also pre- B. melaninogenicus, are frequently isolated from
sent. Dosage must be carefully calculated to equine foot lesions and wounds. B. nodosus is
avoid toxic side-effects. one of the organisms found in foot-rot in sheep.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Bacteria. Photomicrographs of (1) Bacillus anthracis (× 4200); (2) Clostridium tetani (× 3250) (showing the
characteristic drum-stick appearance); (3) Streptococcus pyogenes (× 3000).
control of specific insect pests while leaving ben- shown in the possibility of using them as carriers
eficial species unharmed. Interest has also been of antigens in genetically engineered vaccines.
Bacteria 53
Actinomyces pyogenes Abscesses in liver, kidneys, lungs or skin in sheep, cattle and pigs
especially; present as a secondary organism in many suppurative
conditions; causes summer mastitis in cattle.
Actinomyces bovis Actinomycosis.
Aeromonas shigelloides Chronic diarrhoea in cats.
Bacillus anthracis Anthrax in all susceptible animals.
Bacillus cereus Bovine mastitis; food poisoning.
Bacillus lichenformis Abortion in ewes.
Baccilus piliformis Tyzzer’s disease.
Bacteroides species Foot infections in horses.
Bacteroides nodosus Foot-rot in sheep. Necrosis of skin or mucous membrane in rabbits after
their resistance has been lowered by some other pathogen.
Bordetella bronchiseptica Complicates distemper in the dog. Kennel cough. Atrophic rhinitis.
Brucella abortus Brucellosis.
Brucella melitensis Brucellosis in goats; undulant fever in man (in part).
Campylobacter fetus Infertility, abortion.
Clostridium botulinum Botulism in man and animals.
(five types – A to E)
Cl. chauvoei ‘Black-quarter’ (and also pericarditis and meningitis in cattle) in cattle
and partly in sheep.
Cl. difficile Chronic diarrhoea in dogs and piglets.
Cl. novyi (oedematiens) ‘Black-quarter’ in cattle and pigs in part; ‘black disease’ in sheep;
septicaemia in horses and pigs (wound infection).
Cl. septicum Gas gangrene in man; black-quarter; braxy in sheep.
Cl. tetani Tetanus in man and animals.
Cl. welchii (perfringens) Lamb dysentery; present in many cases of gas gangrene.
Corynebacterium Caseous lymphadenitis in sheep; some cases of ulcerative lymphan-
pseudotuberculosis gitis and acne in horses.
C. equi A cause of pneumonia in the horse and of tuberculosis-like lesions in
the pig.
Dermatophilus congolensis Chronic dermatitis.
Group EF-4 bacteria Pneumonia in dogs and cats, and isolated from human dog-bite wound.
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Swine erysipelas.
Eschicheria coli (sub. types Always present in alimentary canal as commonest organism; becomes
are many) pathogenic at times, partly causing enteritis, dysentery (lambs),
scour (calves and pigs), cystitis, abortion, mastitis, joint-ill, etc.
Fusiformis necrophorus Associated with foot-rot; calf diphtheria; quittor, poll evil, and fistulous
withers in horses; necrosis of the skin in dogs, pigs, and rabbits;
navel-ill in calves and lambs; various other conditions in bowel and
skin.
F. nodosus Foot-rot in sheep.
Haemophilus somnus ‘Sleeper syndrome’ in cattle.
H. parainfluenzae
H. parasuis } Chronic respiratory disease in pigs.
(continued)
54 Badgers
For other, non-bacterial infective agents, see VIRUSES; RICKETTSIA; MYCOPLASMA; CHLAMYDIA.
Balantidium
A ciliated, protozoon parasite of pigs’ intestines.
As a rule, it causes no harm; but if the pig
becomes debilitated from other causes, some
degree of dysentery may result. The parasite is
pear-shaped and about 80 microns long by 60
microns broad. The nucleus is sausage-shaped.
56 Barbiturates
Basophilic
Blue-staining.
Baths
Bathing of animals may be undertaken for
The bars are sometimes cut away by farriers the sake of cleanliness, for the cure of a para-
or others, who hold the erroneous idea that sitic skin disease, or for the reduction of the
by so doing they allow the heels of the foot temperature.
to expand; what actually happens in such
instances is that the union between the compo- Cattle and sheep (see DIPS AND DIPPING)
nent parts of the foot is destroyed, and the resis-
tance to contraction which they afford is lost. Dogs For ordinary purposes the dog is bathed
They should therefore be allowed to grow and in warm water, in which it is thoroughly
maintain their natural prominence. (See also soaked. It is then lathered with a suitable sham-
illustration.) poo (many proprietary brands are available) or
hard soap, rinsed off and dried. A wide range of
Bartonellosis specially formulated shampoos is available for
Infection with Bartonella organisms, which specific skin conditions.
occasionally occurs in dogs and cattle but is of Dish-washing detergent liquid should not be
importance in laboratory rats. Symptoms are used for shampooing puppies or even adult
mainly those of anaemia. dogs.
Treatment Neoarsphenamine has been used. Cats Because cats are fastidious creatures
which wash themselves nearly all over (they
Basic Slag cannot reach the back of their necks or between
Basic slag is a by-product of the smelting indus- their shoulder blades), the question of bathing
try often used as a fertiliser. It has caused them does not arise except in cases of a severe
poisoning in lambs, which should not be infestation with external parasites; very old cats
allowed access to treated fields until the slag which have ceased to wash themselves; entire
has been well washed into the soil. Adult sheep tom cats which as a result of stress or illness
have also been poisoned in this way, scouring have also ceased to look after themselves; as a
badly, and so have cattle. In these animals the first-aid treatment for heat stroke/stress; and in
symptoms include: dullness, reluctance to some cases where a cat has fallen into a noxious
move, inappetence, grinding of the teeth, and liquid.
profuse watery black faeces. Shampoos/flea-killers, etc. sold for use on
dogs are not all safe for cats. Owners should
Basenji read the small print on packets and look for
A small brown and white dog, originating in ‘Safe for cats’ where a preparation has not been
Africa, which is unable to bark. Inheritable prescribed by a veterinary surgeon.
congenital defects include haemolytic anaemia, Baths are used to help the treatment of cer-
inguinal hernia and persistent pupillary mem- tain muscle and joint problems. Sand baths
brane. They may also inherit the condition are essential for chinchillas to keep their coats
intestinal lymphangiectasia, which causes loss in good condition. (Poultry perform dust
of protein from the gut. Basenji bitches bathing – given the opportunity.)
normally have only one reproductive cycle a
year. Bats
(see also RABIES; VAMPIRE-BATS; HISTOPLASMOSIS).
Basset Hound Bats are mammals, and usually produce 1 off-
A long-bodied, long-eared, short-legged breed. spring in late spring or early summer. Fifteen
Ectropion, inguinal hernia and glaucoma may species have been identified in Britain, where
be inherited conditions. Back problems caused they are classified as protected creatures under
58 Battery System
straw. The straw is considerably softer, more region and of the udder. Sawdust has been
easily broken and compressible than wheat, and found very convenient in cow cubicles, also
being sweet to the taste, horses eat it. shavings. Sand has been used on slippery floors
Barley straw is inferior to either of the below straw bedding, when it affords a good B
preceding for these reasons: it is only about half foothold for the cows and prevents accidents.
the length; it is very soft and easily compressed (See also DEEP LITTER.) Special rubber mats have
and therefore does not last as long as oat or been found practicable and economic for use in
wheat; more of it is required to bed the same- cow cubicles. Shredded paper has been used for
sized stall; and it possesses numbers of awns. cattle (and also horses).
The awns of barley are sharp and brittle. A disadvantage of sawdust is that its use has led
They irritate the softer parts of the skin, cause to coliform mastitis (sometimes fatal) in cattle.
scratches, and sometimes penetrate the soft Sand may then be preferable.
tissues of the udder, lips, nose, or the region In milk-fed calves, the ingestion of
about the tail. peat, sawdust or wood shavings may induce
Rye straw has the same advantages as hypomagnesaemia.
wheat straw, but it is a little harder and
rougher. Pigs Many materials are used for the pig,
Peat-moss is quite a useful litter for horses. It but probably none possesses advantages over
is recommended for town stables and for use on wheat straw, unless in the case of farrowing
board ship, or other forms of transport. A good or suckling sows. These should be littered
sample should not be powdery, but should con- with some very short bedding which will
sist of a matrix of fibres in which are entangled not become entangled round the feet of the
small lumps of pressed dry moss. It is very little pigs, and will not irritate the udder of
absorbent – taking up 6 or 8 times its own the mother. For this purpose chaff, shavings,
weight of water. When it is used, the drains and even hay may be used according to
should be of the open or ‘surface’ variety or circumstances.
covered drains should be covered with old Straw can make up for deficiencies in man-
sacks, etc. agement and buildings as nothing else can. It
It should never be used in a loose-box serves the pig as a comfortable bed, as a blanket
in which there is an animal suffering from any to burrow under, a plaything to avert boredom,
respiratory disease, on account of its dusty and a source of roughage in meal-fed pigs
nature. which can help obviate digestive upsets and at
Sand makes a fairly good bed when the sam- least some of the scouring which reduces farm-
ple does not contain any stones, shells, or other ers’ profits. Straw can mitigate the effects of
large particles. It is clean-looking, has a certain poor floor insulation, of draughts, and of cold;
amount of scouring action on the coat, is cool and in buildings without straw, ventilation (to
in the summer, and comparatively easily man- quote David Sainsbury) becomes a much more
aged. Sand should be obtained from a sand pit critical factor.
or the bed of a running stream; not from As a newborn piglet spends so much of its
the sea-shore, because the latter is impregnated time lying in direct contact with the floor of
with salt, and likely to be licked by horses when its pen, much body-heat can be lost through
they discover the salty taste of which they are conduction. Depending on the type of floor,
very fond. If this habit is acquired the particles this effect can be large enough to affect the
of sand that are eaten collect in the colon or piglet’s growth rate and be a potential threat to
caecum of the horse and may set up a condition its survival.’ Providing straw can be equivalent
known as ‘sand colic’, which is often difficult to to raising the ambient temperature from 10°
alleviate. to 18°C (50° to 64°F). Wooden and rubber
Ferns and bracken make a soft bed and are floors are not as effective as straw in reducing
easily managed, but they always look dirty and conductive heat loss.
untidy, do not last as long as straws, and are
rather absorbent when stamped down. With Dogs and cats Dogs (and pigs) have died as
horses that eat their bedding there is a risk of a result of the use for bedding of shavings of the
bracken poisoning. red African hardwood (Mansonia altissima),
Cattle Wheat straw is the most satisfactory. which affects nose, mouth, and the feet, as well
Oat straw is used in parts where little or no as the heart.
wheat is grown. Barley straw is open to objec- Fatal poisoning of cats has followed the
tion as a litter for cows on account of its awns, use of sawdust, from timber treated with
which may irritate the soft skin of the perineal pentachlorophenol, used as bedding.
60 Bedlington Terrier
Jaundice is a symptom rather than a disease; animal and examined by special means in the
it may be caused when the flow of the bile is laboratory so that a diagnosis may be made.
obstructed and does not reach the intestines,
but remains circulating in the blood. As a result Biotechnology B
the pigments are deposited in the tissues and The application of biological knowledge, of
discolour them, while the visible mucous micro-organisms, systems or processes to a
membranes are yellowish. wide range of activities, such as cheese-making,
animal production, waste recycling, pollution
Vomiting of bile usually occurs when the control, and human and veterinary medicine.
normal passage through the intestines is For the manipulation of genes, see GENETIC
obstructed, and during the course of certain ENGINEERING.
digestive disorders. (See also GALLSTONES.)
Biotechnology and Biological
Bile Acids Sciences Research Council
Steroid acids produced from the liver. The body established in 1994 which incorporates
the work of the Agriculture and Food Research
Bilharziosis Council, and the Biotechnology Directorate and
Bilharziosis is a disease caused by bilharziae or Biological Sciences Committee of the former
schistosomes; these are parasites of about 0.25 Science and Engineering Research Council.
to 1 centimetre in length which are sometimes
found in the bloodstream of cattle and sheep in
Biotin
A water soluble vitamin of the B group; also
Europe, and of horses, camels, cattle, sheep, and
known as vitamin H.
donkeys in India, Japan, and the northern
A deficiency of biotin is linked to foot prob-
seaboard countries of Africa. (See SCHISTOMIASIS.)
lems, mainly associated with the hoof. The hoof
Dogs may also suffer from these flukes.
horn in horses is believed to be strengthened by
a biotin-rich diet; foot lesions in pigs (see illus-
Biliary Fever tration) may similarly benefit, as may ‘soft’ or
(see CANINE BABESIOSIS; EQUINE BILIARY FEVER)
diseased claws of dogs.
Bilirubin
A bile pigment circulating in blood; it is a
breakdown product of the blood pigment
haem.
Binovular Twins
Binovular Twins result from the fertilisation of
2 ova, as distinct from ‘monovular twins’ which
arise from a single ovum.
Biocide
A biocide destroys living organisms; sodium
hypochlorite (bleach) is an example.
Bioluminescence
The emission of light by an organism, such as is
seen in fireflies and some fish. It results from a
chemical reaction which produces light with
virtually no heat.
Biomass
All the living organisms in a given area. In vet-
erinary practice, the term is used to express
stocking density as kilograms of live animals per
square metre of floor space.
Biotype
Biopsy A group or strain of a micro-organism or
Biopsy is a diagnostic method in which a small species that has distinguishable physiological
portion of living tissue is removed from an characteristics.
64 Bird-Fancier’s Lung
‘Bleeder Horses’
Those which show blood at their nostrils after
hard exercise. (See also RACEHORSES – Pulmonary
haemorrhage.)
Bleeding (Haemorrhage)
Bleeding (haemorrhage) may be classified
according to the vessel or vessels from which it
escapes: e.g. (a) arterial, in which the blood is of
a bright scarlet colour and issues in jets or
spurts corresponding in rate and rhythm to the
heart-beats; (b) venous, when it comes from
veins, is of a dark colour, and wells up from the
may suffice. The pad is then placed over the
depth of a wound in a steady stream; and (c)
wound, and held there; pressure being applied
capillary, when it gradually oozes from a slight
and maintained for a quarter of an hour.
injury to the network of capillaries of an area.
(See also under CANINE HAEMOPHILIA; HAEMOR-
RHAGIC DIATHESIS; INTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE.)
Tourniquet Only if these measures fail to
stop serious haemorrhage should a tourniquet
be used. A tourniquet can be improvised from a
Natural arrest When an artery with a small rolled handkerchief, its two ends knotted,
calibre is cut, the muscular fibres in its middle
slipped around the limb, and tightened with a
coat shrink, and the cut end is slightly retracted
pencil. Tightening must be just sufficient to
within the stiffer fibrous covering. This results
stop the bleeding, no more. For large animals a
in a diminution in the size of the cut end and
piece of rubber tubing or a soft rope may be
in a lessened capacity for output of blood. In
used. A tourniquet must never be left on for
the space between the end of the muscular coat
more than 20 minutes, or permanent dam-
and at the end of the fibrous coat a tiny clot
age to the limb will result. When releasing the
commences to form, which, later, is continued
tourniquet, do so gradually. A tourniquet
into the lumen of the vessel. This is added to by
should not be used on cats, in which a pressure
further coagulation of blood, until the whole
pad will suffice to control bleeding.
of the open end of the vessel and of the cavity
of the wound is sealed by a clot. A fall in blood-
pressure, due to shock and loss of blood,
Professional help should be obtained as
soon as possible.
contributes to the natural arrest of bleeding.
Sometimes the actual point or points of
(See CLOTTING.)
bleeding cannot be located, especially when the
wound is deep or ragged, and the blood issues
Bleeding, external: first aid for When in a more or less continuous stream showing no
a vein is cut, crimson blood will flow. From a
tendency to clot. In such cases it is necessary to
cut artery, scarlet blood will spurt, issuing in
resort to packing the wound with GELATIN
jets corresponding with the heartbeats.
SPONGE.
When a large vessel is cut, pressure should be
Professional help will also be needed to
applied above the wound if the bleeding is from
counter SHOCK. (See also BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS;
an artery, below it if bleeding is from a vein; but
DEXTRAN.)
the first-aider should take precautions (see
RESTRAINT).
Bleeding from special parts
Pressure with the fingers is a helpful prelimi-
nary while someone else is finding material to (1) The Horns The horns of cattle are
use as a pressure pad. For large animals a clean sometimes broken by falls or blows, and severe
pillowslip, small towel, or piece of sheet will bleeding follows. If the horn is broken com-
serve; for small animals a clean handkerchief pletely off, the haemorrhage is to the outside
68 Blepharitis
from the stump, but it often happens that now a matter of serious economic importance.
while the bony horn-core is fractured the horn It may be of two types: free gas bloat or frothy
itself holds the broken end in position, and bloat.
B the escaping blood finds its way down into
the frontal sinus and out by the nostril. Free gas bloat The rumen becomes dis-
Haemorrhage from a stump may be controlled tended with gas, and pressure is exerted upon
by the application of a pad and a bandage. the diaphragm.
Thermocautery, using a disbudding iron, may The medium-sized cow’s rumen has a capac-
assist. ity of some 160 litres (35 gallons), and fermen-
tation within it gives rise to bubbles of gas. This
(2) Legs and Feet The tourniquet described
comprises carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane
above may be applied, to the lower side of the
injury if the bleeding is venous, and above if it (CH4) in surprisingly large quantities; cattle
be arterial. When the upper parts of the limbs producing as much as 800 litres of CO2 in 24
are injured and the haemorrhage is consider- hours, and as much as 500 litres of CH4. Some
able, one of the methods of pressure is adopted of this gas, perhaps a quarter, escapes via the
until professional veterinary aid can be bloodstream to the lungs and is breathed out,
obtained. but that still leaves a great deal which can be
expelled only by belching. If something makes
(3) Stomach The vomiting of blood by dogs, that impossible, then gas pressure builds up and
cats, and pigs in considerable amounts is a very is exerted on the diaphragm, heart and lungs, so
serious symptom of severe injury or disease in that the cow is soon in considerable distress.
the stomach. The cow’s ability to belch may be affected
A dog may be offered ice cubes to lick. The by physical obstruction of the oesophagus;
animal should be kept as still as possible, and paralysis of the muscular wall of the rumen; and
veterinary assistance obtained. Alcohol is not foaming of the rumen contents.
advisable, as it causes a dilatation of the vessels The first diagram shows a healthy state of
of the stomach wall and tends to promote the affairs in the rumen, with the cardia – a muscu-
bleeding. lar valve at the junction of oesophagus and
rumen – temporarily open so that gas can
(4) Uterus and Vagina After parturition in
escape up the oesophagus. But when this tube is
all animals there is a certain risk of haemor-
obstructed by a piece of turnip or a tumour or
rhage, especially in those which have a diffuse
an abscess, the gas cannot get away (or not in
placenta, such as the mare and ass, and when
sufficient quantity), and ‘gassy bloat’ results.
the fetal membranes have been forcibly
Paralysis of the muscular wall of the rumen has
removed. If it is copious, it may prove fatal.
a similar effect, since expulsion of gas is aided
Prompt veterinary attention is necessary. (See also
by contraction of these muscles.
under WOUNDS; INTERNAL HAEMORRHAGE.)
The most common cause of gassy bloat is
(5) Navel in piglets. See under VITAMINS – ruminal acidosis following a barley diet, or in
Vitamin deficiencies for prevention. cases of obstruction or dysfunction of the
oesophageal or cardiac sphincter.
Bleeding, internal (see INTERNAL HAEMOR- In such cases an antacid drench may be effec-
RHAGE). tive, but passing a stomach tube, where this is
practicable, can provide immediate relief by the
Blepharitis release of trapped gas. Veterinary advice should
Inflammation of the eyelids. It is usually associ- be sought.
ated with conjunctivitis. In an emergency a RUMENOTOMY may be
performed or a trochar and cannula used.
Blepharospasm
Blepharospasm is a spasm of the eyelids. Frothy bloat With the frothy type of
bloat, puncturing the rumen with a trocar and
Blindness cannula in an emergency may do more harm
(see under EYE, DISEASES OF; also VISION) than good – not releasing gas and perhaps caus-
ing leakage of some solids into the abdominal
Bloat cavity.
Also known as ruminal tympany, it occurs in This frothy type of bloat is the more impor-
cattle, sheep, and goats. With the increased use tant from an economic point of view, as it
of lucerne and clovers, bloat has become of can occur simultaneously in a number of
more common occurrence among cattle and is animals, with a fatal outcome. The second
Bloat in Pigs 69
diagram shows the rumen distended by foam, such as poloxalene (‘Bloatguard’). Dimethicone
with bubbles of gas trapped and unable to (‘Birp’) may also be used in the treatment of
escape. frothy bloat. A solution of sodium bicarbonate,
150 g in 1 litre (5 oz in 2 pints) of water,
Signs The left side of the body, between the last administered by stomach tube, is also useful.
rib and the hip bone, is seen to be swollen; the Low-protein, low-energy supplements
whole abdomen gradually becoming tense and decreased the incidence of bloat in cattle on a
drum-like. There is obvious distress on the part high clover sward, compared with a control
of the animal which appears restless. Breathing group in a 1996 study by C. J. C. Phillips, of
is rapid. (See TYMPANITIC RESONANCE.) Cambridge, and colleagues.
sometimes referred to as ‘colonic bloat’ or ‘whey the microscope they appear as biconcave
bloat’. (See HAEMORRHAGIC GASTROENTERITIS.) discs, circular in shape, and they possess no
nucleus – having lost it before entering the
B Block, Nerve circulation. (Note. The red blood-cells of birds,
Applying local anaesthesia to the nerve(s) sup- fish and reptiles possess a nucleus.)
plying a specific area to remove sensation in Red cells are soft, flexible, elastic envelopes
that part of an animal. containing the red blood-pigment known as
haemoglobin, which is held in position by a
Blonde D’aquitaine spongy lacework of threads called stroma. They
A French breed of cattle, for which an English are present in large numbers in the blood. In
breed society has been formed. (See BEEF BREEDS.) the horse they number about 7 to 9 million per
cubic millimetre, and about 6 million in the ox,
Blood on an average.
Blood is a slightly alkaline fluid which serves as The red blood-cells are destroyed after 3 or 4
a carrier of nutrients from the digestive system months in the circulation. New red blood-cells
to the various tissues, transports oxygen from are formed in the red marrow of the bones, and
the lungs and carbon dioxide to the lungs, appear first of all as nucleated red cells, called
carries hormones from the endocrine glands, erythroblasts.
maintains a correct water balance in the body
and assists with temperature control, carries Packed cell volume The height of the col-
waste products to the kidneys, and has an umn of red cells, as a percentage of total height,
important role in the defence of the body of a sample of centrifuged blood in the tube.
against bacteria, viruses, etc. By its ability to The red cells lie at the bottom; the middle layer
clot (see CLOTTING), blood has its own built-in consists of the white blood-cells and platelets;
safety factor for use in the event of damage and the top layer is the serum.
to the blood vessels. Blood also assists in the
maintenance of the correct pH of tissues. Blood platelets, or thrombocytes, reduce loss
of blood from injured vessels by the formation
Composition Blood consists of a fluid of a white clot. (For a deficiency of platelets, see
portion, or plasma, in which blood-cells are under THROMBOCYTOPENIA.)
suspended. They are of three chief varieties: red
blood-cells (or corpuscles), white blood-cells, Haemoglobin – a complex substance –
and platelets. has the power of absorbing oxygen in the
lungs, parting with it to the tissues, receiving
Plasma forms about 66 per cent of the total carbon dioxide in exchange, and finally, of
amount of the blood and contains three protein yielding up this carbon dioxide in the lungs.
groups – fibrinogen, serum globulin, and serum When haemoglobin carries oxygen it is tem-
albumin. Fibrinogen is of great interest and porarily changed into oxyhaemoglobin, and
importance, owing to its role in the coagulation when it is carrying carbon dioxide it is known
of the blood. as carboxyhaemoglobin. The process of oxida-
When shed, plasma separates into two parts: tion and reduction proceeds with every
a liquid, which is called serum, and a solid, respiratory cycle.
which is the fibrin clot. Blood serum is there- ‘Haemolysis’ is a process by which the
fore plasma which has lost its fibrinogen, the haemoglobin of the red blood-cells becomes
latter having gone to form the fibrin of the clot; dissolved and liberated from the cell-envelope.
but it contains two newly-formed proteins – Anything which kills the cell or destroys the
fibrino-globulin and nucleo-protein. These are envelope can result in this. Natural serum of
derivatives of fibrinogen which are split off one animal can act as a haemolytic agent
from the fibrinogen when it forms the fibrin when injected into the body of another
clot. (See GAMMA GLOBULIN.) animal of a different species. The serum from a
Besides the proteins mentioned above, the dog is haemolytic to the red blood-cells of a
plasma contains non-protein nitrogenous mate- rabbit, but if this serum be heated to 57°C
rial such as amino acids; waste products such as (135°F) it loses its haemolytic powers. The heat
urea; glucose; fats; inorganic salts of sodium, has destroyed the agent which caused the
potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc. haemolysis.
‘Agglutination’ is the process by which the
Red blood-cells constitute about 32 per cent red cells of the blood are collected together
of the total amount of the blood. Seen under into clumps, under the action of an agent in
Blood Transfusions 71
weight (300 ml for a 30 kg dog) may be taken. Blood is conveniently collected from the
In dogs, which have 8 blood groups, adverse jugular vein. Donors should be sedated and the
reactions due to incompatible blood types are skin in the area shaved and cleaned. A hypoder-
rarely seen. Cats have 3 blood types: A and B, mic needle or catheter is inserted and blood
in the ratio 3:1, and AB (less than 1 per cent). collected into a blood bag (dog) or 50 ml
Matching of donor and recipient blood should syringe (cat) containing an anticoagulant such
be done before transfusion, if possible. as sodium citrate or acid citrate dextrose.
Blood Typing, Cattle 73
Collected blood may be stored for up to 4 403 such cases, 26 (or 6.5 per cent) were found
weeks if refrigerated; it should be warmed to to be incorrect. Checking the parentage of bulls
body heat before administration. This should to be used in AI (see ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION)
be via a jugular or cephalic vein. as well as typing bulls being used in AI is car- B
In cattle, donor and recipient are usually ried out. Other applications include the diag-
in the same herd, a fact which lessens the risk of nosis of freemartins, and the control of egg
introducing infection. Blood is collected from transplantation – i.e. checking that the off-
the jugular or other vein (after the skin has spring is from the egg put in and not from the
been cleaned and precautions taken to ensure host cow’s own egg.
asepsis) by means of a suitable needle (e.g.13 Blood typing is of service in the policing of
swg) and allowed to flow into a blood bag screening tests, e.g. for brucellosis. It is not
or sterilised bottle containing anticoagulant. unknown for lazy or unscrupulous people to fill
This may be made by dissolving 60 mg of sodi- several sample tubes with blood from the same
um citrate in a little water, for every 100 ml animal and label them as coming from several
blood collected. The bottle should be shaken animals. If several tubes are found to have iden-
gently during collection. The donor’s blood tical types, fraud is virtually certain to have
is then transferred to the recipient’s vein. occurred, since the likelihood of two samples,
Transfusion reactions rarely occur during a first other than from identical twins, having the
transfusion. same blood type is negligible.
In the new-born foal suffering from Thoroughbred horses must all be blood-
haemolytic disease, exchange transfusion has typed as an aid to identification. (See also EQUINE
been the means of saving life. Up to 5500 ml of BLOOD TYPING.)
the foal’s blood is removed and replaced by up
to 7000 ml of compatible donor’s blood. The Preparation of Test Sera containing
The process takes up to 3 hours and requires antibodies, or blood-group reagents, is based
special apparatus. See also DEXTRAN; GELATIN, on the injection of blood corpuscles from one
SUCCINYLATED; also under FELINE INFECTIOUS animal into another of the same species, or
ENTERITIS; DEHYDRATION. into one of a different species. The first proce-
dure is called iso-immunisation, the second
Blood Typing, Cattle hetero-immunisation. As a result of both proce-
In Canada extensive use is made of blood typ- dures, the recipient animal produces antibod-
ing in respect of cattle, and results of a blood ies to the antigenic factors associated with the
test have been accepted as evidence in court in donor blood corpuscles, provided that these
a case where a man was convicted of falsifying a factors are not already present in the recipient
pedigree. The basis of this evidence was that to animal. (No animal can produce both an
prove parentage of an animal, all the factors antigen and its antibody.) The diagram demon-
found in the blood of a calf must be present strates the principle of iso-immunisation in
in the blood of either the sire or the dam. If cattle.
certain factors found in the blood of the calf It shows that the donor possesses blood-
could not be found in the blood of either the group factors A, B, and C while the recipient
sire or the dam, then that calf could not have has only blood-group factor A. On immunisa-
been of that particular mating – as was proved tion, the recipient will therefore form anti-
in this case. bodies to blood group factors B and C. The
Blood typing is also used in the diagnosis of antibodies thus formed are called anti-B and
freemartins. In one series 228 freemartins were anti-C. A serum containing several blood group
found out of 242 sets of twins. antibodies is known as a crude serum. This
Blood typing has been used to decide the serum will react with red corpuscles not only
paternity issue in a heifer calf born to a cow from the donor, but also from all cattle with
inseminated twice in the same heat period with the blood group factor B or C.
semen from two different bulls; to reveal dis- To obtain a blood group reagent which reacts
crepancies in pedigrees; and to allay or confirm with only one blood group factor – for example
suspicion on the part of a Breed Society asked B – the anti-C antibody must be removed. To
to register a calf born following a very short or do this, the prepared crude serum is mixed
a very long gestation period. with blood corpuscles which are C-positive
The work falls into two categories: commer- but B-negative. The anti-C is then bound to
cial and research. In the former category there the blood corpuscles and can be removed by
are routine pedigree parentage cases involving centrifuging, as illustrated. This procedure
one bull, one cow, and one calf. In a series of is called antibody absorption. As the figure
74 Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)
Blowfly Blue-Gray
The offspring of a Galloway or of an Aberdeen
Insects of the family Calliphoridae.
Angus crossed with a Beef Shorthorn bull.
Often used as suckler cows in bleaker areas of
Blowfly Eradication Britain.
Sterile genetically engineered blowfly maggots
have been used in attempts to eradicate blowfly ‘Blue-Nose’ Disease
infestation. ‘Blue-nose’ disease is a form of LIGHT SENSIT-
ISATION occurring in the horse, following
Blowfly Strike the eating of some particular meadow plant.
Infestation of the skin with the maggots of The name arises from the blue discoloration
blowfly; cutaneous myiasis. observed in some cases on the muzzle (but not,
for example, on the same animal’s white socks).
Blowpipe Darts Sloughing of the non-pigmented skin occurs,
(see PROJECTILE SYRINGE) and there is often intense excitement amount-
Bolus 75
ing to frenzy – during which the horse may succulent quality, the provision of a clean
injure itself. (See also ANTIHISTAMINES.) water-supply and salt-licks. Dipping has given
good results.
Bluetongue B
A viral disease of ruminants confined mainly to Prevention A stockpile of quadrivalent vaccine
Africa but which has spread to North America is stored at various sites in the EU.
and Australia, Portugal, Spain, and Cyprus and,
more recently, Italy and France. Bluetongue is a Boarding Kennels
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE throughout the EU. (see ANIMAL BOARDING ESTABLISHMENTS ACT)
Infection is carried by biting midges and
probably the mosquito, and consequently out- Body-Scanner
breaks are commonest near the breeding haunts (see under X-RAYS)
of such insects – damp, marshy regions.
Cattle may be symptomless carriers. A survey
of 6250 sera from cattle, sheep and goats in
Bog Asphodel
(Narthecium ossifragum) A cause of light sensiti-
seven Caribbean and two South American
sation in sheep. Ears, face, and legs of white
countries showed that antibody to bluetongue
lambs may all be affected. Skin necrosis
virus was widely distributed. Overall preva-
may follow the inflammation. In severe cases,
lences of antibody were 70 per cent in cattle,
jaundice may be a complication.
67 per cent in sheep, and 76 per cent in goats.
Cows have been fatally poisoned by the plant
Yet, no clinical cases had been confirmed in
as a result of necrosis of kidney tissue.
the area; no virus isolates were available to indi-
In one case, cattle forced by drought to graze
cate which serotype(s) was/were causing the
swampy ground where bog asphodel grew suf-
infection.
fered 137 deaths out of 232 cattle affected. The
To prevent entry of bluetongue to the
clinical signs included depression, anorexia
EU from Canada, cattle must have a negative
and diarrhoea. Extensive kidney damage was
blood test in January; they can then be export-
caused.
ed to the EU if they leave Canada between
February 1 and April 15. This procedure
ensures that they were not infected the previ- Bog Spavin
ous summer and move out of the country An old name for chronic synovitis of the hock
before the midges carrying the infection (tarsus) of horses. It often shows as a swelling
become active. of the front of the hock joint caused by fluid.
It seldom causes lameness. (See also BONE
Cause An orbivirus. SPAVIN.)
(See WORMS, FARM TREATMENT AGAINST – found in the short bones and at the ends of the
Administration.) long bones. Dense bone is found in a tube-like
form, with a central cavity in which normally
B Bombay yellow marrow is found, composed mainly of
A breed of cat developed in the USA by cross- fatty substances; the walls of the tube are stout
ing black American shorthairs with Burmese and strong, and the outer surface is covered by
cats. The breed has totally black, silky fur that ‘bone membrane’ or periosteum. Cancellous
is difficult to keep in good condition. bone has a more open framework, is irregular
in shape, and, instead of possessing a cavity,
Bonamiasis its centre is divided into innumerable tiny
A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE in the UK and other spaces by a fine network of bony threads, which
parts of the EU; it affects shellfish, notably support the important red marrow. (See
oysters, and is caused by Bonamia ostreae. It is MARROW.)
controlled in the UK by the Fish Health All bone is penetrated by a series of fine
Regulations 1997. canals (Haversian canals), in which run blood-
vessels, nerves, lymph-vessels, etc., for the
Bone growth, maintenance, and repair of the
Bone is composed partly of fibrous tissue, part- bone.
ly of phosphate and carbonate of lime. Since
the bones of a young animal are composed of Varieties of Bone Apart from their structur-
about 60 per cent fibrous tissue, and those of an al classification, bones are arranged according
old animal of more than 60 per cent of lime to their external shape into: (a) long bones, like
salts, one readily understands the toughness of those of the limbs; (b) short bones, such as
the former and the brittleness of the latter. Two those of the ‘knee’ and hock; (c) flat bones, such
kinds of bone are noteworthy: dense bone, such as those of the skull and the shoulder-blade; (d)
as forms the shafts of the long bones of the irregular bones, such as those of the vertebral
limbs, and cancellous or spongy bone, such as is column; and (e) the ‘spongy’ bones of the feet
Skeleton of horse.
Bone, Diseases of 77
of horses and cattle and the claws of other osteomyelitis, inflammation in the bone and
animals. the central marrow cavity.
Acute inflammation of the bone surface
The Skeleton has: (1) an axial part, consisting almost always results from external violence. B
of the skull, the vertebrae, the ribs with their Osteomyelitis is usually due to bacteria gaining
cartilages, and the sternum or breast-bone; and access either through the blood- or lymph-
(2) an appendicular portion, consisting of the streams, or through the broken tissues resulting
four limbs. In addition to these divisions, cer- from a deep wound. The mildest types are
tain parts of the skeleton are embedded in often due to an inflammation in a ligament or
the substance of organs, and are described as tendon spreading to the periosteum in the near
the visceral skeleton, e.g. the bones in the heart vicinity and causing it to become inflamed as a
of the ox, the snout of the pig, the penis of the consequence. (See also RHEUMATISM.)
dog, etc. Complete rest is essential: in fact work, or
even walking, is often impossible. Hot fomen-
Bone, Diseases of tations, poultices, soothing and cooling lini-
ments or applications are usually sufficient
Growth-plate disorders The growth-plate treatment for mild cases. The severer cases, in
is a layer of cartilage between the diaphysis and which infection has reached the bone, call in
the epiphysis of a long bone. Failure of chon- the first place for antibiotics, or immediate
drogenesis leading to cessation of growth is opening up of the area and the elimination
commonly the result of trauma to the plate, of any pus that has collected. After that, any
occasioned by a fracture or crush injury, or of pieces of dead bone that are present are
the interruption of the vascular supply to the removed, and the wound treated as an infected
germinal cells. Diseases such as scurvy, rickets, open wound.
osteomyelitis and endocrine disorders make the
plate more vulnerable to injury and predispose Chronic inflammation may result from
to epiphyseal separation. several conditions, e.g. tuberculosis, actinomy-
Epiphyseal injury in the foal, for example, cosis, etc. Generally speaking, when a chronic
may be of two types: suppurative inflammation affects a bone,
Type 1 Separation without fracture. After sooner or later the pus and debris of a liquid
realignment healing is rapid and the prog- nature will burrow through the surrounding
nosis is good. Femoral head detachment is the tissues and burst on to the surface of theskin.
exception because if the epiphyseal vessels are A discharging sinus results which proves
damaged, avascular necrosis of the head follows. intractable to treatment. At the bottom of this
Type 2 The most common, involving fracture sinus lies the dead piece of bone, and until
of a triangular piece of metaphysis. With accu- it has been removed or absorbed the leakage
rate reduction the prognosis is good. of purulent material will continue in spite
Such injuries usually involve the epiphyses in of antiseptic injections and other surface
the distal radius, distal metacarpus and proxi- treatment.
mal first phalanx. These cases often have the The offending dead portion of bone must be
appearance of acute joint sprains but epiphyseal removed in the first instance, and the whole
damage should always be suspected because sinus tract must be laid open. This is not always
at this age growth-plates are weaker than an easy matter, and much depends upon the sit-
collateral ligaments. Radiography is essential to uation of the pieces of dead bone (sequestrum),
identify the type of defect present. as well as of the mouth of the sinus. The area
Prompt and accurate replacement of the epi- afterwards is treated as an open wound, and
physis is required followed by external support if all the necrotic parts have been removed,
with a cast or splint to maintain alignment. In recovery generally takes place.
certain instances fixation of the fragments
with a compression screw may offer greater Exostosis is an outgrowth of rarefied bone
security. (Professor L. C. Vaughan.) (See VALGUS tissue upon the surface of a bone. Among
for picture.) the commonest forms of exostoses are the
following: certain forms of splints, ring-bones,
Acute inflammation of bone is divided bone spavins, some side-bones. (See also
into acute periostitis, or inflammation of the ACROPACHIA.)
surface of the bone and its covering membrane,
the periosteum; acute osteitis or ostitis, inflam- Tumours of bone are sometimes met with.
mation of the bone substance itself; and acute The commonest of these is the osteosarcoma of
78 Bone Grafts
Intramedullary pinning. Two views of the fracture of the femur in a dog. (Beaumont Animals’ Hospital.)
Bone-pinning – Plating. This is another technique used in veterinary practice. The radiographs show a
fracture of the tibia of a dog and the use of a metal plate screwed into the bone. (Beaumont Animals’
Hospital.)
smaller than normal, and grow more slowly. A feature of the disease is acute necrosis of
The shape of the head is slightly abnormal – the placenta associated with abortion.
likewise the gait which, however, shows only a It appears that there is an immunological rela-
slight swaying motion. Mortality is very high; tionship between Border disease, mucosal dis-
most lambs die during their first few weeks. ease, and swine fever. Possibly all three are caused
The disease has been recognised in New by closely related viruses. In-contact piglets may
Zealand, the USA, Switzerland. be infected by sheep with Border disease.
80 Border Inspection Posts
farmed fish without cleaning out the machinery Bovine Embryo Collection And
between batches. The Danish name for the Transfer Regulations 1993
disease translates as ‘bankruptcy disease’. These apply within the UK and other member
B For botulism in mink, see MINK, DISEASES states of the EU.
OF. For botulism in South African cattle, see
LAMZIEKTE.
Bovine Encephalomyelitis (Buss
Disease)
Public health Human (and also animal) bot- Bovine encephalomyelitis (Buss disease) occurs
ulism may occur as the result of imperfectly in the USA, Australia, and Japan. In the USA it
preserved food or when cooked food is allowed is a disease mainly of the summer and autumn
to stand and later re-heated. Although there months, and cattle under 2 years old are main-
have been very few cases of human botulism in ly susceptible.
Britain, a high proportion of trout in fish farms
may be contaminated with Cl. botulinum type
E, which can multiply at temperatures as low as
Cause Chlamydia psittaci.
5°C, whereas the more common types A and B
will not normally multiply at temperatures Signs A fever, which lasts a week or more.
below 10°C. With loss of appetite, the animal loses condi-
tion and becomes weak. A nasal discharge or
Boutonneuse Fever diarrhoea may be seen. Pushing the head
A zoonosis (see ZOONOSES) which is transmissi- against a wall, walking in a circle, hyperaesthe-
ble from dogs to people. The cause is Rickettsia sia, and convulsions are symptoms of which
conori. There is a rash. Wrists, ankles, and one or two may be seen. Economically the
then other parts of the body may be affected. disease has a low incidence and generally a
The dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus is the low mortality, but in some herds losses may be
vector. serious.
Autopsy findings include pleurisy, pericardi-
Bouvier Des Flanders tis and peritonitis, apart from any brain lesions.
A medium-sized, short-tailed dog with grey or
fawn coat. It has few defects; laryngeal paralysis Public health Man is susceptible.
may be inherited.
Bovine Enzootic Leukosis
Bovine Atopic Rhinitis A virus-produced form of cancer, characterised
A discharge from eyes and nose, with some by multiple malignant growths as well as, in
ulceration of nasal mucosa (and formation of some cases, leukaemia. The disease was first
granuloma), are symptoms in common with recorded in Britain in 1978, is fairly common
those of bovine infectious rhinitis. It is often on the European mainland, and is a NOTIFIABLE
the result of an acute hypersensitivity reaction, DISEASE. Occasionally cattle show symptoms
particularly in Channel Island breeds. Recovery before they are 2 years old, but 4 to 8 years is a
usually follows housing. more common age. Digestive disturbance,
anaemia and loss of condition result.
Bovine Atypical Interstitial The virus is a type C oncornavirus of the
Pneumonia retrovirus family.
(see FOG FEVER) In Britain the enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL)
attested herds scheme was introduced by MAFF
Bovine Autoimmune in January 1982 to encourage the establishment
Haemolytic Anaemia of EBL-free herds, as a first step towards
A heifer died within 2 days of showing anaemia eradication of the disease.
and dyspnoea, and the diagnosis was bovine Great Britain was recognised as being free of
auto-immune haemolytic anaemia, based on the disease in July 1999; the last case was
auto-agglutination (which increased on detected in December 1996.
Coombs’ testing) and the presence of antibovine
IgG on red blood cell surfaces. Testing for enzootic bovine leukosis
Acute haemolytic anaemia may be due to Breeding cattle may only be moved from one
many other causes, including water intoxica- member state of the EU to another if they orig-
tion, delayed copper toxicity, brassica poison- inate from herds which are recognised as free
ing, babesiosis, leptospirosis, and bacillary from EBL in accordance with the terms of the
haemoglobinuria. EU directive.
Bovine Rhinotracheitis, Infectious 83
Bovine Spongiform cent of the national herd; the disease has been
Encephalopathy (BSE) declining since then. By 1996, the number had
‘Mad cow disease’. A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE in fallen to about 8000, about 0.07 per cent of
B which spaces (vacuoles) develop in the brain the national herd. In 1997, a cull of cattle, insti-
tissue, in the manner of a sponge. gated by the EU, removed those cows which
could have eaten the same contaminated feed as
Signs Cattle become nervous and hypersensi- the proved cases in the same herd. A second
tive to noise, and when approached or touched. cull, in 1998, removed female calves born to
They appear frightened and may be aggressive. cows around the time they showed clinical signs
Dairy cattle show a reluctance to enter milking of the disease.
parlours and may resent attempts to apply milk-
ing clusters. The gait becomes abnormal, with Eradication As a further precaution against
hind limb swaying. The head is lowered. When the possibility of endangering public health,
the animal is at rest, regular or spasmodic the carcases of animals over 30 months of
muscle twitching may be seen. age were incinerated and not used for human
BSE was first recognised in 1986 although consumption.
individual cattle were probably infected in the
1970s. A policy of slaughter and incineration Cause It is generally accepted that the cause of
of carcases was introduced. The heads were BSE is a prion (see PRIONS), a self-replicating
removed to confirm diagnosis. infectious protein (PrP). However, it is not
Its origin is unknown but it is possible that known how this produces the disease.
the disease developed in a single cow following Theories that BSE resulted from a change in
genetic mutation. the rendering process used to produce meat
Fortuitously, a link between BSE and the use and bone meal, that it is a bovine form of
of meat and bone meal in bovine diets was scrapie or that it is an autoimmune disease
established in 1987. It was at first thought that have been discounted. The Phillips inquiry
the meal responsible contained material from also discounted claims that BSE was caused
scrapie-infected sheep. However, the Phillips by exposure to organophosphorus pesticides
inquiry into BSE concluded that this was not although it acknowledged the possibility
the case. Current opinion favours the probabil- that this might increase susceptibility to the
ity that a BSE-infected cow entered the render- disease.
ing process that produces meat and bone meal,
infecting cattle which spread the disease when
their carcases were in turn processed into meat
Differential diagnosis BSE has to be
differentiated from other disorders such as
and bone meal. Meat and bone meal was
acetonaemia (in which short periods of
banned from bovine diets in 1988 but could
delirium may occur); from listeriosis (in which
still be used in diets for other species. However,
cattle may become violent in the terminal
this created the potential for meal intended for
stages); and from hypomagnesaemia and
cattle to be infected by contamination with that
hypocalcaemia.
prepared for other species in the same mill.
Meat and bone meal is now banned from use in
all animal feeds; its possession in an animal feed Prevention The feeding of protein or other
plant is a criminal offence. material derived from the same species as will
Specified bovine offals were prohibited from consume the feed should be prohibited.
human consumption; they include brain, spinal
cord, spleen, thymus, small intestine lining. All Other species BSE has been recorded in
British beef exports were banned, with cata- several species of antelope in zoos and there
strophic effects for the farming economy. The is some evidence of infection in sheep. Pigs
ban could not be lifted until the UK adopted have developed BSE only after infective
measures to lessen any risk to humans. material was injected into the brain; they
A new form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in did not develop the disease when fed contami-
(mainly) young persons (new variant CJD) has nated feed. There may be a link with FELINE
been confirmed as being linked to BSE. The SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY as some big
UK government has introduced a scheme to aid cats in zoos had developed a spongiform
victims and their families. encephalopathy after having eaten bovine
heads, before BSE was recognised as a
Incidence At its peak in 1992, 36,681 cases disease. BSE is experimentally transmissible
had been confirmed representing about 0.3 per to mice and monkeys. (See also SCRAPIE.)
Bovine Viral Diarrhoea/Mucosal Disease (BVD/MD) 85
Bovine Syncytial Virus Pigs can become infected with bovine virus
A retrovirus which may have an involvement diarrhoea and show signs very similar to those
with bovine and bovine enzootic leukosis as of SWINE FEVER.
well as immunodeficency-like virus respiratory B
diseases. (See PNEUMONIA.) Cause The BVD/MD virus belongs to the
Pestivirus genus, and is a small RNA virus of the
Togavirus family. There are at least 13 strains,
Bovine Tuberculosis some more pathogenic than others. The strains
(See TUBERCULOSIS) may show ANTIGENETIC DRIFT. The virus can
survive storage at 4°C for at least 16 months;
Bovine Viral also repeated freezing and thawing.
Diarrhoea/Mucosal Disease
(BVD/MD) Signs In affected animals in the very mildest
Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) and mucosal cases, there may be a few ulcers in the mouth,
disease (MD) are two clinically dissimilar perhaps also in the nostrils, but little else. More
conditions caused by the same virus. often, however, the animal runs a temperature
BVD is the result of an acute infection in of 40° or 40.5°C (104° or 105°F) with loss of
susceptible cattle which may occur at any age in appetite, scouring, and a drop in milk yield.
post-natal life, and is usually a trivial illness of a There may be ulcers in the cleft of the foot, and
few days’ duration and negligible mortality. lameness can be a prominent feature of the
Infection in cows in early pregnancy may result disease. With mucosal disease, signs are of
in abortion, resorption of the fetus, or the birth severe disease with mucosal sloughing in the
of more persistently viraemic calves. mouth, oesophagus and possible other parts of
By contrast, MD is almost invariably fatal. the alimentary tract.
It occurs in cattle which have a persistent Infection in early pregnancy may cause
BVD/MD viral infection acquired as fetuses. abortion, embryonic death or congenital
Susceptible animals are unable to produce deformities. Mid-pregnancy infection may
antibody to the infecting virus. The disease result in apparently normal calves which
develop0s, after the loss of passive immunity may succumb to mucosal disease. Animals
given by colostrum, when the animals are 6 to infected in late pregnancy produce calves
9 months old. born with antibodies to the disease produced
In Britain BVD/MD virus is widespread. by the fetus.
More than 60 per cent of adult cattle have
significant levels of serum neutralising Diagnosis BVD/MD has to be differentiated
antibody. from foot-and-mouth disease, Johne’s disease,
Bovine viral diarrhoea/mucosal disease: Infection cycles. (Reproduced with permission from Veterinary
Record, 117, 245, MAFF/HMSO. Crown copyright.)
86 Bow-Legs
1. Olfactory, to the nose (smell). The basal ganglia help to control much
2. Optic, to the eye (sight). muscular activity.
3.
4. Trochlear }
Oculomotor to the muscles of the eyes. The medulla contains nerve centres for the
control of involuntary, or reflex, actions such as B
5. Trigeminal, to the skin of the face, etc.
6. Abducens, to the muscles of the eye.
respiration and heart-beat rates, coughing,
7. Facial, to the muscles of the face. vomiting, and the reflex part of swallowing.
8. Auditory, to the ear (hearing).
9. Glossopharyngeal, to the tongue (taste). Brain Diseases
10. Vagus, to heart, larynx, lungs, and stomach. Brain diseases include the following:
11. Spinal accessory, to muscles in the neck.
12. Hypoglossal, to the muscles of the tongue. Abscess Infective micro-organisms may enter
through an injury to the bone, through the
Blood-vessels The brain obtains its blood- medium of the ear (especially in the pig and
supply from four main sources: two internal dog), or may arrive by the bloodstream.
carotids and two occipital arteries. These Sometimes a foreign body, such as a needle
branch and unite to form an irregular circle that has become lodged in the throat, may pass
under the brain within the skull, called the upwards into the brain and set up an abscess.
‘circle of Willis’. From this, numerous smaller The condition may be produced during the
branches leave to supply the whole of the brain course of pneumonia, metritis, endocarditis,
substance. By such an arrangement any possi- etc., when the bacteria invade the bloodstream
bility of deficiency of blood is obviated, for and get carried to the brain among other
should one of the main branches become cut tissues.
or occluded, the others enlarge and the same For symptoms and first-aid, see under MENIN-
amount of blood is still supplied. The blood GITIS; ENCEPHALITIS.
leaves the organ by means of large venous
sinuses situated in the membranes covering the Cerebral haemorrhage Bleeding into the
brain, and finally finds its way into the jugular cranial cavity, usually as a result of trauma or
veins of the neck. a vascular problem. It may result in loss of
consciousness and death. Residual signs on
Functions The cerebrum is concerned with recovery may include hind limb instability
memory, initiative, volition, intelligence, and, or convulsions.
as well as these, it is the receiving station of the
impulses that originate from the organs of sight, Concussion The temporary loss of con-
smell, taste, hearing, and touch. Fear, anger, and sciousness resulting from a head injury.
other emotions originate in the grey nerve cells Temporary blindness may occur after the
of the cerebrum, which is also concerned with animal has regained consciousness.
voluntary control of the skeletal muscles. In domestic animals long-term effects
Sensations on the right side of the body, and include changes in behaviour, such as aggres-
muscular control in the right side, are dealt siveness and excessive libido. Fits (epileptiform
with by the left cerebral hemisphere; the right convulsions) may be a sequel to a head injury in
hemisphere being concerned with the left side dogs. (See EPILEPSY.)
of the body.
The cerebellum is concerned with uncon- Encephalopathy Any disease of the brain,
scious control, with balance, and with co-ordi- particularly one involving structural changes.
nation of complex muscular movements. Each
half of the cerebellum controls the muscular Inflammation (see ENCEPHALITIS; MENIN-
system of its own side of the body, and is GITIS)
in communication with the opposite side of
the cerebrum. It closely communicates with the Oedema of the brain is seen in salt poison-
nerves, internal ear, and with certain nerves of ing in pigs, and in polioencephalomalacia
muscle-sense, monitoring the state of muscle (see CEREBROCORTICAL NECROSIS). Blindness
contraction. and convulsions are produced.
The hypothalamus controls many body (See also ‘DAFT LAMBS’; HYDROCEPHALUS;
functions including hunger, thirst, body CHOREA; RABIES; EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS;
temperature and sleep. ‘SLEEPER’ SYNDROME of cattle.)
The thalamus acts as a vital relay station
between the sensory nerves (except the olfactory Parasites of the human brain, of animal
nerves) and the cerebral cortex. origin, include nematodes, such as larval
90 Brain Surgery
can lead to haemolytic anaemia, with haemoglo- diverse causes as anaemia, heat stress, heart
binuria, especially if other foods are not available disease, pneumonia, bronchitis, and paraquat
or if the kale is frosted. Certain species of poisoning.
brassica contain thiocyanates and produce iodine B
deficiencies and goitre. (See under KALE.) Dyspnoea means laboured breathing, or
breathing accompanied by pain or distress, such
Braxy as may occur with oedema of the lungs, pneu-
Also known as bradshot – a disease of sheep monia, bronchitis, pleurisy, emphysema, and
characterised by a very short period of illness, paraquat poisoning.
by a seasonal and regional incidence, and, in the
natural state, by a high mortality. It occurs in Breda Virus
various parts of Scotland, Ireland, the north A cause of diarrhoea in calves in the USA, and
of England, Scandinavia, etc., chiefly on hilly of respiratory disease in 2-day-old calves which
land. It attacks young sheep under the age of very soon died.
2 years, weaned lambs being very susceptible;
the best members of the flock are more liable to Breech Presentation
become attacked than poorly nourished sheep, (see PARTURITION)
and it is most frequently seen during a spell of
cold, severe weather with hoar frosts at night. Breeding, Controlled
(see CONTROLLED BREEDING)
Causes Clostridium septicum. It affects the
mucous membrane of the 4th stomach of sheep Breeding of Dogs Act 1973
and from there invades the tissues. It gains The Breeding of Dogs Act 1973 makes it
entrance to the alimentary canal by way of unlawful for anyone to keep a dog-breeding
the mouth along with the grass from a ‘braxy establishment unless it has been licensed by the
pasture’. local authority. A breeding establishment is
Infection with Cl. septicum is characterised defined as ‘any premises (including a private
by gas gangrene, and may occur in animals dwelling) where more than two bitches are kept
other than sheep – including man. for the purpose of breeding for sale’.
Signs These – loss of appetite, abdominal pain, Breeding of Dogs Act 1991
diarrhoea, with a high temperature and This extended powers under the 1973 legisla-
laboured breathing – are seldom in evidence tion, which permitted local authorities to
for more than 5 or 6 hours; death being sud- inspect only those premises already licensed, or
den. A characteristic odour is perceptible from those for which a licence application had been
the breath and body fluids. Decomposition is made. Under the 1991 Act the local authority
very rapid. The lesions are those of a gastritis or a veterinary surgeon could apply to a magis-
in the 4th stomach (abomasum). trate for a warrant to enter and inspect the
premises. Obstruction is a criminal offence.
Prevention Vaccination at the beginning of
September, so that the animals have time to Breeding and Sale of Dogs
establish an immunity before the frosts begin, (Welfare) Act 1999
has given good results. On farms where the This amended the above two Acts. Bitches must
losses have been very heavy a second vaccina- not be mated if they are less than 1 year old;
tion 14 days later may be needed. (See also under and a bitch can have not more than 6 litters
VACCINATION.) in her lifetime. Records of breeding have to
be kept and dogs must be identified by a tag
Breathing bearing a code identifying the premises of birth.
(see RESPIRATION)
Breeding of Livestock
Breathlessness Information about animals coming ‘on heat’ or
Breathlessness may be due to any condition that being ‘in season’ is given under OESTRUS. Other
hinders the thorough oxygenation of the blood. information is given under PREGNANCY and
PARTURITION.
Hyperpnoea is increased depth of breathing.
Number of females per male varies.
Tachypnoea is the name for an increase in The stallion when he is 4 years old and upwards
the rate of respiration. This may arise from such and in good condition will serve from 80 to
92 Brewer’s Grains
120 mares during a season. A 3 year old can a few cases infection sets in, and pus forms.
take up to about 50 or 60, and from 15 to 20 This may burrow down into the ligamentous
are enough for a 2 year old. From 60 to 80 cows tissue of the poll and produce ‘POLL EVIL’. In
B are sufficient for an average adult bull, but ordinary cases it suffices to protect the damaged
he should not serve more than 35 or 40 skin by winding a piece of sheep-skin round
between 1 and 2 years of age. Twenty to 30 ewes the strap that is causing the injury, and dressing
are as many as the ram lamb will successfully the abraded areas with an antiseptic powder
serve, but shearlings may have as many as 40 each night. Those injuries to the chin that are
to 50. Adult rams may successfully impregnate caused by the curb-chain are usually only slight,
80 ewes or more. The year-old boar should not and mainly affect young horses when they are
be allowed more than 20 sows during a season, being broken in. When they learn to answer the
but when he is older he may have up to 30 or reins and acquire what is called a ‘soft mouth’,
35. In this connection it must be remembered the chafed skin is allowed to heal and the
that when a large number of females are served condition passes off. In older horses that have
by a male, those served at the later stages are not ‘hard mouths’ and that constantly require the
so likely to prove fruitful as those served earlier. use of the curb-chain, the skin becomes thick-
When synchronisation of oestrus (heat) is ened and calloused, and the surface of the bone
practised, more males are required; for instance, may become irritated with a resulting deposi-
1 ram for 10 ewes. tion of new bone in the groove of the chin.
Injury may be obviated by using a leather curb
In old age There is little reliable data, but for young horses that have very tender skins,
mares have bred foals when over 30 years, cattle and by changing the bit for older animals. Care
and sheep up to 20 years and cats till 14 years in driving of the horse, avoiding all sudden or
old. These, however, were all animals that severe pulls on the reins, will often do more to
had bred regularly in their younger days. It ‘soften’ a horse’s mouth than the use of more
is difficult to breed from an aged female that drastic measures. Bit injuries consist of the
has not previously been used for stud purposes. abrasion of the mucous membrane of the lower
(See also under REPRODUCTION; ARTIFICIAL jaw, just opposite the corners of the lips, where
INSEMINATION.) the bit crosses. Sometimes the membrane
becomes actually ulcerated and a foul-smelling
Brewer’s Grains discharge escapes, but in the majority of cases
Brewer’s grains are a by-product of brewing the injuries are slight and heal in a few days.
used as animal feed. They consist of the malted
barley after it has been exhausted. In both wet Bright Blindness
and dry forms they are used for feeding cattle, This, a prevalent condition in Yorkshire hill
while dry grains are sometimes fed to folded sheep, was first described in 1965, and is char-
sheep. If fed wet they must be fresh or they acterised by progressive degeneration of the
become fermented; acidosis may then result retina. The disease is of considerable economic
when fed. Mould can occur if stored. In the importance in some flocks.
dry they can be kept for a considerable length
of time without harm. They are rich in proteins Cause Consumption of bracken over a period.
and carbohydrates, but must not be fed to Bright blindness has been found in several
excess. breeds of sheep, in Scotland and Wales as well
Some samples become infected with Bacillus as in Northern England. In some flocks the
cereus. (See BACILLUS.) incidence may be 5 to 8 per cent among the
ewes, with a peak incidence in those 2 to 4 years
Briard old. The blindness is permanent.
A large, long-haired dog, black, fawn or grey In ewes moved to bracken-free grazing before
in colour. Many heritable defects have been the disease is well advanced, the condition will
eliminated by selective breeding but progressive not progress further.
retinal atrophy is a trait. Hip dysplasia may be
due to a variety of factors. Brisket Disease
Another name for MOUNTAIN SICKNESS.
Bridle Injuries
They take the form of: (1) injuries to the poll; British
(2) injuries to the chin, caused by the curb- The term applied to any breed of cat indicates
chain; and (3) injuries of the mouth from the that the animals are stockily built with round
bit. Damage is generally only superficial but in heads. For example, the British blue is stocky
‘Broken Wind’ (‘Heaves’) 93
and round faced; the Russian blue has a bony under BATTERY SYSTEM; NEWCASTLE DISEASE;
structure more similar to the Siamese. POULTRY AND POULTRY KEEPING.)
destructive changes in the alveolar walls. These cold climates. It may occur as an extension of
changes are irreversible and lead to progressive inflammation of the trachea (tracheitis), and it
respiratory disability and eventual failure. may be followed by pneumonia or pleurisy, or
B both.
Signs The clinical sign of double expiratory
effort consists of an initial passive normal (a) Acute bronchitis This may follow expo-
expiratory movement followed by an active sure to smoke from a burning building, or be
contraction of the chest and abdominal muscles the result of careless administration of liquid
to expel the remaining air. In advanced cases medicines which then ‘go the wrong way’. More
this leads to hypertrophy of the rectus abdo- commonly acute bronchitis may occur during
minis muscles, and the formation of a ‘heaves the course of some virus infections, following
line’ beneath the posterior aspect of the rib cage colds and chills, and may affect farm animals
– a feature characteristic of long-standing housed in badly ventilated buildings. In the
obstructive pulmonary disease in the horse. dog, bronchitis often occurs during the course
A cough – typically dry, short, hollow and of distemper, and in the horse it may be
low-pitched – sometimes becomes paroxysmal associated with influenza or strangles. Acute
after stabling or exercise; also faster breath- bronchitis in cattle and sheep may be parasitic.
ing, audible wheezing, nasal discharge, and (See PARASITIC BRONCHITIS; WORMS, FARM
intolerance of exercise. TREATMENT AGAINST.) In pigs, too, parasitic
worms may cause bronchitis. (See also under
Differential diagnosis of these chronic COUGHING.)
respiratory disorders with a double expiratory
effort depends upon detailed clinical evaluation, Signs A rise in temperature, accompanied by
responses to corticosteroids and other drugs, the faster respiration, loss of appetite, a cough, and
results of serological tests with appropriate anti- nasal discharge, are seen. The cough is at first
gens and, ultimately, autopsy. Infestation with hard and dry, but becomes softer and easier in
the equine lungworm Dictyocaulus arnfieldii the later stages. The breathing may often be
tuberculosis, and hydatid cysts should also be heard to be wheezing and bubbling in the later
considered. stages.
bronchitis in cattle and other animals. In the species are reportable diseases under the
horse, chronic bronchitis may lead to EMPHYSE- Zoonosis Order 1989. It often takes the form of
MA. (See also ‘BROKEN WIND’.) Parasitic worms ‘undulant fever’, with characteristic undulating
may be associated with some long-standing fluctuations of the temperature. Human infec- B
cases of bronchitis in animals. tion with B. abortus may follow the drinking of
raw milk or the handling of infected fetal mem-
Signs A loud, hard cough, often appearing branes. Infected uterine discharge drying on the
in spasms, respiratory distress on the least cow’s skin may be inhaled. It was formerly not
exertion, an intermittent, white, clotted, or uncommon in farm and abattoir workers, and
pus-containing nasal discharge, which is most veterinary surgeons.
in evidence after coughing or exercise, and a For symptoms, see UNDULANT FEVER.
gradual loss of condition, characterises this What was formerly known as Malta Fever in
form of bronchitis. man is due to B. melitensis, an infection of goats
and sheep, occasionally cattle. Its occurrence in
(c) Bronchitis in chickens (see under the UK was limited to one outbreak resulting
INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS) from imported infected cheese.
The American strain of B. suis (found in pigs
Bronchopneumonia and hares) is also pathogenic for man, causing
Inflammation of the bronchi and lungs. undulant fever and arthritis.
B. canis, which infects dogs, can also cause
Bronchoscopy illness in people.
Examination of the bronchi by means of a B. ovis, which infects sheep, rarely causes
bronchoscope, a tubular optical instrument human illness.
with a small lamp attached which is passed
through the trachea. The technique is used Horses B. abortus may cause fistulous
in cases in which clinical and radiological withers and lameness due to infection of other
examinations fail to provide a diagnosis. ligaments. In the mare, abortion may (rarely)
occur.
Bronchus, or Bronchial Tube
Bronchus, or bronchial tube, is the name Cattle (see BRUCELLOSIS IN CATTLE)
applied to tubes into which the windpipe
(trachea) divides, one going to either lung. The Dogs In the UK, B. abortus was isolated from
name is also applied to the later divisions of the urine of a dog which had shown symptoms
these tubes distributed throughout the lungs. of stiffness and orchitis. At autopsy, cystitis
Bronchioles are very small bronchial tubes. and an abscess of the prostate were found. Such
a dog would be a public health risk, and a
‘Brown Mouth’ danger to cattle. Abortion is another symptom.
A syndrome characterised mainly by gum necro- The infection has been found in kennels,
sis and dysentery, occurring as a complication following the feeding of meat from stillborn
of virus diseases in the dog. calves. Brucellosis in dogs is probably more
common than generally realised. In Chile a
‘Brown Nose’ survey showed that 40 per cent of dogs, on
A form of LIGHT SENSITISATION in cattle. farms where the dairy herds were infected with
B. abortus, were infected.
Brown Swiss B. canis was first isolated in 1966. In the
A breed of dairy cattle producing milk with a USA it has caused outbreaks of severe illness in
high protein level. laboratory beagles; it causes also illness in man.
A unique feature of B. canis infection is lack
Brucellosis of fever. Another feature is the duration of bac-
A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE, this is an infection with teraemia, which usually lasts for several months,
Brucella. Five species of this genus of bacteria are but can last 3 or 4 years.
important, namely: B. abortus (the main cause of In males, epididymitis, scrotal dermatitis,
abortion in cattle but now eradicated in Britain); and testicular degeneration may occur,
B. melitensis; B. suis; B. ovis and B. canis. although it is not uncommon for male dogs to
be ‘silent’ carriers.
Public health Human brucellosis may be
caused by any of the five species of Brucella, as Sheep Formerly, brucellosis was an important
mentioned above. Infections with Brucella disease of sheep in the UK.
96 Brucellosis in Cattle
B. ovis gives rise (in Australasia, the USA, to serve a clean one afterwards, or when the bull
and Europe) to infertility and scrotal oedema in is a ‘carrier’. Contamination of litter with dis-
rams. Abortion may occur in infected ewes. (See charges from a previous case is an important
B also RAM EPIDIDYMITIS.) factor in the spread of the disease in a herd. The
hand and arm of the man who handles an
Goats In Britain, brucellosis is not a serious aborted fetus may also transmit infection.
problem in goats. In the pregnant cow a low-grade chronic
A survey of sheep flocks and goat herds is inflammatory reaction is set up in the uterus
carried out yearly to determine whether Britain with the result that an exudate accumulates
remains free from brucellosis in those species. between the fetal membranes and the uterine
The results are sent to the EU Veterinary mucous membranes, especially around the
Directorate. cotyledons. The cotyledons may appear
necrotic, owing to the presence of fibrinous
Pigs In Britain, brucellosis is not found. adherent masses upon their surfaces, and the
Overseas, abortion in pigs is caused by B. fetal membranes may show similar areas
abortus suis. after they have been expelled. Quite commonly
in cattle the membranes are thickened and
Deer There is no evidence that deer, infected tough. The fetus may be normal or may show
with B. abortus, have infected cattle grazing the a dropsical condition of the muscles and the
same pasture. subcutaneous tissues, and there may be fluid
present in the cavities of chest, abdomen, and
Poultry Chickens are susceptible to B. abortus cranium. In some cases the fetus undergoes
infection, which they have transmitted to cattle. a process of mummification, and when it is
discharged it is almost unrecognisable as a
Wild animals The harbour porpoise around fetus.
Britain may carry Brucella maris, which reacts Cows at pasture may become infected by
with B. abortus. Cattle by the shore coming into older ‘carrier’ cows (which are liable to harbour
contact with porpoise material may then show the organisms in their udders) or by wild ani-
a positive reaction to the brucella test. B. suis mals (e.g. foxes), dogs or birds, which have
has caused orchitis in hares abroad and, in eaten or been in contact with infected mem-
Africa, B. abortus has been isolated from a branes or discharges upon other farms near by
waterbuck, and from rodents. where the disease already exists.
In Argentina foxes are commonly infected
with B. abortus. Signs Abortion may occur without any pre-
(See also FISTULOUS WITHERS; ‘POLL EVIL’; liminary symptoms, and except that the calf
BUMBLE-FOOT; RAM EPIDIDIMYTIS.) is not a full-term one, may be practically the
same as normal calving. Most cows which have
Brucellosis in Cattle aborted once will carry their next calf to full
(Brucella melitensis causes disease in some coun- term, or practically to full term; while only very
tries.) ‘Contagious bovine abortion’, also few cows will abort a calf three times. Some
known as Bang’s disease, is a specific contagious calves born to infected cows will be persistently
disease due to B. abortus. Since the infection infected.
may exist and persist in the genital system of As a rule, if abortion occurs early in preg-
the bull, Brucellosis is to be preferred as a name nancy the fetal membranes are expelled along
for the disease. In females it is characterised with the fetus, but if towards the end of the
by a chronic inflammation of the uterus (espe- period there is almost always retention of these.
cially of the mucous membrane); usually, but A continuous reddish-brown or brownish-grey
not invariably, followed by abortion between discharge follows, and persists for about 10 to
the 5th and 8th months of pregnancy. 20 days (often for about 2 weeks). In some
It is important to note that not all infected instances it slowly collects in the cavity of the
animals abort. Indeed, in over half of them uterus, little or nothing being seen at the vulva,
pregnancy runs to full term. However, any and then it is discharged periodically, often in
animal that has aborted once may be almost large amounts at a time. In the bull symptoms
as infectious at its next and subsequent calvings of infection may be very slight or absent, and
as on the occasion it aborted. laboratory methods are usually necessary to
Infection may occur by the mouth or establish a diagnosis.
through the vagina during service, when a bull Brucellosis is not the only cause of abortion in
which has served an infected cow is called upon cattle due to an infective agent, and in arriving
Bubonic Plague 97
at a diagnosis it must be differentiated from character and its treatment do not differ from
infections listed under ABORTION. what is given under CORNS, except that while
the corn has a more or less definite position
Immunity Infected animals gradually pro- in the foot, bruising of the sole may occur B
duce an immunity in themselves against further anywhere.
abortions. The organisms may persist in the
system for long periods, and a cow which does Bruises
not herself subsequently abort may spread The discoloration caused by bleeding under
infection to other cows in the herd. This natur- unbroken skin following a blow or other
al immunity, however, is wasteful, both in the trauma (see also HAEMATOMA).
matter of calves and milk supply, so that
methods have been adopted in which an effort Bruit and Murmur
is made to provide animals with an artificial Bruit and murmur are words used to describe
immunity. several abnormal sounds heard in connection
with the heart and arteries on auscultation.
Testing Bulked milk from herds is routinely
tested by the MILK RING TEST or an ELISA. Brush Border
Periodic biennial blood tests are made of suck- On the free surface of some cells, the wall may
ler herds; formerly the ROSE BENGAL TEST was be modified to provide finger-like projections:
used but this has been replaced by an ELISA. the brush border. This is seen, for example,
All cows calving at 270 days’ gestation or less in the convoluted tubule of the kidney and in
must be reported and are investigated by blood the alimentary canal.
and milk samples from the dam, examination
of placenta, abomasal contents and sera of the Brushing and Cutting
fetus. (See also COOMBS TEST.) Brushing and cutting are injuries to the horse
caused by the inside of the fetlock joint or
Eradication In October 1985 Britain was coronet being struck by the hoof or shoe of
declared officially brucellosis-free. Occasional the opposite limb; although bad shoeing may
cases have occurred following the importation be responsible in a few instances, the cause is
of cattle. Brucellosis has been successfully usually faulty conformation.
eradicated from many overseas countries, A brushing boot should be fitted, and an
including Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, attempt made to avoid the future occurrence of
the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Eire. Farmers’ brushing by skilful shoeing. (See also SPEEDY-CUT.)
cooperation and discipline played an important
part. Brussels Sprouts
Cattle strip-grazing these for 6 weeks, without
Precautions All calvings under 270 days’ other food, became ill with anaemia and
gestation must be reported to DEFRA and haemoglobinuria. The illness caused by mem-
investigated. The greatest care must be taken in bers of the Brassicae species is said to be more
handling and disposing of an aborted fetus, serious near to the time of calving.
fetal membranes, discharges, etc., both in the
interests of human health and in order to Bruxism
prevent the spread of the disease among cattle. Grinding, gnawing or clenching of the teeth;
It is worth having a veterinary surgeon examine seen mainly in cattle.
the cause of any abortion. There can be danger BSE
from the infected cow that has carried a calf to (see BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY)
full term. Avoid buying in replacements from
non-Accredited herds. Infected farm dogs can Bubonic Plague
spread infection. Bubonic plague is an infectious disease of man,
rats and mice and rabbits caused by Yersinia
Brucellosis in Sheep pestis. Foci of infection exist in several parts of
(see RAM EPIDIDYMITIS) the world, including the western United States.
Rats, rabbits and cats and dogs may be involved
Bruised Sole in transmitting the infection to man, usually by
Bruised sole is a condition of bruising of the means of fleas.
sensitive sole of the foot, due to a badly fitting
shoe, or the result of the horse having stood In man bubonic plague takes one of two
upon a projection, such as a stone, etc. Its forms: (l) After an incubation period of 2 to
98 Buccal
Buccostomy Buiatrics
An operation for the creation of buccal fistulae The study of cattle and their diseases.
to prevent wind-sucking.
Buildings
Buck (see HOUSING OF ANIMALS)
Term for the male of many species, e.g. deer,
ferret, goat, hare, kangaroo. Bulbar Paralysis, Infectious
(see AUJESZKY’S DISEASE). The term ‘bulbar’
Budgerigars relates to the medulla oblongata or the
(see CAGE (AVIARY) BIRDS, DISEASES OF) prolongation of the spinal cord into the brain.
appearance since the beginning of the 20th cen- The feeding trough should be about 60 cm
tury; those changes have largely contributed to (2 ft) above ground level and should be fitted
the problems the bulldog suffers from today. with a tubular tying arrangement which can
be closed on the bull’s neck when he puts his B
Bull-Dog Calves head through to the trough, if it is required to
In Dexter cattle commonly, and in other breeds catch him. This equipment is very desirable
occasionally, a hereditary condition, which is as an added safety measure, as it permits the
scientifically known as achondroplasia, occurs. bull to be securely held before the attendant
Calves are born in a deformed condition in enters the pen.
which the short limbs, dropsical swollen An arrangement which is very useful for
abdominal and thoracic cavities, and a marked dealing with vicious bulls is the provision of a
foreshortening of the upper and lower jaws give strong overhead wire cable running from inside
the calf an appearance resembling a bull-dog. the house or shelter to the opposite end of the
Such calves are usually dead when born. pen. This cable is threaded through a strong
ring, about 3 cm (11⁄4 in) in diameter. This ring,
‘Bull-Dogs’ which slides along the cable, is attached to a
A small metal appliance used temporarily chain which passes up through the bull’s nose
for the restraint of cattle. They are applied to ring, then around the back of the horns and is
the inside of the nose for holding an animal hooked to the upright chain in front of the
steady. forehead. In this way, the weight of the chain
is carried by the head instead of by the nose
Bull Housing ring and considerable discomfort to the animal
Any bull housing must be secure and designed thereby avoided. The chain should be just
to prevent injury to the animal or stockman. sufficiently long to allow the animal to lie down
The pen should be sited so that the bull can see comfortably. The advantage of this arrange-
what is happening around him; ideally, he ment is that a cow can be brought into the pen
should be able to see other cattle at times. All for service without the necessity of having to
accommodation should have sufficient escape release the bull from his tying.
points to ensure the safety of those attending Another safety device which should be pro-
the bull. There should be a means of capturing vided, where possible, in the walls or railings
and restraining the animal without having to surrounding the pen, is escape slits. These
enter the pen. Adequate space for exercise are upright openings about 38 to 45 cm (15 to
should be provided as well as sleeping accom- 18 in) wide, sufficient to allow the attendant to
modation, which could be a loose box. If ser- pass through in case of emergency, but through
vice is to be carried out in the pen there must which a bull could not pass. If, due to the loca-
be a means for allowing the cow to be intro- tion of the pen, it is not possible to provide
duced to a service area without risk to either these escape slits, the blind corners of the pen
cow or stockmen. should be fenced off by means of sturdy upright
The codes for the welfare of farm livestock steel rails set 38 to 45 cm (15 to 18 in) apart,
recommend that for an adult bull of average behind which an attendant could seek refuge.
size, the sleeping area should be not less than
16 m2 (180 ft2). For very large bulls the sleep- Bull Management
ing area should not be less than 1 m2 for each All bulls should be handled from an early age
60 kg liveweight (9 ft2 per cwt). The exercise and become accustomed to being restrained by
and service area should be at least twice the size means of the bull ring. The animals should be
of the sleeping accommodation. routinely groomed and have their feet regularly
The walls of the pen should be built up to a handled and trimmed. There should always be
height of 1 m (3 ft 3 in) and extended to 2 m two people present when the bull is handled
(6 ft 6 in) high with stout tubular steel rails. or the pen is entered. A bull can be used for
There should be a fodder rack and feeding service from about a year old, but only sparing-
trough at the end away from the shelter, pro- ly; once a week, or 3 services in 2 weeks, until
vided with sufficient cover to protect the fodder at least about 16 months old. When first using
and concentrates, and the animal while feeding, a young bull, he should be used to serve older,
during bad weather. This arrangement encour- experienced cows.
ages the bull to stay out in the open rather While a bull is often turned out with cows to
than in the box or shelter and is considered act as a ‘sweeper’ after artificial insemination, or
beneficial. The entrance to the pen should be where oestrus detection is poor, this makes it
convenient to the feeding area. impossible to keep accurate records of service.
100 Bull Mastiff
Because of the work involved and the lack but many other micro-organisms may be
of suitable accommodation, there has been a implicated. Brucella abortus has been isolated
tendency not to keep bulls on dairy farms. Bulls from a case of bumble-foot in Germany.
B should be selected to provide genetic improve-
ment to a herd and their choice requires con- Treatment It is necessary to open the pus-
siderable care. (See BULL HOUSING; also PROGENY containing cavity and evacuate the cheese-like
TESTING.) contents.
the formation of crop crystals. A budgerigar Some treatments for those conditions are sold
showing the so-called randy budgie syndrome by specialist suppliers to the racing pigeon
will regurgitate (chronic sexual regurgitation). fraternity.
Laboratory examination of the crop contents, Faulty diet, infestation by mites, and injury
obtained by a saline wash, is often needed to are among the causes of beak abnormalities,
C establish a diagnosis. which need correcting at an early stage with
Prolapse of the cloaca is fairly common, espe- scissors. In the female budgerigar especially, the
cially in egg-laying hens, and can also occur in nostrils may become blocked by sebaceous or
other species, especially cockatoos. other material. Horn-like excrescences near the
Laboured breathing, associated with rhyth- eyes may be associated with mite infestation.
mical dipping of the tail, and closing of the eyes Congenital beak malformations include ‘scis-
while on the perch, suggests systemic infections sors beak’ which, in large psittacines, requires
(e.g. chlamydiosis), heart disease, internal expert attention.
abscesses or enlarged liver. Gape-worms, The feet are subject to conditions including
mucus, or aspirated food material may block bumblefoot, dry gangrene of the feet which
the upper air passages. Air-sacs may be may follow a fracture of the limb, unsuitable
punctured by the claws of cats, or other synthetic bedding material forming a tourni-
traumatic injury and if infected, can fill with quet round the leg, or poisoning by ergot in
pus or exudate. Birds with ruptured air sacs the seed. Fractures of the legs result from
develop balloon-like swellings under the skin, their being caught in the wires of the cage.
especially of the base of the neck. Deflation Dislocation of the hip is not rare. Overgrown
with a needle, or more sophisticated surgery, and twisted claws are common and may
may be needed. be associated with mite infestation. (See also
So-called ‘going light’ in show budgerigars PSITTACOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS.) A perch made
is a chronic and eventually fatal disease; the pre- from abrasive material helps to keep the claws
cise cause, which may be multifactorial, has yet trim.
to be determined. (See also TRICHOMONAS – Avian Coccidiosis, giardiasis and trichomoniasis are
trichomoniasis.) The birds lose weight, though protozoan diseases frequently seen in small
eating well, over a period of weeks or months. psittacines. Giardiasis may be associated with
Diarrhoea is seen in a few birds; vomiting may feather-plucking in cockatiels.
also occur. At autopsy, enteritis is found. Viral diseases of cage birds include pox (in
Ascarids are frequently encountered nema- canaries, lovebirds, Amazon parrots); papilloma
todes in birds of the parrot family. They are (warts) (dermal in African grey parrots, mucos-
seen most commonly in South Australian para- al in Amazons); Pacheco’s disease in Amazons;
keets, especially if kept in a aviary with gallina- psittacine beak and feather disease (large
ceous birds such as quail. Generally, nematodes psittacines, lovebirds, budgerigars). New viral
are uncommon in cage birds, unless they have diseases are discovered regularly.
recently been kept in an aviary. Treatment con- Poisoning in budgerigars, canaries and other
sists of the application of a topical ivermectin psittacine birds often results from their inquisi-
preparation to the skin. tive nature. Zinc poisoning from galvanised
Capillaria worms may cause anaemia and wire used in cages and lead poisoning from
diarrhoea. paint or certain plastics are not uncommon.
Worms in the gizzard and proventriculus Washing galvanised wire with strong vinegar is
may cause peritonitis, air sacculitis and sudden a useful preventive. Waterfowl, especially ducks
death from visceral perforation. and swans, are liable to suffer lead poisoning
Tapeworms are sometimes seen in aviary from consuming lead weights discarded by
finches and in recently imported large anglers.
psittacines. The over-heating of ‘non-stick’ frying pans
Fluke may be found in ornamental water in kitchens gives rise to vapour which can kill
fowl and occasionally in imported psittacines. budgerigars and other small birds within half an
‘Scaly face’ of budgerigars and cockatiels and hour. The substance involved is polytetrafluo-
‘tassle foot’ in canaries are both caused by infes- rethylene.
tation with Knemidocuptes mites. Topical Over-heated fat in an ordinary frying pan
ivermectin is an appropriate treatment. may also prove lethal (see ‘FRYING PAN’ DEATHS).
Eyeworms can be manually removed. Birds have died after being taken into a newly
Fancy pigeons (Columbiforms) are affected painted room.
by the same conditions as racing or feral pigeons: (See also under ORNITHOSIS; BIRD-FANCIER’S
ascaridiasis, capillariasis, and trichomoniasis. LUNG; and PETS.)
Calcium Supplements 105
controls the feeding of bone meal or bone 1 mare. In 14 of the cases the calculi were in
flour to ruminants is banned (see BOVINE the bladder. Calcium carbonate crystals were
SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY). also demonstrated in the urine of 2 normal
Such supplements must be used with care, horses.
for an excess of calcium in the diet may
C interfere with the body’s absorption or employ- Intestinal calculi (enteroliths) are found in
ment of other elements. A high calcium to the large intestines of horses particularly. They
phosphorous ratio will depress the growth rate are usually formed of phosphates and may reach
in heifers. enormous sizes, weighing as much as 10 kg
In pigs, there is an inter-relationship of zinc (22 lb) in some instances. In many cases they
and calcium in the development of PARAKER- are formed around a nucleus of metal or stone
ATOSIS and a calcium carbonate supplement in which has been accidentally taken in with the
excess can increase the risk of PIGLET ANAEMIA. food, and in other instances they are deposited
Calcium supplements are important in the upon the surfaces of already existing coat-hair
nutrition of birds and reptiles. balls. (See WOOL BALLS.)
Calcium without phosphorus will not pre-
vent rickets; both minerals being required for Salivary calculi are found in the duct of the
healthy bone. parotid gland (Stenson’s duct), along the side of
The calcium:phosphorus ratio is also of great the face of the horse. A hard swelling can usual-
importance in dogs and cats. (See CANINE and ly be both seen and felt, and the horse resents
FELINE JUVENILE OSTEODYSTROPHY.) handling of this part. They are rarely seen in
Calcium alginate, derived from seaweed, has cattle and dogs.
been used as a wound dressing.
Biliary calculi are found either in the bile-
Calculi ducts of the liver or in the gall-bladder. (Note.
Calculi are stones or concretions containing There is no gall-bladder in equines.) They may
salts found in various parts of the body, such as form around a minute foreign body such as a
the bowels, kidneys, bladder, gall-bladder, ure- dead parasite or they may be made up of salts
thra, bile and pancreatic ducts. Either they deposited from the bile. They are combinations
are the result of the ingestion of a piece of of carbonates, calcium, and phosphates, along
foreign material, such as a small piece of metal with the bile pigments, and have, accordingly,
or a stone (in the case of the bowels), or they many colours; they may be yellow, brown, red,
originate through one or other of the body green, or chalk-white.
secretions being too rich in salts of potassium,
calcium, sodium, or magnesium. Pancreatic calculi in the ducts of the pan-
creas have been observed, but are rare.
Urinary calculi, found in the pelvis of the
kidney, in the ureters, urinary bladder, and Lacteal calculi, either in the milk sinus of
often in the male urethra, are collections of the cow’s udder or in the teat canal, are formed
urates, oxalates, carbonates, or phosphates, of from calcium phosphate from the milk deposit-
calcium and magnesium. (See under FELINE ed around a piece of shed epithelial tissue. They
UROLOGICAL SYNDROME.) may give rise to obstruction in milking.
Urinary calculi associated with high grain
rations, and the use of oestrogen implants, pro- Calf Diphtheria
duce heavy losses among fattening cattle and
sheep in the feed-lots of the United States and Cause Fusiformis (Bacteroides) necrophorus.
Canada. However, this condition does not seem
to present the same problem in the barley beef Signs These may vary in severity and may
units in this country, although outbreaks do merely involve a swelling of the cheek. Affected
occur in sheep fed high grain rations. The calves cease to suck or feed, salivate profusely,
inclusion of 4 per cent salt (sodium chloride) in have difficulty in swallowing, become feverish,
the ration may decrease the incidence of calculi. and may be affected with diarrhoea. The mouth
(See also UROLITHIASIS.) is painful, the tongue swollen, and yellowish
In horses, one study found that calcium car- or greyish patches are seen on the surface of
bonate in the form of calcite plus substituted the mucous membrane of the cheeks, gums,
vaterite was the major component of 18 urinary tongue, and throat. On removal of one of
calculi examined by X-ray diffraction crystal- these thickish, easily detached, membranous
lography from 14 geldings, 2 stallions, and deposits, the underlying tissues are seen
Calf Pneumonia 107
reddened and inflamed, and are very painful to Calf Joint Laxity and Deformity
the touch. In the course of 3 or 4 days the Syndrome (CJLD)
weaker or more seriously affected calves die, A condition, apparently nutritional in origin,
and others may die after 2 or 3 weeks. Some very similar to acorn disease (see ACORN CALVES)
recover. seen in dairy or suckler calves in herds fed
predominantly silage. C
Control Isolate affected calves. Antibiotics are
helpful if used early in an outbreak. Calf Pneumonia
Formerly called virus pneumonia, enzootic
Calf Housing pneumonia of calves occurs in Britain, the rest
Housing for calves must be warm but not stuffy of Europe, and North America. It is multifacto-
(well ventilated), dry, well lit by windows, and rial in origin, with the environment and man-
easy to clean and disinfect. Individual pens agement often being precipitating causes. Good
prevent navel-sucking. Bought-in calves, in par- hygiene and the avoidance of damp, dark, cold
ticular, are at risk of infection when placed in surroundings will go a long way towards pre-
close contact with each other in cramped venting it. Scours are often associated, probably
accommodation; this is exacerbated by the the result of secondary bacterial infections.
stress of separation from the cow, and often by Usually, one or more bacteria, mycoplasmas or
transportation. (See also under COLOSTRUM.) viruses are involved.
In the UK, standards for calf housing must Viral infections include the following:
meet the minimum set by the Welfare of
Farmed Animals Regulations (England) 2000 Parainfluenza 3 – myxovirus
(and similar legislation for Scotland and Wales). Bovine adenovirus 1
This requires that in new accommodation, a Bovine adenovirus 2
calf less than 150 kg is given 1.5 sq m of unob- Bovine adenovirus 3
structed floor space; for a calf 150 to 200 kg the Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis – a herpes-
space is 2 sq m and for calves more than 200 kg virus
the space is 3 sq m. A calf must be able to stand Mucosal disease virus – a pestivirus
up, turn around, lie down, rest and groom itself Bovine reovirus(es)
without hindrance and must be able to see at Bovine respiratory syncytial virus
least one other calf unless in isolation for vet- Herpesvirus
erinary reasons. The width of any stall must be Mycoplasma, including M. bovis, M. dispar,
at least equal to the height of the calf at the and ureaplasma sp. and bacteria, including
withers and the length must be at least 1.1 Pasteurella haemolytica, P. multocida, Haemophilus
times the length of the calf measured from the somnus, and chlamydia, are other infective agents
tip of the nose to the caudal edge of the pin which may cause calf pneumonia. There is a syn-
bones (tuber ischia). The pen must be built of ergism between M. bovis and P. haemolytica (an
materials that will not harm the calves and must important bacterial cause of calf pneumonia). In
be able to be cleaned and disinfected. Air circu- calves housed in groups, an almost subclinical
lation, dust level, temperature, humidity and pneumonia may persist; a harsh cough being the
gas concentrations must be within limits that only obvious symptom, and although growth
are not harmful to the calves. Ventilation sys- rate is reduced there may be little or no loss of
tems must be alarmed, with a back-up system appetite, or dullness.
in case of failure; all automatic equipment must Often problems result from a chronic or
be serviced regularly. Calves must not be kept CUFFING PNEUMONIA which is usually
permanently in the dark and the light must be mycoplasmal in origin. This may be exacerbat-
strong enough for them to be inspected and fed ed into an acute pneumonia by other bacteria
at least twice daily. All calves must be supplied or viruses. The change for the worse often
with bedding and floors must be smooth but occurs following stress resulting from sale,
not slippery. transport, and mixing with other calves.
Mortality varies; it may reach 10 per cent.
Calf Hutches In very young calves, abscesses may form in
Individual portable pens are widely marketed. the lungs during the course of a septicaemia
Among their advantages are the control of arising from infection at the navel (‘navel-ill’).
transmissible infections such as enteritis by pre- Also in individual calves, an acute exudative,
venting contact between calves. Hutches must lobular pneumonia may affect calves under a
be moved to another location and cleaned month old; with, in the worst cases, areas of
thoroughly after each occupation. consolidation. (See also PNEUMONIA.)
108 Calf-Rearing
Treatment A wide range of antibiotics may markets unless with the cow; their navels must
be effective, depending on the causative also have healed and dried. It should be remem-
organism. Anti-inflammatory agents are also bered that antibodies received from the dam in
useful, and occasionally expectorants and the colostrum protect only against infections
diuretics. Affected calves should be moved to current in the original environment – not nec-
C prevent spread of infection; good ventilation is essarily against infections present on another
essential. farm. An early-weaning concentrate should be
on offer ad lib.
Prevention Allow calves adequate airspace,
ensure good ventilation and never house more Calf Scours
than 30 together; do not mix age groups. (see under DIARRHOEA)
Vaccines, live and inactivated, are available
against specific infections. Caliciviruses
Caliciviruses are members of the picorna virus
Calf-Rearing group, and have been isolated from cats, dogs,
Calves from dairy herds are usually removed pigs, and man. (See also FELINE CALCIVIRUS.)
from their dams at a few hours or a few
days old. They are then reared in single or California Mastitis Test (CMT)
group pens, being fed from buckets or feeders. Using Teepol as a reagent, this test may be
Colostrum may be all or part of their diet, carried out in the cowshed for the detection
particularly in the calves removed early. After of cows with subclinical mastitis. The test can
colostrum, they are given milk (from healthy also be used as a rough screening test of
cows) or a proprietary milk substitute, at bulk milk; slime is produced if many cells are
about 2 litres twice daily when bucket fed. present.
Proprietary milk substitutes must be given in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instruc- Calkins
tions. Clean water should be freely available Calkins are the portions of the heels of horses’
and some form of roughage, which may be shoes which are turned down to form projec-
straw bedding and concentrates. Weaning tions on the ground surface of the shoe, which
usually occurs when a calf is taking 0.7 kg con- will obtain a grip upon the surface of paved or
centrate daily, if single penned, or 1 kg daily cobbled streets. Upon modern roads and on the
if in groups; this is usually at about 6 weeks land, they serve no useful purpose and may do
of age. harm. If they are too high they lead to atrophy
The use of skim milk or whey may, where of the frog and induce contracted heels unless
convenient, be introduced as variants of the sys- the shoe possesses a bar.
tems given above. Under the Welfare of
Livestock Regulations 1994 a minimum of Callosity
100 g of roughage should be given daily at Callosity means thickening of the skin, usually
2 weeks of age working up to a minimum of accompanied by loss of hair and a dulling of
250 g at 20 weeks old. Concentrates providing sensation. Callosities are generally found on
an adequate intake of iron should also be given. those parts of the bodies of old animals that are
Beef calves from the suckler herd are kept exposed to continued contact with the ground,
with their dams for a period that depends on such as the elbows, hocks, stifles, and the knees
whether they are to be sold on or reared further. of cattle and dogs. (See HYGROMA.)
Spring-born calves are usually weaned at 5 to 8
months, the autumn-born at 8 to 10 months. Callus
Single suckling is the rule in typical beef herds Callus is the lump of new bone that is laid
but multiple suckling on nurse cows is also down during the first 2 or 3 weeks after
common practice. Under this system a cow fracture, around the broken ends of the
from a dairy herd suckles 2 or more calves at a bone, and which holds these in position. (See
time for at least 9 to 10 weeks. Thus, a cow, FRACTURES.)
according to her milk-yielding capacity, may
suckle from 3 to 10 calves provided she is fed Calomel, or Mercurous Chloride
adequately and is prepared to accept different Calomel, or mercurous chloride, should not be
calves. confused with the much more active and poiso-
Bought-in calves may come from known nous mercuric chloride. Calomel is a laxative
farms or, more likely, from dealers via markets. having a special action on the bile-mechanism
Calves under a week old must not be sold at of the liver. (See also MERCURY.)
Calving, Difficult (Dystocia) 109
much longer periods if grazing freely plants before pregnancy was achieved. These and
with a high water content. many other similar experiences have led to the
conclusion that infertility from this cause is
Diseases Camel pox is the commonest viral temporary – cows developing an immunity
disease diagnosed. The camel is also important some three months after the initial infection.
as a carrier of rinderpest, foot-and-mouth dis- Bulls, on the other hand, do not appear to C
ease and Rift Valley fever, although cases of the develop any immunity and may remain ‘carriers’
clinical diseases are rare. Among the bacterial for years.
diseases anthrax, brucellosis, salmonellosis, pas- On average, abortion due to C. fetus seems to
teurellosis and tetanus are not uncommon. occur earlier than that due to brucellosis, but
Tuberculosis is an important disease of Bactrian later than that due to Trichomonas.
camels farmed for milk production. Ringworm In an infected herd investigated in England,
is the only fungal agent believed to be important infertility was associated with retained afterbirth,
and it is widely diagnosed in young animals. vaginal discharges after calving, still-births, weak
Ectoparasite infections include sarcoptic calves which later died, and a low conception
mange, an important and debilitating disease of rate. It was also found that abortions occurred
camels. The cause is Sarcoptes scabiei var. cameli. between the 5th and 8th month of pregnancy –
Other external parasites include fleas, lice, and and not during the initial months of pregnancy
ticks. (See also POX; SURRA; HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTI- as noted above.
CAEMIA; RABIES; BLACK-QUARTER; BILHARZIOSIS; Confirmation of diagnosis is dependent
SPEEDS OF ANIMALS.) upon laboratory methods. A mucus agglutina-
tion test devised at the Central Veterinary
Campylobacter Infections Laboratory, Weybridge, is of service except
Campylobacter (formerly known as vibrio) are when the animal is on heat.
Gram-negative, non-spore forming bacteria,
shaped like a comma, and motile. They are Control A period of sexual rest, use of AI, and
microaerophilic; that is, require little oxygen for treatment of infected bulls by means of repeat-
growth. They are responsible for a variety of ed irrigations of the prepuce with antibiotic
diseases, from dysentery to abortion, across a suspensions.
wide range of animal species. C. fecalis may also cause enteritis in calves.
C. fetus fetus can cause acute disease in ani-
mals, including sporadic abortion in cattle, Ewes C. fetus intestinalis and C. fetus
abortion in sheep and bacteraemia in man. jejuni may cause infertility and abortion.
C. fetus veneralis is an important cause of
infertility in cattle (see below). Dogs Species of campylobacter have been iso-
C. coli is routinely found in the intestines of lated from dogs suffering from diarrhoea or
healthy animals and birds; it was believed to be dysentery, and in some instances people in con-
a cause of winter dysentery in cattle. tact with those dogs were also ill with acute
C. fetus jejuni is also found in mammalian enteritis.
and avian intestines and has been implicated in One of the species involved is C. fetus jejuni,
winter dysentery in cattle. iso- lated in one survey from almost 54 per cent
of dogs with diarrhoea, but only from 8 per
Cattle Infertility caused by C. fetus veneralis is cent without diarrhoea.
due to a venereal disease, transmitted either at
natural service or by artificial insemination. It Pigs C. sputorum, subspecies mucosalis, has
should be suspected when many cows served by been linked with PORCINE INTESTINAL ADENO-
a particular bull fail to conceive, although usu- MATOSIS, and C. coli with diarrhoea in piglets.
ally a few become pregnant at the first mating.
The genital organs of the bull, and his semen, Poultry C. fetus jejuni is widespread in the
appear normal. intestines of healthy domestic fowl, including
One infected bull was brought into an AI ducks and turkeys. Its importance lies in the fact
centre in the Netherlands, and of 49 animals that contamination of the edible parts of the
inseminated with his semen only three became bird at slaughter can cause food poisoning in
pregnant. Of these three, two aborted and C. consumers if the poultry meat is insufficiently
fetus infection was diagnosed in them. Of the cooked.
remaining 46 cows, 44 were inseminated with
semen from a healthy, fertile bull; and it Public health Farm animals constitute a
required six or seven inseminations per cow potential source of campylobacter infection for
112 Canaliculus
Canaliculus
A small channel, e.g. the minute passage lead-
ing from the lacrimal pore on each eyelid to the
lacrimal sac in the nostril.
Canary
The canary, Serinus canaria, is a small seed-eat-
ing bird usually yellow in colour. (See under CAGE
(AVIARY) BIRDS, DISEASES OF.) the junction between the two, such as lips,
conjunctiva, etc.
Cancellous Cancer can take many forms and the names
(see BONE) applied relate to the type, e.g. tumour; the dis-
ease caused, e.g. enzootic bovine leukosis, feline
Cancer (Neoplasia) leukaemia; the tissue or organ affected, e.g.
Cancer (neoplasia) is perhaps best thought melanoma is cancer of the pigmented skin cells,
of as a group of diseases rather than as a single osteosarcoma is cancer of the bones.
disease entity. All types are characterised by Cancer is far from rare in domestic animals
uncontrolled multiplication of abnormal cells. and farm livestock. In the latter, however, the
Cancer can be malignant (progressive and inva- incidence of cancer tends to be less, because
sive) and will often regrow after removal; or cattle, sheep, and pigs are mostly slaughtered
non-malignant (benign) and will not return if when comparatively young. Nevertheless,
removed. Malignant cancer cells usually have a sporadic bovine enzootic leukosis may appear
primary location. If untreated, secondary in a clinical form in cattle under 2 years old and
growths, called metastases, may develop in cancer of the liver is seen in piglets – to give but
other parts of the body by a process called two examples.
metastasis. Two important types of malignant In the old grey horse a melanoma is a com-
growth are sarcomas and carcinomas. There mon tumour. In dogs the incidence of tumours
are several subtypes of each, classified according generally (including non-malignant ones) is
to the nature of their cells or the tissues said to be higher than in any other animal
affected. species, including the human. (See CANINE
Sarcomas are, as primary growths, often TUMOURS.) An osteosarcoma is a not uncom-
found in bones, cartilage, and in the connective mon form of cancer affecting a limb bone in
tissue supporting various organs. Common sar- young dogs. LEUKAEMIA provides another
comas include osteosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and example of cancer. In cats, a survey of 132 with
lymphosarcoma. mammary gland tumours showed the ratio of
Carcinomas are composed of modified malignant to benign growths to be 9:1. (See
epithelial tissue, and are often associated with FELINE CANCER.) The relative risk in spayed cats
advancing age. Primary carcinomas affect the is said to be significantly less than in intact
skin and mucous membranes, for example, and females.
Candida Albicans 113
A ‘rodent ulcer’ is a carcinoma of the skin; When most tumour viruses infect and enter
less malignant than most in that, while it tends a cell, they have mechanisms for inserting their
to spread and destroy much surface tissue, it genes into the DNA of the host cell. In effect,
does not as a rule form metastases. the host has acquired a new set of genes, and
The structure of some carcinomas resembles when the host cell divides and all of its genes are
that of glands, the growth being named an ade- replicated, so are those of the virus. In this way C
nocarcinoma. This may occur in the liver, for the virus can produce copies of itself without
example. destroying the host cell, and this is the main
difference between a tumour virus and a
Causes of Cancer Several different factors can destructive or lytic virus such as canine distem-
lead to the production of cancer. They include: per or foot-and-mouth disease virus. One of the
repeated irritation, by mechanical friction or virus genes transferred in this way is the onco-
radiation (e.g. X-rays, ultra-violet rays); chemical gene or tumour-producing gene responsible for
carcinogens; hormones; or viruses. producing cancerous cells.
The idea that physical irritation could cause Further research led to the discovery of a
cancer was was propounded by the great 19th ‘transforming protein’ – the presence of which
century pathologist Virchow. His theory was in a cell leads to malignancy.
supported by the fact that cancer of the scrotum
was common in chimney sweeps, cancer of the Diagnosis The type and location of the can-
horns common in bullocks yoked for draught cer and the nature of the presenting signs are all
purposes. Cancer of the lips was common in factors in diagnosis. The use of endoscopes,
clay-pipe smokers, and in users of early X-ray scintigraphy and computed tomography, as well
apparatus there was a high incidence of cancer, as magnetic resonance imaging, may be of
too. considerable assistance.
Soot was probably the earliest recognised car-
cinogen. Japanese research workers later showed Treatment Surgical removal of a malignant
that by repeatedly painting the skin of the growth is more difficult than removal of a
mouse with tar or paraffin oil, cancer often benign tumour, which normally has a line of
resulted. Carcinogenic compounds were isolated demarcation to guide the surgeon. Moreover,
from tar and paraffin. incomplete removal of a primary cancer may be
It was found too that there is a chemical followed by cancer elsewhere, as a result of
relationship between one of the carcinogens metastases.
in tar and the hormone oestrin. The fact that Radium treatment is seldom used in veteri-
hormones were associated with the production nary medicine, not only because of the cost but
of some tumours was confirmed. (See CANINE also on the grounds that euthanasia will be
TUMOURS.) (For other carcinogens, see AFLA-TOXINS; preferable on humane grounds.
BRACKEN POISONING; HORMONES IN MEAT The localised heat treatment of skin cancer
PRODUCTION; NITROSAMINES.) in the dog and cat has been tried in superficial
skin tumours.
Oncogenic Viruses A wide variety of animal The most common cancer, the papilloma or
tumours are caused by viruses. Several onco- wart, is treated by surgical excision or possibly
genic RNA viruses have been isolated: the by AUTOGENOUS vaccines.
Rous chicken sarcoma virus, the Bittner mouse Chemotherapy is used, under strict control,
mammary carcinoma virus, the Gosse mouse in dogs and cats. The drugs used are toxic and
leukaemia virus, the Jarrett cat lymphosarcoma must be handled with great care; their prescrib-
virus and possibly the Northern European ing and administration should be left to spe-
bovine leukosis virus. Of the DNA viruses, sev- cialist veterinarians.
eral oncogenic viruses have been isolated, but of
special importance are the herpes viruses caus- Control The development of vaccines against
ing Marek’s disease in chickens and, recently, a MAREKS DISEASE and FELINE LEUKAEMIA virus
fatal lymphoreticular tumour in monkeys. was a pioneering step towards the control of
Whatever their nature, all carcinogens have a other virus-induced cancerous diseases.
common factor: they act upon DNA. W. F. (See also CYTOKINES.)
Jarret, whose team at Glasgow veterinary school
did pioneering work on the role of viruses in can- Candida Albicans
cer, commented: ‘Radiation may break it or cause Candida albicans is a fungus which gives rise to
adjacent units to fuse; chemicals bind tightly to it the disease MONILIASIS or candidiasis; both in
and alter its functions; viruses join into it.’ humans and in farm livestock.
114 Canicola Fever
Precautions Affected dogs cannot lead a which has been reported from Scandinavia,
rough-and-tumble life without bleeding occur- America, Australia, and South Africa.
ring, so the owner must try to prevent knocks Breathing dichlorvos vapour from a poly-
and bumps occurring; or agree to euthanasia. A thene bag has been stated to be effective in
bitch which is known to be a carrier should not, killing the mites (but dichlorvos is also toxic to
of course, be bred from. dogs). C
Canine Herpesvirus Canine Parvovirus (CPV)
A virus isolated from vesicles affecting the gen- This infection appeared as a new disease entity
ital system of the bitch and associated with in 1978–9 in Europe, Australia, and America.
infertility, abortion, and stillbirths. Infected Dogs proved highly susceptible, and serious
pups usually die soon after birth. Those that outbreaks of the illness occurred with numer-
recover may remain carriers of the virus. ous deaths. By 1981 many dogs had acquired
a useful degree of immunity against the virus,
Canine Juvenile Osteodystrophy following either recovery from a naturally
This is known also by other names, e.g. nutri- occurring attack or vaccination; with puppies
tional secondary parathyroidism. It is also found protected for up to 16 weeks by the antibodies
in cats, when it is referred to as FELINE JUVENILE received in the colostrum of their dams, assum-
OSTEODYSTROPHY. It arises from a calcium defi- ing that the latter were themselves resistant.
ciency which, in conjunction with excess vitamin
D, stimulates the release of parathyroid hormone Cause A parvovirus, possibly a mutation of the
(see the table under PARATHYROID GLANDS). feline enteritis or the mink enteritis virus.
Resorption of bone follows. An excess of phos- Canine parvovirus (CPV-2), feline panleu-
phorus in the diet will also cause the condition. copenia virus (FPV), and mink enteritis virus
share common antigens; however, CPV-2 has at
Cause The main cause of this disease is feed- least one specific antigen which is not present
ing the dog a (muscle) meat-rich diet contain- in the other viruses.
ing little calcium but much phosphorus. (See
DOGS’ DIET.) Signs The illness takes the form of a severe
gastroenteritis, and diarrhoea is the main symp-
Signs Affected animals are often in good bod- tom. In the early outbreaks many dogs died
ily condition but are usually reluctant to move within 48 hours. Puppies may die suddenly,
and may cry out in anticipation of being forced within minutes of eating or playing, as a result
to do so. The usual cause of pain is fractures of of the virus having infected the heart muscle
the thinned bone after a minor injury or even and caused myocarditis.
no apparent injury. Short, hesitant steps may be
taken. Splaying of the toes is sometimes seen; Treatment A combined antiserum prepara-
also swelling at the elbow or carpi. tion is available. Symptomatic treatment must
On radiography, the skeleton appears less include measures to overcome the severe DEHY-
dense than normal, indicating demineralisation DRATION resulting from the diarrhoea.
of the bones. Treatment of the myocarditis is seldom effective.
The bones return to normal when a balanced
diet is fed but deformities left by fractures may Prevention Vaccination is widely practised
remain. and has greatly reduced the incidence of the
disease. Live vaccines, often combined with
Canine Leishmaniasis vaccines against distemper and other viral dis-
(see LEISHMANIA; LEISHMANIASIS)
eases, are available. It is essential to follow the
Canine Myasthenia Gravis manufacturers’ directions if protection is to be
(see MYASTHENIA GRAVIS) effective. Annual booster doses are recommend-
ed to maintain immunity. It should be noted
Canine Nasal Mites that apart from the effect of persisting MATER-
A white mite, Pneumonyssoides caninum, is an NAL ANTIBODIES, vaccination may fail in some
uncommon inhabitant of the nose and nasal individuals which have a defective immune sys-
sinuses of dogs; and has also been found in the tem and cannot produce adequate antibodies.
bronchi, and in the fat near the pelvis of the This occurs with all vaccines.
kidney.
Rubbing the nose on the ground and shaking Canine Pasteurellosis
the head are symptoms of this infestation, (see under BITES)
116 Canine Respiratory Disease
Canine Respiratory Disease Dogs of all ages may be affected – even pup-
(see DISTEMPER; KENNEL COUGH; KLEBSIELLA) pies a few days old – but perhaps the disease
occurs most frequently in young dogs of 3 to 9
Canine Rickettsiosis months. CVH may occur simultaneously with
(see ROCKY MOUNTAIN FEVER) DISTEMPER.
C
Canine Staphylococcal Cause A canine adenovirus (CAV). CAV-1 is
Dermatitis associated with liver, eye, kidney, and respiratory
This may be seen in Irish setters, collies and shel- disease. (CAV-2 is implicated only in respiratory
ties. The lesions appear on the fine skin with few disease.)
hairs on the abdomen or between the thighs.
The condition is itchy, and causes the dog to Signs Infection may exist without symptoms,
scratch or lick the part. The lesions consist of and in such cases it can be recognised only by
roughly circular areas of reddened skin, some laboratory tests. In the very acute form of the
with a ring of blackish or greyish crust, having disease a dog, apparently well the night before,
papules or pustules at the edge. The appearance may be found dead in the morning. In less
may suggest ringworm at first glance. acute cases the dog may behave strangely and
The Staphylococcus aureus involved is resis- have convulsions. A high temperature, wasting,
tant to penicillin, so other antibiotics must be anaemia, lethargy, and coma are other symp-
used. An autogenous vaccine may be needed if toms observed in some cases. A thin, thready
antibiotics are not effective. pulse is characteristic.
Vomiting, diarrhoea, and dullness may per-
Canine Teeth sist for 5 or 6 days, and be followed by jaundice.
Canine teeth are the so-called ‘eye-teeth’, which Such cases may be thought to be leptospiral
are such prominent features of the mouths of jaundice.
carnivorous animals. In different animals they Puppies may show symptoms of severe inter-
are known by different names, e.g.’tusks’ in the nal haemorrhage, and have blood or blood-
pig, and ‘tushes’ in the horse and ass. (See stained fluid in the peritoneal cavity, with
DENTITION; TEETH.) petechial haemorrhages from several organs.
Haemorrhages, including subcutaneous ones,
Canine Transmissible Venereal may also occur in older dogs. More commonly,
Tumours there is fever, dullness, some vomiting, tender-
Canine transmissible venereal tumours affect ness of the abdomen. Of those that survive 5
mainly the mucous membrane of the vagina or days or so, many recover. Keratitis (‘blue-eye’)
that of the prepuce; occasionally the lips of both occurs a week or two after the beginning of the
sexes. The lesions resemble warts, and can result illness in some cases. In older dogs, restlessness,
in infertility. convulsions, and coma are common.
Antiserum is useful in treatment. Glucose
Canine Tumours and vitamin K are also recommended.
These are common. It has been suggested that Dogs which have recovered may continue to
the incidence of neoplasia in the dog is higher harbour the virus and act as carriers, spreading
than in any other animal species including the disease to other dogs via the urine.
man. In fact, the age-adjusted incidence rate for
mammary neoplasia is three times larger in the Diagnosis A gel diffusion test is useful at
bitch than in women. Tumours arising in the postmortem examination, especially where
mammary glands of the bitch and the perianal decomposition of the animal’s body has
glands of the dog together may account for involved cell disintegration.
almost 30 per cent of all canine neoplasms. The
predilection of these tumours for one sex or the Prevention Vaccines are available, both live
other and their responsiveness, in some cases, to and inactivated. Hepatitis vaccine is usually
endocrine gland ablation or hormone therapy presented as a multiple vaccine in combination
has promoted their designation as hormone- with distemper and parvovirus; some prepara-
dependent. (See also TUMOUR; CANCER.) tions also include protection against leptospiro-
sis and parainfluenza. Dosage instructions vary
Canine Viral Hepatitis (CVH) with different brands of vaccine; normally, pup-
Canine viral hepatitis (CVH) is also known as pies are given two doses at an interval of 2 to 6
Rubarth’s disease, Hepatitis contagiosa canis, or weeks followed by annual booster inoculations.
infectious canine hepatitis (ICH). (See under DISTEMPER.)
Capped Hock 117
there are two bursae: the first – a false bursa, dis- envelope of various organs, as of the spleen, liver,
tension of which constitutes true ‘capped hock’ or kidney. It is also applied to a ‘joint capsule’.
– lies between the skin and the tendon which
plays over the bone; and the second, the true Car Exhaust Fumes
bursa, separates the tendon from the bone. Car exhaust fumes from a specially adapted car
The lesion is virtually identical with that engine may be used for the humane destruction
C of mink. The Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or
of capped elbow (see under BURSITIS), and treat-
ment is practically the same. Killing) Regulations 1995 state that the exhaust
Since the condition may be brought about in gas must be cooled and filtered free of any irri-
the mare by continual kicking at the heel posts tant material. The carbon monoxide level must
of the stall (e.g. in cases of nymphomania), it is reach at least 1 per cent of the volume of the
necessary to pad the heel posts or to house the chamber used before mink are placed in it and
horse in a loose-box. the animals must remain there until dead. Car
exhaust is no longer recognised as a legal means
‘Cappie’ of killing birds. (See under BIRDS, HUMANE
‘Cappie’ is a disease of sheep. (See also ‘DOUBLE DESTRUCTION OF.)
SCALP’.)
Car, Parked in the Sun
Caprine Arthritis-Encephalitis The temperature inside a car parked in the sun,
A disease of goats caused by a lentivirus. It is even with two windows opened to the extent of
present in Britain, Switzerland, France, 2.5 cm (1 in), can within 3 hours reach 33°C
Norway, the USA and Canada. It was following (92°F), when the shade temperature outside the
import of goats from Switzerland and the USA car is only 18°C (65°F). With only one window
into Kenya that the disease reached Africa in opened 2.5 cm (1 in), or all windows closed,
1983. In Australia a retrovirus was isolated a dangerously high temperature would obvious-
from goats which caused a clinical disease ly be reached much sooner. A dog left in a car
similar to caprine arthritis-encephalitis, and parked not in the shade is in danger of HEAT-
produced antibodies in goats similar to those STROKE; a cat similarly. (See also HYPERTHER-
caused by maedi-visna virus, which has never MIA.) Owners causing suffering to their pets by
been recorded in that continent. leaving them in cars may face prosecution
under the Protection of Animals Act 1911.
Signs A lowered milk yield, due to mastitis, is
sometimes the first sign noticed; and transmis- Car Sickness
sion of the virus is thought to be mainly via (see TRAVEL SICKNESS)
colostrum and milk.
The main sign, however, is arthritis. Carapace
Lameness does not always accompany swelling The shell of tortoises, other chelonians, and
of the joints. crustaceans. When assessing the health of a che-
Encephalitis, caused by the virus affecting the lonian, it is important to relate the length of the
brain, affects mainly kids 2 to 4 months old. carapace in relation to the body weight, espe-
Lesions may occur in the spinal cord also. Head- cially as to ability to withstand a period of
tilting and trembling may be seen, together with hibernation. The landing of crabs and lobsters
an unsteady gait. Opisthotonus may occur. in Britain is subject to the carapace being of a
Partial paralysis may lead to recumbency and specified minimum length.
often death. A chronic interstitial pneumonia
occurs in some goats and subclinical infections Carbachol
may occur. Carbachol is a potent parasympathomimetic
agent which is used in the treatment of glaucoma
Capripox Viruses in dogs.
(see ‘LUMPY SKIN DISEASE’; POX)
Carbamates
Capsule These compounds are used as agricultural
Capsule is a term used in several senses. The insecticides and sometimes cause accidental
term is applied to a soluble case, either of gela- poisoning in animals. Carbamates inhibit
tine which dissolves in the stomach, or of keratin cholinesterase. Symptoms of poisoning include
which only dissolves in the small intestine, for profuse salivation, muscular tremors. Atropine
enclosing small doses of medicine. The term is is used in treatment. (See ORGANOPHOSPHORUS
also applied to the fibrous or membranous POISONING.)
Carbon Monoxide 119
Carcinogens ‘Carrier’
Carcinogens are oncogenic viruses or substances ‘Carrier’ is an animal recovered from an infec-
which give rise to CANCER. (See NITROSAMINES; tious disease, or not showing symptoms, but
BRACKEN; AFLATOXINS; HORMONES IN MEAT; capable of passing on the infection to another
and substances mentioned under CANCER.) animal. For example, cattle may carry infectious
bovine rhinotracheitis; dogs may be carriers of
Carcinoma leptospirae.
(see CANCER)
Carrying Injured Dogs and Cats
Cardia (see illustration under ACCIDENTS)
Cardia is the upper opening of the stomach at
which the oesophagus terminates. It lies close Cartilage
behind the heart. Cartilage is a hard but pliant tissue forming
parts of the skeleton, e.g. the rib cartilages, the
Cardiac Disease cartilages of the larynx and ears, and the lateral
(see HEART DISEASES) cartilages of the foot, as well as the cartilages of
the trachea. Microscopically it consists of cells
Cardiac Pacemakers arranged in pairs or in rows, embedded in a clear
(see PACEMAKER)
homogeneous tissue devoid of blood-vessels and
Cardiography nerves. The surfaces of the bones that form a
Cardiography is the process by which graphic joint are covered with articular cartilages, which
records can be made of the heart’s action. provide smooth surfaces of contact and min-
Auricular and ventricular pressures can be imise shock and friction. In some parts of the
recorded, the sounds of the heartbeat can be body there are discs of cartilage interposed
converted into waves of movement and record- between bones forming a joint, e.g. between the
ed on paper, and the changes in electric poten- femur and tibia and fibula there are the carti-
tial that occur can be similarly recorded. (See also lages of the stifle joint, and between most of the
under ELECTROCARDIOGRAM.) adjacent vertebrae there are similar discs. When
a bone is still growing, there are layers of carti-
Cardiology lage interposed between the shaft and its
Study of the heart and heart diseases. extremities; these are called epiphyseal cartilages.
Treatment This is difficult as the lesions Reasons for castration To the humanitar-
become encapsulated and so inaccessible to ian who has not an extensive acquaintance with
antibiotics. Vaccines are available overseas. animals the necessity for this operation may not
be obvious, and it is advisable at the outset that
Diagnosis Culture of C. pseudotuberculosis the reasons for castration should be given.
from pus from lesions confirms the diagnosis. Bullocks are able to be housed along with
ELISA tests are being developed. heifers without the disturbance which would
otherwise occur during the oestral periods of
Cassava the female, and they live together without fight-
(Manihot esculenta) A widely grown crop for ing, and without becoming a risk to man. The
human and animal food in the tropics, and the uncertainty of the temper of an entire male ani-
source of tapioca. The potato-like tubers, howev- mal, especially of the larger species, and the risk
er, if eaten raw can cause cyanide poisoning. of injury to attendants, are well known. The
Livestock in the tropics have died from cyanide same remarks apply to horses, asses and mules.
poisoning caused by this crop. It must not be Another reason for castration of domesticat-
used in turkey feeds as it is not digested in the ed animals living under artificial conditions is
upper digestive tract but ferments in the caecum that breeds and strains can be more easily kept
causing inflammation (typhilitis). The liquid fae- ‘pure’, desirable types can be encouraged and
ces make wet litter and leg problems may follow. retained, and undesirable types eliminated.
122 Castration
It used to be held that meat from uncastrated with ketamine. When the foal can no longer
animals was greatly inferior to that from stand as a result of the anaesthetic, a hind-leg is
castrated ones. In fact, apart from such consid- pulled forwards to expose the operation site, and
erations as obtaining docility and avoiding castration performed with the foal lying on its
promiscuous breeding, meat-quality was the side. This method has been recommended as
C main reason advanced for doing the operation. quick, requiring less assistance, less likely to
Nowadays that phrase ‘greatly inferior’ has tend- traumatise the gelding, and more humane.
ed to become ‘slightly inferior’; feed conversion After castration the colt is either turned out
efficiency is better in the entire animal. into a well-strawed yard or put into a roomy
loose-box and given a feed; or, if climatic con-
Some disadvantages of castration ditions are favourable, it may be turned out to
The growing practice of early slaughter of meat- grass again. It is always advisable to see the colt
producing animals, so that the majority never at intervals during the 24 hours after castration,
fully mature, has posed the question: is castra- to ensure that there is no bleeding, that hernia
tion still necessary or, for efficient meat has not developed, or that no other untoward
production, even advisable? accident has happened. Cryptorchid castration
In all species, the entire male grows more is briefly mentioned under RIG.
quickly and produces a leaner carcase than that
of the castrate. Since rapid and economic Cattle Various methods are used, including sur-
production of lean flesh is essential in modern gical castration by removal of the testes. In the
meat production, the principle of male castration United Kingdom, the law requires that calves
may seem to be becoming out of date. over 2 months old must be anaesthetised and the
The problem differs from one species of farm operation performed by a veterinary surgeon. In
animal to another. Veal calves are not castrated. very young calves – i.e. those between a month
They have a better food conversion ratio than and 6 weeks old – castration may be carried out
castrated calves. by merely opening the scrotum and scraping the
With pigs, boars are not castrated if going for spermatic cord through with the edge of the
pork and, often, for bacon. In trials, the average knife. However, complete removal of the testicle
boar took only 151 days to reach bacon weight is preferable. In larger animals the spermatic
(90 kg; 200 lb), and had a food conversion ratio artery should be ligated to prevent haemorrhage.
of 2.87 between 32 and 90 kg (70 and 200 lb) Alternatively, a type of emasculator may be used
liveweight. If the animals in the test had been which has two parts to the cutting arm so that
castrated they would each have required about the spermatic artery is cut and crushed at the
50 kg (1 cwt) more food to reach 90 kg (200 lb) same time to prevent haemorrhage.
liveweight. (See also under STRESS; BULL BEEF.) Another method which does not involve
removal of the testes is the Burdizzo or blood-
Methods The operation consists of opening less castration method. The instrument is
the scrotum and coverings of the testicle by a placed with the jaws over the neck of the scro-
linear incision, separating the organ itself from tum in such a way that when closed they will
these structures, and dividing the spermatic crush the spermatic cord through the skin of
cord well above the epididymis which lies on the scrotum, thus preventing maturation of the
the testicle, in such a way that haemorrhage testes. Ideally, an assistant presses the handles
from the spermatic artery does not occur. together while the operator holds the cord to
In the interests of animal welfare, various prevent it moving away from the closing jaws.
methods of immunocastration have been tried. The method has attracted objections on welfare
The aim is to ‘immunise’ the animal against the grounds.
hormones involved in testosterone production.
A series of injections is needed but the duration Sheep The most convenient age at which
of effect is limited and they need repeating at lambs are castrated is when they are between a
ever shorter intervals. week and a month old, the operation usually
being carried out at the same time as docking.
Horses Entire colts are usually castrated when 1 The point of the scrotum is cut off transversely
year old, i.e. in early spring of the year following and each testicle exposed by the one incision.
their birth, but they may preferably be castrated They are then held alternately by a pair of rub-
as foals, at an age of 5 months or younger. The ber-jawed forceps, turned round and round so
colt may be caught with a long neck rope, and as to twist the cord, and then pulled off, or the
usually sedated and/or anaesthetised using deto- cord may be scraped through with a knife.
midine, xylazine or romifidine in combination Special small emasculators are also used.
‘Cat, Angry’ Posture 123
of vitamin A. The symptom may appear within foreign body granuloma, mycotic infection,
1 to 5 years of being on a virtually all-liver diet. nodular panniculitis, pansteatitis, and chronic
abscesses secondary to feline leukaemia virus
Cat Bites/Scratches infection.
These may sometimes give rise in man to CAT-
C SCRATCH FEVER and also yersiniosis, rabies, etc., Cat Lungworm
should the cat be infected with organisms Aleurostrongylus abstrusus can give rise to symp-
causing these diseases. toms such as coughing, sneezing, and a dis-
charge from the nostrils. Research has disclosed
‘Cat Flu’ a relationship between infestation with this
An inaccurate but convenient term widely used lungworm and abnormality of the pulmonary
by owners for illness caused by FELINE VIRAL arteries. Often it is only when the cat is sub-
RHINOTRACHEITIS and FELINE CALCIVIRUS jected to stress or to some other infection that
infection. lungworms cause serious illness.
of the brown-tailed moth (Euproctis chrysor- malpresentation such as a turning of the fetal
rhoea) were extremely numerous in the head may render normal birth impossible and
Portsmouth area in 2 successive years, and necessitate a Caesarean operation.
30 cats and a dog had lesions attributed to the
caterpillars’ setae which are barbed and also Prolapse of the uterus is rare.
contain an enzyme. Loss of appetite, excessive C
salivation, wet patches on their flanks (probably Ectopic pregnancy This occurs when a fer-
the result of persistent licking) and redness of tilised egg, instead of passing down one of the
the underlying skin were observed. The dog Fallopian tubes towards the uterus, is released
developed a red rash under one eye, and later an from the hind end of the tube, and develops
excoriated area there which took 3 weeks to outside the uterus. Another cause is violence of
heal. some sort leading to rupture of the uterus.
Mummified fetuses have been found alongside
Cathartics the stomach, for example.
Another name for LAXATIVES.
Uterine inertia is rare. So is torsion of the
Catheters uterus. In a case of the former, veterinary advice
Long, slender, flexible tubes for insertion into was sought concerning a 9-month-old queen in
veins, the heart, the bladder and other body her 70th day of gestation. Following veterinary
cavities. They are used to remove fluids from, or intervention, a dead kitten was born. Ninety
introduce them into, those cavities. minutes later, 3 live ones followed.
The range of catheters includes cardiac, endo-
tracheal, eustachian, and urethral instruments. Pyometra In 183 queens the signs were dis-
tension of the abdomen, feverishness, and – in
Catheter embolus During the catheterisa- some cases – a vaginal discharge. A complete
tion of a dog’s vein, part of the 18-gauge recovery followed surgery in 168 cats. Any
catheter was accidentally severed. Radiographs post-operative complications in 20 per cent of
showed this unusual foreign body embolism the patients cleared up within a fortnight after
lodged in the right atrium and ventricle of the being returned home. Euthanasia or natural
heart. death accounted for 15.
The operating veterinary surgeons had ready
a cobra-shaped polyethylene end-hole catheter, Cats, Diseases of
which they turned into a loop snare by passing (see diseases beginning with the words CAT and FELINE.
through it wire folded in half – forming a loop For other diseases, see ALOPECIA; ASPERGILLOSIS;
extending from the hole at the end of the AUJESZKY’S DISEASE; BUBONIC PLAGUE;
catheter. With the guidance of a fluoroscope, CANCER; CHLAMYDIA infection; POX; CRYPTO-
they introduced the catheter with its loop snare COCCOSIS; DIABETES; DIARRHOEA; ECLAMPSIA;
into the right ventricle. EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA; GINGIVITIS;
‘The loop was enlarged by feeding one end of NOCARDIOSIS; PYOTHORAX; RABIES; SALMONEL-
the doubled guide wire through the catheter LOSIS; STEATITIS; toxocariasis under TEXOCARA;
loop, and the loop then passed over the foreign TUBERCULOSIS; TYZZER’S DISEASE; YERSINIOSIS;
body, and tightened. It was safely removed, and SPOROTRICHOSIS; POTOMAC HORSE FEVER;
the dog showed no ill-effects.’ THROMBOSIS of femoral arteries. See also FOREIGN
Of 42 human patients in whom catheter BODY in the trachea; NEOSPORA; PEMPHIGUS.)
emboli were not removed, 14 had potentially
life-threatening complications; 16 died. Cats, Worms in
In a survey of 110 cats autopsied in the
Cationic Proteins University of Sheffield, Toxocara cati were
(see ORIFICES, IMMUNITY AT) found in 35.4 per cent, the tapeworm
Dipylidium caninum in 44.5 per cent, Taenia
Cats, Breeding Difficulties of taeniaeformis in 4.5 per cent. In another survey
For the novice breeder and others, the following made in the London area, and based on the
facts and figures may be of interest. microscopic examination of faecal samples
over an 18-month period, it was found that
Dystocia In a survey of 4007 cats, dystocia of the 947 cats, 11.5 per cent were infected
occurred in only 134, i.e. 3.3 per cent. An over- with Toxocara cati, 1.9 per cent with Isospora
size kitten is seldom a cause, unless the queen felis, 1.2 per cent with D. caninum, 1.2 per cent
has had a fracture of the pelvis. Occasionally a with Taenia taeniaeformis, 0.8 per cent with
126 Cattle, Breeds of
I. rivolta, and 0.2 per cent with Toxascaris PEST; SALMONELLOSIS; ‘SKIN TUBERCULOSIS’;
leonina. (See also ‘LIZARD POISONING’; WORMS.) TICK-BORNE FEVER; trichomoniasis under TRI-
CHOMONAS; TUBERCULOSIS; SOOG; VIRUS INFEC-
Cattle, Breeds of TIONS OF COW’S TEATS; VULVOVAGINITIS. (See also
There are now in the world nearly 1000 breeds of CALVES, DISEASES OF; BOVINE ENZOOTIC LEUKO-
C cattle, including 250 major breeds. In addition, SIS; ‘SLEEPER SYNDROME’; EYE, DISEASES OF.)
there are very many crossbreeds.
European breeds stem from Bos taurus, Cattle Handling
thought to have originated in temperate or (see COWS; CRUSH; VETERINARY FACILITIES ON
western Asia. B. indicus (literally, Indian cattle), THE FARM)
or zebus, have spread to SE Asia, China, Africa,
the USA, and Australia. In Africa there have Cattle Husbandry
been many crosses between B. indicus and B. The management of cattle. It has a fundamen-
taurus groups, e.g. Africander. tal impact on the profitability of a dairy or
(See also COWS; BULL MANAGEMENT; BEEF beef farm and on the welfare and health of the
BREEDS AND CROSSES; CALF-REARING; HOUSING animals.
OF ANIMALS; MILK YIELDS; CATTLE HUS- For information on this and related health
BANDRY.) and disease problems which can cause econom-
ic loss to farmers, and for preventive measures,
Cattle Crush see under the following headings: ABORTION; ARTIFI-
(see CRUSH) CIAL INSEMINATION; BARLEY POISONING; BED-
DING; BEEF CATTLE HUSBANDRY; BEEF BREEDS
Cattle, Dairy Herd AND CROSSES; BRACKEN POISONING; BULL BEEF;
Management BULL HOUSING; BULL MANAGEMENT; BUNT
(see under DAIRY HERD) ORDER; CALF HOUSING; CALF-REARING; CALV-
ING, DIFFICULT (DYSTOCIA); CASTRATION;
Cattle, Diseases of CLOTHING; COBALT; COLOSTRUM; COW KEN-
Many cattle diseases are multifactorial in origin. NELS; COWS – Gentle treatment of; ‘CON-
Although they may be triggered by infection TROLLED BREEDING’; CREEP FEEDING; DAIRY
with a particular bacterium or virus, an animal’s HERD MANAGEMENT; DIARRHOEA; DIET; DISIN-
susceptibility to disease is affected by its envi- FECTANTS; DRIED GRASS; ELECTRIC SHOCK;
ronment, management, feeding, immune status EXPOSURE; FLIES – Fly control; FOOT-BATHS;
or genetic predisposition. GENETICS; GRAZING BEHAVIOUR; HORMONES
Surgical conditions include left or right dis- IN MEAT PRODUCTION; HOUSING OF ANIMALS;
placement of the abomasum, abomasal torsion, INFECTION; INFERTILITY; INTENSIVE LIVESTOCK
abomasal ulceration, caecal dilatation and tor- PRODUCTION; ISOLATION; LAMENESS; ‘LICKING
sion, intussusception, mesenteric torsion, trau- SYNDROME’; LIGHTING; MILK YIELD; MILKING;
matic reticulitis, traumatic pericarditis, bloat, MILKING MACHINES; NOTIFIABLE DISEASES;
lameness, including sole ulceration, white line OESTRUS; OESTRUS DETECTION; PARASITES;
disease, foot abscesses and septic arthritis. PREGNANCY; PARTURITION; PARTURITION,
Other diseases include: ACTINOBACILLOSIS; DRUG-INDUCED; PASTURE, CONTAMINATION
ACTINOMYCOSIS; ANTHRAX; BLACK-QUARTER; OF; PASTURE MANAGEMENT; POISONING; PROG-
BLUETONGUE; BOVINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; ENY TESTING; RATIONS; SEAWEED; SILAGE; SLAT-
BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALITIS; BRUCEL- TED FLOORS; SLURRY; ‘STEAMING UP’; STOCK-
LOSIS; CAMPYLOBACTER (VIBRIO) INFECTIONS; ING RATES; STRAW; STRIP-GRAZING; TRACE ELE-
CATTLE PLAGUE; CEREBROCORTICAL NECROSIS; MENTS; TROPICS; UREA; VENTILATION; VETERI-
CLOSTRIDIAL ENTERITIS; COCCIDIOSIS; CONTA- NARY FACILITIES ON THE FARM; VITAMINS;
GIOUS BOVINE DIGITAL DERMATITIS; CONTA- WATER; WEANING; WORMS, FARM TREATMENT
GIOUS BOVINE PLEURO-PNEUMONIA; ENTEQUE AGAINST; YARDED CATTLE.
SECO; FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE; HUSK;
HYPOCUPRAEMIA; HYPOMAGNESAEMIA; JOHNE’S Cattle, Import Controls
DISEASE; LEPTOSPIROSIS; BOVINE MALIGNANT Cattle may be imported into the UK through
CATARRHAL FEVER; MASTITIS; MILK FEVER; one of the following Border Inspection Posts:
BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA; MUCORMY- Bristol Port, Luton Airport, Heathrow Airport
COSIS; PARASITIC GASTROENTERITIS; PASTEUREL- or Tilbury Docks. All animals must be accom-
LOSIS; POST-PARTURIENT HAEMOGLOBINURIA; panied by a health certificate which satisfies the
PYELONEPHRITIS; RABIES; RED-WATER FEVER; 16 points laid down by the EU. Once cattle
RHINOSPORIDIOSIS; RHINOTRACHEITIS; RINDER- are examined and found clinically free from
Cells 127
infectious or contagious disease at the port of 3 years), respiratory diseases (6.49 per cent;
entry, they may be moved around the 15 mem- 72 per cent were 2 months to 3 years old), joint
ber states of the EU. Special requirements apply disease (5.78 per cent), reticular foreign bodies
to cattle imported from British Columbia. (5.16 per cent), circulatory disease (5.14 per
cent), enteritis (4.65 per cent), fractures unre-
Cattle, Names Given According lated to parturition (4.43 per cent; 60 per cent C
to Age, Sex, Etc. were 2 months to 3 years old), recumbency
Different localities have their own names for (4.10 per cent), claw disease (3.46 per cent;
particular cattle at particular ages, periods of 35 per cent were aged 6 to 9 years, 27 per cent
life, etc., and these names vary somewhat. The 9 years old or more) and abortion (3.39 per
following is a list of the most usual names: cent); poisoning (1.07 per cent) and spastic
paresis (1.02 per cent).
Bobby or slink calves Immature or
unborn calves used for human food, and often Cattle Tracing Scheme
removed from the uteri of cows when the latter A scheme operated by the BRITISH CATTLE
are killed. The flesh of slink calves is often MOVEMENT SERVICE by which cattle are identi-
called slink veal. fied and all their movements recorded on a
‘passport’.
Freemartin (See this heading)
Cauda Equina
Calf A young ox from birth to 6 or 9 months Cauda equina, meaning ‘tail of a horse’, is the
old; if a male, a bull calf; if a female, a cow or termination of the spinal cord in the sacral and
heifer calf. coccygeal regions where it splits up into a large
number of nerve fibres giving the appearance of
Stag A male castrated late in life. a ‘horse’s tail’, whence the name.
Classical descriptions of the cell (before the Animals in the tropics For a form of
introduction of the electron microscope) cellulitis occurring in many species, see under
referred to organelles (presumed living) and HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA.
non-living inclusions.
Organelles include the nucleus which con- CEM
C trols the activities of the cell and contains (see CONTAGIOUS EQUINE METRITIS)
its genetic material (chromatin in the non-
dividing cell; chromosomes in the dividing Central Nervous System (CNS)
cell), Golgi apparatus; mitochondria (contain- This comprises the brain and spinal cord, each
ing enzymes); ribosomes (granules containing with its grey and white matter. The 12 pairs of
RNA); and others. cranial nerves from the brain and the 42 pairs
The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear mem- of spinal nerves carry between them all the
brane and contains a nucleolus or 2 or more messages to and from the brain.
nucleoli. DNA and RNA are both present in For descriptive purposes the CNS is divided
the nucleus. into 2 further systems: (1) somatic, and (2)
Cells vary very much in size, the smallest autonomic.
being about 0.002 mm in diameter, and the
largest being the egg of a bird, which is still a Somatic This system is concerned with the
simple cell although much distended with food. control of voluntary muscles, and with nerve
It is estimated that mammalian cells contain impulses from the skin, eyes, ears, and other
about 10,000 genes, but only a small propor- sense organs. Accordingly, this system includes
tion of these will be active at any one time. both motor and sensory nerves.
Each cell of an animal contains a complete set
of its genes. The function of the individual cell Autonomic This system of the CNS main-
is determined by which genes are ‘expressed’ tains the correct internal environment of the
and which ‘repressed’. body (e.g. see HOMEOSTASIS), and its functions
(See also CANCER; TISSUES OF THE BODY; BLAS- lie outside voluntary control. This system regu-
TOCYST; GIANT CELLS; BLOOD; LYMPHOCYTE; lates breathing and heart rates, for example, and
GENETIC ENGINEERING; B CELLS; T CELLS.) likewise the activity of the liver, digestive tract,
kidneys, bladder, etc. This autonomic system
Cellulitis comprises sympathetic and parasympathetic
Usually refers to a diffuse swelling in the subcu- nerves. Most organs receive nerve impulses from
taneous tissues. Sometimes implies a diffuse both these, and they have opposite effects. For
area of inflammation and suppuration, as com- example, sympathetic nerves increase heart rate,
pared with an abscess which is localised. while parasympathetic nerves slow heart action.
Whereas an acute abscess tends to come to a The sympathetic nervous system prepares
head, or ‘point’, and then burst, this does not the body for ‘flight or fright’, i.e. for emergency
happen with cellulitis which, if untreated, is action. Accordingly, under its influence
liable to spread beneath the skin. breathing becomes more rapid, the heart’s
action faster, and blood is diverted from the
Cause Bacterial infection of the tisue, usually digestive organs to heart, CNS and voluntary
by streptococcus or pasteurella. muscles; while the liver releases glucose for
extra muscular activity.
The parasympathetic system restores the sit-
Treatment Antibiotics are used. If, however, uation after the emergency, slows the heart, and
treatment has been delayed, it may be necessary relaxes the body generally, as it also does during
to lance the lowest part of the area. sleep. (See also BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; NERVES.)
Cattle The term ‘necrotic cellulitis’ has been Central Veterinary Laboratory
applied to cases of diffuse swelling beginning The headquarters of the Veterinary Investigation
under the jaw and then, if untreated, extending Service, now the Veterinary Laboratories Agency,
down the neck to the brisket. New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB.
protected under the Animals (Scientific cause is a thiamin deficiency due to endogenous
Procedures) Act 1976. It is quite likely that thiaminase production in the rumen by, for
squid, nautilus, cuttlefish and other species of example, Clostridium sporogenes and Bacillus
octopus can also feel pain but it has not been thiaminolyticus. Symptoms include: circling
shown that they can remember the experience. movements, a staggering gait, excitement,
opisthotonos and convulsions. Only a few ani- C
Cephalosporin Antibiotics mals in a flock or group become affected, but
A range of bactericidal antibiotics related to nearly all of those die.
penicillin. Earlier cephalosporins are active A differential diagnosis has to be made
against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative between CCN and bacterial meningitis, GID,
organisms. Later ones are active against some BSE, listeriosis, and lead poisoning – each can
Gram-negative organisms resistant to the earlier give rise to similar symptoms.
‘first generation’ products. At post-mortem examination, autofluores-
cence is seen when the CCN-affected brain is
Cercaria examined under ultra-violet light.
Cercaria is an intermediate stage in the life- The lesions consist of multiple foci of necro-
history of the liver-fluke, viz. the tadpole-like sis of the cerebral neurones.
form, which is produced in the body of the
freshwater snail Limnoea truncatula, bores its Cerebrospinal Fluid Sampling
way out of the snail, and attaches itself to a suit- A diagnostic technique.
able blade of grass to wait for the arrival of a Indications for cerebrospinal fluid sampling
sheep which will eat it. In the sheep’s stomach in the dog include the following:
and intestines further development takes place.
(See LIVER-FLUKES.) Encephalitis Intracerebral
Meningitis haemorrhage
Myelitis Subarachnoid
Cereals Toxoplasmosis haemorrhage
Cereals, such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize,
Brain neoplasia Spinal cord
millets, and rice, are all rich in starch and com-
Spinal cord neoplasia compression caused
paratively poor in proteins and minerals, and
by epidural abscess
mostly poor in calcium but richer in phospho-
rus. Some dangers of cereal feeding for cattle are
referred to under BARLEY POISONING. (See also
Ceroidosis
A form of liver degeneration characterised by
MOIST GRAIN STORAGE; DIET; HORSES, FEEDING
deposition of a pink/golden, fat-insoluble
OF.)
material within cells. It is associated with the
use of rancid or vitamin-E deficient feeds. (See
Cerebellar Hypoplasia FISH, DISEASES OF; also LYOSOMES.)
A form of degeneration of the cerebellum char-
acterised by ataxia, head tilting and nystagmus.
In cats, it may be due to feline panleucopenia
Cervical
Cervical means anything pertaining to the neck
infection or (rarely) as a result of live vaccine. Use
or to the cervix (the neck of the uterus).
of such vaccines during feline pregnancy or in
kittens less than 3 weeks old should be avoided. Cervical Spondylopathy
It is an inherited defect in some Airedale terriers. (see under SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND
INJURIES OF)
Cerebellum and Cerebrum
(see BRAIN) Cervicitis
Cervicitis is inflammation of the cervix uteri.
Cerebral Haemorrhage (See UTERUS.)
Cerebral haemorrhage is, in human medicine,
referred to as a stroke. An older name was Cervid
apoplexy. It is characterised by loss of con- A member of the Cervidae, the deer family. The
sciousness, and may arise from bleeding from red deer is Cervus elaphus.
an artery in the brain or following embolism or
thrombosis. Cestode
A tapeworm.
Cerebrocortical Necrosis (CCN)
A condition found mainly in ewes and calves. It Cetavlon
is also called POLIOENCEPHALOMALACIA. The Another name for CETRIMIDE.
130 Cetrimide
been recommended in the treatment of acute and enters the abdomen through an opening in
lead poisoning, being given repeatedly for the diaphragm. The thoracic duct, which carries
several days. It would possibly be of service in lymph from the abdomen, runs forwards imme-
mercury, copper, and iron poisoning. diately below the bodies of the vertebrae and
ends by opening into one of the large veins in
Chemosis the apex of the cavity. Various important nerves, C
Chemosis means swelling of the conjunctival such as the two vagi which control the abdomi-
membrane that covers the white of the eye, nal organs, the phrenics, which supply the mus-
leaving the cornea depressed. cles of the diaphragm, and sympathetics, pass
through the chest in particular situations. The
Chemotherapy thymus gland lies in the anterior portion of the
Chemotherapy means the treatment of disease chest. Lining each of the 2 divisions of the chest
by chemical substances. The use of antibiotics, cavity is the pleura, a fold of which also covers
sulfonamides, and the diamidines, useful in the the surface of the lung, and the heart is enclosed
trypanosome diseases, are examples. In the in a special sac or pericardium. (See HEART;
treatment of cancers, chemotherapy has come LUNGS; PLEURA; PERICARDIUM.)
to mean the use of cytotoxic drugs, which are
usually associated with severe side-effects. Chest Injuries/Diseases
Injuries to the chest wall are often the result of
Chelonians dogs or cats being struck by a car; or of falls
Reptiles which have a CARAPACE, or shell; they leading to fractured ribs and closed PNEU-
include tortoises, turtles and terrapins. They MOTHORAX. Puncture-type wounds from ani-
may be subject to a variety of dietetic and para- mal bites are less common and seldom lead to
sitic problems. Clinical examination is restricted pneumothorax as they are self-sealing; but some
to those parts protruding from the shell, while subcutaneous emphysema may occur. Infection
laboratory examination of blood samples and may lead to PLEURISY.
faeces is necessary to confirm parastic infection. (See THORACOTOMY; DIAPHRAGMATOCELE;
Infestation by nematode worms can cause fail- HYDROTHORAX; ‘FLAIL CHEST’; PYOTHORAX;
ure to survive hibernation and worming before- also BRONCHITIS; PNEUMONIA; HEART
hand is advisable. Note. Ivermectin must not DISEASES; PARASITIC BRONCHITIS; ‘BROKEN
be used in chelonians. Respiratory disease is WIND’; LUNGS, DISEASES OF.)
not uncommon and animals suffering in this
way must be prevented from hibernating. Chestnuts
Flat oval areas of the horn on the inside of the
Chest, or Thorax fore- and hind-limb of the horse.
Chest, or thorax, is the part of the body lying
between the neck and the abdomen. It is a con- ‘Chewing Disease’
ical cavity, with the apex directed forwards. The The colloquial name in the USA for a type of
base is formed by the diaphragm, while the sides encephalomalacia in the horse caused by yellow
are formed by the ribs, sternum, and vertebrae. star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis).
Lying between adjacent ribs on the same side
there are 2 layers of intercostal muscles, those on Cheyletlella Parasitovorax
the outside running almost at right angles to A mite which infests dogs, cats, birds, rabbits,
those on the inside. The intercostal muscles fill squirrels, etc. It gives rise to itching and scurfi-
up the spaces between the ribs and their carti- ness of the skin. In man Cheyletiella species
lages, and are active agents in moving the ribs (including C. yusguri) may cause urticarial weals
during respiration. The outsides of the chest of trunk and arms, together with intense
walls are covered with the masses of the shoulder itching.
muscles, and the shoulder-blades or scapula lie C. blakei infests cats; C. parasitovorax, rabbits;
one on either side, anteriorly over the rib-cage, C. yasguri, dogs.
but not attached to it by bony connections.
Within the thorax are the termination of the Cheyne-Stokes’ Respiration
trachea, the bronchial tubes, and the lungs. Cheyne-Stokes’ respiration is an abnormal form
Between the lungs, but projecting towards the of breathing in which the respirations become
left more than to the right, lie the heart and its gradually less and less until they almost die
associated vessels. The oesophagus, or gullet, away; after remaining almost imperceptible for
runs through the chest, passing for the greater a short time they gradually increase in depth
distance between the upper parts of the lungs, and volume until they are exaggerated; after
132 Chianina
attaining a maximum they again decrease until itchy. Ulceration, infection, and necrosis of the
nearly imperceptible. This alternation proceeds tail tip occurred in a few cases, necessitating
with considerable regularity. amputation of the tip. It is not unknown for
Cheyne-Stokes’ breathing is always a very a dog to eat the affected part of its tail.
serious condition, which is generally associated Elizabethan collars, protective tail covering,
C with severe nervous disturbance, shock, and and anti-inflammatory drugs were used in
collapse, or with heart or kidney disease. It is treatment.
most obvious in the dog and horse after they
have sustained very severe injury but without Chilling
internal haemorrhage (which induces what is (see under CHICKS and HYPOTHERMIA)
generally known as ‘sobbing respiration’).
Chimera
Chianina An animal having in its body, cell populations
These Italian cattle are named after their place arising from different species; that is, cells with
of origin, the Chiana valley. Probably the largest different KARYOTYPES which have originated
cattle in the world, a mature bull can weigh from 2 or more zygotes with different kary-
over 1.75 tonnes and be 1.8 m tall at the with- otypes. A freemartin is, technically, an example of
ers. Formerly used as draught animals, they are XX:XY chimerism. This is secondary chimerism.
an excellent beef breed, now present in the UK. Primary chimerism occurs if 2 sperms fertilise the
same ovum. (See CYTOGENETICS.)
Chick Oedema Other examples which have been reported
(see ‘TOXIC FAT SYNDROME’) include a fertile female mule that had apparent-
ly inherited a mixture of both horse and donkey
Chihuahua chromosomes, and was phenotypically a
One of the smallest breeds of toy dog, originat- chimera rather than a hybrid. And a sheep-goat
ing from Mexico. Frontal foramina are present, chimera found at the School of Veterinary
i.e., the frontal bones of the domed skull Medicine, University of California, USA, was
remain ununited. The breed is liable to suffer capable of oestrus cycles, producing fertile ova,
problems in parturition. Possible inherited con- and carrying pregnancy to full term.
ditions include pulmonary stenosis, dislocation Chimera is also a term used to describe an
of the patella, and hydrocephalus. Mange in organism that has had foreign DNA inserted
this breed must never be treated with amitraz. into its genome.
Prevention Quarantine of imported birds; Chlamydia spp. were detected in smears of liver,
disinfection of infected premises. lung and placenta from the human fetus.
fly strike, keds, lice and ticks. Less toxic centres of respiration and heart action, in
compounds are now preferred. common with all the other nervous centres,
become paralysed. The heart stops beating
Chlorhexidene about 2 minutes after respiration ceases, and
Chlorhexidene gluconate is widely used as an any attempts at ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION must
antiseptic and surgical scrub; and in teat dips, be prompt. C
sprays and udder washes.
Chocolate Poisoning
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons The feeding of waste chocolate bars to cattle has
These insecticides include: chlordane, DDT, led to fatal poisoning in calves in the UK. The
DDD, methoxychlor, benzene hexachloride, animals showed excitement, stared about in all
toxaphene, aldrin, dieldrin, isodrin, and endrin directions, walked with exaggerated strides, and
plus a range of others less well known. Ingested had convulsions.
at toxic levels, or absorbed through the skin, they It was suggested that the caffeine content
act primarily on the central nervous system caus- would account for the excitement; the theo-
ing excitement/frenzy at the outset followed by bromine content may have caused heart failure.
muscular tremors leading to convulsions in acute In dogs, the signs include panting, vomiting,
cases. Species capable of vomiting do so. Loss of thirst, diarrhoea, excitement, fits, coma.
appetite with marked loss of body weight is usual
in subacute poisoning. Cats are especially sus- Treatment Use of an emetic or gastric lavage.
ceptible. Wash off any residues from the skin and (Activated charcoal is used in human medi-
keep the animal warm, comfortable and sedated. cine.) For control of the convulsions, diazepam
Most compounds – methoxychlor is an is among the suitable drugs.
exception – can be stored in the body fat and
excreted in the milk and so may constitute a Autopsy findings include cyanotic mucous
public health problem. Their use in animals is membranes, swollen and reddened gastric
now minimal because of the residue levels mucosa.
caused by this persistence. (See also COCOA POISONING.)
‘Choking’ (Obstruction of
Chloroform Pharynx or Oesophagus)
Chloroform is a colourless, mobile, non- ’Choking’ is, by dictionary definition, an
inflammable liquid, half as heavy again as obstruction to respiration, but in a farming
water. It is much less used now than formerly as context the word has been misused to denote an
a general anaesthetic. (See ANAESTHETICS; obstruction to the passage of food through
EUTHANASIA.) the pharynx and oesophagus, either partial or
Four stages of chloroform anaesthesia are complete.
recognised: The domesticated animals, especially cattle
(1) The stage of excitement begins immedi- and dogs, are very prone to attempt to swallow
ately the drug is administered. Vigorous animals either foreign bodies or masses of food material
struggle violently, and when in the standing too large to pass down the oesophagus (gullet),
position may rear or strike out with their with the result that they often become jammed.
forefeet and shake their heads in an endeavour Such substances hinder the free passage of solid
to dislodge the mask. Deep breaths are taken or fluid food, give rise to pain and discomfort,
often in a gasping manner, and in from 3 to 6 and are very often attended by serious and even
or 7 minutes the second stage follows. fatal consequences. Choking in cattle, dogs,
(2) The stage of depression follows the stim- and cats is usually due to a hard, large, sharp-
ulation stage, and is marked by a quieting of the pointed, or irregularly shaped object; while in
movements of the voluntary muscles, by a less- the horse it is most often due to a mass of dry
ening of the force and volume of the pulse, and impacted food material, or to a portion of a
by slower and deeper breathing. Pain is still felt, mangold or turnip.
and if inflicted induces reflex movement.
(3) The stage of anaesthesia produces com- Cattle Choking is of comparatively common
plete muscular relaxation and unconsciousness. occurrence, particularly in districts where roots
This is the safe or operating stage; all the cen- are fed whole to the animals, and where there is a
tres of the brain are subdued except those that quantity of rubbish scattered about the pastures.
govern respiration and heart action.
(4) The stage of paralysis occurs when the Signs The animal immediately stops feeding,
anaesthetic is pushed beyond the safe stage. The and becomes uneasy. A feature of nearly all
136 Cholagogues
cases of choking in cattle is the rapidity with body to be grasped with forceps and drawn out
which gas formation occurs in the rumen. (See or, alternatively, pushed down into the stomach,
BLOAT.) whence it can, if necessary, be removed.
In a number of cases of choking, relief occurs In a series of 90 cases treated by J. E. F.
quite spontaneously after the lapse of from Houlton and others at the University of
C 30 minutes to 2 or 3 hours from the origin of Cambridge, 85 of the foreign bodies were pieces
the symptoms. This is because the muscles of of bone, and two were composed mainly of gris-
the gullet, which have been tightly gripping the tle. A potato, a fish-hook, and a ball were also
obstruction, gradually become fatigued and found. The success rate of treatment by surgical
relax, thereby allowing the object to pass down and conservative means was 82 per cent.
into the stomach. Naturally, such a satisfactory A young African elephant died from obstruc-
termination cannot occur wherever there is a tion of its oesosphagus by an apple.
sharp projecting point on the object causing
the obstruction, but it frequently happens Cholagogues
with eggs, apples, potatoes, and other smooth Cholagogues are substances reputed to act on
bodies. the liver, increasing the secretion of the bile.
liver and adrenal glands; it decreases in cows this period to continue to treat the animal as
with fatty liver. though it were still sick, so far as exercise is
A high cholesterol level can be a precursor to concerned.
high blood pressure, ATHEROMA, and THROM-
BOSIS. Signs Twitchings usually begin about the lips
and face, or in the extremities of one or more C
Cholesthiasis limbs. Later, perhaps the whole head is seen
(see GALLSTONES) continually nodding or jerking backwards and
forwards, quite irrespective of the pose or posi-
Choline tion of the animal. As the condition progresses,
Choline is an amine compound with important there comes a time when it is unable to rest, loss
functions in the metabolic process. It is found of condition and weakness result, and the
in egg-yolk, liver, and muscle, and is associated dog becomes exhausted. Ulceration of the
with the vitamin B complex. Acetyl choline is affected limb, as the result of continual friction
essential for the transmission of an impulse with surrounding objects, the ground, etc., is
from nerve to muscle. not uncommon. Chorea is always a serious
condition.
Cholinesterase
Cholinesterase is an enzyme which inactivates Treatment is with ANTISPASMODICS.
acetylcholine. Some poisons, such as carbamates
and organophosphates, cause cholinesterase Chorion
inhibition, and it is inactivated by a substance Chorion is the outermost of the three fetal
isolated from occuring in white clover S.100. membranes, the others being the amnion and
the allantois. The chorion is a strong fibrous
Chondritis membrane, whose outer surface is closely
Inflammation of cartilage. moulded to the inner surface of the uterus.
Chorionic villi are the vascular projections from
Chondrocytes the chorion which are inserted into the crypts
Cartilage-forming cells. of the uterine mucous membrane. (See also
PARTURITION.)
Chondrogenesis
(see Growth-plate disorders under BONE, DISEASES OF) Chorionic Gonadotrophin
(see HORMONE THERAPY)
Chondroma
A rare tumour, composed of cartilage-like cells, Choroid, or Chorioid
which has been seen in dogs, rats, and mink. Choroid, or chorioid, is the middle of the 3
coats of the EYE, and consists chiefly of the
Chorea blood vessels which effect nourishment of the
Twitching or trembling caused by a succession organ.
of involuntary spasmodic contractions (clonic
spasms) affecting one or more of the voluntary Choroiditis
muscles. The spasm is of a rhythmic nature, Inflammation of the choroid.
occurring at fairly regular intervals, and
between the individual contractions relaxation Chow Chow
of the affected muscle takes place. A stocky, medium-sized dog with a thick coat;
The condition affects dogs almost exclusive- the tongue is blue-black in colour. Originally
ly, although muscular spasms of a similar nature bred in China for meat, the breed specification
have been seen in horses, cattle, and pigs. In still reads as if that were its main purpose. They
lambs, congenital chorea is described under tend to be a ‘one person’ dog. Entropion and
‘BORDER DISEASE’. (See also SHIVERING.) muscle spasm (myotonia) may be inherited.
Chyle
The milky fluid which is absorbed by the lym-
phatic vessels of the intestine. The fluid mixes
with the lymph and is discharged into the
thoracic duct. (See LYMPH; DIGESTION.)
Analysis of chyle can be helpful in the
diagnosis of several diseases of the abdomen.
Chyloperitoneum
The presence of chyle in the peritoneal cavity.
Chylothorax
The presence of pleural fluid identifiable as
chyle, following injury to, or a tumour of, the Diagram of fetal circulation. a, Origin of aorta; a’,
thoracic duct. Treatment consists of repeated arch of aorta; a”, posterior aorta; b, origin of pul-
monary artery; c, the ductus arteriosus (shaded); d,
drainage. The condition has been recorded in left ventricle; e, caudal vena cava; f, liver; g, umbili-
cats and dogs. cal vein; h, the umbilicus; j, umbilical arteries; k,
bifurcation of aorta; l, origin of caudal vena cava;
Chyme m, portal vein; n, ductus venosus, which short-
circuits blood from umbilical vein to vena cava with-
Chyme is the partly digested food passed from out passing through liver; o, right atrium; p, fora-
the stomach into the first part of the small intes- men ovale (shaded); q, crania vena cava. (After
tine. It is very acid in nature, contains salts and Bradley, Thorax and Abdomen of the Horse.)
Clay Pigeons 139
blood into one of the three great terminal radi- the fetal body through the umbilicus again.
cles which open into the right atrium of the There are also communications between the
heart. This contracts and drives the blood into right and the left atria (the foramen ovale) and
the right ventricle, which then forces the blood between the aorta and the pulmonary artery
into the lungs by way of the pulmonary artery. (the ductus arteriosus), which serve to ‘short-
In the lungs it is contained in very thin-walled circuit’ the blood from passing through the C
capillaries, over which the inspired air plays lungs in any quantity. At birth these extra
freely, and through which the exchange of gases communications rapidly close and shrivel up,
can easily take place. The blood is consequently leaving mere vestiges of their presence in
oxygenated (see RESPIRATION), and passes on by adult life. There are rare instances, however, in
the pulmonary veins to the left atrium of the which one or more of the passages may persist
heart. This left atrium expels it into the left ven- throughout life.
tricle, which forces it on into the aorta, by
which it is distributed all over the body. Passing Circulation of Lymph
through the capillaries in the various organs and (see LYMPH)
tissues it eventually again enters the lesser veins,
and is collected into the cranial and caudal vena Cirrhosis, or Fibrosis
cava and the azygos vein (see VEINS), from where Cirrhosis, or fibrosis, is a condition of various
it passes to the right atrium once more. internal organs, in which some of the non-
In one part of the body there is, however, a parenchymatous cells of the organ are replaced
further complication. The veins coming from by fibrous tissue. The name ‘cirrhosis’ was first
the stomach, intestines, spleen, and pancreas, used for the disease as it occurs in the liver,
charged with food materials and other prod- because of the yellow colour, but it has been
ucts, unite into the large ‘portal vein’ which applied to fibrosis in the lung, kidney, etc.
enters the porta of the liver and splits up into a Classic instances of cirrhosis are seen in the liver
second capillary system in the liver tissue. Here in chronic ragwort poisoning in cattle, in
it is relieved of some of its food content, and chronic alcoholism in man, and in old dogs.
passes to the caudal vena cava by a second series
of veins, joining with the rest of the blood com- Citrullinaemia
ing from the hind parts of the body, and so goes This disease occurs in some Australian Friesian
on to the right atrium. This is known as the cattle; also in dogs. It is hereditary in origin,
‘portal circulation’. and due to a deficiency of the amino acid
The circuit is maintained always in one Citrulline. In calves depression, recumbency,
direction by four valves, situated one at the out- and convulsions result.
let from each cavity of the HEART, and by the
presence of valves situated along the course of CJD
the larger veins. (see CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE)
The blood in the arteries going to the body
generally (i.e. to the systemic circulation) is Claviceps
a bright red in colour while that in the veins is A fungus (see ERGOT, FUNGAL).
a dull red; this is owing to the oxygen content
of arterial blood being much greater than that Clavicle
of venous blood, which latter is charged with Clavicle is another name for the ‘collar-bone’ in
carbon dioxide. For the same reason the blood man. This bone is not present in the domesti-
in the pulmonary artery going to the lungs is cated mammals (except sometimes in a very
dark, while in the pulmonary veins it is bright rudimentary form in the cat), but is present in
red. the fowl.
There is normally no connection between
the blood in the right side of the heart and that Claws
in the left; the blood from the right ventricle (see NAILS)
must pass through the lungs before it can reach
the left atrium. In the fetus, two large arteries Clay Pigeons
pass out from the umbilicus (navel), and convey Ruminants and outdoor pigs may eat these
blood which is to circulate in close proximity to if found lying on pasture. The outcome can
the maternal blood in the placenta, and to be fatal in pigs but in ruminants, chronic
receive from it both the oxygen and the nour- unthriftiness results as the material is digested
ishment necessary for the needs of the fetus, only slowly. (See PITCH POISONING; LEAD
while one large vein brings back this blood into POISONING.)
140 Clazuril
by the organism Clostridium welchii type A. Sheep Jute coats for ewes were designed and
The same condition may account for the sud- introduced by William Wilson, a Carlisle farmer,
den death of pigs. Cl. oedematiens may likewise who found them economic in his flock in severe
be a cause of sudden death in sheep, pigs, and weather on the Pennines. The idea is for the
cattle. coats to be worn from mating to lambing. Five
C stitches secure the coat. Rugs or coats of man-
Clostridial Myositis made fibre have been used in Australia to protect
(see BLACK-QUARTER; GAS GANGRENE) the fleeces of sheep, and have proved economic,
since buyers have paid more for the wool. Plastic
Clostridium coats have been used for lambs in the UK.
A genus of anaerobe spore-bearing bacteria of In Australia an estimated 800,000 sheep die
ovoid, spindle, or club shape. They include Cl. each year during the first fortnight after shear-
tetani, Cl. perfringens (welchii), Cl. oedematiens, ing. Many of the deaths are associated with
Cl. septicum, Cl. botulini and Cl. difficile (a pos- cold, wet, windy weather. The use of plastic
sible pathogen of piglets, especially if receiving coats during this period has saved many lives.
antibiotics, and associated with enteritis). Cl. Head caps have been found to give good and
chauvoei may cause pericarditis and meningitis, sometimes complete protection against the
as well as BLACK-QUARTER in cattle (and sheep). headfly in the UK.
(See CLOSTRIDIAL ENTERITIS; TETANUS; LAMB
DYSENTERY; BRAXY; BOTULISM.) Dogs For the dog a coat made of woollen fab-
Cl. perfringens caused the sudden death from rics which wraps round the body and buttons
enterotoxaemia of 18 cats, aged 2 months to 3 or straps together is often used. Dog-coats or
years, in Saudi Arabia. They died within a few rugs are made according to various patterns,
hours of scavenging on chicken remains, which but whatever variety is selected should provide
caused vomiting and diarrhoea. protection for the front and under part of the
chest, as well as for the sides of the body. The
Clothing of Animals elaborate garments which are used for coursing
As a general rule, only cow, horse, and dog, of greyhounds and whippets are excellent articles
the domesticated animals, are supplied with of clothing, and may be copied with advantage
clothing. Sheep already possess protection in for other breeds of dog.
the form of wool sufficient except in severe
weather on the uplands, although plastic and Clotting of Blood
fabric coats may be used to prevent hypother- This is a very complex process, and an obviously
mia in lambs; while pigs carry a deep layer of important one since on it depends the natural
subcutaneous fat. arrest of haemorrhage.
The jelly-like clot consists of minute threads
Horses Horses require clothing for the follow- or filaments or fibrin, in which are enmeshed
ing reasons: (1) to provide protection against red blood corpuscles, white blood cells, and
cold, chills, draughts, and sudden lowering of platelets.
the temperature; (2) to protect parts of the When the injury giving rise to the bleeding
body from bruises and abrasions, such as might occurs, thromboplastin is released from the
occur while travelling by road, rail or on board damaged tissue and from the platelets, and
ship; (3) to afford protection from sudden reacts with circulating prothrombin and calci-
showers of rain or snow when at work in the um to form thrombin. This reacts in turn with
open. For the latter purposes, waterproof sheets circulating fibrinogen to produce the fibrin.
lined with woollen fabric on the inside are The above, however, is only a part of the
usually used. story, for several other factors are now known to
be involved. For clotting to take place, adequate
Cattle Formerly, it was only for sick cattle, vitamin K is necessary; prothrombin supply
and for use at agricultural shows and upon sim- being, it seems, dependent on this vitamin.
ilar occasions, that clothing was provided for Clotting time varies in different species and
cattle, but of recent years Jersey, etc., cows may under different degrees of health, but normally
wear coats. A large quarter-sheet, kept in posi- it takes between 2.5 and 11 minutes after the
tion by a surcingle, and sometimes provided blood is shed. After some hours the fibrin con-
with fillet-strings, is most commonly employed. tracts and blood serum is squeezed out from the
An ordinary horse-rug serves the purpose, but clot.
the buckle at the neck should never be fastened Clotting may be inhibited by anticoagulants,
for cattle. such as heparin, dicoumarol, warfarin. In cases
Coccidian Parasites/Diseases 143
of haemophilia, a disease from which some However, symptoms are seldom as definite and
dogs suffer, clotting is also inhibited. (See clear-cut as the above description might suggest,
CANINE HAEMOPHILIA.) and in many flocks a ‘failure to thrive’ is all that is
observed or suspected. Sometimes poor perfor-
‘Cloudburst’ mance comes to be accepted as normal, and yet
‘Cloudburst’ is a colloquial name for false preg- could be remedied by preventive measures after C
nancy in the goat which, after an apparently soil analyses had indicated a cobalt deficiency.
normal gestation, suddenly voids from the Nowadays, 0.25 part per million of cobalt in
vulva a large quantity of cloudy fluid – after the soil is regarded as an acceptable level; and
which the size of the abdomen returns to nor- 0.17 ppm as constituting a deficiency.
mal. ‘Cloudburst’ is a fairly common condition. In a comparison of 2 methods of treatment –
the administration of a single cobalt ‘bullet’,
Clover and 2 doses of cobalt chloride – both appeared
A protein-rich pasture herb. (See INFERTILITY; to have been equally effective in alleviating the
BLOAT; LEYS; SILAGE; PASTURE MANAGEMENT.) deficiency as judged from the liveweight
response of the lambs. Treatment by cobalt bul-
Cloxacillin let was, however, more effective in increasing
A semi-synthetic penicillin resistant to penicil- and, more importantly, in maintaining serum
linase (beta-lactamase). It is mainly used in the vitamin Bl2 (closely related to cobalt) than was
treatment and prevention of mastitis. the cobalt-dosing regime.
penetrates an epithelial cell. Here each parasite Cause Eimeria, a group of protozoan parasites.
increases in size and finally becomes a large For the life-history of the parasites causing
rounded schizont. This divides into a number of this disease, see under COCCIDIAN PARASITES/DIS-
small elongated merozoites which, escaping EASES.
from the epithelial cell into the gut, attack new
C cells, and the process is repeated. The massive Cattle (in which coccidiosis is called red
feeding stage in the cell before it starts dividing dysentery).
is called a trophozoite, and is usually a young
schizont. Under certain conditions, however, Causal agent Eimeria zürnii. This is believed
some trophozoites develop into large female to be the most important species affecting cat-
forms or macrogametocytes which, when tle. Developmental forms occur wholly in the
mature, become macrogametes. Meanwhile cer- large intestine and caecum where considerable
tain other trophozoites develop into male cells or denudation of epithelium occurs, resulting in
microgametocytes, which divide into a number extensive haemorrhage. The oocysts are nearly
of small microgametes. One of these unites with spherical, and sporulation, under favourable
each macrogamete, and the resulting cell is conditions, takes place in from 48 to 72 hours.
called the zygote. The fertilised macrogamete, or It is found in Europe, Africa, and N. America.
zygote, then secretes a thick capsule around It is prevalent during the warm season, and
itself, forming an oocyst which is discharged into attacks especially animals of 2 months to
the lumen of the organ intestine or bile-duct and 2 years.
thus escapes from the host in the faeces.
(a) Levincia (formerly Isospora) – the mature Signs are first seen 1 to 8 weeks after infection.
oocyst contains 2 sporocysts, each with 4 There is a persistent diarrhoea which becomes
sporozoites. haemorrhagic. After about a week, emaciation
(b) Eimeria – the mature oocyst contains is evident; the temperature rises, and there are
4 sporocysts, each with 2 sporozoites. digestive disturbances. Milk is diminished or
stopped. Passage of faeces is attended by strain-
Coccidiomycosis ing or even eversion of the rectum.
Coccidiomycosis is a fungal disease, involving Convalescence is slow. The lesions are mainly in
chiefly the lymph nodes, and giving rise to the large intestine. Mortality varies between
tumour-like (granulomatous) lesions. It occurs 2 and 10 per cent of affected animals, and,
in cattle, sheep, dogs, cats, and certain wild generally speaking, the younger the animal, the
rodents, caused by infection with a fungus, more likely it is to succumb.
called Coccidioides immitis. It has been recog-
nised in many parts of the USA and Canada. It Treatment consists of isolation of all sick
is seen in animals with immuno-suppression; animals and careful nursing, with the use of
especially young dogs. sulfadimidine or decoquinate.
it in the USA led to a re-appraisal. Occasional Ducks Coccidiosis occurs, but is of little
outbreaks have been treated with amprolium, economic importance.
monensin or toltazuril.
Geese Three species of Eimeria occur in the
Horses Diarrhoea, emaciation and death intestine. Rather severe outbreaks have been
have occurred following infection. (See also ascribed to E. anseris. A 4th, important species C
GLOBIDIOSIS.) is E. truncata, which causes a severe form of
renal coccidiosis. The disease affects goslings
Rabbits There are 2 forms of the disease: 1 from 3 weeks to 3 months of age, and in heavy
attacking the intestines, and the other the liver. infections goslings may die within 2 or 3 days
Young rabbits may have acute enteritis, leading after symptoms are first seen. The mortality is
to death. The hepatic form often takes a chron- often very high.
ic course, with diarrhoea developing later.
Affected livers show whitish spots at autopsy. Coccygeal
Robenidine or clopidol may be used for Coccygeal vertebrae are the tail bones. One or
treatment. more may fracture if a dog, cat, etc., becomes
caught by a closing door or gate. The coccygeal
Dogs and cats The following species have vein is often used to obtain venous blood in
been found in cases of coccidial infection: cattle.
Isospora felis; I. rivolta; I. bigemina; E. canis; and
E. felina. Cockroaches
Most of these parasites have been isolated These insects may be responsible for the spread
from healthy animals. The majority of coccidi- of salmonella, which they carry in their gut. A
al infections of dogs and cats are light, and there protein found in the faeces of European and
is little evidence of serious damage to the hosts. North American cockroaches could induce an
In a few cases, however, there is diarrhoea and attack of ASTHMA.
occasionally fatal dysentery.
Coccidiosis in carnivores is commoner than Cocker Spaniel
was once believed, especially in young cats, The commonest and most popular of the
where the parasite is I. felis. The disease causes spaniels. Originally used to retrieve game, the
no symptoms except diarrhoea when a heavy breed has blunt teeth which avoid damage
infestation has occurred. Death is rare. The when carrying birds, etc. They are liable to
rabbit parasite may be found in faeces when inherit distichiasis, entropion, glaucoma and
diseased rabbits have been eaten. I. canis was retinal atrophy, among other conditions. A
isolated from 4 per cent of 481 faecal samples ‘rage syndrome’ is also associated with the breed
from dogs in North Island, New Zealand; (see ‘JECKYLL AND HYDE’ SYNDROME).
I. ohioensis from 9 per cent.
Cocoa Poisoning
Fowls At least seven species of Eimeria have Poisoning of pigs and poultry, as a result of
been implicated. The disease commonly affects feeding cocoa residues or waste, was recorded in
chicks 5 to 7 weeks old, as well as older grow- the UK during the 1939–45 war. (See also
ing birds. In the former the mortality may be CHOCOLATE POISONING.)
high. Diarrhoea, often with blood in the faeces,
is seen. Cocoa Shells
Ground cocoa shells are sometimes used in
Control A vaccine derived from the species of animal feeds. The material contains traces of
Eimeria that affect chickens (Paracox; Schering- caffeine and theobromine and was blamed as
Plough) is administered in the drinking water. the source of those drugs found in the blood of
A single dose gives effective control of coccidio- a winning racehorse, which was subsequently
sis and, unlike earlier live vaccines, does not disqualified.
carry the risk of causing the disease in non-vac-
cinated birds. Cod-Liver Oil
Before the introduction of this vaccine, A valuable source of vitamin A and D supple-
control was dependent upon antibiotics such ments for animal feeding. The best varieties
as monensin and SALINOMYCIN, or upon contain about 1000 to 1200 International
amprolium. Units of vitamin A, and 80 to 100 Units of D,
per gram. It should be stored in a dark-coloured
Turkeys Six species of Eimeria cause disease. container, preferably in a cool place, and if air
146 Cod-Liver Oil Poisoning
bend of the pylorus and first part of the small slowly, commencing with dullness and depres-
intestine, is very liable to become occluded sion, irregularity in feeding, and abdominal dis-
when there is any considerable pressure of gas comfort. In 12 hours or so signs of abdominal
within the stomach. These facts combine to pain appear. In some cases acute pain is shown,
make it difficult or impossible for gas collected the horse rolling on the ground in agony. Small
in the stomach, as the result of fermentation, amounts of faeces are passed with considerable C
either to escape by the mouth or to pass on into frequency at first, but when an attack is well
the intestines. Fermenting or otherwise?unsuit- established the passage of both urine and dung
able food may cause tympany of the stomach; ceases. An attitude to which some importance
while an excess of any food may lead to may be attached, since it is very strongly sug-
impaction of the stomach; and occasionally to gestive of impaction of the colon, is one in
its rupture. which the horse backs against the manger or
Inflammation or volvulus may affect the other projection, and appears to sit upon it,
small intestine, but most cases of colic involve sometimes with the hind-feet off the ground. In
the large intestine. Impaction of the caecum or other cases a horse with obstruction in the
colon may occur; likewise tympany. colon or caecum may sit with the hindquarters
The ileum, supplied only by a single artery, on the ground, but retains an upright position
appears to be particularly vulnerable to with the forelegs – somewhat similar to the
ischaemia, following thrombosis often caused position assumed by a dog. (See CALCULI for
by Strongylus vulgaris worms. another cause of obstruction.)
Anaerobic bacteria and their toxins may 3. Colic due to a twist (volvulus). There is
exacerbate the situation after circulation defects great pain, during which the horse may become
have occurred. restless and violent. Sometimes the pain passes
(See also INTUSSUSCEPTION, another cause of off, and sweating occurs, before a further peri-
colic.) od of pain. The temperature may be 41°C
(105 or 106°F), becoming subnormal in the
Signs last stages. Pulse-rate may rise to 120. Death is
1. Spasmodic colic is typified by sudden and usually preceded by convulsions.
severe attacks of pain, usually of an intermittent Many colic cases end fatally, and it is certain
character. Breathing is blowing and faster than that many horses might have been saved if a
usual; there is an anxious expression about the veterinary surgeon had been summoned at the
face; and the pulse is accelerated and hard. In a outset.
few minutes the attack may pass off and the
horse becomes easier, or the pain may continue. A survey of 134 cases of colic, seen at the
In the latter case the horse lies down and rolls, veterinary clinic, University of Zurich, included
after having first walked round about the box. 34 which were symptomless on arrival, required
In some cases rolling appears to afford some no treatment, and were regarded as cases of spas-
measures of relief, but in others the horse rises modic colic. Thirty-three horses had impaction
again almost at once. During an attack the of the pelvic flexure of the colon and were treat-
horse may kick at its belly, or may turn and gaze ed conservatively; as were 14 with impaction of
at its flank. the ampulla, coli (4), and caecum (1). There
In another form, ileus – often called flatulent were 7 cases of tympany of the stomach and 2 of
colic – the pain begins suddenly, but there are impaction. Of 53 cases of ileus, the prognosis
not such distinct periods of ease. The horse was hopeless in 7 which were destroyed, and
walks round and round the box, kicks at the owners refused surgery in another 6 cases. Forty
abdomen, gazes at its sides, breaks out into underwent laparotomy, and 24 were discharged.
patchy sweating, and breathes heavily. The Surgical success rate was 60 per cent; overall suc-
horse frequently crouches as if to lie down, but cess of treatment was 68 per cent. Suggestions
only actually lies in the less severe cases, and sel- included maintenance of a nasal stomach tube
dom or never remains lying for any length of to eliminate possibly lethal consequences of sec-
time. Attempts at passing urine are noticed, ondary gastric distension by fluid and gas dur-
but, as in the truly spasmodic colic, they are ing the journey to the clinic; and 1 litre of 5 per
seldom successful. Faeces may be passed in cent sodium bicarbonate solution intravenously
small quantities, and are usually accompanied to help control the start of acidosis. (See also
by flatus. HORSES, COMMON CAUSES OF DEATH IN.)
2. Obstructive colic may arise through
impaction of the bowel with dry, fibrous, part- Cattle Bovine colic occurs relatively infre-
ly digested food material. Symptoms develop quently. It is mainly caused by torsion of the
148 Coliform
The importance of the calf receiving 5 days, and followed in some cases by paralysis
colostrum early has long been emphasised. This after a period of hind-limb incoordination and
is recognised in the Welfare of Livestock difficulty in turning.
Regulations 1994, which specify that colostrum
must be fed within 6 hours of the calf ’s birth. Commensalism
Research at Glasgow veterinary school found Commensalism is the association of 2 species in C
that beef suckler cows suckled their calf within which 1 alone benefits, but the other does not
1.5 hours of birth whereas, on average, dairy suffer. The term is used to refer to a benign par-
cows suckled their calves after 4 hours. asitism. Commensal micro-organsisms are
found on the skin surface, for example, and do
Colour-Marking Bulls not produce disease.
Colour-marking bulls, e.g. Hereford, Aberdeen
Angus, Charolais, and Galloway, for mating Commissure
with cows in dairy herds which are of dual-pur- Commissure means a joining, and is a term
pose type and moderate to poor milkers, in applied to strands of nerve fibres that join 1 side
order to increase the number of store cattle suit- of the brain to the other, to the band joining 1
able for fattening for beef production. (See also optic nerve to the other, to the junction of the
BEEF-BREEDS AND CROSSES.) lips at the corners of the mouth, etc.
Comb Complement
A projection of the skin, serrated at the top, A complex protein that is a constituent of
running from front to back of the skull. In serum and plays an essential part in the pro-
healthy poultry, it should be bright red and well duction of immunity. Bacteria are killed by the
developed. When birds go out of lay or are specific antibody developed in an animal’s
caponised, the comb becomes smaller and paler. serum only in the presence of complement.
Anaemia may also cause this. A pale comb of Complement is also necessary for haemolysis.
normal size suggests internal haemorrhage. An immune serum may contain antibodies
Scurfiness is suggestive of favus; yellow scabs of which, together with the antigen, absorb or fix
fowl-pox. complement and are hence called complement-
fixing antibodies. These form the basis for the
Comeny’s Infectious Paralysis Complement Fixation Test, which is used in the
of Horses diagnosis of certain diseases, e.g. Johne’s. As an
This condition, of unknown aetiology, was first indicator for the test, red blood corpuscles
described in French army horses by Comény. plus their specific antibody are used, i.e. the
The reported signs are a sudden rise in temper- corpuscles plus the antiserum heated at 55°C
ature to 40°C (104° or 105°F), persisting for to inactivate or destroy the complement. In
150 Compound Feeds
the test, on adding the indicator, haemolysis Conception rates are influenced by many fac-
will not occur if the complement has been tors. The best time for insemination is between
fixed. 2 and 20 hours after ‘heat’ is observed; after that,
delay will mean a lower conception rate. Health
Compound Feeds of male and female, and inseminator’s skill also
C A number of different ingredients (including
major minerals, trace elements, vitamins and
influence the rate. (See also FARROWING RATES.)
acute. Recovery is frequently more apparent owners are discussed under DISEASES OF
than real, for a chronic cough remains, and the ANIMALS ACTS.
disease may again become acute and even end
fatally. Contagious Ecthyma of Sheep
Contagious ecthyma of sheep is another name
C Post-Mortem appearances Large or small for ORF.
areas of pneumonia in the lungs, which are
often of a marbled appearance. The lesion is Contagious Epithelioma of
primarily one of interstitial pneumonia, with Birds
thickened septa dividing the lung up into lob- (see FOWL POX)
ules; some lobules show acute congestion, some
are in a stage of red or grey hepatisation, while Contagious Equine Metritis
others consist of dead encapsulated tissue, (CEM)
known as ‘sequestra’. Evidence of pleurisy with Contagious equine metritis (CEM) is a conta-
often much fibrinous deposit around the lungs gious venereal disease found in mares and trans-
is usual. mitted by stallions. This is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
in the UK, under the Infectious Diseases of
Diagnosis The slaughter of suspected animals Horses Order 1987.
may be essential for this. Corroboration may be
obtained by laboratory methods. Cause A Gram-negative coccobacillus,
Taylorella equigenitalis (formerly Haemophilus
Treatment is not allowed in most countries, equigenitalium). This has been isolated from
but neoarsphenamine and tylosin have proved the cervix, urethra and clitoris. The organism
useful elsewhere. is apt to persist in the clitoral fossa after
clearance from other parts of the mare’s uro-
Immunisation Live vaccines may be used in genital tract, and routine sampling at this site is
eradication and control programmes. therefore necessary or diagnosis may fail to be
confirmed.
Contagious Caprine Pleuro-
Pneumonia Control A code of practice for control of the
A disease of goats, caused by a mycoplasma and infection was formulated by the Horserace
occurring in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Acute, Betting Levy Board in 1977, and supported by
peracute, and chronic forms occur. Mortality the Ministry of Agriculture and the
may be 60 to 100 per cent. Antibiotics are use- Thoroughbred Breeders’ Association. A list of
ful for treatment where a slaughter policy is not laboratories authorised to test for the CEM
in force. organism is published annually in the
Veterinary Record.
Contagious Diseases
Certain of these are notifiable. (See under NOTI- Cervical swab tests are a routine diagnostic
FIABLE DISEASES.) The responsibilities of animal and preventive measure on stud farms. Among
Diagram showing the technique of collecting a cervical swab via a tubular speculum. The swab is passed
as far into the open oestrous cervix, and beyond, as possible.
Contracted Foot or Contracted Hoof 153
Prevention consists in leaving the frogs as The implant is removed after 9 or 10 days and
large and well developed as possible; reducing the animal inseminated twice, 48 and 72 hours,
the overgrowth at the heels and bars to the same or once, 56 hours later. In the other system, a
extent as at the toe and other parts of the foot; spiral device incorporating progesterone, with a
shoeing with shoes which allow the frog to gelatine capsule containing oestradiol attached,
C come into contact with the ground. is inserted into the cow’s vagina and left for
12 days. The cow is inseminated twice, after 48
Treatment In severe cases a run at grass with and 72 hours, or once at 56 hours.
tips on the affected feet, and leaving the heels Alternatively, a progestogen may be adminis-
bare, is advisable. (See also HOOF REPAIR.) tered by injection.
systems under UK law. If those are not effec- Two types of copper deficiency are recog-
tive, there may be fatal consequences, as the nised: primary and secondary. The former aris-
following examples show. es from an inadequate intake of copper and,
A thunderstorm blew the fuse in the fan cir- while herbage levels of copper below 5 ppm are
cuit of a controlled environment house, and uncommon in Britain, a survey showed that
unfortunately ‘fail-safe’ ventilation flaps did not over 50 per cent of 1078 beef herds in mid- C
work. As a result 520 fattening pigs died of Wales had low blood copper levels, probably
heat-stroke. associated with low intake. Secondary copper
In another incident the heating system con- deficiency is the more common form in the UK
tinued to function in a house containing and occurs where absorption or storage within
82 pigs. The fans failed, and minimal natural the animal body of copper is adversely affected
ventilation resulted in the temperature reaching by a high sulphate or molyb denum intake,
46°C (104°F), and the death of 65 pigs. even though there is adequate copper in the
diet.
Convex Sole or Dropped Sole An excess of molybdenum in the ‘teart’ soils
The sole of the horse’s foot, instead of being and pastures of central Somerset, and of areas
arched (concave) when viewed from the ground in Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Derbyshire
surface, is convex and projects to a lower level and East Anglia, has long been recognised,
than does the outer rim of the wall in many giving rise to scouring (especially from May
cases. (See LAMINITIS.) to October), a greyness of the hair around
the eyes, staring coats and a marked loss of
Convolvulus Poisoning condition.
Another name for MORNING GLORY. However, analysis of sediments from stream
beds in many counties shows that herbage may
Convulsions contain excessively high concentrations of
Convulsions are powerful involuntary contrac- molybdenum.
tions (alternating with relaxation) of muscles, Copper deficiency may be prevented by
producing aimless movement and contortion administering copper sulphate powder contain-
of the body, and accompanied by loss of ing 254 g/kg mixed with feed at a dose of 2 g
consciousness. (See SPASM; FITS.) per head; or by a ruminal bolus containing
small blunt rods (‘needles’) of copper oxide,
Coombs (Antiglobulin) Test once a season.
Coombs (antiglobulin) test is a laboratory test Treatment of copper deficiency is by par-
used in the differential diagnosis of various enteral injection of copper, usually in the form
blood disorders. of copper edetate or heptonate.
supplement. Poisoning also occurs when ani- which is not eaten, and a soft brown pellet,
mals are grazed in the vicinity of copper-smelt- produced in the caecum, which is eaten imme-
ing works, where the herbage gradually diately on being expelled from the anus. The
becomes contaminated with copper, in latter pellets are rich in B vitamins and amino
orchards where fruit-trees have been sprayed acids, but can also serve to recycle parasites.
C with copper salts and also in sheep grazing land Female parents of several species ingest the fae-
treated with copper sulphate (either crystals ces of their offspring in order to keep the nurs-
mixed with sand, or as a sprayed solution) as ing area clean. Within 3 weeks of birth, foals
a snail-killer in the control of liver-fluke or as a will eat their dams’ faeces and thereby acquire
preventative of swayback. the various bacteria needed for digestive pur-
poses in their own intestines. Overnight
Signs are those of an irritant poison – pain, coprophagy has also been reported in adult
diarrhoea (or perhaps constipation), and weak- horses in adjusting to ‘complete-diet’ cubes
ness; staggering and muscular twitchings are when no hay is on offer.
seen in chronic cases. A fatal chronic copper It has been suggested that foals may obtain
poisoning may occur in pigs fed a copper nutrients, and that coprophagy may be a
supplement of 250 parts per million. response to a maternal pheromone signalling
Failure to achieve accurate mixing of small the presence of deoxycholic acid which may be
quantities of copper sulphate into farm-mixed required for gut ‘immuno-competence’ and
rations has led to fatal poisoning of pigs. myelination of the nervous system.
It has been pointed out that copper poisoning Coprophagy also occurs in piglets, dogs, and
is almost specific to the housing of sheep. It non-human primates.
occurs even in diets ostensibly containing no
copper supplement. The capacity of the sheep Copulation
for storing copper from the normal constituents (see REPRODUCTION)
of the diet is higher than that of other animals,
and markedly higher in housed sheep. And Corgi
lambs reared indoors have died because their hay A long-backed, short-legged dog of medium
was made from grass contaminated by slurry size with erect ears. There are 2 forms: the
from pigs on a copper-supplemented diet. Pembrokeshire, which is orange-brown in
It is dangerous to exceed 10 ppm of copper colour; and the Cardiganshire, which is black,
in dry feeds for sheep over a long period. white and tan. The long back can give rise to
AFRC research has shown that the sheep’s intervertebral disc problems and the breed may
physiological response to copper is influenced be susceptible to recurrent corneal ulceration.
by heredity, and that there are significant breed
differences as regards swayback and copper Corium
poisoning. The main layer of the skin, also known as the
dermis. It lies below the epidermis and above
Treatment Following some Australian the subcutaneous tissue (see SKIN).
research, it was shown at the Rowett Research
Institute that 3 subcutaneous injections of ‘Corkscrew Penis’
tetrathiomolybdate (on alternate days) can (see under
PENIS AND PREDUCE, ABNORMALITIES
remove copper from the livers of both sheep AND LESIONS)
and goats without causing any apparent
ill-effects. Corn Cockle Poisoning
The plant Lychnis (or Agrostemma) githago, a
‘Copper Nose’ weed of corn fields, is usually avoided by live-
A form of LIGHT SENSITISATION occurring in stock; but they may be poisoned through eating
cattle. wheat or barley meal contaminated with the
seeds. The latter contain SAPONINS.
Copperbottle Dogs and young animals are most suscepti-
Lucilia cuprina, the strike fly which attacks ble to poisoning; the signs of which are restless-
sheep in Australia and South Africa. ness, frothing at the mouth, colic, paralysis and
loss of consciousness.
Coprophagy
The eating of faeces by an animal. In rabbits, First aid Large amounts of white of egg,
this is a normal practice. The rabbit produces 2 starch paste, and milk may be given to calves
types of faecal pellet: the normal black pellet, and dog as a drench.
Corticotrophin 157
adrenal gland of corticoid hormones. These cor- fibre and lead to intestinal impaction if fed to
ticosteroids, or steroid hormones, are of 3 kinds: calves or pigs. Gossypol poisoning may also
(1) those concerned with carbohydrate metabo- result. (See GOSSYPOL.)
lism and which also allay inflammation; (2)
those concerned with maintaining the correct Cotyledons
C proportion of electrolytes; (3) the sex corticoids. (see PLACENTA and PREGNANCY)
Cortisol Coughing
(see CORTISONE)
Horses Common causes of coughing in horses
Cortisone include equine influenza; other virus infections;
A hormone from the cortex of the adrenal gland. laryngitis and bronchitis from other causes; an
In medicine, one of its synthetic analogues is allergic or asthmatic cough often heard in the
normally used. autumn; strangles; and ‘broken wind’.
(For a list of viruses which cause coughing
Actions Cortisone raises the sugar content of (and also other symptoms) in the horse, see
the blood and the glycogen content of the liver, EQUINE RESPIRATORY VIRUSES.) Where cough-
among many other actions. ing occurs with a normal temperature, horses
may prove to be infested with the lung-worm
Uses Cortisone has been used effectively in Dictyocaulus arnfieldi.
the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, but when Clenbuterol is widely used for treatment.
the drug is discontinued, symptoms return.
However, because of potential side-effects Pigs Coughing may be due to dusty meal or to
its long-term use is not recommended (see enzootic pneumonia. It also occurs during
CORTICOSTEROIDS). migration of the larvae in infection with Ascaris
worms.
Corynebacterium
A genus of slender, Gram-positive bacteria Dogs A cough is often a symptom of acute or
which includes the cause of diphtheria in man. chronic bronchitis. In the dog – often fat and
In veterinary medicine C. pyogenes (now middle-aged – chronic bronchitis may result in
renamed Actinomyces pyogenes) is of importance, a cough persisting for weeks or months at a time
causing ‘summer mastitis’ and ‘foul-in-the-foot’ and recurring in subsequent years, and is due to
in cattle. A generalised infection has been excessive secretion of mucus in the trachea and
reported, giving rise in cattle to lameness, slight bronchi. It may follow an attack of pneumonia.
fever, leg-swellings, lachrymation, and later A cough is also a symptom of valvular disease of
emaciation and death. the heart. (See also KENNEL COUGH.)
C. suis (or Eubacterium suis) is responsible for A sporadic yet persistent cough, noticed
infectious cystitis and pyelonephritis in pigs. especially after exercise or excitement, may be a
C. ovis (C. pseudotuberculosis) causes caseous symptom of infestation with the common tra-
lymphadenitis in sheep and some cases of ulcer- cheal worm Oslerus osleri. Mortality among
ative lymphangitis and acne in horses. puppies of 4 to 8 months has been as high as
C. equi causes pneumonia in the horse and 75 per cent in some litters, following emacia-
tuberculosis-like lesions in the pig. tion. Less serious is infestation with Capillaria
C. renale is the cause of pyelonephritis in aerophilia, which may give rise to a mild cough.
cattle.
Corynebacteria are also associated with dis- Cats Coughing is (in addition to sneezing) one
ease in fish causing scattered white lesions symptom of viral diseases such as feline viral
throughout the spleen, liver and kidney. It can rhinotracheitis and feline calicivirus infection;
be severe in Atlantic salmon. Sometimes called tonsillitis; as the result of grass seeds lodged in
Dee disease, after the river Dee at Aberdeen. the pharynx; infestation by the cat lungworm;
pleurisy; bronchitis; pneumonia; tuberculosis;
Costia and some cases of feline leukaemia. (See under
Costia necatrix is a serious parasite of freshwater separate headings.)
fish. (See also FISH, DISEASES OF.)
Cattle
Cotton-Seed Cake or Meal (see CALF PNEUMONIA; IBR under RHINOTRA-
Cotton-seed cake or meal may, if undecorticat- CHEITIS; PARASITIC BRONCHITIS; ‘SHIPPING
ed, contain up to 25 per cent of indigestible FEVER’; TUBERCULOSIS)
Cramp 159
spongiform degeneration of the brain. Once walking; the toes are turned out because of mal-
symptoms appear, it is invariably fatal. formation of the lower metatarsal and foot
Transmission has occurred through a corneal bones. The cause is unknown.
transplant.
In 1996 a ‘new variant’ of CJD appeared in Crop
C young people; it has been linked to the con- Crop, of birds, is a dilatation of the gullet at
sumption of BSE-infected meat products. the base of the neck, just at the entrance to
the thorax. In it the food is stored for a time
Chronic Respiratory Disease and softened with fluids. It acts as a reservoir
(CRD) from which the food can be passed downwards
Infection of poultry by Mycoplasma gallisep- into the stomach, gizzard, etc., in small
ticum. Infected birds suffer a variety of respira- amounts.
tory diseases, coughing and nasal discharge.
There is a reduction in egg yields; morbidity is Crop, Diseases of
low but carcases are rejected at slaughter. By far the commonest trouble affecting the
crop of the bird is that known as ‘crop-bound’,
Treatment is by administering an antibiotic in which food material collects in the crop
by injection, in severe cases, or by addition to through the swallowing of bodies which cannot
the drinking water. pass on to the stomach and gizzard. This may
Crib-Biting and Wind-Sucking include feathers, wool, straw, small pieces of
Crib-biting and wind-sucking are different vari- stick, etc. Other cases are due to a lack of vital-
eties of the same vice, which are learned chiefly ity in the walls of the crop, which become too
by young horses. In each case the horse weak to force the contents onwards.
swallows air. A ‘crib-biter’ effects this by grasp- The dilated crop can often be noticed pen-
ing the edge of the manger or some other dulous and distended. Death occurs from
convenient fixture with the incisor teeth; it then exhaustion unless relief is obtained. Massage of
raises the floor of the mouth; the soft palate is the impacted food material from the outside,
forced open; a swallowing movement occurs; along with the introduction of warm liquid in
and a gulp of air is passed down the gullet into small amounts through a rubber tube, may be
the stomach. A ‘wind-sucker’ achieves the same sufficient to dispel mild impactions, but usual-
end, but it does not require a resting-place for ly surgical opening is required. (See under CAGE
(AVIARY) BIRDS, DISEASES OF.)
the teeth. Air is swallowed by firmly closing the
mouth, arching the neck, and gulping down air
in much the same way. Cross-Eye
In crib-biters the incisor teeth of both jaws (see STRABISMUS)
show signs of excessive wear.
Remedial measures are not always satisfacto- Cross-Immunity
ry. Crib-biters may cease the habit if housed in Immunity resulting from infection with one
a bare loose-box, being fed from a trough which disease-producing organism against another.
is removed as soon as the feed is finished. For example, rinderpest virus infection in dogs
Proprietary preparations, with an unpleasant gives rise to a degree of immunity against
taste, are available for treating woodwork. canine distemper virus.
Crushed Tail Head Syndrome Bone and eye lesions may be produced. (See
A condition in dairy cows in which there is tail also EPIZOOTIC LYMPHANGITIS.)
paralysis, hind-limb weakness and knuckling of
the fetlock joint. It occurs suddenly, usually in Cryptorchid
healthy cows showing recent oestrus activity. An animal in which 1 or both testicles have not
C The clinical signs follow damage to the sacral descended into the scrotum from the abdomi-
vertebrae which affects the sacral and coccygeal nal cavity at the usual time. The condition may
nerves, Vigorous mounting by a bull may be cause some irritability in the animal. The
the cause of the trauma. Recovery is more retained testicle(s) may be defective. (See also
likely in those cases less badly affected. under GELDING.)
In several breeds of pigs it has been shown
‘Crutching’ that some individual males start with 2 appar-
‘Crutching’ means shearing of wool from a ently normal testicles in the scrotum at birth,
sheep’s breech, tail, and back of hind-legs. It is but that within a few weeks or months 1 testi-
done before May and in autumn as an aid to cle may decrease in size and then may disappear
controlling ‘STRIKE’. from the scrotum, ascending back into the
inguinal canal inside the abdomen. Absorption
Cryospray of this testicle may occur, so that by the time
The use of liquid nitrogen in cryosurgery. the animal is 6 months old there may be no
remains, or virtually none, of the missing testi-
Cryosurgery cle to be found.
Destruction of unwanted tissue (e.g. of a The name ‘late cryptorchids’ has been given
tumour) by the use of very low temperatures. to such animals which have 2 testicles in the
For example, a metal rod, cooled in liquid scrotum at birth, but subsequently only 1. A
nitrogen to –196°C, may be applied to the research worker at the Central Veterinary
tumour. Laboratory, Weybridge, has referred to the find-
ing of 44 such late cryptorchids out of 110
Dogs Cryotherapy has been found useful in sev- cryptorchid Lacombe boars. (See also under
eral conditions, including intractable interdigital MONORCHID; CASTRATION.)
cysts and ‘lick granuloma’.
Cryptosporidiosis
Cats It has been used for the relief of highly Disease caused by protozoan parasites of the
irritant eczema, and also eosinophilic granulo- genus Cryptosporidium and of the order Coccidia.
matous lesions; especially those involving the Cryptosporidia are not host-specific like other coc-
lips and hard palate, and in cats suffering from cidia. The oocyst is the infective stage. It causes
chronic gingivitis/stomatitis. diarrhoea in mammals and may also cause respi-
ratory disease in poultry. Both farm and compan-
Horses Cryosurgery may be used in the treat- ion animals may be affected. The disease is more
ment of sarcoids, squamous cell carcinoma and severe in young animals; some older ones may
other neoplastic conditions of the skin, and for become carriers. Infected animals grazing near
the removal of excessive granulation tissue. In rivers or on the banks of reservoirs may contami-
ophthalmology it can be used for the treatment nate water supplies; the parasite is not usually
of retinal detachment, iris prolapse, glaucoma removed in the normal filtering process.
and the extraction of cataracts. Diagnosis is by identifying the parasite in faecal
smears; special staining techniques are required.
Cryptocaryon
A parasite inhabiting the skin of salmonid fish Public health In humans, cryptosporidiosis
kept at high density in salt water. causes a severe and malodorous diarrhoea
which may last up to 2 weeks. Cases usually
Cryptococcosis arise from drinking contaminated water,
Infection with the yeast Cryptococcus neofor- although animal to human transmission has
mans occurs occasionally in all species. Lungs, occurred. In Doncaster, an outbreak involving
udder, brain, etc. may be involved. It has been 220 persons was traced to a swimming pool, the
described as the least rare of fungal infections in parasite not being killed by the concentration
the cat – in which it may give rise to sneezing, of chlorine in the water.
a discharge from the eyes, and sometimes to a
nasal granuloma. Other signs include cough Treatment Halofuginone is used for treatment
and dyspnoea. and prophylaxis in calves.
‘Curled Tongue’ 165
particles in a dry state, during the first few normal, and a dog’s skin may appear ‘too big for
weeks of life. If a change is made to wet feeding its body’. (The human equivalent is the Ehlers-
many of the poults will become normal. Danlos syndrome.)
divide, is added. The cultures are incubated for characteristics of an animal of approximately
2 days at 38°C. Then colchicine is added to 3/4 Bos indicus heredity. The fact that these cat-
arrest the dividing cells at the metaphase stage. tle carry the Bos taurus Y chromosome supports
Hypotonic solutions are used to swell the cells this view and indicates that the local cattle in
and spread out the chromosomes. The cells are South Africa would have been crossed with 1 or
then fixed, dropped on to slides, and stained. more Bos taurus bulls. Droughtmaster and
Suitable cells containing well-spread chro- Braford cattle retain the Bos indicus Y chromo-
mosomes are selected on the slides after exam- some because Bos indicus instead of Bos taurus
ining them under the microscope at 1000x bulls were used to establish these taurindicus
magnifications. Some of the cells are then pho- breeds.’
tographed, and the individual chromosomes Chromosome abnormalities have also been
cut out from the prints, paired and stuck on to detected in infertile mares. One, which had
a card. This is called the karyotype. never shown oestrus, was found to have the
An example of chromosome abnormalities in karyotype 63, X, i.e. lacking an X chromosome.
cattle is the freemartin. Whereas the normal Another mare, which had shown irregular
heifer calf has a karyotype 60, XX, the oestrus, had the karyotype 63, X/64, X, i.e.
freemartin has a proportion of XY cells. The containing both the abnormal cell line and
condition is technically known as XX:XY normal cells.
Chimerism.
Cytokines
Centric fusions (Robertsonian transloca- Naturally occurring compounds which cause
tions) are the result of 2 chromosomes fusing to tumours either to grow more slowly, or to
form 1, so that the total number of chromo- destroy the malignant cells. (See INTERFERON,
somes in the cells is reduced. The 1/29 translo- the first to be discovered.) Genetic engineering
cation was discovered by Gustavsson in about has made possible large-scale production of
1 in 7 of the Swedish Red and White breed of cytokines.
cattle, and has since been found in many other
breeds. This autosomal abnormality, involving Cytology
a member of each of pairs 1 and 29, has been The study of cell function, origin, structure,
found to be inherited through both the male formation and pathology.
and the female in Red Poll and Charolais cattle
in Britain, and appears to be associated with Cytotoxic Drugs
lowered fertility in the female. Drugs which act on cell growth and division;
Another common centric fusion is the 13/21 they are used in the treatment of certain types
translocation, first found in 1973 in a New of cancer. Their use in chemotherapy is limited
Zealand bull of the Swiss Simmental breed, and by their toxicity, and dosage must be very
in 1974 in that bull’s sire in Scotland. carefully controlled.
Many other chromosomal abnormalities
have been found. (See MOSAIC; TRISOMY; Hazards Use of these drugs presents serious
TRANSLOCATION; POLYPLOIDY.) risks to health from residue disposal, spillage,
Cytogenetics has also proved useful in con- etc. Miscarriage in nurses was twice as fre-
firming or detecting the origins of some breeds quent in those who had been exposed to anti-
of cattle. For example, in Australia Dr C. R. E. cancer drugs, according to a study in Finland
Halnan and Professor J. Francis have stated: at 17 hospitals, as compared with unexposed
‘The Africander has anatomical and other nurses.
D
They are also liable to inherit cleft palate, deaf-
ness, diabetes mellitus and un-united anconeal
process. Distichiasis is seen in the miniature
long-haired dachsund. Over-shot jaw and pro-
gressive renal atrophy may be congenital.
‘Dagging’
D-Value Removal of soiled wool by the shepherd from
This is the percentage of digestible organic sheeps’ hindquarters as an aid to preventing
matter in the dry matter of the feed. STRIKE.
D-value is used to assess or describe the
digestibility of animal feeds, such as dried grass, Dairy Herd Management
hay, silage, etc. In 1970, herd size averaged only 30 in the UK,
and 80 per cent of cows were still tied up in cow-
‘Daft Lambs’ sheds. There was, however, a growing movement
Those affected with cerebellar atrophy – a con- towards larger herds, and many of those which
dition associated with incoordination of head formerly were 50 to 70 cows became 90 to 120
and leg movements. The lambs are normal at in size; today there are several 300-cow units,
birth but have problems walking; there is inco- and a few larger still. The imposition of milk
ordination of limbs, straddled leg stance, head quotas by the EU led to herd sizes becoming
arched backwards and muscle tremors. It is to static, but numbers are again increasing.
due to a recessive gene. (See GENETICS – Genetic Increase in herd size has been accompanied
defects.) by other changes: notably, milking in a parlour
and housing in a cubicle house instead of in a
Dachsunds cowshed. (See CUBICLES FOR COWS; COW KEN-
Small long-bodied breed of dog with very short NELS.) There has been a tendency to replace the
legs; originating in Germany, where they were tandem parlour by the herringbone. (See illus-
used for badger hunting. The long body makes tration.) Parlour feeding is now, in up-to-date
them prone to intervertebral disc problems. units, related automatically to milk yield; this
both makes for economy and avoids the prob- itself to solid-muck handling, with the liquid
lem of cow identification in the big herd, so far (urine, washing-down water, rainwater) being
as the milker is concerned. Identification is still taken separately to a lagoon or to an under-
necessary, however, for use in conjunction with ground tank. Slatted floors can be used in a
herd records and in the parlour where the milk- cubicle house, either over a dung cellar which
er or relief milker (who will rarely know all the is cleared out once a year, or over a channel
cows) must feed according to yield in the leading to an underground tank. With the
absence of automated equipment. Plastic num- semi-solid method, dung may be spread on the
D bered collars, anklets, discs on chain or nylon, land by tanker, or the slurry may pass to a
freeze branding and even udder tattooing are lagoon or be pumped through an organic irri-
among methods used. gation pipeline system. Where this is used, cows
In the UK, measures to deal with BSE have must not be expected to graze pasture until
led to the introduction of a comprehensive sys- there has been time for rain to wash the slurry
tem of herd and individual cow identification, off the herbage. The use of organic irrigation is
with a national database; initially, this was to not entirely free from the risk of spreading
be based on a ‘passport’ that would follow the infectious diseases.
animal throughout its life. Poaching must be avoided by the use of con-
Feeding outside the parlour has been mecha- crete aprons at gateways, by mobile drinking
nised in many large units. Feeding from silos is troughs, by wide corridors between paddocks
less popular than formerly. Many farms have with an electric fence dividing the ‘corridor’
mixer wagons to produce a complete diet made so that one half can be kept in reserve, or by
from forage, grass or maize silage, straw, concen- moveable ramps as are used in New Zealand.
trates or straights feeds. Fed ad lib, this system In the large herd, one of the biggest problems
allows better utilisation of feed and increased is spotting the bulling heifer or the cow on heat.
dry-matter intakes. In others, side-delivery Properly kept herd records can be a help in
trucks are drawn by tractor down the feeding alerting farm staff to the approximate dates. (See
passages and deliver into the long mangers. Self- CALVING INTERVAL; OESTRUS, DETECTION OF;
feed silage, with the clamp face in or near the CONTROLLED BREEDING.)
cubicle house, is another labour-saver. Group On large units, regular weekly visits by vet-
feeding (e.g. of dry cows, high yielders, and low erinary surgeons help in the detection and
yielders) is convenient management practice but treatment of infertility and the application of
may give rise to stress (see BUNT ORDER). (See also veterinary preventive medicine. (See HEALTH
under ‘STEAMING UP’ and the advice on feeding SCHEMES; VETERINARY FACILITIES ON FARMS,
given under ACETONAEMIA – Prevention.) CALF HOUSING; also CONTROLLED BREEDING and
ADAS advice stresses the need for adequate CATTLE HUSBANDRY.)
feeding in early lactation. ‘Since appetite is
often limited at this stage, only the highest Dalmation
quality food should be fed: whether it is good A medium-sized dog, white with regular black
hay, early cut silage, or 1.5 kg (31/2 lb) per gal- or brown spots, that originated as a carriage dog
lon cake. This will allow optimum intake of in the Balkans. Unlike most dogs, it excretes
nutrients at the responsive stage of the lactation uric acid in the urine and could be affected
– weeks 1–12 after calving.’ by gout. It may inherit deafness and atrophic
Zero-grazing, where cattle are kept in pad- dermatitis.
docks, and grass is cut and brought to them, is
practised on some farms where poaching is Damalina
a serious problem in wet weather, or where A genus of biting lice.
the movement of a large number of cows is
involved. With a very large herd on a very small Dangerous Dogs Act 1991
acreage (such as an American 550-cow herd on This requires that certain breed types (pit bull
under 5 acres), zero-grazing obviously becomes terrier, Japanese tosa, fila brasileiro, dogo argenti-
essential. It is little used in the UK. no) must not be taken out unless on a lead,
Paddock grazing now forms an important muzzled, and by someone at least 16 years old.
part of dairy herd management, and includes Owners of these dogs must register them
the two-sward system in which separate areas with the police, and either comply with the
are used for grazing and for conservation. exemption scheme or arrange for euthanasia to
Dung disposal presents difficulties with large be carried out by a veterinary surgeon.
herds. There are two options: it may be treated To comply with the exemption scheme, own-
as a solid or as a liquid. Straw bedding lends ers must take out 3rd-party insurance, arrange
DDT 171
for the animal to be neutered, and to be identi- so). Many instances are on record where harm-
fiable by a tattoo and a microchip. The dog ful results to man and animals have followed
must also be kept under escape-proof condi- the use of meal or flour which contained
tions. ground-up darnel seeds, and there are numer-
The Act has proved controversial; in a num- ous references in classic literature to the harm-
ber of cases there has been confusion over iden- ful effect produced upon the eyes as the result
tification of dogs as pit bull terriers. Several of eating bread made from flour containing
attempts have been made to have the Act darnel.
amended. D
Toxic Principle is a narcotic alkaloid, called
Dangerous Wild Animals temuline, which is said to be present to the
Act 1976 extent of about 0.66 per cent; some authorities
This requires people keeping lions, tigers, assert that a substance called loliine, and others
poisonous snakes, certain monkeys and other that picrotoxin, should be considered responsi-
unusual pets, such as crocodiles and bears, to ble. A fungus called Endoconidium temulentum
obtain a licence – authorised by a veterinary is very often found present in the seeds of
surgeon. Bison, wild boar, ostriches and emus darnel, living a life that is to a great extent
are classed as dangerous wild animals under this one of symbiosis, and the poisonous alkaloid
Act. They are farmed in the UK and the farmer temuline is found in the fungus.
needs to register with the local authority. The
premises must be inspected by a veterinary sur- Signs Darnel produces giddiness and a stagger-
geon nominated by the local authority before a ing gait, drowsiness and stupefaction, dilatation
licence is granted. of the pupils in the horse, and interference with
Local authorities have power to refuse licences, vision in almost all animals. Vomiting, loss of
on the advice of an authorised veterinary sur- sensation, convulsive seizures, and death follow
geon, on such grounds as safety, nuisance or when it is eaten by animals in large amounts. In
inadequate or unsuitable accommodation. some cases tremblings of the surface muscles are
Before a licence is granted, local authorities seen, and the extremities of the body become
must be satisfied about arrangements for the cold. Death usually occurs within 30 hours of
animal’s food, exercise and general comfort, fire eating the seeds.
precautions, and precautions against infectious
diseases. First-Aid Strong black tea or coffee at once.
People with such animals must take out
insurance. Darrow’s Solution
Conviction for the keeping of an animal Darrow’s solution is used for fluid replacement
without a licence or contravening a condition therapy in cases of a potassium deficiency, and
of one could result in a fine of up to £400 and contains potassium chloride, sodium chloride
a ban from holding a licence. and sodium lactate. It is rarely used in veterinary
Zoos, circuses, pet shops and research medicine; it is unsuitable for cases of neonatal
workers are exempted under the Licensing diarrhoea. (See under DEHYDRATION.)
Act 1981.
Dart Guns or Syringes
Danish Red Cattle (see under PROJECTILE SYRINGE)
More than half the cattle in Jutland, and 97 per
cent of those in the Islands, belong to this Daturine
breed, which is a very old one, though its offi- An alkaloid. (See under STRAMOMIUM.)
cial name (meaning Red Danish Milk breed)
dates from 1878. Day-Old Chicks
Danish Reds are strong, dual-purpose ani- (see CHICKS)
mals with a good ‘barrel’, teats and udders,
and weigh between 500 and 770 kg (1100 and DDT
1700 lb). (See also BRITISH DANE.) The common abbreviation for dichlorodiphenyl-
trichlorethane, a potent parasiticide, lethal to
Darnel Poisoning fleas, lice, flies, etc. DDT was once used incor-
The grass known as ‘darnel’ (Lolium temulen- porated in dusting powders, for applying to
tum) is a common weed in cereal crops and in animals; and dissolved in solvents for use as a
pastures in some parts, but it does no harm fly-spray. DDT-resistant insects are now found in
when eaten before the seeds are ripe (or almost nearly all countries, unfortunately, and dangers
172 Dead Animals, Disposal of
of DDT residues in human and animal tissues vitamin deficiency, and, in human medicine, a
have led to its abandonment in the UK and side-effect of streptomycin and aspirin. Other
elsewhere. causes include damage to the internal ear, to the
DDT preparations should not be applied to Eustachian tube, nervous system, etc.
animals, owing to the risk of poisoning. The use
of DDT with oils or fats enhances its toxic Death, Causes of Sudden
effects, and should be avoided. Symptoms of In the majority of cases either failure of the heart
poisoning include coldness, diarrhoea, and or damage to a blood vessel (e.g. in cattle caused
D hyperaesthesia. Minute doses over a period by a nail or a piece of wire from the reticulum)
result in complete loss of appetite. DDT sprays is the direct cause, but nervous shock following
may contaminate milk if used in the dairy; and an accident or injury, cerebral haemorrhage,
may lead to poisonous residues in food animals anthrax, black-quarter, lightning strike, braxy,
when applied in livestock buildings, with conse- hypocalcaemia in cattle, hypomagnesaemia (also
quent danger to human beings eating the cont- in sheep), and over-eating of green succulent
aminated meat. DDT can also contaminate fodder in young cattle, are all capable of pro-
streams and rivers, and prove harmful to fish. ducing sudden death. In the case of pigs, sudden
However, in the control of human try- death has sometimes resulted from heat stroke.
panosomiasis in Africa, both DDT and dieldrin (See also BOWEL, OEDEMA OF THE.) In both cattle
have been extensively used for ground spraying, and pigs sudden death due to Clostridium
often by aircraft. welchii type A has been reported. In countries
bordering the Red Sea, horses that have not
Dead Animals, Disposal of been bred locally are sometimes attacked by
(see DISPOSAL OF CARCASES) a form of heat stroke with fatal results. (See
also POISONING and (with reference to dogs)
Deadly Nightshade CANINE PARVOVIRUS; CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS.)
Deadly nightshade is the popular name of Sudden death, without obvious preliminary
Atropa belladonna, from which the alkaloid symptoms, may occasionally occur in cases of
ATROPINE is obtained. It is a deadly poison, and rabies, botulism, and foot-and-mouth disease.
parts of the plant are sometimes eaten by stock. (See also ELECTRIC SHOCK).
(See also BELLADONNA.)
Death, Signs of
Deafness The physical signs of death are well known, but
there are occasions when it is difficult to state
Congenital deafness is common in white whether an animal is dead or not. In deep coma
bull terriers and also in blue-eyed white cats. In an animal may have all the superficial appear-
the USA the Dalmatian breed is reported to ances of being dead, and yet recovery is possible
have the highest prevalence of deafness of all if effective measures are taken. In the later stage
breeds of dogs, with a risk factor of 40 to 50 per of milk fever a cow has been mistaken for dead,
cent. One or both ears may be affected. has been dragged out of the byre preparatory to
removal to the slaughterer’s, has been examined
Conductive deafness is that caused by by a practitioner, has been found to be living,
interference with the transmission of sound has been suitably treated, and within 2 hours
waves from the external ear to the organ of has been up on her feet again looking well.
Corti in the inner ear. Such interference may be Foals have been discarded soon after being born
due to: (1) excess of wax in the ear canal; (2) and considered dead, have been removed to the
perforation of, or infection involving, the outside of the loose-box while attention was
eardrum. (In human medicine otosclerosis is paid to the dam, and later have been found liv-
another cause, being a loss of flexibility between ing, the fresh cold air having revived respiration
the bones of the middle ear and the membrane and stimulated the circulation, etc.
connecting them with the inner ear, possibly When an animal dies, the essential sign of
due to hardening or ossification.) the cessation of life is said to be the stopping of
the heart. This, however, is not strictly correct,
Nerve deafness results from pressure upon, for it is possible by massage to resuscitate an
or damage to, the auditory nerve; it can also be already stopped heart, and to recover an appar-
a side-effect of antibiotics such as streptomycin ently dead creature. Strictly speaking, it is
and neomycin, and possibly chloramphenicol. almost impossible to say exactly when death
Deafness is or may be also a symptom of takes place, but it is considered that when heart
santonin poisoning, coal-gas poisoning, of a and respiration have ceased, when the eyelids
Deer, Diseases of 173
do not flicker if a finger be applied to the motor fibres from one side of the brain cross to
eyeballs, when a cut artery no longer bleeds, the other side of the spinal cord.
and when the tissues lose their natural elastici-
ty, life is extinct. A few of the common tests Deep-Freeze
that are applied in uncertain cases are as fol- (see ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION; LIFE AFTER
lows. The animal is dead when (1) a piece of FREEZING)
cold glass held to the nostrils for 3 minutes
comes away without any condensed moisture Deep Litter for Cattle
upon it; (2) a superficial incision in the skin This is a very satisfactory system if well man- D
does not gape open; and (3) the natural elastic aged. It is mainly practised in straw yards.
tension of the tissues disappears. Changes that Straw, shavings and sawdust can be used, in
follow death in a variable period depending adequate quantity. The bedding must be kept
upon the species of animal, and upon the dry and no contact must occur between the
weather at the time, are: (1) the clotting of the udder and dung in the litter. Warmth given off
blood in the vessels; (2) the onset of rigor mor- as a result of the fermentation taking place
tis (the stiffness of death); and (3) the com- in the litter makes for cow-comfort; and there
mencement of decomposition of the carcase, is, of course, the added advantage of a thick
usually first evident along the lower surface of layer of insulation between the cows and the
the abdomen. concrete of a covered yard.
Canines are absent unless the corner incisors Pigs There is probably no farm animal which
are considered as modified canines. shows such variation in the eruption of its teeth as
Molars are like those of the horse in number the pig, but because of the demand for young pigs
and arrangement, except that they are smaller for killing by weight and size rather than by age,
and progressively increase in size from first to and because of the intractability of older breeding
last, so that the 1st is quite small, and the length animals – sows and boars – the actual age of the
of gum which accommodates the first 3 is only pig is not of such very great importance, except
about half that occupied by the last 3. One or perhaps for fat stock show purposes.
D more ‘wolf teeth’ may be present in rare cases. When the permanent teeth have all erupted
they are distributed as follows:
Eruption In ruminants – whether domesti-
cated or not – the eruption of the permanent Incisors Canines Molars
teeth is subject to considerable variations.
Upper jaws 6 2 14 (i.e. 8
and 6)
Time of eruption Incisors Molars Lower jaws 6 2 14 (i.e. 8
Birth to 1 month All 8 tempo- All 12 tempo-
and 6)
raries raries
3 months — 4th permanent In the molar region there is a little tooth in
9 months — 5th permanent
1 year to 1 year 1st pair — each of the four jaws, erupting at about 5 to 6
3 months permanent months, which is permanent from the very
1 year 6 months — 6th permanent
1 year 9 months 2nd pair 1st and 2nd beginning. It is sometimes called the premolar,
permanent permanents and in some cases is never developed. The next
2 years — 3rd permanent
2 years 3 months 3rd pair —
3 teeth behind it are represented in the tempo-
permanent rary dentition, the permanents replacing them
2 years 9 months 4th pair — in the usual way. The last 3 teeth are true
to 3 years permanent
molars, i.e. permanents only.
The temporary dentition is as follows:
Sheep The terms which were used as applied
to cattle, and the description of the various Incisors Canines Molars
teeth, may be taken to hold good for sheep as Upper jaws 6 2 6
well. The sheep has 8 lower incisor teeth but Lower jaws 6 2 6
none in the upper jaw. There are 24 molar
teeth, 12 in each jaw, of which half these num- Incisors: the upper incisors are small, and are
bers are represented in the temporary dentition. separated from each other by spaces. The 1st pair
(centrals) are the largest, and converge together.
Eruption The following is given as an average The 2nd pair are narrower and smaller; while the
eruption table for improved breeds of sheep in corner pair are very small and laterally flattened.
Great Britain: The lower incisors are arranged in a convergent
manner, and point forwards horizontally in the
Time of jaw. The 1st two pairs are large prismatic teeth
eruption Incisors Canines Molars deeply implanted in the jaw-bones and are used
At birth Corner All 4 tem- — for ‘rooting’ purposes. The corner pair are
temporaries poraries smaller, and possess a distinct neck.
1 month Central — Nos. 2, 3
temporaries and 4 tem- Canines, or tusks, are greatly developed in
poraries the entire male, and both upper and lower tusks
2 months Lateral — —
5–6 months — — No. 1, which project out of the mouth. The upper canines of
remains a boar may be 3 to 4 inches long, while the
through
life, and
lower ones may reach as much as 8 inches in an
No. 5 aged animal. Each has a large permanent pulp
permanent cavity from which the tooth continues to grow
8 months Corner — —
permanents throughout the animal’s life.
9 months — All 4 per- — At 3 months the lateral temporary incisors
manents
10–12 months — — No. 6 are well up, and the temporary molars are well
permanent in wear.
12–13 months Central — Nos. 2, 3
permanents and 4 per-
At 5 months there are signs of the cutting of
manents the premolars (i.e. the No. 1 molars), and the
17–18 months Lateral — No. 7 5th molar (a permanent) is seen behind the
permanents permanent
temporaries. It is, however, not yet in wear.
Dermatosis Vegetans 179
At 6 months the premolars are cut and the diseases, or after the application of chemical or
5th permanent molar is in wear. thermal substances to the surface of the body. (See
At 7 to 8 months there are signs of the MANGE; RINGWORM; ‘BALDY CALF’ SYNDROME;
cutting of the corner permanent incisors, or BURNS; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE, ALOPECIA.)
they may already be through the gums. The
permanent tusks are also often cutting through Depluming Scabies
the gums at this age in forward animals. Depluming scabies is a form of parasitic mange
At 9 months the corner permanent incisors affecting the fowl, in which the feathers are
are well up and the permanent tusks are eaten through close to the skin surface and D
through the gums, although in many cases fall or break off. It is caused by Cnemidocoptes
there may be still one or two of the small gallinae. (See MITES.)
temporary tusks in position. Where they are cut
they are not far through the gums. Depraved Appetite (PICA)
At 1 year it is generally held that the central (see under APPETITE)
permanent incisors cut through the gums, but
there are a large number of animals which do Dermatitis
not cut these teeth till about 13 months old. Dermatitis means any inflammation of the
The 6th permanent molar cuts at this time, and skin. (See SKIN; ECZEMA; ALLERGY.)
is more reliable than the incisors for reference.
Shortly after 1 year the 3 temporary molars Dermatophilus
fall out and their places are taken by the Dermatophilus infection results in a chronic
permanents. They are into line with the other dermatitis, in which the hairs stand erect and
molar teeth 3 months later. matted in tufts, like a wet paintbrush. Many
At 17 to 18 months, when the final changes species of animals are susceptible, e.g. horses,
occur, the 7th molar, the last permanent molar cattle, sheep (also dog and cat).
tooth, and the lateral permanent incisors are cut
through the gums. By this time the pig has Cause D. congolensis, which is a Gram-positive
obtained its full permanent dentition, and the bacterium having some fungus-like characteris-
succeeding changes are not sufficiently reliable tics, e.g. the production of branching filaments.
to warrant estimations of age being based upon The disease, also known as cutaneous strep-
them. tothricosis or mycotic dermatitis, follows the pro-
longed wetting of an animal and is widespread in
Dogs The average adult dog has 42 teeth. the tropics, but occurs also in temperate climates
The upper jaw contains 6 incisors, 2 canines, such as Ireland, Britain, etc. (For examples in
8 premolars, and 6 molars. The lower jaw has horses, see GREASY HEEL; ‘RAIN SCALD’.)
6 incisors, 2 canines, 8 premolars, and 6 molars. In sheep, where it is also called ‘lumpy wool’,
(There is some breed and individual variation it can cause ‘strawberry foot rot’.
in the number of permanent teeth, short-skulled Predisposing causes, other than wetting,
breeds, e.g. Pekingese, Boxer, and Bulldog, include tick and insect bites, wounds from
having fewer teeth.) thorns, etc. Fly transmission is recognised. The
bacterium can resist drying, but under wet
Cats The number of teeth in the adult cat aver- conditions it invades the epidermis, with effects
ages 30. In the upper jaw there are 6 incisors, mentioned under ‘greasy heel’, where first-aid
2 canines, 6 premolars, and 2 molars; while the and precautionary measures are given. Antibiotics
lower jaw has 6 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars, are helpful in treatment.
and 2 molars. Some cats have only 28 perma- In the tropics, dipping to control ticks
nent teeth; lacking 2 premolars. is regarded as important, and acaricide prepa-
rations used in sheep dips are effective
Rabbits are unique in that they are born with against Dermatophilus. (See also SENKOBO;
permanent teeth. Milk teeth are shed before STREPTOTHRICOSIS.)
birth and may be found in the placenta.
Dermatosis Vegetans
Deoxyribonucleic Acid A hereditary disease of young pigs characterised
(see under DNA) by raised skin lesions, abnormalities of the
hooves, and pneumonia. The semi-lethal reces-
Depilation sive gene probably originated in the Danish
Depilation is the process of the destruction of Landrace. UK outbreaks occurred in 1958 and
hair that takes place during certain skin or other 1964.
180 Dermatosparaxis
Dermatosparaxis lice. It will not kill the nits of the last, however,
A rare feline disease, resembling the human and hence the dressing must be repeated.
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and characterised by Against fleas and lice it can be used as a con-
abnormal elasticity of the skin. The latter and stituent of a dusting powder, or with soap and
its blood vessels also become fragile. Any warm water as a wet shampoo. It is safe for
wound healing takes longer than normal. The cats provided the normal precautions against
disease is inherited. licking are taken – i.e. the bulk of the powder is
brushed out of the coat after 10 minutes or so,
D
Dermis during which licking is prevented – but must be
The layer of the skin between the epidermis and used with caution on young kittens.
the subcutaneous tissue (see SKIN). Derris is highly poisonous to fish – a fact
which must be borne in mind when disposing
Dermoid Cyst of the powder or solutions in circumstances
Dermoid cyst is one of the commonest of the which could lead to river pollution.
teratomatous tumours. It consists usually of a
spherical mass with a surrounding envelope of Derzsy’s Disease
skin. In this there are sebaceous glands and hair A form of viral hepatitis that can cause a high
follicles from which grow long hairs. These, mortality among goslings. The cause is the
together with shed cells and sebaceous material, goose parvovirus strain 1. Signs include dull-
form the central part of the mass. ness, loss of appetite, conjunctivitis and nasal
Dermoid cysts develop subcutaneously in discharge. A mutant virus is used to immunise
various situations, and are also found in ovary layers and so protect their goslings.
or testicle. They arise through the inclusion in
other tissues of a piece of embryonic skin, Desmitis
which continues to grow and produces hair, Inflammation of a ligament.
etc., just as does skin on the surface of the body.
Owing to the cystic structure (i.e. the cavity De-Snooding
being a closed one) there is no means of getting The removal of a turkey poult’s snood, which
rid of shed hair, debris, etc., and these sub- may be pinched out or removed with a suitable
stances accumulating in the centre cause the instrument. De-snooding is done by turkey
cyst to continue slowly increasing in size. farmers because the snood is one of the first
A dermoid sinus is a common congenital parts of the body to be attacked during a fight.
abnormality of the Rhodesian Ridgeback dog. It then provides an ideal site for invasion by
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae or other pathogens.
Treatment No local treatment is of benefit.
Surgical removal of the cyst wall and its con- Desquamation
tents, with the necessary means to obliterate the Desquamation means the scaling off of the
cavity, is desirable with subcutaneous dermoid superficial layers of the skin, and is applied to
cysts. the peeling process that accompanies some
forms of mange and ringworm, as well as to the
Derrengue state of the skin in dry eczema.
A paralysis of cattle occurring in El Salvador,
and attributed to the ingestion of a weed, Destruction (Humane) of
Melochia pyramidata, during periods of drought Animals
when scrub is the only available fodder. The (see EUTHANASIA)
symptoms resemble vampire-bat-transmitted
rabies (Derriengue) and include a paralysis first Detergent Residue
of the hind legs, with knuckling of the fetlocks. Detergent residue in syringes used for spinal
Death usually follows. injections has caused serious demyelinating
complications in humans. Similarly, an
Derriengue unrinsed ‘spinal outfit’ has led to paraplegia in
The Mexican name for vampire-bat-transmit- a dog.
ted rabies. (See VAMPIRE-BATS.)
Detergents
Derris Detergents are substances which cleanse, and
The powder obtained by grinding the root of a many are among the best wetting agents (i.e.
South American plant. It contains rotenone, a substances which lower the surface tension
parasiticide, useful against warbles, fleas, and of water and cause it to spread over a surface
Diabetes Mellitus 181
infection with specific diseases, such as Johne’s feeding are among the causes of diarrhoea.
disease, salmonellosis, lamb dysentery, white (See also JOHNE’S DISEASE; WORMS, FARM
scour, etc.; or the excessive action of purgatives TREATMENT AGAINST; SOIL-CONTAMINATED
given in too large doses. In all of these instances HERBAGE; CAMPYLOBACTER; COCCIDIOSIS;
there are other symptoms which help in the diag- COPPER, POISONING BY; ROTAVIRUS.)
nosis of the condition, and examination of the
diarrhoeic material will often show the presence Pigs The causes are numerous and include: iron
of the agent responsible (see SALMONELLOSIS). deficiency; high fat content of sow’s milk at
about the 3rd week; stress, caused by e.g. long D
Treatment The treatment of diarrhoea from journeys; cold, damp surroundings; change of
specific causes is dealt with under the appropri- diet; vitamin deficiencies; poisons; transmissible
ate headings. (See also WORMS, FARM TREATMENT gastroenteritis (TGE), swine dysentery, porcine
AGAINST.) intestinal adenomatosis and other disease.
If diarrhoea persists, the mere loss of large Viruses responsible include coronavirus and
amounts of fluid from the body may itself rotavirus. Bacteria include E. coli (some strains),
become serious, and it becomes essential to Campylobacter, Salmonella cholerae suis, S. dublin,
replace this fluid. (See under DEHYDRATION.) Clostridium welchii, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
Irrigation of the bowel with warm saline is (the cause of erysipelas); also protozoa, e.g.
useful in some cases of severe diarrhoea in Balantidium coli, coccidia; fungi; yeasts; worms.
puppies. E. coli is regarded as being associated with a
high proportion of outbreaks of scouring,
Adult cattle The best first-aid measure is though it can be obtained from the gut of
to feed hay only. If ‘scouring’ persists beyond virtually any healthy pig. Its precise importance
48 hours, obtain veterinary advice. Specific dis- and roles are explained under E. COLI. E. coli
eases in which diarrhoea is a symptom include vaccines have been administered to sows
AMYLOIDIOSIS; FASCIOLIASIS; JOHNE’S DISEASE; before farrowing on farms where scouring is a
SALMONELLOSIS; PARASITIC GASTROENTERITIS; problem. (See also K88 ANTIGEN.)
TUBERCULOSIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; BOVINE Scouring piglets need plenty of drinking
VIRAL DIARRHOEA. water, for there is always danger of DEHYDRA-
TION. (See also SWINE DYSENTERY; SOW’S MILK;
Calves Neonatal diarrhoea is still regarded as SWINE FEVER; ILEUM; NECROTIC ENTERITIS.)
the most important disease of young calves in
both dairy and beef herds. Mortality varies Dogs Diarrhoea may be associated with
widely from 0 to 80 per cent, and in non-fatal a number of infections, distemper, toxoplasmo-
cases the resultant poor growth-rate and the sis, tuberculosis, nocardiosis; occasionally
cost of life-saving treatment can be a source of with pyometra; with allergies; tumours; and
considerable loss to the farmer. poisoning.
The causes are various. Although pathogenic Diarrhoea may also result from an infestation
strains of E. coli are important in the septicaemic of dog biscuits or meal, stored in large bins,
and enterotoxaemic forms of the disease, there by flour/forage mites (see FLOUR MITE INFESTA-
is doubt concerning the role of E. coli in all TION). (See also SALMONELLOSIS; E. COLI; STRESS;
outbreaks of typical calf scours. PANCREAS; WORMS; CANINE PARVOVIRUS;
Of the many other bacteria which have been CAMPYLOBACTER; ROTAVIRUS; YERSINIOSIS;
associated with the disease, few – with the GIARDIASIS.)
exception of salmonella – can be shown to be Chronic diarrhoea is sometimes caused by
the cause. Clostridium difficile. Metronidazole has proved
For viruses associated with diarrhoea in calves, useful in treatment, though relapses may occur.
see ROTAVIRUS; CORONAVIRUSES; REOVIRUS.
The coronavirus was originally isolated from Cats Similar causes (except distemper) apply. (See
scouring calves in Nebraska, USA, and shown also FELINE INFECTIOUS ENTERITIS; FELINE INFEC-
to be present also in the UK. This virus resem- TIOUS PERITONITIS; COCCIDIOSIS; AEROMONAS;
bles that causing transmissible gastroenteritis of CORONAVIRUSES.)
pigs (TGE). (See also WHITE SCOUR; SALMONEL-
LOSIS; COLOSTRUM.) Horses Clinical evidence has suggested a possi-
ble association between diarrhoea, stress, and
Sheep Lamb dysentery, E. coli infection, coc- antibiotic therapy. For example, a horse which is
cidiosis, parasitic gastroenteritis, salmonellosis, undergoing stress and happens to be a salmonella
poisoning, and a sudden change to grain carrier may develop diarrhoea, and this may
184 Diastema
be exacerbated by tetracycline therapy which Diazinon granules are used for the control of
removes normal bacterial antagonists of the wireworms on lawns and larger areas of grass-
salmonella. Diarrhoea may, of course, be unasso- land. If applied too liberally there is a risk of
ciated with stress, and among the many other poisoning to birds, and also to young cattle.
causes is ulceration of the colon and caecum – In a case involving ornamental peafowl,
probably caused by the thrombo-embolism adult birds fell forwards on to their chests, with
associated with migrating larvae of the worm legs stretched out behind when attempting to
Strongylus vulgaris. (See also FOALS, DISEASES OF; walk. Some could not walk at all. Diarrhoea
D SALMONELLOSIS; EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANAEMIA; and dyspnoea were evident. Sick birds remained
EQUINE VIRAL ENTERITIS; HORSES, WORMS IN; alert but refused food. Two young birds were
GLOBIDIOSIS; CANCER; and POTOMAC HORSE found dead; the ill adults recovered without
FEVER.) treatment.
Whenever an apparently simple diarrhoea
lasts for more than 1 or 2 days, it is wise to seek Dichlorophen
professional advice rather than attempt what A drug of value against tapeworms in the
must at best be only empirical treatment. The dog. Dichlorophen ointment and a spray
temperature is a useful guide to the severity of preparation have been used in the treatment of
the condition, especially in young animals such ringworm in cattle.
as foals and puppies, and in all cases where it
is high it is an indication that there is some Dichlorvos
serious condition complicating the diarrhoea An organophosphorus insecticide and parasiti-
which demands immediate attention. cide used in a range of internal and external
applications. For example, it has been used
Diastema against fowl mites on laying hens and turkeys,
A gap between the front and cheek teeth in and as an aerosol for treating flea infestations in
ruminants. cats and dogs. Strips of resin impregnated with
dichlorvos have been used successfully for the
Diastasis control of dog and cat fleas, over a period of
Diastasis is a term applied to separation of the 3 months or so. (See FLEA COLLARS.) However,
end of a growing bone from the shaft. in common with other organophosphorus
compounds dichlorvos must be used with care
Diastole to avoid toxicity. In the UK the sale of products
Diastole means the relaxation of a hollow containing it is restricted.
organ. The term is applied in particular to the Poultry have died after gaining access to
heart, to indicate the resting period that occurs the faeces of horses dosed with dichlorvos for
between the beats (systoles) while the blood is anthelmintic purposes. Dichlorvos is effective
flowing into the organ. against horse bots as well as round worms.
Diathermy Diclazuril
Diathermy is a process by which electric cur- A drug used for the treatment and prevention
rents can be passed into the deeper parts of the of coccidiosis in turkeys, meat-producing
body so as to produce internal warmth and chickens and lambs.
relieve pain, or, by using powerful currents, to
destroy tumours and diseased parts bloodlessly. Dicoumarol
Short-wave diathermy has been used in the Dicoumarol is chemically related to WARFARIN; it
treatment of muscle, tendon, and ligament is an anti-coagulant and a cause of internal haem-
strains. In horses with e.g. flexor-tendon trou- orrhage. The latter condition may develop after
ble, 20-minute treatments over a period of a cattle have eaten mouldy hay containing sweet
week may be effective. vernal or sweet clovers, the COUMARIN content of
which has been converted to dicoumarol.
Diazepam
A tranquilliser used in the treatment of epilep- Dicrocoelium
sy and some abnormal behaviours in the dog. (see under LIVER-FLUKES)
Valium is a proprietary name.
Dicrotic
Diazinon Dicrotic pulse is one in which at each heartbeat,
An organophosphorus compound used in dips 2 impulses are felt by the finger that is taking
for sheep scab and other ectoparasites. the pulse. A dicrotic wave is normally present
Diet and Dietetics 185
The cereals contain from 60 to 70 per cent of uncomfortable, and every cattle-feeder knows
carbohydrate. The simplest of the carbohy- that without ‘bulk’ to the ration the animals do
drates, such as the simple sugars, are absorbed not do well. Breeding gilts and sows need extra
directly from the gut, while the more complex fibre to stretch their stomachs so that they can
sugars, and still more complex starches, have to accommodate enough concentrated feed during
be reduced by processes of digestion to more lactation to provide for their litters.
simple forms before they can be absorbed and Adequate fibre is necessary to cattle and rab-
be of use to the body. bits for proper muscular activity of the whole
D digestive system. Secondly, the proportion of
Fats or Oils Fat is present in all foods, but the fibre in the diet has an important bearing upon
quantity varies greatly; thus in hay there is 3 per the actual digestion done by living organisms
cent, in turnips there is 0.2 per cent, in cereals within the rumen. Thirdly, a high-protein and
from 2 to 6 per cent, and in linseed as much as low-fibre intake may lead to bloat. Fourthly,
40 per cent, while linseed cake, from which adequate fibre is necessary in the cow’s rations if
most of the fat has been expressed, she is to give a high yield of butterfat and
contains on an average rather less than 10 per solids-not-fat.
cent. In meals produced from fat-rich foods, On the other hand, if too much fibre is given
such as cotton seed or linseed, by extraction in the ration, the animals cannot digest enough
with a solvent, all the oil except some 1 or 2 per food to get sufficient nutriment. Ruminants
cent is removed. make the most use of fibre, then horses, pigs,
Cattle cakes and other foods in which the fat and dogs, in that order. Fattening pigs, though
has gone rancid are dangerous for animals, and requiring a certain amount of fibre, must have
often cause diarrhoea. (See LIPIDS; COD-LIVER the allowance strictly limited, though sows and
OIL POISONING.) boars can do with more.
Proteins The proteins or albuminoids in a Fat The fat that is digested and absorbed may
food differ from the other constituents, in that be oxidised to form energy direct, or it may be
in addition to having carbon, hydrogen, and built up to form body fat. Speaking generally,
oxygen in their composition, they also contain fat has 21/2 times the value of carbohydrates or
nitrogen and usually sulphur and sometimes protein as an energy producer. While a certain
phosphorus. They are very complex substances, amount of fat is necessary in the daily diet of
and are made up of AMINO ACIDS. animals, an excessive amount does harm.
Mineral matter or ash Plants have their own Protein It is not only the amount of protein in
mineral peculiarities; for example, the legumi- the ration which is important, but also the
nous plants are rich in calcium which is so quality of that protein.
necessary for animals; other foods, such as maize, Cereal protein is of poor quality, being defi-
are deficient in calcium, but contain phospho- cient in lysine and methionine; and wheat is
rus; while others again, such as the wheat offals, worse in this respect than barley. Accordingly,
have an unbalanced mineral content. herring, (other) fish, and soya-bean meals are
relatively good sources of the desirable AMINO
Vitamins (see under this heading) ACIDS.
For substitution of some of the protein in a
Function of food constituents ration or diet, see under UREA.
For health in all animals, adequate protein of
Carbohydrates The carbohydrates are chiefly good quality is essential in the diet. Failure to
utilised for the production of energy and heat, provide it can result in economic loss to farm-
and what is not required for immediate use is ers; losses often being far higher than the cost of
stored as fat which is to be regarded as a reserve the ‘extra’ necessary protein. Excess protein, on
story of energy. the other hand, can bring its own problems. (See
under ACETONAEMIA, for example.)
Fibre A certain amount of crude fibre is nec-
essary in the diet of all animals except those Minerals, trace elements These are essen-
under 31/2 weeks of age, when all young domes- tial for bone formation and maintenance, milk
ticated animals are on a fluid diet and most are production, fertility, and the metabolism as a
supported solely by suckling. If animals, espe- whole. The essential minerals and trace ele-
cially herbivorous animals, are given insuffi- ments are phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potas-
cient fibre they fail to thrive, are restless and sium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper,
Diet and Dietetics 187
zinc, sulphur, iodine and cobalt. Not only are Preparation of foods Some foods are fed
they essential, but the balance is important, too: to animals in the natural state, while others are
the ratio of one to another. For example, as prepared in some such way as by grinding,
mentioned under CALCIUM SUPPLEMENTS, the bruising, cutting, chaffing, boiling, steaming,
ratio of this mineral to phosphorus can mean or soaking in water. Oats may be bruised for
the difference between health and ill health. hard-working horses, for colts changing their
Proprietary concentrates from reputable teeth, and for calves; there is undoubtedly a
manufacturers ensure a feed for farm animals slight increase in the digestibility of bruised
with well-balanced minerals and trace elements over whole grain, but for an economic advan-
D
as a rule, and this is something which cannot tage the total cost of bruising should be less
always be achieved in a farm mix unless a than 10 per cent of the whole grain. Beans
proprietary minerals premix is used. should be split or ‘kibbled’ for horses, as the
On some soils, deficiencies of certain trace tough seed-coat makes them difficult to masti-
elements may occur so that special supplements cate. Maize also is more easily eaten if it is
may be needed. cracked.
For further information, see under METABOLIC Grinding grains to a meal is advisable for
PROFILE TESTS; TRACE ELEMENTS; CONCEN- pigs, but it is important that the particle size be
TRATES; FELINE JUVENILE OSTEODYSTROPHY; not too small. Absence of milk in the recently
PIGLET ANAEMIA; IODINE DEFICIENCY; COBALT; farrowed sow and bowel oedema may be associ-
SALT. ated with meal particles that are too fine.
conditions about one-fifth of the nutritive wheat straw does not contain sufficient protein
value of the diet was lost to the pig through for the maintenance of health in yearling bul-
progressive infestation with flour mites. locks, but wheat straw in combination with
good quality hay will do so. (See RATIONS –
Palatability It is important that foods Winter rationing.)
offered to animals should be palatable and The most practical application of mainte-
appetising. Some foods are not very palatable, nance and production rations is in use where
such as palm kernel cake or meal, but may be the cows are fed according to their milk yield.
D made more palatable by mixing with some
molasses or locust bean meal. On the other Substitutional dieting A farmer who has
hand, foods which are naturally palatable may fixed a daily ration for, e.g., his dairy cows, and
become very unappetising if they have been desires to change some of the constituents in
allowed to get damp and musty. The inclusion the diet by substituting other foods, should
of even a small quantity of musty food – such note that if foods are merely changed haphaz-
as foxy oats and mouldy hay – in a ration spoils ardly weight for weight it is almost certain that
the whole food. The greatest care should be the diet will be altered appreciably. For exam-
taken to see that the food is fresh and whole- ple, if 3.5 kg (5 lb) of maize is substituted for
some and that food-troughs and water-troughs 3.5 kg of oats in a horse’s ration, the animal will
are kept clean. be getting more nutriment than formerly, as
For dangers of poisoning by mouldy food, see 36 kg (80 lb) of oats are equal to 27 kg (60lb)
AFLATOXINS and MYCOTOXICOSIS. of maize. Again, oat straw, pound for pound,
has rather less than half the nutriment found in
Variety and mixtures Animals benefit meadow hay, and so on. (See STARCH EQUIVA-
from variety in their rations. It is often found LENT; PROTEIN EQUIVALENT; RATIONS; DRIED
that while a given ration may give excellent GRASS; SILAGE; UREA.)
results for a time, there is a tendency for animals When substituting one food for another it is
to eat the food without zest. This applies less to important that the change be made gradually.
pigs and horses than to cattle, sheep, poultry, Disastrous results have followed the sudden
dogs and cats. A change, which may be quite change of a diet. (See also NUTRITION, FAULTY;
simple, results in a return of the normal zest. VITAMINS; HORSES, FEEDING OF; DOGS’ DIET;
Also, as a rule, mixtures of several different CAT FOODS.)
foods are more palatable and are better digested
than single food-stuffs. This is partly because Diet During Illness or
during digestion, foods of different origins Convalescence
actually assist to digest each other, and partly (see NURSING)
because if there is any deficiency in a particular
food substance in one food, it may be made Digestibility
good to the animal by being present in another (see DIET)
one of the mixture.
Digestion, Absorption and
Maintenance and production rations Assimilation
Rations given to animals can be divided into Digestion, absorption and assimilation are the 3
2 parts, a maintenance and a production part. A processes by which food is incorporated into
maintenance ration may be described as that the body.
which will maintain an animal that is in a rest-
ing and non-producing condition and in good Salivary digestion begins as soon as the
health, in the same condition and at the same food enters the mouth and becomes mixed with
weight for an indefinite period. saliva secreted by the salivary glands. It is not
A production ration is that part of the daily very thorough in animals, such as the dog,
diet which is given in excess of maintenance which bolt their food without careful chewing,
requirements, and which is available for being but in the horse during feeding, and in the ox
converted into energy, as in working horses, or and sheep while rumination is proceeding, it is
into milk, or into fat or wool, or is used for more effective, especially when starchy foods
growth. are eaten. Raw starches, which are very often
It will be clear that a maintenance ration by enclosed in a matrix of cellulose or woody
itself is uneconomical, since it gives no return. material, are not acted upon to any great extent
In devising a maintenance ration it should be until the cellulose covering has been dissolved,
clearly understood that any food will not do; through the action of bacteria, in other parts of
Digestion, Absorption and Assimilation 189
the system. Saliva has no digestive action upon oesophageal groove, so that the dam’s milk
proteins. In the domesticated dog, however, by-passes the rumen (where it could not be
there seems little doubt that when given dry effectively digested).
biscuits, which necessitate a certain amount of After the food has been subjected to the
chewing, some salivary digestion does occur. action of the organisms in the rumen, and has
Saliva contains the enzyme ptyalin, an been chewed for a second time as ‘cud’, it is sent
a-amylase, which actively changes the insoluble on into the 3rd stomach or omasum for further
starch of carbohydrate foods into partly soluble breaking up by trituration, and then into the
sugars, but the process requires consummation true stomach or abomasum where digestive D
by the enzymes of the small intestines. Ptyalin glands are present, and where a form of diges-
is only able to act in an alkaline medium, and tion similar to that which occurs in the stomach
its action therefore ceases as soon as the food of other animals takes place.
has become permeated with acid gastric juice in
the stomach. Intestinal digestion The softened semi-
fluid material which leaves the stomach is
Stomach digestion begins shortly after the commonly known as ‘chyme’; it has an acid
food enters the true stomach and continues till reaction, since it has been well mixed with the
it leaves this organ. There are great differences hydrochloric or lactic acid in the stomach.
in the domesticated animals, due to the fact Shortly after entering the small intestine it
that some, e.g. ruminants, have a compound meets with alkaline fluids and its acidity is neu-
stomach. tralised. This occurs through the action of the
In animals with a simple stomach, such as the bile from the liver and of the pancreatic juice
horse, pig and dog, when food enters the stom- from the pancreas. These fluids are similar in
ach, ‘gastric juice’ is secreted from the digestive that they are both alkaline, but differ greatly in
glands situated in its walls. This juice contains their functions. The bile is partly composed of
the enzyme pepsin, which, in the presence of complex salts and pigments (see BILE). Its func-
dilute hydrochloric acid, also produced by these tion is fourfold: it aids the emulsification of
glands, acts upon the protein constituents. fats, dividing large droplets into tiny globules
Gastric lipase is another enzyme, present both which are more easily split into their compo-
in ruminants and in simple-stomached animals, nent parts by other enzymes prior to absorp-
which is concerned with preliminary digestion tion; it assists in keeping the intestinal contents
of fats. fluid and preventing undue fermentation and
In the horse, food stays in the stomach till it is putrefaction through its slight antiseptic action
about two-thirds full, and is then hurried through against putrefactive organisms; it stimulates
to the small intestine to make room for further peristalsis to some extent; and it gives the faeces
amounts entering from the mouth. In spite of their characteristic colour. The pancreatic juice
this the stomach is practically never found empty contains at least 3 enzymes which are probably
after death – unless the horse has been starved. sufficient in themselves to ensure complete
In the pig and dog, food is retained in the digestion of a food. Trypsin is active in the
stomach for a variable time according to the further splitting up of protein substances which
state in which it was swallowed, and is thor- have been partly acted upon by the pepsin
oughly churned and mixed with gastric juice. of the stomach. The next pancreatic enzyme
During this time the softer portions along with is amylopsin. It acts on carbohydrate con-
fluids and semi-fluids are squeezed through the stituents, splitting them up into sugars and
pylorus into the intestine. other substances, but not carrying the process
In the ruminating farm animals – cattle and far enough to allow of complete absorption.
sheep – stomach digestion is complicated by the Amylopsin has an action similar to that of the
presence of 3 compartments before the true ptyalin of saliva, but can act upon raw starch.
stomach, or abomasum, is reached. These are Lipase, or steapsin, is the fat-splitting enzyme
concerned with the preparation of the food of the pancreatic fluid. It acts upon the tiny
before it enters the abomasum for true diges- globules of fat which have been emulsified by
tion. Although the rumen possesses no true the bile, etc., and splits them into their com-
digestive glands, a considerable part of the diges- pounds – glycerol and a fatty acid, the latter
tive process takes place in it through the activity depending upon the origin of the fat.
of cellulose-splitting and other organisms. (See Secretions from the intestines contain a
also RUMINAL DIGESTION.) number of enzymes of which the most impor-
In the unweaned calf, the act of sucking tant are erepsin, enterokinase, maltase, lactase,
apparently stimulates reflex closure of the and invertase. The 1st of these completes the
190 Digital Dermatitis
breaking up of any protein which may have extract lime salts, muscles take proteins and
escaped the action of the pepsin and trypsin. sugars, etc. When the supply of food is much in
Enterokinase is concerned with the formation excess of immediate requirements the surplus is
of trypsin from its fore-runner trypsinogen, and stored up, e.g. as glycogen in liver or muscle
the last 3 complete the splitting up of carbohy- fibres.
drates into soluble sugars. Bacteria also have a
most important digestive function in the Digital Dermatitis
intestines. In the large intestines of herbivorous A condition in cattle usually affecting the skin
D animals they have a cellulose-splitting action, above the bulb of the heel. The animal is very
which is somewhat allied to fermentation, and lame. The cause is probably a spirochete,
is similar to the activity of the organisms pre- Borrelia burgorferi.
sent in the 1st stomachs of ruminants. They act
upon fats in a similar manner to the pancreatic Treatment Clean the affected area and use
juice; they form certain volatile obnoxious an oxytetracycline spray. For herd treatment,
substances (indole and skatole) from proteins, lyncomycin/spectomycin footbaths may be
which give the faeces their characteristic odour; used. Antiseptic foot baths may help prevent
they produce lactic acid in certain cases; the infection.
and they may even destroy alkaloidal poisons
which have been formed during other stages of Digitalis
digestion. Digitalis is a preparation from the leaf of the
wild foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, gathered
Absorption Water passes through the stom- when the flowers are at a certain stage.
ach into the intestines almost immediately. But The leaves contain glycosides, including
it is only after subjection to digestion in the digoxin, digitoxin, gitoxin, and gitalin; the
intestines for some hours that the bulk of the seeds contain another glycoside, digitalin. The
food is taken up into the system. The chyme purified glycosides digoxin and digitoxin are
which leaves the stomach is converted by the used medicinally.
action of the bile and pancreatic fluids into a Digitalis is used in the treatment of chronic
yellowish-grey or a brownish-green fluid of heart disease, in dogs mainly. The action of the
creamy consistency called ‘chyle’, containing in heart is slowed down, the drug increasing the
the herbivorous animals particles of hay, oats, length of diastole, and at the same time it is
grass, etc. From this the fats are absorbed (after strengthened.
emulsification and breakdown) by the lymph Digitalis must be used with care, as the digi-
vessels or ‘lacteals’ which occupy the centre of toxin is excreted only slowly and there is a
each of the ‘villi’ of the small intestines. (See cumulative effect which can readily lead to poi-
VILLUS.) From the lacteals the fat globules are soning. Its use in cats is inadvisable, and liable
collected by the lymph vessels of the intestines to cause vomiting. This, together with loss of
and are ultimately passed into the bloodstream. appetite, depression, and bradycardia, may
Sugar, salts, and soluble proteins pass directly occur in some dogs even with normal dosage.
into the small blood vessels in the walls of the The drug is usually used in the purified form
intestines, and are thence carried to the liver as digoxin or digitoxin.
and so enter the general circulation.
The food is passed onwards through the Digitalis poisoning may occur from a sin-
various folds and coils of the intestines, each gle, large dose or from prolonged administra-
particular part of the bowel wall removing some tion. The heart’s action may become irregular.
portions of the food, and the residual, unab- Diarrhoea may occur.
sorbable, useless constituents are eventually In grazing animals poisoning may result
discharged from the rectum and anus during from the eating of the plant rosettes. Foxgloves
the process of defecation. included in hay have also caused poisoning.
including horses. It may be given in the food, Dioxin contaminated milk on a farm near a
when it acts in about 24 hours. toxic waste disposal plant in the Netherlands.
The dioxin was emitted during the destruction
Dimethicone of polyvinyl plastic (PVC); it may be present in
An anti-frothing agent used in the treatment of the exhaust from incinerators or other industri-
‘frothy bloat’ in cattle (see under BLOAT). al processes. Dioxin contamination of animal
feed in Belgium led to the condemning of meat
Dimetridazole and other food products during 1999.
Dimetridazole is a drug used for the treatment D
and prevention of histomoniasis in turkeys, Diphtheria, Calf
pheasants and chickens and trichomoniasis and (see CALF DIPHTHERIA)
histomoniosis in pheasants and partridges. It is
the treatment of choice for trichomoniasis in Diphtheria, Guttural Pouch, of
pigeons as no staining of the tail feathers Horses
results. It is still used in the UK and elsewhere (see GUTTURAL POUCH DISEASE)
but is banned in many EU countries.
Diplegia
Dimidium Bromide Paralysis on both sides of the body.
A trypanocide effective against Trypanosoma
congolense. Diplostomum
Diplostomum is a fluke which lives in the eye
Dinoprost of salmonids. The intermediate hosts are snails
A synthetic preparation of prostaglandin F2α and water birds, especially gulls.
(see PROSTAGLANDINS).
Diprosopus
Dioctophymosis Duplication of the face. This is a type of
Infestation with the kidney worm, Dioctophyma conjoined twinning.
renale, a parasite of dogs encountered in
Europe, America, and Asia. A survey of 500 Dips and Dipping
dogs in Iran revealed an incidence of 1.3 per In Britain mostly sheep are dipped, but beef
cent. Stray dogs and jackals have been found cattle may also be dipped with advantage.
infested. Man may become infested through the Dipping is an important means of tick control
eating of fish. (See also under ROUNDWORMS.) in cattle, and is widely practised in the tropics.
Sheep are dipped in order: (1) to eradicate
Diodone the commoner parasitic agents, such as keds,
A contrast medium used in radiography of the lice, ticks, etc.; (2) to act as a check upon the
kidneys. spread of mange in the sheep, commonly called
‘sheep scab’, and where that disease has broken
Dioestrus out, to cure it; and (3) to prevent attack by the
The resting, or inactive, phase of the sexual sheep-blowflies and consequent infestation
cycle in the female, during which progesterone with maggots. Dipping is no longer compulso-
is secreted by the corpus luteum. This causes ry in Britain and a serious increase in outbreaks
the mare, for example, to reject the stallion and of sheep scab has resulted.
induces changes in the reproductive tract In Britain, dips contain the amidine,
designed to provide a suitable environment for organophosphorus compounds, mainly diazinon
development of the embryo. In the mare, or protemphos; or the pyrethroids, cypermethrin
dioestrus normally lasts 15 to 16 days and is or flumethrin.
terminated by the release of 1 or more luteolyt-
ic factors from the endometrium which induces Precautions Purchasers and users of
regression of the corpus luteum. (See OESTRUS.) organophosphorus sheep dips must hold a cer-
tificate of competence in the safe use of sheep
Dioxin dips issued by the National Proficiency Tests
Dioxin is a toxic chemical formed as an impu- Council. Protective clothing must be worn, care
rity during the synthesis of trichlorophenol and taken to avoid inhaling dust or spray, and
its derivatives. Accidental exposure may lead splashes on the skin washed off immediately.
to cancer; skin, eye, blood and liver damage; All owners should ensure that any dips they
and also to abortion, fetal malformation and purchase carry on their labels the statement that
chromosomal aberrations. the dip has been approved by the Ministry of
192 Dips and Dipping
Agriculture and Fisheries. The following maggots or have been ill, should not be dipped
precautions should be observed when sheep are until the skin is whole and until they have other-
dipped: wise recovered. This is another reason why
1. For 1 month or 5 weeks after service, ewes dipping should not immediately follow shearing.
should not be dipped lest abortion result. 8. Sheep must not be turned out on to graz-
Pregnant ewes require careful handling to avoid ing land immediately after being dipped, for
injury, but with care they may be dipped almost the drainage from the fleeces contaminates the
up to the time they lamb, provided that the herbage, and the sheep, being hungry, may eat
D weather is favourable. sufficient dip-sodden grass to produce poison-
2. Early spring washing or dipping must be ing. They should be allowed about 15 minutes
carried out with a solution which does not harm in the draining pens.
the wool, making the fibres brittle or stained. 9. After dipping operations are finished the
3. Summer dipping should take place when dip should be disposed of in such a way that there
there is a sufficiency of fleece to carry and hold is no danger of it contaminating water-supplies,
the dip, and when parasites may most easily be ponds, streams, etc. (See FISH, POISONING OF.)
destroyed, i.e. from 3 to 5 weeks after clipping.
4. Autumn dipping should be finished before Baths and Their Use The bath to be used
the 1st frosts of the season begin, and when the depends on many circumstances, such as num-
weather is so much settled that rain is not bers to be dipped, land and materials available,
expected during the next 24 hours. and so on. The best material to use is concrete,
5. Sheep should be offered a drink of water and the most popular shape is that shown in the
before being dipped in hot weather, as there is illustration. The dimensions for the various
some risk of thirsty animals drinking the dip, animals are as shown in the table (the figures are
with fatal results if it is a poisonous variety. only given as a general guide).
6. Sheep should be rested before actual In order to avoid waste of dip, the farmer
immersion, especially if recently brought in needs to know how much liquid the bath will
from a hill, or when they have walked a distance hold, and also needs a calibrated stick or side-
to the dipper. This is particularly important in marking to indicate the volume of liquid still in
hot weather. the bath at all stages of dipping.
7. Sheep with open wounds or sores, and What is sometimes overlooked is the fact
those that have recently been attacked with that a sheep with wool 2.5 to 4 cm (1 to 11⁄2
inches) long will not merely remove perma- the wool but, apparently, not sideways, so that
nently at least 2.25 litres (1/2 gallon) of liquid, if a patch is left unsprayed it remains vulnerable
but will strain off additional insecticide. This to strike.
necessitates ‘topping up’ of the dip wash at
double strength as compared with the liquid Protective clothing Operators engaged in
used for the first filling of the bath. dipping or spraying must use protective
It is a false economy not to top up before the clothing. The latest guidance issued by the
last 20 or 30 sheep are put through the dip, manufacturers or government agencies should be
since any saving of money thereby could later followed. Basically, protection such as coveralls, D
be more than offset by those animals becoming waterproof apron or leggings, wellington boots
victims of strike. Disappointing results of any and elbow-length rubber gloves, a face shield and
dip can also follow if sheep are immersed for far hat should be worn; details vary with the type of
short of 30 seconds; or if they are soaking wet product used. There is a National Proficiency
when they enter the bath, for then their fleeces Test Council certificate in personal protection
can carry much less than the normal quantity of equipment for those regularly involved in the use
wash. of dips and sprays.
Arsenic-dipped animals should never be Farmers should familiarise themselves
allowed on to pasturage until there is no risk of with the guidelines on the storage, use and
contamination of grass. disposal of dips issued by the manufacturers
In all cases the animal should be totally and the Veterinary Medicines Directorate.
immersed at least once (hence the abrupt com-
mencement of the bath), and special attention Diquat
should be paid to the ears and tail. Dipping This herbicide has caused fatal poisoning in
must be thorough. cattle, 4 years after the discarding of a container.
One dipping will seldom (if ever) be effective
in ridding an animal of parasites, as the dip may Dirofilariasis
not affect the eggs. The dip must accordingly be (see HEARTWORMS)
repeated at suitable intervals. Against keds, dips
should be repeated in 3 to 4 weeks, and against Disbudding
mange in about 7 to 10 days. Disbudding is the removal of, or the prevention
of growth in, the horn buds in calves, kids,
Lameness Especially in warm climates, where and sometimes in lambs. (See DE-HORNING OF
the dip has been allowed to remain in the tank CATTLE; GOATS, DISBUDDING OF KIDS.)
and has become dirty, there is a danger of sheep
becoming lame after dipping. This results from Disc, Intervertebral
infection with Erysipelothrix rhusiospathiae (see (see under SPINE)
under SWINE ERYSIPELAS) through any cuts or
abrasions. Such lameness does not follow the use Discospondylosis
of a freshly prepared dip. It has been obviated by Inflammation of the intervertebral discs of the
the addition to the dip of tetramethyl thiuram spinal column.
disulphide; this controls any bacteria which
contaminate the dip liquid. Non-phenolic sheep ‘Disease-Free’ Animals (In
dips have little or no action against bacteria. Research)
The availability of animals born and reared free
Spraying Dipping of all animals involves con- from infection is an important tool in the study
siderable trouble, expensive equipment, and in of disease. The technique is used in laboratory
most cases is static so that animals must come animals and has had particular application in
to the dipper. The use of modern sprays and pigs, as described below.
jets, whereby the chemical agent is directed on Piglet mortality is one of the main sources of
to the animal’s skin with considerable force, has economic loss to the pig industry, and it is in
some advantages over dipping and is partly the study of important piglet diseases that spe-
replacing dipping in some countries (see SPRAY cial laboratory pigs are necessary. Without such
RACE; also JETTING). In Britain, those who prac- animals, research work may not only be ham-
tise spraying, as opposed to dipping, would be pered or even brought to a standstill by natural
unwise to rely on more than 3 weeks’ protection infections, but complications may also arise.
against strike. This is partly because less insecti- From the moment the piglet leaves the secu-
cide remains in the fleece after spraying; also, rity of the uterus and enters the birth-canal it
the organophosphorus insecticides move down becomes exposed to an infected environment.
194 Diseases
Under natural conditions it is protected, against fact, non-pathogenic bacteria are deliberately
this environment, to a greater or lesser degree, introduced by feeding pasteurised, instead of
by the wide range of antibodies received from sterilised, milk from the 4th day of life onwards.
its dam in the first milk, the colostrum. When These pigs are not, therefore, in the same
deprived of colostrum piglets almost always category as germ-free GNOTOBIOTIC animals.
die. But the research worker wishes to avoid Production of ‘disease-free’ pigs was begun at
the feeding of colostrum, since it may well Cambridge primarily to permit the critical
contain antibodies against the disease under investigation of pig diseases, particularly diseases
D investigation. of sucking pigs, but such pigs have obvious
The problem is, then, to rear piglets which advantages for nutritional and genetic studies
are both disease-free and devoid of antibodies. because the technique does eliminate that
In principle, the solution to the problem is a unpredictable variable, disease. (See also SPF.)
simple one. All that needs to be done is to
obtain the piglets before they reach the infected Diseases
environment and to rear them away from pos- NOSOCOMIAL; IATROGENIC; STOCKMEN/
(see
sible infection, so that colostrum is unnecessary. WOMEN)
In practice, these requirements are not easily
met. However, by using a technique developed Diseases of Animals Acts
in the USA at the University of Nebraska, ‘dis- Legislation relating to animal health, including
ease-free’, antibody-devoid pigs have been the Diseases of Animals Act 1950, was consoli-
produced. dated under the Animal Health Act 1981,
The piglets are taken direct from the sow’s which also includes the relevant Orders made
uterus a day or 2 before the estimated farrowing under the various Acts. It is administered by the
date. The sow is anaesthetised, the whole uterus Animal Health Division of the Ministry of
carefully but rapidly removed and passed Agriculture.
through a bath of disinfectant, into a sterilised It covers the diseases listed under NOTIFIABLE
hood. The hood is supplied with warm, filtered DISEASES.
air under slight pressure, and 2 operators, work- The Act and Orders provide for the compul-
ing through long-sleeved rubber gloves, take sory notification of the existence or suspected
the piglets from the uterus. Their navel cords existence of these diseases; for the immediate
are tied off, and they are dried with sterile isolation or segregation of diseased or suspected
towels. The piglets are then transferred, by animals; for the diagnosis of suspected disease
means of a sealed carrying case, to sterile incu- by specially trained persons; for the slaughter,
bator units kept in a heated isolation room. The treatment or vaccination of diseased or suspect-
incubators, each of which holds 1 pig, are ed animals where appropriate and for the
equipped with filter pads so that both the air disposal of carcases and other waste where nec-
entering the unit and that passing out into the essary; for the payment of compensation to
exhaust system is filtered. owners in certain cases; for the apprehension
During the first few days of their indepen- and punishment of offenders; for the systemat-
dent existence, great care is necessary to protect ic inspection of markets, fairs, sales, exhibitions,
the young animals from bacteria in general. The etc., and for the seizure of diseased or suspected
attendant wears mask and cap in addition to animals therein; for regulating the transit and
rubber gloves and overalls. Subsequently, masks transport of animals by land or water, both
and caps are unnecessary. The diet, which con- within the country and in the home waters; for
sists of pasteurised milk, eggs and minerals, is controlling the importation of animals and
sterilised by heat for the first 3 days of life, things which may introduce one or other of
but not thereafter. The piglets are fed from these diseases from abroad; and for inspection
flat-bottomed trays 3 times daily – morning, at the ports and quarantine or slaughter where
midday and late afternoon. There are no night necessary.
feeds. After some 10 days in the incubator units The following regulations have a general
the young pigs are transferred to individual application to all scheduled diseases, but in
open cages in another isolation pen. There they practically every case there is at least one Order
are rapidly weaned to solid food. Later, the pigs applicable to the particular disease, in which
are mixed together and treated as ordinary ones there is set out more fully regulations dealing
except that, of course, precautions are taken to with that disease. These Orders can be obtained
prevent accidental infection. through the Stationery Office, and must be
Pigs reared by this technique are in a state consulted individually if complete information
of minimal disease: they are not germ-free. In is required.
Disinfectants 195
isal, cyllin, creolin, cresylin, Jeyes’ fluid, or one Steam cleaning may be carried out as part of
of the proprietary preparations. These are used a disinfection process.
as 3 to 5 per cent solutions for practically all
purposes of disinfection about a farm premises, Movable objects All pails, grooming tools,
and very often as antiseptics also. Their action wheelbarrows, shovels, forks, etc. which have
is enhanced by the use of hot water instead of been used for the infected animals must also be
cold. None is suitable for use in connection disinfected before they can be considered safe
with food, for all are to a greater or lesser degree for further use.
D poisonous. Cresols are not very effective against
many viruses or bacterial spores. The cresols are Dislocation
related to PHENOL. Dislocation is a displacement of a bone from its
Formalin is sometimes used as a solution for normal position in relation to a joint. Deformity
disinfecting floors, about 5 per cent strength is produced, and there may be intense pain if the
being necessary. Formaldehyde gas may be used part is interfered with. As well as displacement
for fumigation of livestock buildings where there is also bruising of the soft tissues around
viral or other diseases have occurred. (See under the joints, and tearing of the ligaments which
DISINFECTION.) bind the bones together.
Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) is widely used Probably the most common dislocation is
and effective. Depending on the dilution and that of the patella, which becomes lodged on
formulation it can be used as a general disinfec- the uppermost part of the outer ridge of the
tant and in, for example, sterilising milking patellar surface of the femur and is unable to
machines. It has the advantage of leaving no extricate itself from this position. In the dog,
taint, as it breaks down into salt and water. dislocation of the shoulder joint is by no means
rare.
Disinfection The causes of dislocations are similar to those
Disinfection of buildings cannot be achieved by which produce fracture, e.g. violence applied in
applying a disinfectant solution to walls and such a manner that the structures around the
floors which are heavily contaminated with dirt. joint are unable to withstand the stress. (For
There are 2 reasons for this: (1) the disinfectant inherited abnormality in dogs, see under PATELLA.)
cannot reach most of the micro-organisms,
which will be protected by layers of dirt; and (2) Signs The injured limb is useless, and as a rule
the latter may alter the nature of the disinfectant is held off the ground in an unnatural attitude.
solution chemically, rendering it ineffective. There is generally little or no pain so long as the
Preliminary cleaning is therefore essential. parts are not forcibly moved; but if a nerve
The building must first be thoroughly scraped, trunk is pressed upon, the animal may perspire
brushed, and cleansed. Concrete floors may be with the pain. When the limb is compared with
power-hosed, and scraped free from all dirt that of the opposite side there is seen a marked
and debris. A hot detergent solution such as 2.5 difference in its contours or outline – the joint
to 4 per cent washing-soda is then thoroughly affected shows hollows or prominences where
scrubbed into floors, walls, stall partitions, none is seen in the normal limb. There is a loss
mangers, troughs, or other fittings. of the power of movement, but there is no
grating sound heard when the joint or the
Disinfectants After an outbreak of infectious whole limb is passively moved, such as occurs
disease, buildings and equipment must be treat- when a fracture exists.
ed to remove traces of infection before animals
are rehoused. To be effective, the application of Treatment The reduction of dislocations
disinfectants is the 2nd stage of the process of necessitates the use of anaesthesia.
disinfection – cleaning being the 1st stage.
In certain cases it may be desirable to fumi- Displaced Abomasum
gate the building. All air entrances and exits are A condition encountered in cattle some weeks
securely closed, the inside of the walls and roof after calving and leading to a lack of appetite.
soaked with water, and formaldehyde gas Displacement can be left or right; left is more
generated (e.g. by pouring on to 250 g of potas- common. (See under STOMACH, DISEASES OF.)
sium permanganate 500 ml of formalin per
1000 cu ft of air space.) All doors and windows Disposal of Carcases
are left shut for a day, and the building is then Carcases must be disposed of under the Animal
flushed out with clean water under pressure By-products Order 1999. It is an offence to
from a hose-pipe. leave the carcase of an agricultural mammal
Disposal of Carcases 197
unburied for 48 hours. Carcases may be sent to conform with local environmental health rules.
a knacker’s yard or a destructor. Burning on the Dead horses and cattle, and large sheep and
farm is possible, but may only be done by pigs, should not be dismembered and destroyed
permission of the Environmental Protection in such a manner; they must be burned in a
Agency. Moreover, where the cause of death has specially constructed cremation pit.
been a contagious disease there is always the There are 3 methods of cremation: (1) the
risk of healthy animals becoming directly or crossed trench; (2) the Bostock pit; and (3) the
indirectly affected, and of the disease spreading surface burning method.
accordingly. In most progressive countries there In the crossed trench, 2 trenches 1.2 m (7 ft) D
are government regulations which provide for long are dug so that they form a cross. Each is
the safe disposal of the carcases of animals that about 40 cm (15 in) wide and 45 cm (18 in)
have died from any of the notifiable contagious deep in the centre, becoming shallower towards
diseases, such as anthrax, foot-and-mouth the extremities of the limbs. The soil is thrown
disease, cattle plague, etc., but it is important on to the surface in the angles of the cross, and
that all carcases should be safely and efficiently upon the mounds so made, 2 or 3 stout pieces
disposed of, no matter what has been the cause of iron, beams of wood, or branches from a tree
of death. are placed. Straw and faggots are piled in the
The safest and most expeditious manner of trenches to the level of the surface of the
disposal is for the carcase to be digested in ground, the carcase is placed across the centre of
a special destructor, either by heat (burning, the trenches, and more wood or coal is piled
or by live steam) or by chemical agents. In around and above it. Two gallons of paraffin oil
country districts, however, such plants as these are poured over the whole, and the straw is lit.
are seldom available, and it is necessary to bury In the Bostock pit, an oval pit 2.25 m (7 ft)
or burn the carcases. long and 1.25 m (4 ft) wide is dug to a depth of
1 to 1.25 m (3 to 4 ft), and a crossed trench 20
Burial of carcases A suitable site should × 20 cm (9 × 9 in) is dug in its floor. Upon the
be selected where there will be no danger of windward side of the pit a ventilation trench
pollution of streams, rivers, canals, or other 1.25 m (4 ft) long and 50 cm (1 ft 6 in) wide,
water-supplies, and where there is a sufficiency and a 30 cm (1 ft) deeper than the main pit,
of subsoil to allow a depth of 2 m (6 ft) of soil and at right angles to it, is dug. A field drain-
above the carcase. A pit is dug, about 2.5 to pipe is placed in a tunnel connecting the trench
3 m (8 or 9 ft) deep, in such a manner that the with the pit, and this pipe is stuffed with straw.
surface soil and the subsoil are not mixed, and Straw is laid in the bottom of the main pit,
a clear approach is left to its edge. Roughly, wood or coal is piled above it so that about
about 2.5 to 3 m2 (21⁄2 to 3 sq yd) of surface are three-quarters of the pit is filled, and the carcase
required for a horse, 1.25 to 2.5 m2 (11⁄2 to 21⁄2 is next rolled into the pit. More wood or coal is
sq yd) for an ox, and about 1 m2 (1 sq yd) for piled around and above it, and paraffin oil
each pig or sheep. The dead animal should be poured over the whole. The straw is finally lit in
arranged upon its back with the feet upwards. the bottom of the ventilation trench. A carcase
The carcase is next covered with quicklime or a cremated by this method takes about 8 to 10
powerful disinfectant, and the pit filled in with hours to burn away, and requires little or no
the soil – subsoil first and surface soil last. If the attention. When burning is complete the soil is
weather is very wet, or if the soil is naturally replaced and the ground levelled.
loose and soft, the surface of the ground should The surface burning method is mainly used
be fenced off to prevent horses and cattle from where there are numbers of animals to be
passing over it and perhaps sinking into the burned. One long trench is dug about 50 cm
loose soil. It is not safe to plough over a large (1 ft 6 in) deep and 30 cm (1 ft) wide, and
burial pit for 6 months after it has been closed, about 1 m (3 ft) length is allowed for each
nor should heavy implements or vehicles be cattle carcase. At intervals along each side there
allowed to pass over it. are placed side flues to coincide with each car-
case. Fuel (straw, wood, and coal) is placed
Cremation of carcases Where a large coal around the central trench and the carcases are
boiler or furnace is used for heating supplies of drawn across it. More fuel is heaped around and
water, there is no reason why, occasionally, the between them, and paraffin oil or petrol is
carcases of small animals that have died should sprayed over the whole. The straw is lit. More
not be burned in it. However, special incinera- fuel needs to be added at intervals.
tors are used where small animal carcases are Instead of the trench and side flues, battens
routinely disposed of; they must be sited to of stout wood are sometimes laid upon the
198 Disposal of Veterinary Clinical Waste (UK)
ground, and the carcases pulled over them. Fuel Felidae (cats) are not susceptible except for lions.
is piled around them and lit, and more is added An outbreak in the Serengeti National Park in
as required. This latter method is specially Tanzania appears to have been brought under
applicable where the ground is very wet, or control by vaccination of the dogs belonging to
where there is rock immediately below the soil the local population. In the terminal stages of
and digging is impossible. distemper in the fox, the animal becomes paral-
ysed and froths at the mouth, giving rise to the
Precautions Where the carcase of an animal suspicion of rabies.
D that has died from a contagious disease is being Injection of dogs with measles or rinderpest
disposed of in one of the above ways, it is essen- virus confers immunity against distemper.
tial to ensure that blood or discharges are not
spilled upon the ground in the process of Canine distemper is an infectious disease
removal. An efficient method of preventing this mainly of young dogs, characterised usually by a
is to stuff tow saturated with some strong disin- rise in temperature, dullness, and loss of appetite,
fectant into all the natural orifices – nostrils, and in the later stages by a catarrhal discharge
mouth, anus, etc. – and to cover the surface of from the eyes and nostrils. The disease is often
the improvised sleigh (door or gate) with pieces complicated by broncho-pneumonia, and in
of old sacking which have been soaked with some cases nervous symptoms develop, either
disinfectant, so that parts of the carcase do not when the febrile conditions subside, or before this
become chafed through friction with the happens. The incubation period of the disease is
ground and so leave behind bloodstains. from 4 to 21 days, though it may be longer.
Everything that has come into contact with the
carcase must be carefully disinfected before it is Cause Canine distemper virus, a morbillivirus.
removed. Old ropes, sacking, and other objects There is only one antigenic type, though
used for handling the dead animal may be various syndromes (including ‘hard pad’) may
burned. The surface of the soil around the edge be associated with various strains, some of
of the pit, upon which the carcase rests, should which can suppress or impair the body’s natur-
be scraped off and thrown into the fire or pit so al defence systems, and this has a bearing
that any blood or discharges may be rendered upon possible complications due to secondary
harmless. Finally, all attendants should be bacterial infections.
impressed with the risks they run in handling Certain bacteria are responsible for sec-
diseased carcases, and with the risks there are of ondary lesions; for example, Bordetella is often
contaminating other healthy cattle. Appropriate responsible for bronchitis.
biosecurity measures, including the use of Cases of distemper may be complicated by
protective clothing, disinfected or discarded the coexistence of other infections such as
before leaving the premises, must be observed. CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS, LEPTOSPIROSIS and
TOXOPLASMOSIS.
Disposal in the tropics (see TROPICS – Although it is chiefly in young dogs that the
Carcase disposal) disease is encountered, older dogs are often
affected; as a general rule, however, young ani-
Disposal of Veterinary Clinical mals between the ages of 3 and 12 months are
Waste (UK) the most susceptible.
Such waste is defined by the Health and Safety KLEBSIELLA infection gives rise to symptoms
Commission as including animal tissue and similar to some of those of distemper.
excretions, drugs or medicinal products, sharp
instruments, or similar materials or substances. Signs and complications In typical cases the
Clinical waste must be separated from other dog becomes feverish, has a discharge from eyes
waste in accordance with the system agreed and nose, and a cough. In some cases the eye
by the local authority, e.g. yellow sacks and inflammation become severe. (See KERATITIS.)
reinforced containers. (The Collection and Complications include broncho-pneumonia
Disposal of Waste Regulations 1989.) with a hacking cough. (See BORDETELLA.)
Gastroenteritis, and mouth ulcers, complicate
Distemper other cases.
Distemper is a name applied to a specific viral Sometimes (apart from the fact that the dog
disease. As a rule, all members of the Canidae has seemed unwell) the first sign of the disease to
and Mustelidae are susceptible to canine distem- alarm the dog-owner is a fit. (See ENCEPHALITIS.)
per. These classes include dog, fox, wolf, ferret, A change in temperament, with a tendency to
mink, weasel, ermine, marten, otter and badger. viciousness, may occasionally be noticed.
Diverticulum 199
Paralysis of face muscles, or of a limb, may A booster dose is often advisable when the
occur, and sometimes hindquarter paralysis (see dog is 2 years old.
PARAPLEGIA) accompanied by incontinence These are general guidelines. Individual
indicate that the dog is unlikely to recover, manufacturers’ dosage instructions for specific
‘Hard pad disease’ may cause a dog to make vaccines may vary, and must be followed.
a tapping sound as it walks on a hard surface, (See also COLOSTRUM; GAMMA GLOBULIN;
and this manifestation of distemper may be ANTISERUM; MEASLES VACCINE; MATERNAL
accompanied by pneumonia and/or diarrhoea. ANTIBODIES.)
D
Diagnosis and treatment An early diagnosis Distichiasis
is important. A veterinary surgeon should be Distichiasis is the presence of a double row of
consulted as soon as any of the above symptoms eyelashes, of which one or both rows are turned
appear, and will advise on the use of serum, in against the eyeball, causing inflammation. It
sulphonamides, antibiotics, vitamin preparations, may lead in dogs to EPIPHORA.
etc., as the situation demands. (See also NURSING.)
After recovery from distemper it is important Distiller’s Grains
to remember that, unless the dog is looked after A feed, relatively high in protein and energy, for
with great care, relapses are liable to occur. For dairy cattle. For hazards of storage, see BREWER’S
a week or 10 days after all symptoms have GRAINS.
apparently subsided, the dog should be given
only a limited amount of exercise. A vitamin Distomiasis
preparation may be prescribed. Infestation with liver flukes.
After-effects CHOREA may occur when the
Diuretics
dog appears to be making a good recovery, and Drugs which increase the amount of urine
often after an otherwise mild illness. A syn- excreted. They are used mainly in the treatment
drome has been described (‘old dog encephali- of oedema (dropsy) in cases of heart failure.
tis’) in which, several months after being ill They act by inhibiting the reabsorption of
with distemper, even a young dog may become sodium and chloride from the loop of Henle
senile and forget its house training. (loop diuretics) or the kidney tubule. (See KID-
NEYS – Structure.) Furosemide is a powerful
Prevention Various vaccines have long been
available and have included: loop diuretic. Thiazides, which act in the distal
part of the tubule, are less potent. The risk of
1. Live, egg-adapted distemper virus excessive excretion of potassium presented by
(a) obtained from embryonated hens’ loop diuretics may be avoided by the use of
eggs potassium-sparing diuretics, which are often
(b) obtained from cultures of avian given in combination with loop diuretics to
fibroblastic tissues. enhance their effect. Spironolactone is an exam-
2. Live distemper virus adapted to homologous ple. A 2nd type of diuretic acts by osmotic
tissue culture obtained from cultures of action, which causes water retention in the
dog kidney cells. nephron. Osmotic diuretics such as mannitol
Combined vaccines against distemper, are used, for example, to promote urine flow in
infectious canine hepatitis, canine parvovirus, kidney failure.
leptospirosis and parainfluenza are on the While diuretics can help, they will not cure
market. the condition which has given rise to the
The timing of vaccination is crucial. oedema.
Assuming an adequate intake of colostrum,
puppies born to bitches immunised against Diverticulum
distemper should have sufficient antibody to A small pouch formed in connection with a
protect them during the initial weeks of life. The hollow organ. There are certain diverticula
immunity provided by the antibody wanes: by which are normally present in the body, e.g. the
the time the puppy is 12 weeks old, the level of diverticulum of the duodenum, which is found
maternal antibody is negligible. It will no longer at the point of entrance of the bile and pancre-
protect against naturally occurring virus; equally atic ducts, or the posturethral diverticulum, a
it will not interfere with distemper vaccination. little pouch behind the opening of the female
Puppies inoculated when between 7 and urethra into the posterior genital tract in the
9 weeks old should therefore receive a 2nd dose sow and cow; while there are others which are
of vaccine at 12 weeks of age. found as the result of injury or disease, e.g. in
200 DNA
Milk of cows that have eaten docks is made into is a complete food for dogs and cats. It is not,
butter only with difficulty. since it does not provide, for example, enough
calcium. Cooked meat should be mixed with
Dog Bites biscuit meal or pasta, potatoes or vegetables,
Anti-tetanus injections should always be given and fed at room temperature. Most dogs like
in cases of dog bites. Various infections includ- one or other of the proprietary biscuits.
ing Pasteurella septica infection in man can result Dogs should be fed at regular times, once or
from these. (See also RABIES, BITES.) twice a day; any food left uneaten should be
removed. Fresh water should be available D
Dog, Feminisation of always. A bone, or one of the proprietary
(see SERTOLI CELL TUMOUR; also INTERSEX) substitutes, is useful to exercise the jaws and
help keep the teeth healthy.
Dog, Kennels Proprietary dog foods are very widely used
Former kennels should not, unless they have nowadays; they may be moist (canned), semi-
been thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, be moist (packeted) or dry. Major manufacturers
used for the temporary housing of lambs or have carried out extensive research on the dog’s
goatlings; in both, deaths have followed from nutritional needs and when fed according to
cysticercosis of the liver. (See TAPEWORMS; also their recommendations such prepared diets are
BEDDING, HOOKWORMS) perfectly adequate for the normal dog.
Two sheep dogs died from dieldrin poison- Any marked change in an animal’s feeding or
ing, their kennel having been washed weekly drinking habits may be an indication of disease;
with old sheep dip. a veterinary surgeon should be consulted.
Specially formulated diets are available for a
Dog-Sitting Position wide range of disorders (for example, diabetes
In pigs this may be a symptom of pantothenic or kidney disease); they are prescribed by a
acid (vitamin B) deficiency, or lameness due to veterinarian as necessary. (See also PET FOODS.)
Mycoplasma hyosynoviae. In the horse this position
may be adopted during severe COLIC. With refer- Dogs, Diseases of
ence to the newborn Galloway calf, see GENETICS Several are listed under the prefix CANINE.
– Genetic defects. Re lambs, see SWAYBACK. Others include bacterial diseases such as brucel-
losis, ‘kennel cough’, salmonellosis, leptospirosis,
Dog Ticks tetanus, and tuberculosis. For skin diseases, see
In Britain these include Ixodes hexagonus ECZEMA; MANGE; RINGWORM; HOOKWORMS;
(common on suburban dogs and cats); I. ricinus ATOPIC DISEASE. Other canine diseases are
(the sheep tick, commonly found on country referred to under the following headings: RABIES;
dogs); I. canisuga (‘the British dog tick’); and PARALYSIS; PYOMETRA; FUNGAL DISEASES; BLACK
Dermacentor reticulatus (which may infest also TONGUE; CANCER; LEUKAEMIA; CAMPYLOBAC-
cattle and horses). I. canisuga may establish itself TER; ANAEMIA; ANTHRAX; AUJESZKY’S DISEASE;
in buildings, as may Rhipicephalus sanguineus, BOTULISM; ORF; CHLAMYDIA; CHOREA; CRAMP;
which has infested houses in Denmark as well as CUSHING’S DISEASE; DIABETES; DIARRHOEA; HIP
quarantine stations. Modern central heating may DYSPLASIA; HYDATID DISEASE; HYSTERIA; MYAS-
facilitate the survival of this tick in northern THENIA GRAVIS; PARASITES; TGE; TOXOPLASMO-
latitudes. In a house in England, a sitting-room SIS; YERSINIOSIS; SPOROTRICHOSIS; COCCIDIOSIS;
sofa, and a bedroom chair used by a dog, were (See also under the various organs and tissues, e.g.
infested. This tick may arrive in travellers’ HEART, EYE, PANCREAS, PROSTATE, KIDNEY.)
luggage. Hedgehogs are a source of I. hexagonus.
Dogs’ pharyngeal injuries are often
Dogs, Breeds of caused during retrieving, or playing with, sticks
The reader is advised to consult textbooks on thrown by the dog’s owner. These injuries can
this subject. (See also WILD DOGS.) be avoided if a rubber ‘bone’ or ring is substi-
tuted for the sticks. (A rubber ball can also be
Dogs’ Diet used, provided that it is too big for the dog to
Most owners wisely feed their animals on a swallow.)
mixed diet, offering some variety and at the
same time providing the essential nutrients. It is Dogs, Mortality
a misconception that dogs should be fed only Larger breeds of dog tend to have a higher mor-
on meat. However, some owners appear to tality rate than smaller, according to insurance
believe that red (muscle) meat, cooked or raw, statistics. A Swedish survey based on more than
202 Dogs (Protection of Livestock) Act 1953
220,000 animals found that mortalities in Irish every few generations). Refuse collection is yet
wolfhounds were 9 times greater than in the another service performed by dogs, and was
soft-coated wheaten terrier. introduced in Milan, Italy. In a demonstration,
dogs were shown picking up plastic and soft
Dogs (Protection of Livestock) drink cans; and 1 bitch learned to alert her han-
Act 1953 dler by barking when she found a hypodermic
Dogs (Protection of Livestock) Act 1953 pro- syringe on the ground.
D vides that the owner and also the person at the
time in charge of a dog, which is worrying
Dogs are widely used by customs authorities
and police in the detection of cannabis and
livestock on agricultural land, are guilty of other substances. Trained ‘sniffer dogs’ can
an offence. The owner will not, however, be detect drugs concealed in packing cases, etc.
convicted if s/he proves that the dog was, at the
time, in the charge of a fit and proper person Dogs, Worms in
other than him or herself. (see WORMS)
Amendments to the 1953 Act made by the
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 made it an Dolichocephalic Skull
offence for a dog to be at large in a field or enclo- Dolichocephalic skull is one which is long
sure where there are sheep unless it is on a lead or and narrow, as distinct from one which is
otherwise under close control. There are excep- short and broad. Examples of the former are
tions for a dog owned by, or in the charge of, the skulls of the greyhound and collie, and of the
occupier of the field or the owner of the sheep or latter (brachycephalic), those of the pug and
a person authorised by either of these; or a police bulldog.
dog, guide dog, trained sheep dog, working gun
dog or a pack of hounds. This requirement Dominant
applies only to fields or enclosures where there That member of an allelic pair of genes which
are sheep and not, therefore, to open hill areas. asserts its effects over the other dissimilar
member (recessive) of a gene pair.
Dogs, Transport by Air
This is governed by the Live Animal Board Donkeys
Regulations of the International Air Transport Descendants of the wild ass, donkeys are grey
Association (IATA) 1989. In addition, any or sable in colour; they are widely used as
requirements of the various regulations governing beasts of burden in some countries. Their
the import and export of dogs must be observed. life-span in Turkey, Egypt, Tunisia, Ecuador
Greyhounds are usually transported by air and Peru is only 11 years. In the UK the figure
between Ireland and England in wooden kennels is 37 years. (The Donkey Trust, Sidmouth,
similar in size to greyhound racing starting traps. Devon.)
A study of 12 greyhounds showed that stress They are spared many of the leg and joint
varied greatly as between individuals. They troubles common in the horse, but are very
were transported either in the wooden kennels prone to lungworm infestation. This may not
or in wider Perspex kennels. These were stowed give rise to symptoms such as coughing, but the
either in the belly hold or in the main cargo lungworms may lower the donkey’s resistance
hold of jet freighter aircraft. Stress was greater to strangles and equine influenza, from which
in the belly hold. more young donkeys die than young horses.
Donkeys often constitute a source from which
Dogs, Working horses become infested with lungworms. (See
(see also SHEEPDOGS). Working dogs include also PARASITES.)
guide dogs for the blind, hearing dogs for the For gestation period, see under PREGNANCY.
deaf, avalanche rescue dogs, and dogs as predic- (See also JENNY; HINNY; MULE.)
tors of human epilepsy. (The way in which
some dogs can detect the imminence of fits in Dopamine
people is as yet unknown. Further investigation Dopamine is involved in the transmission of
is being undertaken in Canada and the USA. ‘messages’ in the central nervous system. Early-
The service is a valuable one, because it allows weaned piglets which develop the ‘vice’ of nose-
the epileptic time to get to a safe place, and to rubbing show evidence of decreased dopamine
take appropriate medication; or for the dog to production in the brain.
warn the person’s family.)
Huskies are used in the Arctic for transport Dopamine hydrochloride can be useful in
purposes (and bred back to wild wolf stock overcoming the effects of anaesthesia with
Doxapram 203
halothane, which depresses the cardiopulmonary areas where other trypanosomiasis occur). In
system of horses. most countries slaughter is obligatory.
by harness or other tackle from keeping their health. The permitted maximum level of drugs
nostrils above the level of the water; or they may remaining in meat, milk or eggs after medicines
become panic-stricken and swim away from have been administered (maximum residue limit
shore. Remarkable instances of the powers of [MRL]) is specified by regulation for all EU
swimming that are naturally possessed by ani- countries. The manufacturer’s recommended
mals are on record; one example being that of a withdrawal period between the last dose of
heifer, which, becoming excited and frightened drug administered and the animal going for
on the southern banks of the Solway Firth, slaughter, or the milk or eggs being sold for
entered the water and swam across to the human consumption, must be observed. D
Scottish side, a distance of over 7 miles, and was Carcases in abattoirs are monitored to ensure
brought back the next day none the worse. that the residues are within allowable limits.
(See also HORMONES IN MEAT PRODUCTION;
Recovery from drowning As soon as the MILK – Antibiotics in; SLAUGHTER.)
animal has been rescued from the water, it
should be placed in a position which will allow Drug Resistance
water that has been taken into the lungs to run ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; DIPPING; FLY
(see under
out by the mouth and nostrils. Small animals CONTROL)
may be held up by the hind-legs and swung
from side to side. Larger ones should be laid on Drugs, Disease Caused by
their sides with the hindquarters elevated at a (see IATROGENIC DISEASE)
higher level than their heads. If they can be
placed with their heads downhill, so much Dry Eye
the better. Pressure should be brought to bear (see EYE, DISEASES OF)
on the chest, by one person placing all their
weight on to the upper part of the chest wall, or Dry Feeding
kneeling on this part. When no more fluid runs Dry feeding of meal may give rise to PARAKER-
from the mouth, the animal should be turned ATOSIS in pigs; to ‘CURLED TONGUE’ in turkey
over on to the opposite side and the process poults; and to ‘SHOVEL BEAK’ in chicks.
repeated. No time should be lost in so doing,
especially if the animal has been in the water for
Dry, Firm and Dark (DFD)
Dry, firm and dark (DFD) describes the meat
some time. (See ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION.)
of animals that have undergone stress in trans-
port before slaughter. The condition is a result
After-treatment As soon as possible the ani- of glycogen depletion in the body. The meat’s
mal should be removed to warm surroundings
acidity is reduced but it is safe for consumption.
and dried by wiping or by vigorous rubbing
with a rough towel. Clothing should be applied, Dry Period
and the smaller animals may be provided with In cattle it is considered advisable on health
1 or more hot-water bottles. The danger that has grounds that after a period of lactation, cows
to be kept in mind is that of pneumonia, either should not be milked for about 8 weeks – the dry
from the water in the lungs or from the general period. Cows are dry in the weeks before calving.
chilling of the body, and the chest should be
especially well covered. Sometimes the ingestion Drying-off Cows
of salt water leads to salt poisoning in dogs, or to After milking out completely, the teats should
a disturbance of the digestive functions, and be washed and a dry-cow intramammary prepa-
appropriate treatment is necessary. ration inserted in each teat. The cows should be
inspected daily.
Drug Interactions If possible, keep the cows on dry food or very
For those in which one drug enhances the short pasture for 3 days after drying off.
action of another, see SYNERGISM.
Adverse drug interactions or reactions are Drysdale
indicated by manufacturers in the product data A sheep with a very good fleece bred in New
sheet. Unexpected adverse reactions should be Zealand. A natural mutation of the Romney, it
reported to the manufacturer or the Veterinary was identified and developed by Dr F. W. Dry
Medicines Directorate. of Massey University.
Dys- Dyspnoea
Dys- is a prefix meaning painful or difficult. Abnormal, difficult or laboured breathing (see
BREATHLESSNESS, RESPIRATORY DIFFICULTY).
Dysautonomia
A malfunction of the autonomic nervous sys- Dystokia, or Dystocia
tem, such as occurs in ‘grass sickness’ in horses, This means difficulty during parturition. (See
and which is virtually always fatal. Signs include PARTURITION; CALVING, DIFFICULT.)
slowness of the heartbeat in dogs and cats.
A similar condition has been described in Dystrophy
wild hares in Great Britain and it has even been (see MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY)
suggested that they could be the carriers of ‘grass
sickness’. (See also CANINE DYSAUTONOMIA; Dysuria
FELINE DYSAUTONOMIA.) An absence of or difficulty in excreting urine.
E
Poultry Coliform septicaemia is a frequent
cause of loss, and one difficult to control since
infected birds are disinclined to eat or drink,
which hinders drug administration.
anger or viciousness being shown by laying the and scala vestibuli, placed side by side (the mid-
ears flat back against the head, and surprise, dle one being part of the membranous
anticipation, or pleasure being indicated by labyrinth), which take 21⁄2 spiral turns round a
‘pricking’ the ears. At the base of the ear a com- central stem, somewhat after the manner of a
plete cartilaginous tube is formed, and this snail’s shell. In the central one (scala media) is
leads into the bony canal or external auditory placed the apparatus known as the organ of
meatus. Corti, by which the sound impulses are finally
received, and by which they are communicated
Middle ear The tympanic membrane, form- to the auditory nerve, which ends in filaments
ing the ‘drum’, is stretched completely across to the organ of Corti. The essential parts of the
the outer passage at its innermost extremity. organ are a double row of rods and several rows
The cavity of the middle ear is a compart- of cells furnished with hairs of varying length.
ment excavated in the hard mass of the petrous
part of the temporal bone which lodges the The act of hearing The main function of
ossicles. These are the small auditory bones the movement of the ears is that of efficiently
which carry impulses across its cavity and are collecting sound waves emanating from differ-
called the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and ent directions, without the necessity of turning
stapes (stirrup). The Eustachian tube admits air the whole head, although in some animals the
from the throat, and so keeps the pressure on ears may be flicked to dislodge flies.
both sides of the tympanum equal. When sound waves reach the ear-drum, the
Horses have a diverticulum (guttural pouch) latter is alternately pressed in and pulled out;
of the Eustachian tube. (See GUTTURAL POUCH the movements being communicated to the
and GUTTURAL POUCH DISEASE.) auditory ossicles.
These movements are then transferred to the
Internal ear This consists of a complex sys- perilymph in the scala tympani, by which in
tem of hollows in the substance of the temporal turn the fluid in the scala media is set in
bone enclosing a membranous duplicate. motion. Finally these motions reach the delicate
Between the membrane and the bone is a fluid filaments placed in the organ of Corti, and so
known as perilymph, while the membrane is affect the nerve of hearing, which conveys the
distended by another collection of fluid known sensations to the auditory centre in the brain.
as endolymph. This membranous labyrinth, as
it is called, consists of 2 parts: the posterior Ear, Diseases of
part, comprising a sac, called the utricle and Diseases of the ears of animals should never be
3 semicircular canals opening at each end into neglected, for although in the early stages most
it, is the part concerned with the preservation are amenable to treatment, in the later stages
of balance; the anterior part consists of another treatment is likely to be more difficult.
small pouch, the saccule, and of a still more Inflammation of the outer ear (otitis externa)
important part, the cochlea, and is the part may be found in one or both ears. It is often due
concerned in hearing. In the cochlea there are 3 to the presence of a foreign body (a grasshopper
tubes, known as the scala tympani, scala media, in one case), parasites or bacterial infection.
210 Ear Tags
The signs include shaking the head, often per- supply to the AURAL CARTILAGES means that,
sistently for a few moments at a time, scratch- if torn or lacerated, necrosis may occur. In dogs
ing, rubbing head rotation with the affected ear it may be necessary to secure the ear-flaps by
lowered, and a foul-smelling discharge. means of surgical adhesive tape, or a head-
Scratching the ears is also a symptom of ear- cap improvised to give several ‘tails’ which can
mange mite (Otodectes) infection of the external be tied.
ear canal. (See MITES – Mange in dogs and cats,
for first-aid and treatment of Otodectes.) Deafness (see under this heading)
Other forms of mange may start at the ears
and involve the pinna, e.g. psoroptic mange, Middle-ear infection (otitis media) is
E notoedric mange. always serious as it may lead to MENINGITIS. It
Discharge from the ear, or the presence of is often found on one side but both ears may be
pus within, is a sequel to a neglected case of affected. Signs are similar to those of external
parasitic otitis in the dog and cat and due to ear inflammation but the balance can be affect-
secondary infection by bacteria and/or moulds. ed; there is swaying of the hind quarters and
the head is carried abnormally. It may be caused
Excessive wax in the ear often leads to by spread of external ear infection or by an
disease later. It is especially common in dogs infection carried in the blood.
which have large pendulous ear flaps, when
ventilation is poor. Inner-ear infection (otitis interna): signs
In some cases, dressing the inner parts of the are – the head is often rotated; the animal may
ear is difficult or impossible because of the walk in circles and show a stumbling, swaying
thickening and perhaps distortion. For these an gait.
operation, in which the cartilages at the lower
parts are opened or resected, has been devised. Tumours are occasionally found. Warts are
Operation may also be needed where deep-seat- not uncommon in horses and cattle. In cats a
ed ulceration of one or other of the aural carti- polyp is occasionally found, and in white cats a
lages has occurred, and even the mere initial squamous-celled carcinoma may affect the tip
cleaning of a very inflamed and painful ear of the pinna.
must be done under an anaesthetic.
Mange Psoroptic and notoedric mange often
Foreign bodies, such as hay seeds, sand, begin on the pinna of the ear; auricular or
pieces of glass, wood, peas, or parasites, may otodectic mange involves the presence of mites
become lodged in the ears of animals and give (Otodectes) within the ear canal. (See MITES.)
rise to irritation occurring very suddenly.
Fly strike A dog brought to a veterinary
Haematoma is common in dogs and in cats surgeon in Cornwall was found to have a badly
which are affected with ear mange, but it may infected left ear, from which came a profuse
occur in almost any animal. A large fluctuating purulent discharge. On auroscopic examina-
swelling appears upon the flap of the ear and tion, Mr D. S. Penny BVetMed was surprised to
causes the animal to hang its head towards the see three faces staring back at him. Under
same side. In many cases little or no pain is anaesthesia 18 large maggots were removed.
experienced once the swelling has appeared,
and, in fact, a small swelling becomes larger in Ear Tags
many cases through the continued shaking of A permanent method of identifying animals. It
the head even after its original formation. The is the main method of legal identification of
swelling is caused by bruising of the skin and the cattle. Tags are also used in sheep, goats and
blood vessels which lie between it and the carti- pigs as well as other animals. They can incorpo-
lage, with a consequent extravasation of blood rate an insecticide (see FLIES).
or serum under the skin. The condition is treat-
ed by opening the haematoma under conditions Ear Tipping
of surgical cleanliness, evacuating the fluid Ear tipping of feral cats has been advocated by
contents, and suturing the skin in such a way animal welfare organisations and practised in
that the collection of more fluid is prevented. America and Denmark, for example. The idea
is to identify those cats which have been spayed,
Wounds of the flaps of the ears are usually and prevent any ‘rescued’ cat from being
caused by bites, or from barbed wire, etc., in the subjected to unnecessary anaesthesia and
larger animals. The comparatively poor blood laparotomy.
Ebola Virus 211
In Australia, ear tattooing is practised for Signs After an incubation period of a fortnight
the same purpose, but has the disadvantage that or so, the animal becomes dull, listless, loses
the spayed feral cat cannot be identified from a appetite, and runs a high fever. Lymph nodes
distance. become enlarged. There may be a discharge
from eyes and nose; laboured breathing and
Early Weaning diarrhoea may be seen.
(see under WEANING)
Prevention and treatment East Coast
Ears as Food fever may be to a great extent prevented by
Ears from beef cattle which had been receiving systematic dipping of all newly purchased
sex hormones as implants in the ear have been cattle, and quarantining them for at least E
fed in breeding kennels with disastrous results. 5 weeks before they are mixed with the rest of
the stock.
Earthing Where the disease has broken out on a farm,
Earthing of electrical apparatus on farms, and the ‘short-interval’ dipping system first devised
especially in the dairy, is occasionally faultily car- by Watkins-Pitchford has proved of immense
ried out in such a way that in the event of a benefit in eradicating it. (See under CONTROL OF
short-circuit, the water-pipes supplying the cows’ TICKS.)
drinking-bowls become ‘live’ – leading to the Since ticks responsible for the spread of East
electrocution of the cows. (See ELECTRIC SHOCK.) Coast fever can live for some time on other
domesticated animals, it is advisable to dip
Earthworms sheep, goats, and horses at suitable intervals.
Earthworms are of veterinary interest in that Clinically ill cattle may be treated by any
they act as intermediate hosts to stages in the antibiotics that can penetrate cell membranes,
life-history of the gape-worm of poultry (see such as tetracyclines.
GAPES) and of lung-worm in pigs. They may
also harbour viruses which cause disease in pigs. East Friesland Milk Sheep
Earthworms can live for as long as 10 years. This breed comes from NW Germany, and
They can often be found at night in drains out- in England has been used to produce the COL-
side piggeries, and in crevices and cracks in the BRED. East Friesland ewes average 545 litres
cement inside piggeries. (See also INFLUENZA.) (120 gallons) at 6 per cent butterfat in a lacta-
An ARC research team at the Rothamsted tion, rearing their lambs, and a yield of 1000
Experimental Station found that earthworms, litres (220 gallons) is not unknown. The lambs
bred in animal manure, can provide a high- have a high growth rate and early maturity.
quality protein supplement for pigs, poultry,
and especially fish. Several species of earthworm ‘Eastrip Special Blend’
were used, of which Lumbricus rubellus was the A cross between Bluefaced Leicester and Poll
one of choice. Eisenia foetida (the brandling Dorset sheep. A high lambing percentage is
worm) is easier to farm but contains a heat- claimed.
labile toxin in its skin making it unsuitable as a
raw food. Ideally, earthworms should be heat- Ebola Virus
processed into meal for use in animal diets. This, together with the Marburg virus, is a
member of the Filoviridae.
East Coast Fever (Theileriosis) It is, in appearance, indistinguishable from
An acute specific disease of cattle enzootic in the Marburg virus, but antigenically distinct.
certain parts of Africa, especially in the eastern Infection of humans is very often fatal; cases
provinces of South Africa, in Kenya and in have occurred in laboratory workers handling
Zimbabwe. In these areas the native cattle infected monkeys. It was found in 1976 in
attain a certain amount of natural immunity, Zaire and Sudan; 500 people became ill and
and only imported animals are affected. 350 died. (See under MONKEYS, DISEASES OF.)
Animals which recover are commonly known as An outbreak of disease caused by an Ebola-
‘salted’, but the mortality is very high (e.g. 90 related filovirus, and by simian haemorrhagic
per cent) in new outbreaks of the disease. fever, occurred in 1990 at an American quaran-
Buffaloes are also susceptible. tine station among cynomolgus monkeys
imported from the Philippines. It was reported
Cause Theileria parva, which spends part of that this was the first case in which a filovirus
its life-history in cattle and part in ticks had been isolated from non-human primates
(Rhipicephalus appendiculatus). without deliberate infection.
212 EC
EC Ectoparasites
(see EUROPEAN UNION) Ectoparasites live on the skin or the hair. (See
FLEAS; FLIES; LICE; MANGE; MITES; TICKS.)
ECG
Electrocardiogram. Ectopic
Ectopic means out of the usual place. An
Ecbolics ectopic pregnancy is one in which a fetus is pre-
Ecbolics are drugs which cause contraction of sent outside the uterus. (See PREGNANCY,
the muscle fibres of the uterus, such as ergot, ECTOPIC.)
pituitrin, etc. They are used to induce labour.
E Ectopia cordis thoracoabdominalis A
Ecdysis very rare congenital abnormality characterised
Ecdysis is the shedding of an exoskeleton in by protrusion of the heart to the outside of the
arthropods, and of the old skin in crustacea and body through a ventral body-wall fissure.
reptiles. Failure to shed completely can lead to
problems. Ectromelia
Ectromelia means literally absence of a limb or
Echinococcosis limbs. The word is also used to describe a con-
(see HYDATID DISEASE; TAPEWORMS) tagious disease caused by a pox virus, which
affects laboratory mice, and in the sub-acute
Echium Plantagineum form causes necrosis of a whole limb, toe, tail or
A poisonous plant, also known as Paterson’s ear. Outbreaks are usually very severe at the
Curse, or Salvation Jane, which has caused the outset, killing many of the affected mice, but
death of many sheep from copper poisoning in later on the mortality becomes less, and the
South Australia. In one outbreak, 1259 sheep outbreak gradually fades and disappears;
died out of a total of 29,715 at risk. On one though a latent infection may persist.
farm, 500 of 3000 ewes died. Merino × Border
Leicester crosses appear to be especially suscep- Ectropion
tible. At autopsy, jaundice is evident; livers are Ectropion is a condition of the eyelids, in which
friable and enlarged or, less frequently, shrunk- the skin is so contracted as to turn the mucous
en and fibrotic. Kidneys are swollen, soft and membrane lining of the lid to the outside.
blackish.
The plant contains up to 10 alkaloids, and is Eczema
the first to show growth after a prolonged An inflammation of the skin (dermatitis),
drought. occurring in both farm and domestic animals.
Intense irritation or itchiness may accompany
Eclampsia the acute form, and frantic licking of the affect-
Eclampsia is a disease occurring during the later ed area may exacerbate the condition. In chron-
stages of pregnancy or after parturition, and ic eczema there may be very little irritation.
characterised by loss of consciousness or con-
vulsions, or both. It occurs in the bitch and Cats Eczema is often referred to as feline miliary
cat. A preferable name is lactation tetany. It is dermatitis. Symptoms include reddening of the
associated with HYPOCALCAEMIA. (See also MILK skin, with the appearance of papules (small
FEVER; FITS.) blister-like spots) and, later, scabs. These may be
easier to feel than to see. The area of skin
Ecraseur involved may be small or large. Neck, shoulders,
A surgical instrument used for castration of the and back are common eczema sites. Occasionally
larger domestic animals. Haemorrhage is large- a bacterial infection is a complication.
ly prevented by crushing of the blood vessels of The most common cause is considered to
the spermatic cord. be hypersensitivity to flea bites. Once a cat
(seldom a young one) has become sensitised to
Ecthyma flea saliva, the presence of only a single flea on
Ecthyma is a localised inflammation of the the cat’s body is sufficient to cause the allergic
skin characterised by the formation of pustules. reaction.
(See ACNE; IMPETIGO.) Other allergies may produce eczema; for
example, a ‘hay-fever’ type (see ATOPIC DISEASE),
Ecto- or a food allergy of some kind. Cat foods
Ecto- is a prefix meaning on the outside. containing colouring agents or preservatives are
Elastic Bands 213
sometimes involved. Skin contact with some oviduct, but the hen is unable to discharge it.
chemicals should also be considered. It is likely The bird shows obvious discomfort, stands
that among some breeds or strains there is a straining and pressing. A dose of liquid paraffin
family predisposition to eczema. (2 ml) may be tried.
Edema Eicosanoids
Edema is another spelling of oedema. Arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty
acid present in most body cells of domestic ani-
Edta mals, can be oxidised to the prostaglandins,
Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid. Its salts (ede- prostacyclin, thromboxanes and leukotrienes.
tates) are chelating agents which are used to These compounds, collectively known as the
treat poisoning by heavy metals. For example, eicosanoids, are involved in inflammatory and
calcium edetate is used in cases of lead poison- allergic conditions; in reproductive and perina-
ing. Non-clinically, sodium edetate is used as an tal processes; with platelet aggregation and
anticoagulant for blood samples. vascular homeostasis, kidney function, fever,
and certain tumours; and with other normal
Efferent and disease conditions.
Efferent is the term applied to vessels which
convey away blood or a secretion from a part, or Eimeria
of nerves which carry nerve impulses outwards (see COCCIDIOSIS)
from the nerve-centres.
Elaphastrongylus
Effluent A genus of nematode found in deer. E. cervi
Liquid waste from an abattoir or slurry (see locates in the central nervous system; E. panti-
SLURRY; DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT). cole in the brain; and E. rangiferi in the muscles
and central nervous system.
Egg-Bound
Egg-bound is the condition in laying poultry in Elastic Bands
which an egg (or eggs) may be formed in the (see RUBBER BANDS)
214 Elastrator
chains were operated. Earthing the feeders and the structure of bacteria. Instead of light,
removed the problem. the electron microscope uses a beam of electrons
to scan the specimen. This is prepared as an
Electrocardiogram (ECG) extremely thin film and subjected to a high
Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a record of the degree of vacuum. The electron image is focused
variations in electric potential which occur in on a video screen and may be recorded photo-
the heart as it contracts and relaxes. This record graphically or electronically. Magnification
is obtained by placing electrodes on either may be up to ×300,000, and by means of
side of the chest wall or on the two forelegs, photographic enlargement and the use of pro-
the skin being first wetted with salt solution. jection slides a total magnification approaching
These are then connected to an electrocardio- ×1,000,000 can be achieved. E
graph, which records the pattern of the heart’s
activity. The normal electrocardiogram of each Electrophoresis
heartbeat shows 1 wave corresponding to the The movement of particles in a fluid under the
activity of the auricle, and 4 waves correspond- influence of an elecric current. It is used, e.g., in
ing to the phases of each ventricular beat. the analysis of blood or serum constituents
Various readily recognisable changes are seen which form visibly identifiable patterns in a
in cases in which the heart is acting in an abnor- starch gel to which current is applied.
mal manner, or in which one or other side of
the heart is hypertrophied. This record, there- Electrotherapy
fore, forms a useful aid in many cases of cardiac
disease. High-frequency currents are mainly used
to produce muscular contractions as an aid to
Electrocardiography has been described muscular re-education following injury or
as a useful aid to pregnancy diagnosis in the during transient paralysis. It can also be used
mare – ‘where thoroughbred mares more than for passive exercise when an animal is suffering
5 months pregnant are presented for sale’ (see from certain neurological conditions. The tech-
under TWINS); and also for monitoring heart rate nique is painless and no control measures
during anaesthesia. are necessary. Animals must not, however, be
excited during periods of therapy, which vary
Electrocautery between 5 and 20 minutes per day. Some
Electrocautery is useful for operations where chronic skin conditions may be controlled by
space is restricted, such as removing small this method. Where movement of painful joints
tumours, etc. in mouth, nose, or throat, and or tendons is required, or where there is neuri-
to check haemorrhage in the deeper parts of tis, administration of painkillers or use of nerve
wounds. Also sometimes for disbudding. (See blocks by local anaesthetic may be considered.
also CRYOSURGERY.) Diathermy is a modified form of high-
frequency current therapy in which warmth is
Electrocution induced deep in the tissues.
(see under ELECTRIC SHOCK) Repetitive stimulation is produced by cardiac
pacemakers; these have been used in small
Electrolyte animals and in horses.
Any compound which, in solution, conducts an Faradism is the use of electric currents to treat
electric current and is decomposed by it. (See certain muscle, tendon and joint conditions,
under FLUID REPLACEMENT THERAPY; NORMAL mainly in horses. It has also been used in working
SALINE; DEHYDRATION.) elephants.
(See also X-RAYS; IONIC MEDICATION; ION-
Electrolyte Solutions TOPHORESIS; CANCER.)
Electrolyte solutions contain sodium, potassi-
um and other electrolytes in an ISOTONIC for- Electuary
mulation. They are used, often with plasma Electuary is a soft paste made by compounding
substitutes or other additives, in restoring the drugs with treacle, sugar, or honey. It is used as
body fluid volume in cases of shock, diarrhoea, a convenient method of applying medication to
injury and other conditions. the throat and pharynx of animals. To relieve
sore throat in the horse, an electuary of extract
Electron Microscope of belladonna, potassium chlorate, and aniseed,
These instruments have made it possible to made up into a paste with treacle, was formerly
study and photograph viruses, bacter-iophages, much used. The electuary is applied by means
216 Elephants
of a flat stick, and is smeared upon the back of interfering with wounds, skin lesions or dress-
the tongue and upon the teeth. ings. The illustration shows a proprietary
version.
Elephants
(see MUSTH; SPEED OF ANIMALS). The height to Elk
the shoulder of the Asian elephant (Elephas A species of large deer also called the wapiti
maximus) is about 3 metres (10 feet); that of the (Cervis elaphus); the European elk is Alces alces;
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) 3.5 the American moose A. americana. This farmed
metres (131⁄2 feet). animal was found to be a source of tuberculosis
in people in Alberta, Canada, in 1990.
E Elephants, Diseases of Mycobacterium bovis was isolated.
These include anthrax (sometimes brought on
by the breaking of a tusk where the disease has Elkhound
lain dormant in the dental pulp), multiple A medium-sized dog with thick grey-black
abscesses, blackleg, botulism, elephant pox, coat, pointed ears and a bushy tail curled
enzootic pneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, over the back; it originated in Scandinavia.
influenza, myiasis, parasitic gastroenteritis, pas- Inherited traits include progressive retinal
teurellosis, rabies, salmonellosis, steanofilarial atrophy, renal cortical hypoplasia and hip
dermatitis, schistosomiasis, surra, tetanus, try- dysplasia.
panosomiasis, tuberculosis. Elephants imported
into Great Britain may serve out their quaran- Emasculator
tine period for foot-and-mouth disease on An instrument to remove the testicles in horses,
board the ship transporting them. cattle and sheep. Most crush the spermatic cord
to prevent haemorrhage as well as severing the
ELISA testicle from it.
ELISA is the abbreviation for the system of
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, devel- Embolism
oped by the Swedish scientists Engvall and The plugging of a small blood vessel by blood-
Perlmann. ELISA tests are widely used in labo- clot fragments originating from elsewhere in
ratories for the rapid detection of pathogens. the body, and carried along in the bloodstream.
Bacteria, worm larvae, air-bubbles, and fat are
Elizabethan Collar other causes of embolism. The importance of
Often improvised from cardboard, the shape the embolism depends upon the situation. In
of a lampshade, and designed to fit over the the brain it may cause apoplexy; in other
dog’s head and to be attached to its collar, organs, the area that was supplied by the little
with the object of preventing the animal from vessel before it became blocked by the
embolism ceases to function, and if the blood
supply is totally cut off it dies, or degenerates,
becoming an ‘infarct’. (See also GLASS EMBOLISM;
THROMBOSIS; CATHETER EMBOLUS.)
Embrocations
(see LINIMENTS)
Embryo
(see EMBRYO TRANSFER; EMBRYOLOGY; FETUS)
Embryo Transfer
The technique of transferring an embryo from
one animal and implanting it in the uterus
of another has become a widely used method,
particularly in cattle, of improving breed quali-
ty and herd reproductivity. Basically, the tech-
nique involves the collection of embryos from
This Elizabethan collar is a transparent version, one cow (the donor), 7 to 8 days after insemi-
easy to adjust to the dog’s neck diameter. An
excellent way of preventing the canine patient
nation, by flushing out the uterus with a special
from interfering with wounds, skin lesions, or medium such as phosphate-buffered saline.
dressings. The donor cow is prepared by administering
Embryo Transfer 217
Transplantation. As a 7-day embryo, this calf was stored for a month at a temperature
of –196°C before being transferred, non-surgically, to the recipient cow seen in the
photograph. (ARC.)
218 Embryology
Twins from different mothers. One of 2 eggs was removed from the Border Leicester ewe and
transplanted into the Welsh ewe.
inflation of the interstitial (interlobular) tissue. Signs Symptoms of encephalitis include fever,
The air is found in the lymphatics, under the excitement, delirium, convulsions, paralysis,
pleura in the interlobular septa, and around and loss of consciousness. Several symptoms
blood vessels, sometimes in the form of large are common to MENINGITIS. (See also SLEEPER
bullae 10 cm or more in diameter. Air may track SYNDROME.)
as far as the hilum of the lung and gain access
to the mediastinum from where, in exceptional First-Aid Keep the animal quiet – in a dark-
circumstances, it may even spread to subcuta- ened room if showing excitement – and avoid
neous connective tissue – usually in the shoulder noise or handling the patient.
region or over the upper part of the chest.
Interstitial emphysema is a common condi- Encephalitozoon Cuniculi E
tion in cattle, especially in association with par- An intracellular protozoal parasite. It develops
asitic bronchitis (HUSK) or with ‘FOG FEVER’. in macrophages, brain, kidney and other tissues
Increased effort, in response to obstructed of rabbits, dogs, rodents and primates.
airways, over-exertion and violent struggling, In carnivores, severe nephritis, encephalitis
causes a marked increase in pressure within the and a high mortality are associated with
alveoli. Rupture then occurs, allowing air to transplacental infection.
escape into the interstitial tissue on inspiration, In a Norwegian outbreak, 1500 blue fox cubs
but impeding its leaving on expiration. When died (33 per cent of the litters), although the
the lung lobules become surrounded by inter- parents showed no signs of infection.
stitial emphysema their ability to inflate during In the UK, foxhound puppies have died, and
inspiration is restricted, and this may lead to in Tanzania 2 spaniel puppies died which had
respiratory distress. shown rabies-like signs.
Emu Encephalomalacia
A large flightless bird, Dromaius novae- A group name for the degenerative diseases of
hollandiae, native to Australia. It is farmed in the brain. Causes include the copper deficiency
Britain but to a lesser extent than the ostrich. of swayback, horse-tail and bracken poisoning,
Severe enteritis resulting in death of up to 65 metallic poisoning, and mulberry heart disease
per cent of a flock has occurred in the USA of pigs. Another example of encephalomalacia
from infection by eastern equine encephalitis is ‘crazy chick’ disease.
virus. This is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE throughout
the EU. Encephalomyelitis
Inflammation of both the brain and the spinal
Enamel cord.
The very hard substance found on the external
surface of the crowns of teeth (see TEETH). Encephalomyelitis, Viral, of
Pigs
Enarthrodial Joints This term covers the group of diseases known as
Enarthrodial joints are those of the ball-and- Teschen disease, Talfan disease, and Poliomyelitis
socket type which allow movement in nearly suum.
any direction. Examples include the shoulder Believed to have originated in the former
joint between the scapula and the humerus; and Czechoslovakia, viral encephalomyelitis of pigs
the hip joint in which the nearly spherical head is now encountered throughout most of Europe.
of the femur fits into the cup-shaped cavity In Britain and Denmark, only a small percent-
called the acetabulum on the pelvis. age of pigs become infected, and illness is far
milder than in some other countries.
Encephalitis Symptoms include fever, stiffness, staggering
Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain. It gait, paralysis, and those of encephalitis.
may be brought about through the activity of
bacteria, such as those of strangles and listerio- Encephalomyocarditis Virus
sis, but especially during infection with viruses, Encephalomyocarditis virus is a picornavirus.
such as those of rabies, canine distemper, etc. Antibodies have been found in the serum of
(See BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALITIS.) more than 28 per cent of normal pigs in the
220 Enchondroma
UK. It is also a pathogen of rodents and human fibrous layer covered with thin flat cells, which
beings, and has caused outbreaks of illness in render the surface perfectly smooth and secrete
pigs in Australia, the USA, and Panama. the fluid for its lubrication.
Enchondroma Endotoxins
A tumour formed of cartilage. (See TUMOURS.) Endotoxins are those toxins which are retained
within the bodies of bacteria until the latter die
Encysted and disintegrate.
Enclosed in a cyst.
Endotracheal Anaesthesia
E Endangered Species Act 1982 (see ANAESTHESIA)
Endangered Species Act 1982 lists measures for
the protection of named animals. Endotracheal Tube
A tube introduced into the trachea to prevent
Endarteritis its collapse; used in endotracheal anaesthesia.
Inflammation of the inner coat of an artery. (See
ARTERIES, DISEASES OF.) Endrin
A highly toxic insecticide of the chlorinated
Endemic hydrocarbon group. It has caused fatal poisoning
An endemic disease is one present in an animal in cattle, dogs, fish, and birds.
population at all times.
Enema
Endo- The introduction of fluid into the rectum to
Endo- is a prefix meaning situated inside. assist evacuation of faeces.
Endocarditis Energy
Inflammation of the smooth membrane that (see CALORIE; CARBOHYDRATES; METABOLISABLE
lines the inside of the heart. It occurs especially ENERGY; JOULES)
over the heart valves. (See HEART DISEASES.)
English Springer Spaniel
Endocrine Glands Long-eared, medium-sized dog with silky coat,
Endocrine glands are those which secrete hor- brown and white or black and white; originally
mones. (See HORMONES; also under the name of bred as a gun dog. Retinal dysplasia, entropion,
individual endocrine glands, e.g. ADRENAL, cutaneous asthenia and haemophilia may be
THYROID, PARATHYROID, PITUITARY, THYMUS, inherited conditions.
PANCREAS.)
Enrofloxacin
Endometritis Enrofloxacin is a quinolone antibacterial active
Inflammation of the mucosal lining of the uterus against a wide range of Gram-positive and
(endometrium) (see UTERUS, DISEASES OF). Gram-negative organisms. As it may affect the
development of load-bearing articular cartilage,
Endorphins it should not be administered to growing
Morphine-like, natural analgesics produced in animals.
the body. Acupuncture is said to stimulate their
release into the bloodstream. (See also TWITCH.) Ensilage
(see SILAGE)
Endoscope
An instrument used for viewing the interior of Enteque Seco
an organ, and for facilitating the extraction of a A wasting disease of cattle, sheep and horses. It
foreign body, e.g. from the oesophagus; and for occurs mainly in Argentina, but also in
assistance with other surgery, including embryo Uruguay and possibly Brazil. It may be identi-
transfer. (See also LAPAROSCOPY.) cal with Manchester wasting disease (Jamaica)
and Naalehu disease (Hawaii).
Endothelium
Endothelium is the membrane lining various Cause A plant, common on wet land, known
vessels and cavities of the body, such as the as duraznillo blanco (Solanum melacoxylon or
pleura, pericardium, peritoneum, lymphatic glaucum). Poisoning may arise from deliberate
vessels, blood vessels, and joints. It consists of a eating of the leaves or from the accidental
Enzootic Pneumonia of Calves 221
Enterocele Enzootic
(see HERNIA) Enzootic refers to a disease present (endemic)
among animals in a particular region, country,
Enteroliths or locality. For example, braxy and louping-ill
Enteroliths are stones that develop in the are enzootic in the south and west of Scotland
intestines, being formed by deposition of and the north of England. Compare EPIZOOTIC
salts round a hard metallic or other nucleus. (See (epidemic), in which a disease spreads rapidly
CALCULI.) through large numbers of animals over a wide
area.
Enterostomy For enzootic abortion of sheep, see under
Enterostomy means an operation by which an ABORTION, ENZOOTIC.
artificial opening is formed into the intestine.
Enzootic Bovine Leukosis
Enterotoxaemia (see BOVINE LEUKOSIS)
An acute disease of calves, lambs, goats, and
occasionally of piglets and foals. Enzootic Haematuria
A disease typically found in old suckler cows fol-
Cause Toxins emanating from the intestines lowing the long-term ingestion of bracken. It
and present in the bloodstream. The toxins results in various cancer problems of the bladder.
involved are from 4 strains of Clostridium
welchii and from some strains of E. coli. Enzootic Muscular Dystrophy
A disease in calves, lambs and foals caused by
vitamin E and selenium deficiency. Acute cases
Signs Severe enteritis, with dysentery in some may drop dead after exercise; mild cases are
cases, and sudden death in others.
weak and breathe with difficulty.
Prevention A vaccine is available. Enzootic Ovine Abortion
Enzootic ovine abortion is caused by Chlamydia
Calves seldom survive for more than a few psittaci. (See under ABORTION, ENZOOTIC.)
hours.
Enzootic Nasal Granuloma
Goats show a sudden drop in milk yield, Obstruction of the nasal cavities of cattle by an
dysentery, and death within 36 hours. There is eosinophilic granuloma. More common in
also a subacute type of the disease lasting 7 to Channel Island breeds.
10 days, and followed by recovery.
Enzootic Pneumonia of Calves
Sheep The disease affects both unweaned Acute pneumonia usually seen in calves
lambs and sheep 1 to 2 years old. between 2 and 4 months old; it is caused
222 Enzootic Pneumonia of Pigs
by environmental and management changes digestion. Some enzymes are also produced by
as well as viral, mycoplasmal and bacterial the normal bacterial inhabitants of the intesti-
infections. nal canal. Each has a specific use in splitting up
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, or crude fibre.
Enzootic Pneumonia of Pigs The best known are the ptyalin of saliva and
This was formerly described as virus pneumonia diastase of the pancreatic juice, which break
of pigs (VPP), but the cause is now generally down starches into soluble sugars; pepsin from
regarded as being Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. the gastric juice and trypsin from the pancreas,
However, other organisms may be involved to a which break complex proteins into simple
varying degree. (See RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS amino acids; and lipase in the intestines, which
E OF THE PIG; SYNERGISM.) attacks fats. (See DIGESTION.) Enzymes are used
Many pigs reaching the bacon factories are in the cleaning of badly infected wounds. (See
affected with some degree of pneumonia, so STREPTODORNASE.)
that the matter is of the very greatest economic Some enzymes detoxify poisons, breaking
importance. them down into relatively harmless compounds.
The differing susceptibility of cat and dog, for
Signs When the disease is first introduced into example, to phenol is due to the former animal
a herd, pigs of all ages (from 10 days upwards) go lacking a particular enzyme which the dog has.
down with it, and many die. Where the disease (See TAURINE.)
is already present, deaths are few. Symptoms, Some enzymes are injurious (see under
which may easily be overlooked or ignored, then THIAMIN).
consist merely of a cough. There is, in addition, (See also BLOOD ENZYMES, and CREATINE
a certain degree of unthriftiness which in KINASE for enzymes used in diagnosis.)
extreme cases may amount to stunted growth. In
all cases one may expect the liveweight gain to be Eosinophil
reduced. Sometimes pigs which contract the dis- Eosinophil is the name given to white cells in
ease earlier in life quite suddenly develop acute the bloodstream containing granules which
pneumonia at 19 to 26 weeks of age, known as readily stain with eosin, a histological dye.
‘secondary breakdown’. Affected animals lose The nucleus of this leukocyte is lobular.
their appetite and often become prostrate, Eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils are
breathing rapidly with a temperature over collectively known as polymorphonuclear
40.5°C (105°F). A number die if left untreated, leukocytes. As well as these circulating cells,
but the majority have a fluctuating fever for a eosinophils are found in the pituitary and
few days and then recover. pineal glands.
In a normal horse, 2.5 ml3 (1 cu in) of blood
Prevention Vaccination at 1 to 10 weeks of contains between 5 and 8 million eosinophil
age and management measures such as avoiding white cells – compared with about 160 million
buying-in infected stock. Litters are best kept in other white cells, and 128,000 million red cells.
arks on pasture, and any sows showing a cough Eosinophils increase in numbers during
eliminated. Weaned pigs should not be brought certain chronic infections and infestations with
into a fattening house where pigs with pneu- parasites. They contain hydrolytic enzymes.
monia are present. (See DUSTY ATMOSPHERE; ‘Unlike neutrophils, eosinophils have low
SWINE INFLUENZA.) phagocytic capacity and are not good at killing
microorganisms.’ (Lancet.) (See BLOOD.)
Diagnosis Confirmed by a complement
fixation test. Eosinophilia
Eosinophilia means that an abnormally large
Treatment Macrolide antibiotics, adminis- number of eosinophils are present in the blood-
tered on a herd or individual basis, help to stream. This may occur during severe parasitic
control the severity of outbreaks. infestation in horses and dogs, in certain wasting
conditions, and in disease of the lymph system.
Enzootic Pneumonia of Sheep
(see PASTEURELLOSIS; PNEUMONIA OF SHEEP) Eosinophilic Granuloma
A complex in cats. The name covers at least 3
Enzymes different lesions, of a chronic nature.
Enzymes are complex organic chemical com-
pounds which facilitate or speed biochemical Eosinophilic ulcers usually occur on the
processes in the animal body, including those of upper lip, or commissure of the lips, gums,
Epidermis 223
palate, pharynx and tongue. Reddish-brown in acute epizootic; then, in a few weeks, it dies
colour, they have raised edges. They are not down again as quickly as it arose. The disease is
malignant (compare ‘rodent ulcer’ in man transmitted by insects, including Culicoides
which is a basal cell carcinoma). midges. The incubation period is 2–10 days.
Eosinophilic plaques may occur anywhere Signs The disease is ushered in by a suddenly
on the body but are most common on the occurring rise of temperature which may reach
abdomen and inside of the thigh. The plaques 41.6°C (107°F). This is accompanied by
are red, with raised edges, and ulcerate. They loss of appetite, cessation of rumination, rapid
are extremely itchy. respirations, a quick and full pulse (which,
however, may become very weak later), and E
Linear granulomas are seen mainly on the a staring coat. The affected subject stands
hind legs and in the mouth, and are yellowish- with head down. The attitude of the patient is
pink in colour. Itching is not usually present. As rather characteristic, the 4 legs being placed
with the ulcers mentioned above, females seem far under the body and the back arched, sug-
more prone to this granuloma than are males. gestive of the position of a horse suffering from
In the mouth, lesions are ‘more nodular’ and laminitis. There may be a discharge from eyes
have to be differentiated from bacterial or and nose.
mycotic infections and also carcinoma. In milking cows, the milk yield is much
diminished. Many animals prefer to lie down
Eosinophilic Myositis rather than remain on their feet, and once
(see under MUSCLES, DISEASES OF) down are most reluctant to get up again. The
symptoms along with the elevated temperature
Eperythrozoon Felis continue like this for about 3 days – hence the
A blood parasite found in cats in Britain, and name. There is usually a considerable loss of
first reported in 1959. (See FELINE INFECTIOUS condition.
ANAEMIA.) In Australia the mortality is seldom more
than 0.5 per cent.
Eperythrozoon Parvum
A blood parasite of the pig, which gives rise to Prevention Vaccines may be available in some
fever, anaemia, and sometimes jaundice. It can areas.
be transmitted from pig to pig by lice. It occurs
in Britain and the USA. Other species of this Epi-
parasite affect sheep, and cattle in Africa. In the Epi- is a prefix meaning situated on, or situated
UK E. wenyoni has been isolated from anaemic outside of.
cattle. (See also HAEMOBARTONELLA.)
Epidemic
Ephedrine A disease affecting a large number of individu-
Ephedrine is an alkaloid derived from the als at the same time in the same area. The term
Chinese plant Ma Huang, or prepared synthet- is strictly applied to man, not animals.
ically. It stimulates the heart and central
nervous system, and relaxes the bronchioles. It ‘Epidemic Tremors’
has been used for asthma in dogs. ‘Epidemic tremors’ is the colloquial name for
a virus disease of poultry characterised by an
Ephemeral Fever (Three-Day unsteady gait. (See AVIAN ENCEPHALOMYELITIS.)
Sickness)
An acute, infectious, and transient fever accom- Epidemiology
panied by muscular pains, and lameness which The study of disease as it affects groups of
has a tendency to shift from limb to limb. The animals. It can be used in predicting the pattern
disease was first described in South Africa in of an outbreak and in making plans to control
1867 and has been seen in Africa, Asia and the spread. International reporting services, as
Australia. Considerable economic loss has been carried out by WHO and OIE, play their part;
caused among beef and dairy cattle in northern and the use of computers has greatly assisted
and eastern Australia. the statistical analysis on which epidemiology
relies.
Cause A rhabdovirus. The disease is sudden
in onset and attacks a large percentage of the Epidermis
cattle in affected districts, taking the form of an The outer layer of the SKIN.
224 Epididymis
may be affected, too. The infections cannot be for several years, most outbreaks being associated
differentiated on clinical grounds; laboratory with imported or visiting mares.
tests are essential. (For signs, see under
ENCEPHALITIS.) Equine Herpesviruses
These include EHV 1, the equine rhinopneu-
Control Mosquito control measures reduce monitis or ‘equine abortion’ virus which has
transmission of the disease; stabling horses dur- also caused ataxia and paresis. Primarily affect-
ing outbreaks and applying insecticides can ing the respiratory system, EHV1 is the cause
help prevent mosquito attacks. Vaccines are of much illness in young horses. EHV 3 causes
available for use in areas where the disease is equine coital exanthema. (EHV 2 may be
prevalent. non-pathogenic.) E
Public health In man, the disease takes the Equine Hydatid Disease
form of an aseptic meningitis; outbreaks can be (see HYDATID DISEASE)
very serious, and mortality can be high. In one
outbreak in Canada, 509 human cases were Equine Hyperlipaemia
reported, with 78 deaths; 12 of them among A disease of ponies, with an average age of
children. Of 27 infants, many suffered brain 9 years, affecting the liver, kidneys, and pan-
damage, resulting in convulsions, spasticity, and creas. Mortality may reach 67 per cent.
hemiplegia.
Equine Infectious Anaemia
Equine Filariasis A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE. Synonyms include:
Infestation of horses with the filarid worm, pernicious equine anaemia, swamp fever, horse
Seturia equina, the larvae being carried by mos- malaria.
quitoes and biting flies. It occurs in South and A contagious disease of horses and mules
Central Europe, and Asia. during the course of which changes occur in the
blood, and rapid emaciation with debility and
Signs Malaise and anaemia, or fever, conjunc- prostration are evident. It occurs chiefly in the
tivitis, and dropsical swellings. Western States of America and the North-
Western Provinces of Canada, as well as in most
Equine Gait Analysis countries of Europe, and in Asia, and Africa.
A combination of photographic recording and The first case in the UK was reported from
computer analysis is used to study the motion Newmarket in 1975.
of the horse’s limbs as it trots or gallops on a
treadmill. The system was originally devised by Cause A virus. The horse is commonly infect-
a Swiss, Bruno Kaegi. It helps to provide an ed by biting insects, e.g. horse flies, stable flies,
objective measurement of the degree of lame- mosquitoes. Infected grooming tools if they
ness affecting a horse, and also a comparison cause an abrasion, syringes, hypodermic needles
between the limbs. (or even contaminated vaccines) are other
means of transmission. The virus may be pre-
Equine Genital Infections in the sent in urine, faeces, saliva, nasal secretions,
Mare semen, and milk.
A wide range of organisms may be found on The disease is prevalent in low-lying,
taking cervical swabs. Some may be harmless, swampy areas, especially during spring and
but others may cause abortion or disease in the summer months.
mare or transmit infection to the stallion. The virus may cause illness in man (who may
CONTAGIOUS EQUINE METRITIS (CEM), a infect a horse); also in pigs.
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE, is an important uterine
infection described in a separate entry. It is Signs After an incubation period of 2 to
caused by Taylorella equigenitalis. 4 weeks, equine infectious anaemia gives rise
Other infections include beta haemolytic to intermittent fever (with a temperature of up to
streptoccoci, Klebsiella aerogenes, Pseudomonas 41°C [106°F]), depression and weakness. Often
species (see also LISTERIOSIS; LEPTOSPIROSIS; BRU- there are tiny haemorrhages on the lining of the
CELLOSIS). Fungal infections have rarely been eyelids and under the tongue. Jaundice, swelling
reported, and include Aspergillus fumigatus and of the legs and lower part of the abdomen, and
Candida albicans. anaemia may follow. In acute cases, death is
Abortion caused by the virus of equine common. In chronic cases there may be a recur-
rhinopneumonitis has also occurred in the UK rence of fever, loss of appetite, and emaciation.
228 Equine Influenza
About 50 per cent of horses in a stud or is the cough, initially of a dry type but later
stable may become ill with this disease, and becoming moist. Coughing may last for 1 week,
the mortality rate can vary between 30 and or persist for 3 weeks. In mild cases there may
70 per cent. be virtually no other symptoms and – if rested
Some horses do not show symptoms but – the horse makes an uneventful recovery.
become latent carriers of the infection, passing In less mild cases the animal has a dejected
it on to others. appearance and very little appetite. Some-
No treatment has so far been proved to be times there is probably pain in the muscles,
efficacious, and recovered animals become for the horse may show difficulty or clumsiness
carriers. Vaccines are ineffective. in lying down and getting up, or may appear
E stiff.
Diagnosis may be confirmed by the agar gel A foal born to a mare during an attack of
immunodiffusion precipitation (Coggins’) test. influenza, or as the first symptoms are begin-
Horses imported into the UK from the USA ning to appear, will appear normal for 4 or 5
must have passed this test with a negative result. days; but then the temperature rises to 40.5°C
Equine infectious anaemia may be confused (105°F) or more, the foal ceases to feed, and
with other infections including trypanosomia- within a couple of days its breathing becomes
sis, anthrax, equine rhinopneumonitis abor- very laboured. Death can be expected when the
tion, African horse sickness, the equine foal is about 9 or 10 days old.
encephalitides, leptospirosis and piroplasmosis.
Treatment First-aid measures call for rest,
Control Where possible, test the animals warmth and, if appetite fails, several small
and slaughter reactors in order to eradicate the feeds a day. Professional advice should always
disease. be obtained. Antibiotics may be used in order
to prevent any complications caused by
Equine Influenza bacteria.
A common and highly infectious disease of When the disease has already appeared in a
horses. Provided that the animals have not been stable, it is wise to rely upon the thermometer
worked while ill, mortality from influenza is rather than the cough as the first sign of infec-
usually nil, except in foals infected during the tion in a horse. The temperature may occur up
first few days of life. There is a danger in refer- to 12 hours before coughing starts, and if the
ring to equine influenza as ‘The Cough’ or fever is detected early the animal can be rested
‘Newmarket Cough’ if those colloquialisms give with all the greater chances of the influenza
rise to the idea that it is only a cough and not remaining mild.
an illness. Owners should appreciate that
influenza viruses need to be treated with Prevention Vaccines prepared from a mixture
respect; also that there are many other causes of of virus strains are available. It is recommended
coughing in horses. (See COUGH.) that foals born to vaccinated mares are vacci-
nated after 5 months of age. In-foal mares
Cause Viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridiae should be vaccinated at least 3 weeks before
type A. A virus was first isolated in Prague in they foal. Horses should be vaccinated 3 weeks
1957; one of a similar type was isolated in the before they go to sales, etc., where they are
1963 outbreak in Britain, and is now known as likely to be exposed to infection. Horses enter-
A/Equi/l. Also referred to as the ‘Cambridge ing a property or competing under the rules
strain’, it was found as well in the USA. In the of the Jockey Club or Fédération Equine
1963 outbreak in the USA another virus, International must be vaccinated according to
believed to have come from South America, was the manufacturer’s instructions, certificated by
isolated. This is called A/Equi/2 or the ‘Miami a veterinarian and identified by a ‘passport’.
strain’. This virus appeared in Britain for the Newcomers to a stable, especially 2- or 3-year-
first time in the 1965 outbreak. olds, should also be vaccinated. Immunity is
A strain of equine influenza virus – influen- developed in 98 per cent of vaccinated animals
za/ A/equine/Jilin (China) 1/89 – identified in within 2 to 3 weeks, and should last for about a
the USA caused up to 20 per cent mortality in year. Regular booster doses are essential.
some herds. (See EQUINE RESPIRATORY VIRUSES.) Equine respiratory viruses
Some apparent ‘breakdowns’ in horses vacci-
Signs The temperature rises to a degree or two nated against equine influenza may be due to
above normal, or even as high as 41°C (106°F). the fact that some outbreaks of coughing are
Often the first symptom observed by the owner due to other infections, e.g. rhinopneumonitis.
Equine Piroplasmosis 229
Equine Respiratory Viruses Signs include slight fever, cough, and nasal dis-
The table on page 229 shows the viruses known charge. These are seen in weaned foals and year-
to cause disease of the horse’s respiratory lings, though some infections are subclinical. In
system. the mare, abortion, often after the gestation
period has passed the 8th month, may some-
E Equine Sarcoid times result – hence its alternative name of
(see SARCOID) ‘equine virus abortion’. Indeed the term ‘abor-
tion storms’ has been used, since 40 to 60 per
Equine Verminous Arteritis cent (or even more) of the mares in a stud may
This is a swelling of the cranial mesenteric abort. Usually such an occurrence is a sequel to
artery, commonly encountered in horses, an outbreak of severe and extensive nasal
and resulting from thickening and fibrosis of catarrh when the in-foal mares were between
the arterial wall due to the effects of migrating 0.5 and 7 months pregnant. It must be empha-
strongyle worm larvae. Thrombosis and sised, however, that these ‘abortion storms’ are
embolism may follow the stenosis, or reduced exceptional, and have become more so, in
lumen, of the artery. Infarction and ischaemia recent years.
of the bowel may result. Rupture of the artery When abortion has occurred, subsequent
at this site is very rare indeed. (The term foaling is nearly always normal.
‘verminous aneurysm’, which persisted in the The virus is present in the aborted fetus, flu-
veterinary literature until the late 1970s, or ids, and membranes. It cannot survive more
beyond, is a misnomer.) than a fortnight in the absence of horse tissue.
On straw, concrete floors, etc. it dies within a
Signs often occur during or shortly after work week, but when dried on to horse hairs it has
and include the sudden onset of abdominal been shown to be infective for up to 6 weeks.
pain, fever, flaring of the nostrils, a pulse rate of The stallion is not, it is believed, involved in the
70–80, and turning the head towards the right spread of the disease, which was first reported
flank. Following recovery from one attack, in the UK in 1961.
abdominal pain may return at frequent intervals Cases of acute paresis and paralysis in horses
over weeks or months. The horse may become have been attributed to this virus.
bad-tempered, be unwilling to back or turn in a
small circle, may remain recumbent for long Equisetum Poisoning
periods, and may hesitate before jumping. (see HORSE-TAILS, POISONING BY)
part of their national sovereignty in return for a offered the following advice: ‘It has been my
share in a much larger trading block. custom to show a surviving companion animal
A large number of directives concerning its euthanased former companion whenever
all aspects of animal health, meat inspection, possible.
abattoirs and food hygiene have been issued. ‘Acceptance of the situation by the surviving
EU legislation on animal medicines, intend- dog (or cat) certainly appears to shorten their
ed primarily to minimise drug residues in food period of “grief ” or unsettled behaviour.
animals, has created some problems for pre- ‘I also press strongly for the owner’s presence
scribing medicines in small animal and equine at euthanasia because I believe that the animal’s
practice because of the all-embracing nature of stress is thus minimised. If a house call is feasi-
the regulations. ble, that is preferable too as I am always helped E
by a veterinary nurse to make the procedure as
Eurytrema stress-free as possible for all concerned.’
A fluke. (See PANCREAS, DISEASES OF.)
Horses and cattle are sometimes killed by
Eustachian Tubes barbiturate injection where other means are
Eustachian tubes are the passages, one on each unavailable or inappropriate. A combination of
side, which lead from the throat to the middle quinalbarbitone and cinchocaine (Somulose;
ear, and serve to maintain an even atmospheric Arnolds) is said to produce rapid heart arrest
pressure upon the inner surface of the ‘ear- thus avoiding the gasping which barbiturates
drum’ or tympanum. They open widely in the alone may produce. The carcases should not
act of swallowing, and during a yawn. Each be used for food. Hunting dogs fed on meat
has a sac or diverticulum connected with it in from a horse killed by barbiturate have been
the horse, and in certain conditions these poisoned as a result.
become filled with pus from a strangles abscess
or from some other suppurating source near, Captive-bolt pistol Correctly used, this
when an operation becomes necessary to evacu- type of ‘humane killer’ can be a valuable means
ate the pus and prevent it doing damage by of euthanasia for the larger animals, and also
burrowing into the middle ear or surrounding for the dog – though the method has obvious
parts. (See EAR.) disadvantages from the point of view of a
dog-owner wishing to be present.
Euthanasia The following advice may be useful for ani-
As applied to animals, this is a means of pro- mal-owners or others in remote places where no
ducing death free from ante-mortem fear or veterinarian is available and who have to shoot
suffering. The term mainly applies to dogs and an animal.
cats and other pets which must be put down For horses and cattle, the point aimed at is
because of an incurable or painful condition, or not in the middle of the forehead, between the
because of severe persistent behavioural prob- eyes; a shot so placed passes into the nasal
lems. The decision to euthanase an animal is chambers or air sinuses, down into the mouth
not to be taken lightly and the informed con- and throat, and misses the important vital cen-
sent of the owner should be obtained in writing tres. The correct spot is higher up than this.
wherever possible. Two imaginary lines should be drawn, each
Strictly speaking, the humane slaughtering of running from one eye to the opposite ear across
animals for food purposes, and the humane the front of the forehead, and the point of their
destruction of horses or other animals kept for intersection is the most vital spot. A shot aimed
working purposes, should also fall within the about parallel with the ground and directed at
meaning of the word. this spot enters the brain cavity, destroys the
brain and the beginning of the spinal cord, and
Small animals An injection of an overdose passes on into the neck, where its energy is
of a barbiturate, usually pentobarbitone given expended. Otherwise, if for some reason this
by rapid intravenous injection, is the method part is not accessible, the next best place to aim
preferred by most veterinarians. The method is at is the base of one ear, the direction being
painless; the animal quickly loses consciousness again parallel with the ground. In the case of
and death occurs by depression of the respirato- horned cattle, the presence of the horn may
ry and vasomotor centres of the brain. deflect the shot, and it is better to shoot into
the base of the brain from behind, directing the
Minimising stress Veterinarian E. H. charge downwards and forwards. When pigs
Shillabeer, writing in the Veterinary Record, have to be shot, the middle line of the head is
234 Evening Primrose
stiff gallop every day for perhaps half an hour or Exporting Animals
so. In some stables there is a system of morning (see IMPORTING/EXPORTING)
and afternoon exercise for each horse, but much
must be left to the individual requirement of Exposure
each animal, and to the judgement of the train- Exposure to intense cold can usually be well
er. After a time, varying up to 4 months or more tolerated by the animal which is well fed. More
in some cases, the horse arrives at its maximum food is required during very cold weather in
pitch of perfection, and then begins to ‘go stale’. order to maintain the body temperature.
The art of the race-horse trainer enables him to Windbreaks are important, but the tendency is
judge the length of time it takes for each indi- for their number to decline in the interests of
vidual horse to arrive at his best at such a time larger fields and units more suited to mechani- E
as will allow him to enter for the race for which sation. Animals denied shelter from very cold
he is being trained. Every horse-trainer has his winds, and at the same time inadequately
own individual methods, and as these are by no fed, are most liable to disease of one kind or
means hard-and-fast rules, nothing more than another. (See also SHEARING; FROSTBITE; FEED
the merest outline can be given here. BLOCKS; SHEEP.)
The ‘condition’ of a horse, by which is meant
its capacity for doing work, cannot be retained External Fixators
indefinitely; there comes a time when it begins External fixators are a system of metal rods,
to perform less and less well, and is said to have clamps, screws, etc., used to create a frame to
‘gone stale’. This is an indication that a rest is keep fractured bones rigid while they heal. It is
required. claimed that there are several advantages over
conventional splinting materials; namely, they
Overtraining in the racehorse This, are ‘very adaptable to bone shape, fragment size,
and stress, are a common cause of poor perfor- and owner-acceptance’. They also ‘maintain
mance, and could be regarded as a clinical enti- limb length, and allow access to open wounds’.
ty. Affected horses appear to ‘fade’ at the end of Practice is required to master their use, however.
a race. They also show signs of stress before
racing. Once identified, such a horse should be Extravasation
exercised more slowly and gradually worked up An escape of blood or lymph from the vessels
to previous levels. (See also RACEHORSES.) which ought to contain it.
Exophthalmos Eye
Bulging of the eyeballs. In America it has been The eyes are set in deep cavities known as ‘bony
observed as a hereditary defect in certain Jersey orbits’, whose edges are prominent and form a
cattle; and in Britain in certain Shorthorn herds protection to the eyeball. In the pig, dog, and
– the condition being preceded by a squint. It is cat the edge of the bony orbit is not complete
also seen in certain breeds of toy dogs. (See EYE, posteriorly, but in the other domesticated ani-
DISEASES OF.) mals it forms a complete circle. The two orbits
are separated from each other in the middle line
Exostosis of the skull by only a very small space, and pos-
An outgrowth from a bone. (See BONE, DISEASES teriorly the nerves leaving each eye (optic
OF.) nerves) converge and meet each other on the
floor of the brain cavity. Around the eyeball
Exotoxins there is ‘periorbital fat’ upon which the eye
Toxins which diffuse readily from the bodies of rests. It is protected by 2 main eyelids and in
bacteria during their lifetime. many cases by a small rudimentary ‘3rd eyelid’,
‘haw’, or nictitating membrane, which is found
Explosive, Plastic (PE4) at the inner corner. The eyelids meet at the
Poisoning outer and inner ‘canthi’. Within the inner can-
(see CYCLONITE POISONING; also DYNAMITE) thus and attached to the nictitating membrane
236 Eye
is a small rounded pigmented prominence forming tears. Any excess secretion of tears
known as the ‘lacrimal caruncle’, which is reaches the nasal cavity by the ‘lacrimal duct’,
formed of modified skin, and which often bears the 2 openings of which can be seen towards
1 or 2 tiny hairs. (See also HARDERIAN GLAND.) the inner canthus along the free margins of each
of the lids. The 3rd eyelid is situated at the
Eyelids Each of the 2 main eyelids consists of inner angle of the eye, consisting of a semilunar
4 layers: on the surface there is skin similar to fold of the conjunctiva, which is supported and
that which covers the adjacent part of the face, strengthened by a small roughly crescentic plate
but thin, loose, pliant, and bearing extremely of cartilage. Ordinarily this eyelid covers only a
fine hairs; below this is a layer of thin subcuta- very small part of the surface of the eye, but in
E neous tissue, and then comes the 2nd or mus- certain diseases, such as tetanus, the pressure by
cular layer which is instrumental in opening the muscles of the eyeball upon the orbital fat
and shutting the eyelids; the 3rd layer is fibrous, displaces the 3rd eyelid, and it may reach across
and along the free edge of the lid this layer is the eye to the extent of almost 1 inch.
denser and forms the ‘tarsus’ of the eyelid, in In the cat, the appearance of the 3rd eyelid
the substance of which is embedded a row of (nictitating membrane), like a curtain partly
glands, called the ‘tarsal glands’, numbering 45 drawn across a window, is a common sign of
to 50 in the upper and 30 to 35 in the lower lid general ill health and is due to absorption of fat
of the horse (small cysts are occasionally formed in the vicinity. It is not usually a disease of the
in connection with these glands, which appear eye. (See also EYE, DISEASES OF – ‘Dry eye’.)
as rounded swellings upon the surface of the
lid); the 4th layer consists of the delicate Front of the eye If the lids of a horse’s eye
mucous membrane called the ‘conjunctiva’, be separated widely, the ‘white’ of the eye comes
which rubs over the surface of the eyeball (also into view. The white appearance is due to the
covered by conjunctiva) and tends to remove sclerotic coat, composed of dense white fibrous
any dust, particles of debris, etc. that may col- tissue, shining through the translucent con-
lect on the moist surface. The 2 layers of con- junctival covering. In the centre of the white is
junctiva are continuous with each other, being set the transparent oval ‘cornea’, through which
reflected off the eyelid on to the anterior surface the rays of light pass on their way to the inner
of the eyeball, and forming little pockets (upper parts of the eye. (In the pig, dog, and cat the
and lower) in which oat-chaffs sometimes lodge cornea is practically circular in outline.) Behind
and are difficult to remove; normally these the cornea lies the beautifully coloured ‘iris’,
pockets should contain small amounts of fluid, with a hole in its centre, the ‘pupil’, which looks
The eye: a sectional view. A, indicates the eyelid; B, conjunctiva; C, cornea; D, pupil; E, iris; F, ligament of
the iris; G, ligament of the lens; H, retina; J, lens; K, optic nerve. Next to the retina (H) comes the hyaloid
membrane, then the choroid coat and (the outermost) the sclerotic coat.
Eye 237
involves a conversion of rhodopsin into vitamin object, the lens capsule (which is attached to
A plus protein by means of an enzyme. the ciliary process) retains the lens in a tem-
porarily flattened condition and the ciliary
Contents of the eyeball, viz. aqueous muscle is relaxed, so that no great strain is put
humour, vitreous humour, and crystalline lens. upon the eye. Rays of light from an object near
Occupying the space between the iris and the at hand, however, which are divergent, require
cornea, i.e. the anterior chamber of the eye, to be brought to a point of focus upon the reti-
there is a clear watery, lymph-like fluid. It is na, and as they pass through the lens their
being constantly secreted and drained away, direction is changed on account of the convex-
and eventually reaches the veins of the eye. ity of the lens. The amount of this convexity is
E Behind the iris lies the ‘crystalline lens’, which determined by the divergency of the rays, and is
acts as does the lens of a camera, with the excep- automatically provided for through the pull of
tion that it can alter the curves of its surfaces the ciliary muscle upon the ciliary body. As the
and therefore is able to change its refractive function of the muscle is to pull the ciliary body
powers. It is composed of layers arranged like forwards, the tension upon the ligament of the
the leaves of an onion. The lens is held sus- lens is lessened and the capsule of the lens slack-
pended by its capsule, which is attached to the ens, so that the lens, by its inherent elasticity, is
ciliary body already mentioned. Behind the lens allowed to bulge with a greater convexity upon
the cavity of the ball of the eye is filled with a its anterior surface. The greater the convexity,
viscid, jelly-like, tenacious fluid called the ‘vit- the more are the rays of light refracted, and the
reous humour’. It maintains the intra-ocular more convergent do rays which pass through it
pressure by which the eyeball retains its shape. become. (See also VISION.)
Horses. The sudden onset of blindness in one Poultry Blindness may be the result of exces-
or both eyes has been reported as a result of sive ammonia fumes from deep litter, or it may
optic nerve atrophy, following trauma. Signs are be associated with fowl paralysis, salmonellosis,
dilated, fixed pupils, and a lack of the menace aspergillosis, etc. Cataract, followed in some
reflex. Within 3 to 4 weeks the optic disc cases by liquefaction of the lens, occurs during
becomes paler, and the retina’s blood vessels outbreaks of avian infectious encephalomyelitis.
markedly decreased. There is a rupture of the (See also under LIGHTING OF ANIMAL BUILDINGS.)
nerve axons.
‘Night blindness’ (nyctalopia) is a condition ‘Blue eye’ (see CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS)
that sometimes affects horses and mules in
countries where the glare of the sunlight is very Cancer, either of sarcomatous or carcinoma-
intense during the day. At night such animals tous nature, is sometimes found in connection
are quite unable to see, and will stumble into with the conjunctiva. Tumours appear as red
objects that are easily discernible to human hard swellings, painless when small, but not
beings. when large. These neoplasms often grow at a
rapid rate, and may infiltrate the surrounding
Camels are seldom affected, owing to the tissues, sometimes affecting the bones of the
effective protection afforded to the retina by the orbit. Cancer of the eye is a common condition
overhanging eyelids and deeply placed eyeballs. in Hereford cattle. It has been suggested that
Opacity of the cornea will, of course, prevent several factors may contribute to the develop-
light rays from reaching the retina, as happens ment of eye cancer in cattle. These include age,
in keratitis, so that partial or complete blind- irritation of the eyes by dust, sand, insects or
ness results. Similarly, partial or complete chemicals, sunlight, lack of eyelid pigmentation
blindness may result from a cataract. Other and viral infection. Some authorities believe
causes are mentioned below, e.g. dislocation of that cattle may be genetically prone to the
the lens, glaucoma, etc. condition, while others feel that poor nutrition
is another factor as the condition appears
Cattle and sheep Cerebrocortical necrosis to occur more frequently following a drought.
(polioencephalomalacia), resulting from a thi- (See TUMOURS.)
amine deficiency, is a cause of blindness in The beginning of ‘cancer eye’, as it is some-
ruminants. In sheep, other causes of blindness times colloquially known, may be a raised area
include: infectious keratitis or contagious oph- of skin or a wart. Either may become malig-
thalmia (‘heather blindness’); pregnancy tox- nant, developing into a typical carcinoma – the
aemia; and the effects of eating bracken, as type of cancer occurring in this eye disease of
described under BRIGHT BLINDNESS of sheep. Herefords. However, in the USA a survey was
240 Eye, Diseases and Injuries of
carried out; the eyes of 48 Hereford cows were Conjunctivitis, or inflammation of the con-
examined at 6-monthly intervals for 2 years. junctival membranes, is an extremely common
Over half the cows showed preliminary signs of condition among animals, and probably consti-
‘cancer eye’, but – without any treatment – one- tutes the commonest trouble to which the eyes
third of the growths had disappeared by the are subject. In cattle, conjunctivitis is often the
time of the last examination. first symptom of cattle plague, ephemeral fever,
Cryosurgery has been used to treat cancer of and Ondiri disease (bovine infectious petechial
the eye. The technique is a highly skilled one fever).
and requires special thermocouples to monitor Conjunctivitis is one symptom associated
the very low temperatures. with many specific infections, such as distem-
E In a series of 718 cases of eye cancer treated per in the dog (and see EYEWORMS).
by cryosurgery, 609 a single freeze caused total
regression of 66 per cent of the growths. In 109, Causes The presence of dust, sand, pollen,
treated by a rapid freeze to –25°C, a natural seeds, lime, and pieces of chaff, in the atmos-
thaw, and then a re-freeze, the cure rate was phere of a stable or field, is probably one of the
97 per cent. commonest causes in the larger farm animals,
but such agents as flies, worms, and ticks must
Cataract The condition is by far the most also be noted in addition to the above. In the
common in the horse and dog in old age, cat, 2 infections which cause conjunctivitis –
although it is also encountered in other ani- Haemophilus parainfluenzae and Moraxella
mals, and it may occur at almost any time of lacunata – are transmissible to man, in which
life. It consists of a coagulation of the plasma of illness may also be caused. (See FELINE EYE
the cells in the lens with loss of transparency. A INFECTIONS.)
bluish, cloudy appearance of the eye results and Chlamydia psittaci was isolated from 30 per
vision becomes blurred. cent of swabs from 753 cats suffering from
conjunctivitis.
Causes Cataract is primarily a change charac-
teristic of old age. Other causes include diabetes. Signs The first signs of conjunctivitis are red-
Cataracts have also resulted from naphtha- ness and swelling of the lining membranes of
lene and other forms of poisoning, and from the eyelids, excessive discharge of tears, and a
exposure to X-rays. tendency for the animal to keep its eyelids shut.
development of glaucoma (see below) and the appears to be ‘a white film’ is visible on the sur-
affected eye may have to be surgically removed. face of the eye, the best first-aid treatment is a
Technically, lens dislocation may be classified drop of olive oil. (Cod-liver oil will do, but not
as congenital, primary, secondary, or traumatic. any oil!) Boracic acid lotion is worse than use-
Secondary cases not uncommonly follow less (except for the mechanical washing-out of
cataract or glaucoma, but most cases occur grit); what is needed is a lubricant to reduce
spontaneously in adult life. the harmful friction, and this is where the oil
helps. Removal of a foreign body is best accom-
‘Dry eye’ (keratoconjunctivitis sicca) is a con- plished with the aid of a local anaesthetic, and
dition in the dog arising from a partial failure professional help should be obtained.
of tear production and leading to roughening of Occasionally the object may be removed by E
the corneal surface with a consequent lack of taking the corner of a clean handkerchief, wind-
lustre. ‘Artificial tears’ may have to be provided, ing it into a point, and lifting the offending
or a surgical operation performed involving body out with it. The use of a suitable eye
parotid duct transplantation. The condition has lotion will be helpful afterwards.
been linked to the use of sulphasalazine for the
treatment of idiopathic colitis in dogs. Glaucoma is a condition in which the ten-
sion of the fluid contents of the eyeball is great-
Ectropion means a turning-out of one or ly in excess of the normal. It is associated with
both eyelids, so that the conjunctiva is exposed. obstruction to the drainage system of the eye, in
It is a common condition in bloodhounds and which fluid continues to be secreted but the
St Bernards, and is in them regarded as practi- excess is not removed. It may follow cases of
cally normal. It is also treated by operation, but progressive retinal atrophy. It eventually results
a part of the conjunctiva from within the edge in swelling and bulging of one or both of the
of the lid is removed instead of part of the skin eyes, and blindness results. Secondary glaucoma
from the outside, as in entropion. is more common and caused by an eye disease,
of which the most frequent is lens dislocation.
Entropion Turning-in of the eyelid, often the (See also under EXOPHTHALMOS.)
lower one, so that it rubs upon the cornea, caus-
ing inflammation. The condition is common in Harderian gland, displaced In the dog
dogs – often an inherited defect – occurring in this gland sometimes becomes enlarged and dis-
many breeds. It is also seen in ‘mini-pigs’. placed, owing to blockage of its ducts or to a
In newborn lambs entropion is occasionally nearby swelling, when it becomes visible at the
seen and, if bilateral, can lead to eventual blind- corner of the eye as a reddish lump. It may then
ness and starvation. It can be corrected by require surgical removal.
Michel clips (metal sutures). It is treated by
a plastic operation such as is performed for ‘Heather blindness’ is a colloquial name for
trichiasis (see below). the equivalent of infectious bovine keratocon-
junctivitis (IBK) in sheep. Rickettsia conjunctivae
Epiphora is another name for what is com- is a common cause.
monly called ‘watery eye’ or ‘overflow of tears’.
It is generally due to some obstruction to the Treatment Shade and fly-control aid recovery,
drainage of tears through the lacrimal duct to but veterinary treatment of IBK is necessary.
the nose, but it is also an accompanying symp- Boracic and similar eye lotions are useless
tom of most forms of mild inflammation of the in treating IBK or ‘heather blindness’.
conjunctiva or cornea, of naphthalene poison- Chloramphenicol eye drops or cloxacillin may
ing in cattle, and of atopic disease in the dog. be effective in treatment.
Foreign bodies in the eye have already been Horner’s syndrome The pupil of one eye
referred to under ‘Conjunctivitis’ above. Severe appears smaller than normal, the upper eyelid
irritation may be caused by a piece of grit or a may droop, the lower lid may be raised, and the
grass seed or husk. Pain and irritation may be nictitating membrane (‘third eyelid’) protruded
shown by the dog pawing its face. across part of the eye.
The cause is some lesion affecting the sym-
Treatment If a hair, bristle or tip of an awn, pathetic nerves of the eye, e.g. a tumour of the
for instance, can be seen on folding back the spinal cord, chronic otitis, bite wounds, bee
eyelid, or if a white spot (sometimes indicating stings. Some cases are transient, as with wounds
the site of a thorn’s penetration) or what and bee stings.
242 Eye, Diseases and Injuries of
Infectious bovine keratoconjunctivi- but in fact the opacity stems from inflamma-
tis (IBK) is a convenient name for a group of tion below the surface.) Keratitis may be caused
eye diseases with a worldwide distribution, by trauma of various kinds, e.g. a whip lash, a
and includes New Forest disease (see below). kick or blow; or by irritant skin dressings which
What they have in common is conjunctivitis are not prevented from running into the eyes,
and keratitis. or by lime, sparks, or by continuous irritation
by a foreign body such as a grass awn, piece of
Causes Bacteria, viruses, mycoplasmas, rick- glass or grit. It may arise during the course of
ettsiae, fungi, and Thelazia worms – any of certain diseases, such as distemper in dogs and
these alone or in combination may produce influenza in horses; it can be produced by the
E IBK. In addition, the sun’s rays, dust particles, presence of Thelazea worms, or by fly-borne
and chemical irritants may all predispose to, or infections; frost-bite is said to be the cause of it
exacerbate, the condition. IBK is commonly in ewes on hills during severe weather, when it
transmitted by flies and, in Africa, by two is called ‘snow blindness’; turning-in of the eye-
species of moth which feed on secretions and lids (entropion) may give rise to it in the dog.
exudate from the eye. Some infective agents are
present on the healthy eye, and become active Keratoconjunctivitis sicca is a condition
only when the eye is damaged or irritated in seen mostly in small animals, and is caused by
some way. the inadequate production of tears. There is a
Moraxella (Haemophilus) bovis is a common tacky mucoid discharge round the eyes; the
bacterial cause of IBK. Some American research cornea appears dry and may be ulcerated. If
has suggested that Moraxella may not cause ker- untreated, corneal opacity vascularisation and
atitis unless the virus of bovine rhinotracheitis pigmentation may result. Topical application of
is present also. Cefalonium applied as an eye antibiotics is indicated; ‘artificial tears’, formu-
ointment is an antibiotic treatment. lated for use in human medicine, are useful.
Iritis means inflammation of the iris, a condi- Keratomycosis is keratitis due to a fungus,
tion which is very often associated with inflam- and is uncommon. If, however, tissue resistance is
mation of the ciliary body, when the term reduced by treatment with corticosteroids (which
‘iridocyclitis’ is used. The chief symptoms are are immunosuppressive), any fungi present on
dullness of the iris, congestion of the blood ves- the cornea may become pathogenic. It may be
sels around its margin, a lessened response to only when corneal ulcers fail to respond to con-
varying intensities of light, and usually a firmly ventional treatment that keratomycosis is sus-
contracted pupil. Occasionally, especially dur- pected. Natamycin may prove helpful. Fusarium
ing inflammation of the cornea, the iris adheres solani is implicated in most equine cases, some-
to this structure – a condition known as ‘ante- times Candida species; but several other fungi
rior synechia’; while more frequently the iris may be involved. (See also HYPERKERATOSIS.)
adheres to the lens, which lies behind it, and In the early stages, inflammation of the
the condition is spoken of as ‘posterior cornea results in symptoms very similar to those
synechia’. The aqueous humour is often cloudy seen in conjunctivitis; the production of tears,
and may appear purulent, little flocculi of closing of the eyelids, pain and swelling being
lymph being seen floating in the anterior noticed. When the eye is examined, however,
chamber or sticking to the posterior surface of the surface of the cornea is found to have lost its
the cornea. There is always great pain, fear of lustre. There may be a bluish haze, and an opac-
light (photophobia), and the animal hangs its ity, varying from pin-head size to the whole of
head and is dull and listless. the cornea – when the animal becomes com-
Iritis is a common condition in cattle, usually pletely blind in that eye, for the time being,
caused by eating poor-quality big-bale silage. anyway. The appearance of blood vessels where
none is normally seen is another feature of ker-
Keratitis Inflammation of the cornea may atitis and occurs before opacity becomes com-
follow conjunctivitis, or it may arise from an plete. There may be ulceration of the cornea,
injury to, or infection of, the cornea itself. A and even penetration. If the latter should occur,
thorn, for example, may pierce the surface lay- a keratocoele (hernia) may form endangering
ers of the cornea and remain invisible until a the whole eye, since infection, or escape of the
faint whitish ring appears around its protruding aqueous humour, may sometimes occur.
part. Should a larger area of the cornea be
involved, opacity becomes obvious. (Animal- Microphthalmos is an abnormally small
owners often refer to it as ‘a film over the eye’; eye; it is seen in vitamin A deficiency.
Eye, Diseases and Injuries of 243
Myiasis (see UITPEULOOG) suturing of the eyelids over the vacant socket,
the result will not appear unsightly to the
New Forest disease (infectious bovine owner.
keratitis). Success has been claimed for treat-
ment involving the injection of 2 to 5 ml of an Periodic ophthalmia (see under this head-
antibiotic preparation into the subconjunctival ing). (See also OPHTHALMIA.)
tissues of the upper eyelid. Antibiotics, par-
enterally, by subcutaneous injection or by long- Progressive retinal atrophy, or so-called
acting antibiotic ophthalmic ointment are used ‘night blindness’, is a hereditary condition com-
in treatment; cortisone is contraindicated. mon in some strains of Irish red setter. The
Penicillin, oxytetracycline and chloramphenicol blood vessels of the retina undergo progressive E
have been reported to give equally good results. atrophy and the animal suffers from impaired
A single treatment is usually sufficient. vision in consequence. To endeavour to correct
this the pupil dilates widely, even in daylight,
Opacity of the cornea may result from and the dog’s expression become staring. At
oedema of the cornea following infection with night or at dusk, the dog is unable to avoid
CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS; see ‘Keratitis’ above. objects and blunders into them, but during full
daylight it appears to see quite well.
Ovine infectious keratoconjunctivitis No treatment can arrest the progressive
This occurs worldwide. In a field survey carried degeneration and the dog gradually becomes
out by the University of Liverpool’s veterinary blind. In severe cases puppies may show first
staff, the microflora of 240 clinically unaffected symptoms soon after weaning.
eyes from sheep in 10 flocks were compared Neither dogs nor bitches which show the
with those of 240 clinically affected eyes from condition should be used for breeding. Breeds
12 natural outbreaks. Totals of 16 and 17 gen- affected include collies, griffons, poodles,
era of bacteria were recovered, including retrievers, Sealyhams, cocker and English
Branhamella ovis, E. coli, and Staphylococcus springer spaniels.
aureus. Mycoplasma and acholeplasma were The disease also occurs in cats, e.g. Abyssinian
isolated from both groups. Chlamydia psittaci and Siamese; 25 per cent of Abyssinian cats
can also be a cause. were found to be affected in a recent study. The
earliest signs may not be seen until the cat is 18
Pannus is a complication of keratitis in which months old or more; and the advanced form
blood vessels bud out from the margins of the takes another 18 months to develop. (See also
cornea and run in towards the centre of the eye, TAURINE.)
stopping at the edges of an ulcer if such exists.
Pannus is a condition which always takes a long Ptosis is an inability to raise the upper eyelid,
time to clear up, and even months after there usually associated with some general disease,
may be seen a dullness of the cornea, due to such as distemper in dogs or ‘grass sickness’ in
the tiny vessels that still exist but are invisible to horses. It may also arise after injuries when the
the naked eye. nerve supplying the muscles of the upper lid
(3rd cranial nerve) is paralysed.
Partial displacement Pekingese and other
dogs with prominent eyes sometimes suffer a Retention cysts are produced in the thick-
traumatic partial displacement of the eye from ness of the eyelid owing to blockage of a tarsal
the orbit, as a result of being struck by a car or gland.
of some other accident. The globe may become
trapped by the eyelids which become located Sclerotitis (scleritis), or ‘blood-shot eye’, is
behind it. inflammation of the sclerotic coat of the eye-
ball. It often accompanies conjunctivitis when
First-Aid The owner should bandage the eye the latter is at all severe. It is treated as for con-
with bandage moistened in saline solution junctivitis.
(a teaspoonful of ordinary salt to a pint of
water). Professional aid is urgently required. Stye, or hordeolum, is a condition in which a
small amount of pus collects in the follicle
Treatment This requires a general anaesthetic around the root of one of the eyelashes. One
and re-positioning of the eye where possible. If after another may form in succession, owing to
the cornea, etc., has been badly damaged, the the spread of infective material from follicle to
only course is enucleation of the eye. After follicle.
244 Eye Diseases, Hereditary
Trachoma A term used in human medicine or absence of inherited eye disease in a number
for a granular conjunctivitis, often followed by of breeds of dog to help ensure that only disease-
keratitis and pannus. free animals are used for breeding. The main
conditions covered are central progressive retinal
Trichiasis Turning-in of the eyelashes so that atrophy, collie eye anomaly, generalised progres-
they irritate and inflame the conditions. The sive retinal atrophy, goniodysgenesis/primary
condition is common in dogs and is sometimes glaucoma, hereditary cataract, persistent
a hereditary defect. It is treated surgically, by hypoplastic primary vitreous, and persistent
means of an operation in which an elliptical pupillary membrane.
piece of skin is removed from the outer surface
E of the eyelid, and the edges sutured together. Eye Fluke
This causes the lashes to turn outwards, where (see DIPLOSTOMUM)
they will not irritate or inflame the cornea.
Eyelids
Warts occur in connection with the eyelids (see under EYE)
comparatively frequently in horses, cattle, and
dogs, and sometimes become malignant, Eyeworms
spreading at a rapid rate and causing interfer- In cattle Thelazia worms are one cause of infec-
ence with sight or the movement of the eyelids. tious bovine keratoconjunctivitis. Species
Owing to the malformation which they may include T. skrjabini and T. gulosa, found behind
cause when numerous, warts should always be the 3rd eyelid and in the ducts of associated
removed before they attain a large size or before glands. From 1 to 67 worms were found in eyes
they have time to spread. examined at a UK abattoir in 36.9 per cent of
287 cattle heads examined. Other species of
Eye Diseases, Hereditary Thelazia infest dogs, cats, and man. T. lacry-
The British Veterinary Association, the Kennel malis was found in 28 per cent of horses whose
Club and the International Sheep Dog Society eyes were examined at an abattoir.
operate a joint scheme to identify the presence
F
Kittens A similar syndrome may be caused by
the feline leukaemia virus.
Faeces, Eating of
(see COPROPHAGY)
Intending farriers must undergo a 5-year For other diseases associated with fat, see STEATI-
apprenticeship, including a period at an autho- TIS; FATTY LIVER SYNDROME; OBESITY, DIET.)
rised college, then take an examination for the
diploma of the Worshipful Company of Farriers Fat Supplements
before they can practise independently. The In poultry rations these can lead to TOXIC FAT
training is controlled by the Farriers Training DISEASE. (See LIPIDS for cattle supplement; also
Council and a register of farriers kept by the ECZEMA in cats.)
Farriers Registration Council, Sefton House,
Adam Court, Newark Road, Peterborough PE1 Fatigue
5PP. Its website is at www.farrier-reg.gov.uk. (see EXERCISE; MUSCLE; NERVES)
Treatment Whole blood given intravenously Treatment Isolation of the sick cat under the
at 20 ml per kg or hyperimmune serum at 6 to best possible hygienic conditions is imme-
10 ml per kg, and lactated Ringer’s solution, diately necessary. There should be plenty of
with anti-emetics every few hours, plus broad- light and fresh air, and domesticated cats need
spectrum antibiotics, vitamins, and an easily to be kept fairly warm.
digested diet, such as baby food. In a cattery, Antibiotics help to control secondary bac-
isolation of in-contact animals and rigid disin- terial infection. Food should be light and easily
fection must be practised. (See also NURSING.) digested. (See NURSING; PROTEIN, HYDROLYSED.)
Owing to the very highly contagious nature
Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) of the viruses causing feline influenza, disinfec-
A slowly progressive and fatal disease of young tion after recovery must be very thorough before
cats, and sometimes of older ones also, caused other cats are admitted to the premises.
F by a coronavirus. Although the coronavirus is
commonly found in cats, most do not develop Prevention Live and inactivated combined
the disease. Where FIP develops, it usually does vaccines against feline viral rhinotracheitis and
so in a ‘wet’ form in which fluid accumulates in feline calicivirus are available; inactivated prepa-
the body cavities. rations are given parenterally and live prepara-
Clinical signs in the early stages are non- tions formulated for parenteral and intranasal
specific. Fever, depression, loss of appetite, grad- use. Vaccines are generally effective, but as there
ual loss of weight, distension of the abdomen due are several strains of feline calicivirus, they may
to fluid. Occasionally, diarrhoea and vomiting not protect against them all. Other controls
occur. There may be distressed breathing. include strict hygiene (of premises and atten-
There is also a much rarer ‘dry’ form, which dants) and the segregation of carrier (infected)
may involve inflammation, and ultimately fail- cats.
ure of the liver, kidneys, eyes, and brain. Both
forms are fatal. Confirmation of a diagnosis of Feline Juvenile Osteodystrophy
FIP depends on tissue biopsy or post-mortem Feline juvenile osteodystrophy is a disease, of
examination. nutritional origin, in the growing kitten.
Prevention is by avoiding overcrowding,
culling of cats known to be infected (infected Cause A diet deficient in calcium and rich in
queens passing the disease to their kittens are a phosphorus; kittens fed exclusively on minced
main source), and maintaining good hygiene in beef or sheep heart have developed the disease
a clean environment. A vaccine is available in within 8 weeks.
some countries.
Signs The kitten becomes less playful and
reluctant to jump down even from modest
Feline Influenza heights; it may become stranded when climbing
The name is loosely applied to respiratory curtains owing to being unable to disengage its
infections involving more than one virus, claws. There may be lameness, sometimes due
known as the feline viral respiratory disease to a green-stick fracture; pain in the back may
complex. It commonly occurs in cat-breeding make the kitten bad-tempered and sometimes
and boarding establishments, the infection(s) unable to stand. In kittens which survive, defor-
being highly contagious. Feline calicivirus and mity of the skeleton may be shown in later
feline viral rhinotracheitis are commonly life, with bowing of long bones, fractures,
involved. Secondary bacterial invaders account prominence of the spine of the shoulder blade,
for many of the more serious signs. and abnormalities which together suggest a
shortening of the back.
Signs Sneezing and coughing. The tempera-
ture is usually high at first; the appetite is Feline Leishmaniasis
depressed; the animal is dull; the eyes are This is a cause of ulcers, and small, palpable
kept half-shut, or the eyelids may be closed swellings under the skin. The disease is trans-
altogether; there is discharge from the nose; missible to human beings. (See LEISHMANIASIS.)
condition is rapidly lost. If pneumonia super-
venes the breathing becomes very rapid and Feline Leukaemia
great distress is apparent; exhaustion and A disease of cats caused by a virus (FeLV) dis-
prostration follow. Diagnosis is confirmed by covered by Professor W. F. H. Jarrett in 1964.
isolation of the virus from nasal swabs by a The virus gives rise to cancer, especially lym-
specialist laboratory. phosarcoma involving the alimentary canal and
Feline Stomatitis 253
thymus, and lymphatic leukaemia. Anaemia, latent infection can be reactivated by large doses
glomerulonephritis, and an immunosuppressive of corticosteroid; the virus can be recovered by
syndrome may also result from this infection, cultivation of bone marrow cells. FeLV is not
which can be readily transmitted from cat to transmitted from cats with a latent infection.
cat. Many cats are able to overcome the infec- Vaccines will not protect cats that are already
tion. The virus may infect not only the bone infected. Inactivated vaccines produced from the
marrow, lymph nodes, etc., but also epithelial whole virus suitably processed, or by biotech-
cells of mouth, nose, salivary glands, intestine, nology from the ‘envelope’ of the virus which
and urinary bladder. produces antigen but not infection, are available.
Kittens of up to 4 months of age are more
likely to become permanently infected with Feline Miliary Dermatitis
FeLV than older cats, but many cases do occur (see ECZEMA)
in cats over 5 years old. F
Many cats which have apparently recovered Feline Panleukopenia
from natural exposure to the virus remain (see FELINE INFECTIOUS ENTERITIS)
latently infected, but keep free from FeLV-
associated diseases. Such cats may infect their Feline Pneumonitis
kittens via the milk. (see FELINE CHLAMYDIAL INFECTION)
Most deaths of FeLV-positive cats are not
directly attributable to this virus, but to other Feline Pyothorax
viral or bacterial infections which, in the ordi- (see PYOTHORAX)
nary way, would not prove fatal to the cat; but
which are rendered far more serious owing to Feline Spongiform
the immunosuppression caused by the virus. Encephalopathy (FSE)
This is similar clinically to BOVINE SPONGI-
Significance of FeLV There is an associa- FORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE). The first signs
tion between FeLV infection and anaemia, are hypersensitivity to noise and visual stimuli.
tumours of the leukaemia/lymphoma complex, Ataxia follows and eventually the cat will not be
feline infectious peritonitis, bacterial infec- able to get up. The cause is believed to be the
tions, emaciation, FeLV-associated enteritis, eating of material from cattle affected by BSE.
lymphatic hyperplasia and haemorrhage. Links In a zoo, 2 pumas and a stray cat which shared
have also been established with icterus, several their food were fed on split bovine heads. Both
types of hepatitis, and liver degeneration. pumas and the cat died from FSE. At the height
of the BSE outbreak in the 1990s, one case of
Signs These vary with the age of the cat at infec- FSE was being reported every 6 weeks.
tion; they include a gradual loss of condition,
poor appetite, depression, anaemia. Breathing Feline Stomatitis
may become laboured due to the accumulation Inflammation of the cat’s mouth.
of fluid within the chest. A persistent cough, and
vomiting, are other signs. Causes Various. Viruses associated with stom-
atitis in the cat include the feline calicivirus in
Diagnosis FeLV infection can be detected by addition the rhinotracheitis virus; in addition, a
a fluorescent antibody test, an ELISA test, elec- chronic ulcerative stomatitis might be due to
tron microscopic examination of tissues, and by immunosuppression by the feline leukaemia
isolation of virus. virus, for example.
Control It is possible to prevent the spread of Signs These include difficulty in swallowing,
the disease to susceptible cats by a ‘test-and- halitosis, excessive salivation, loss of appetite,
removal’ system. Infected cats are removed from and sometimes bleeding.
the household for euthanasia, and other cats in
the same household are then tested. If FeLV- Treatment The aim is to limit secondary bac-
positive, they too are removed, even if clinically terial infection by means of antibiotics. A sup-
healthy. Retesting of the FeLV-negative cats is plement of vitamins A, B, and C may help. If
necessary after 3 and 6 months. If still FeLV- the cat will not eat, subcutaneous fluid therapy
negative, they can be considered clear, and new will be required.
cats introduced on to the premises, if desired.
The virus may persist in the bone marrow of Chronic stomatitis in elderly cats may be
cats which have ostensibly recovered. Such a due to EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA, or malignant
254 Feline T-Lymphotropic Lentivirus
Treatment May include the use of a steam mating with a vasectomised male. The latter
vaporiser, lactated Ringer’s solution to over- will result in a pseudo-pregnancy lasting about
come dehydration, and antibiotics. Vitamins 42 days; the jill may need to be mated again if
and baby foods may help. she returns to oestrus.
Other diseases of ferrets include hypocal-
Feminisation caemia, 3 to 4 weeks after giving birth; mastitis;
In the male dog this may occur as the result of ALEUTIAN DISEASE; CANINE DISTEMPER; BOTU-
a SERTOLI-CELL TUMOUR of a testicle. LISM (type C); abscesses; enteritis due to E. coli
or campylobacter. Skin tumours are not uncom-
Femur mon. Periodontal disease is often caused by the
Femur is the bone of the thigh, reaching from accumulation of dental calculus. Urolithiasis can
the hip-joint above to the stifle-joint below. It is occur; the ferret can be fed food formulated for
the largest, strongest, and longest individual this condition in the cat. Ferrets are susceptible F
bone of the body. The bone lies at a slope of to zinc poisoning and any galvanised material
about 45 degrees to the horizontal in most ani- can be a risk.
mals when they are at rest, articulating at its
upper end with the acetabulum of the pelvis, Ferritin
and at its lower end with the tibia. Just above the Ferritin is a form in which iron is stored in
joint surface for the tibia is the patellar surface, the body. Ferritin concentrations in serum are
upon which slides the patella, or ‘knee cap’. closely related to total body iron stores, and
Fractures of the head of the femur are com- ferritin immunoassays can be used to assess
mon. Repair by means of divergent K wires, or the clinical iron status of human beings, horses,
lag screws, has been described. cattle, dogs, and pigs.
Fenbendazole Fertilisation
A benzimidazole anthelmintic used in cattle, (see REPRODUCTION)
horses, pigs, dogs and cats. (See WORMS, FARM
TREATMENT AGAINST.) Fertilisers
Fertilisers should not be stored near feeding-
Fentanyl stuffs, as contamination of the latter, leading
An analgesic for use in small mammals (rabbits, to poisoning, may occur. In Australia, 17 out
ferrets, guinea pigs, rats and mice). It is usually of 50 Herefords died after gaining access to
combined with FLUANISONE for use as a neu- the remains of a fertiliser dump. A crust of
roleptoanalgesic. superphosphate and ammonium sulphate had
remained on the ground.
Ferns For the risk associated with unsterilised bone-
Ferns other than bracken occasionally cause poi- meal, see under ANTHRAX and SALMONELLOSIS.
soning in cattle. For example, Dryopteris filixmas Hypomagnesaemia is frequently encountered
(male fern) and D. borreri (rusty male fern) give in animals grazing pasture which has received a
rise to blindness, drowsiness and a desire to recent dressing with potash. (See also BASIC SLAG;
stand or lie in water. Poisoning is occasionally FOG FEVER.)
fatal. (See also BRACKEN POISONING.)
Fertility
Ferret (seeCONCEPTION RATES; FARROWING RATES;
(Mustela putorius furo) These attractive crea- INFERTILITY; CALVING INTERVAL)
tures are increasingly popular as pets. They
need careful and expert handling – a bite to the Fescue
finger can penetrate to the bone. In the UK the In New Zealand and the USA, a severe hind-
breeding season begins in March and continues foot lameness of cattle has been attributed to
until the end of August. It is preferable that the grazing of Festuca arundinacea, a coarse
females (‘jills’ – males are ‘hobs’) not used for grass which grows on poorly drained land or on
breeding are spayed. Unmated jills may be in the banks of ditches, and being tall stands out
oestrus for the whole of the breeding season, above the snow. In typical cases, the left hind-
with the occurrence of persistently high levels foot is affected first, and becomes cold, the skin
of oestrogen. This can cause severe health prob- being dry and necrotic. Symptoms appear 10 to
lems, including a possibly fatal pancytopenia. 14 days after the cattle go on to the tall-fescue-
The alternatives to spaying are injections of dominated pasture. Ergot may be present, but
proligestone, given via the scruff of the neck, or is not invariably so.
256 Fetal Infections
It has been suggested that ‘fescue foot’ may although diarrhoea may follow later; oedema
be associated with a potent toxin, butenolide, of all the visible mucous membranes, i.e. those
produced by the fungus Fusarium tricinctum. of the eyes, nostrils, mouth, occurs. (See also
HYPERTHERMIA.)
Fetal Infections Fever may perhaps have a beneficial effect.
Examples of these are TOXOCARIASIS in bitches; It was noticed in the 19th century that patients
and TOXOPLASMOSIS in utero of cows, ewes, in a Russian mental hospital, suffering from
sows, bitches and cats. neurosyphilis, improved as regards their paresis
during a fever outbreak; and ‘malaria therapy’
Fetal Membranes was introduced at a later date. Experiments
(see CHORION; AMNION; ALLANTOIS; also UTERUS, with newborn mice show that fatal infection
DISEASES OF and EMBRYOLOGY) with Coxsackie B1 virus can be modified to a
F subclinical infection if the animals are kept in
Fetal Resorption an incubator at 34°C (93°F) and thus attain the
(see MUMMIFICATION) same body temperature as mice of 8 to 9 days
old. Similarly, puppies infected with canine
Fetlock-Joint herpesvirus survive longer and have diminished
The joint in the horse’s limb between the replication of virus in their organs if their body
metacarpus or metatarsus (cannon bones) and temperature is artificially raised to that of adult
the 1st phalanx (long pastern bone). At the dogs.
back of this joint are situated the sesamoids of
the 1st phalanx. (See BONES.) Fibre, Importance of
(see under DIET)
Fetus
For an outline description of the development Fibrillation
of the fetus, see under EMBRYOLOGY. For fetal An involuntary contraction of individual bundles
circulation, see the diagram under CIRCULATION OF of muscle fibres.
BLOOD. (See also FREEMARTIN.)
Fibrin
Fever Fibrin is a substance upon which depends the for-
Fever is one of the commonest symptoms mation of blood clots. (See CLOTTING OF BLOOD;
of infectious disease, and serves to make the PLASMA.)
distinction between febrile and non-febrile Fibrin is found not only in coagulated blood,
ailments. but also in many inflammatory conditions.
Examples of specific fevers are equine Later it is either dissolved again by, and taken
influenza, distemper, braxy, blackquarter, or up into, the blood, or is ‘organised’ into fibrous
swine fever. tissue.
When fever reaches an excessively high stage,
e.g. 41.5°C (107°F), in the horse or dog, the
term ‘hyperpyrexia’ (excessive fever) is applied,
Fibrinogen, Plasma
Concentration of this is increased in inflamma-
and it is regarded as indicating a condition of
tory conditions, especially lesions of serous sur-
danger; while if it exceeds 42° or 42.5°C (108°
faces and in endocarditis. (See also CLOTTING OF
or 109°F) for any length of time, death almost
BLOOD.)
always results. Occasionally, in certain fevers or
febrile conditions, such as severe heat-stroke,
the temperature may reach 44.5°C (112°F). Fibroblast
(See also under TEMPERATURE.) A flat, irregularly shaped connective-tissue cell.
There is usually a certain amount of shiver-
ing, to which the term ‘rigor’ is applied, but this Fibroma
is very often not noticed by the owner. The (see TUMOURS)
stage of rigor is followed by dullness, the animal
standing about with a distressed expression or Fibrosarcoma
moving sluggishly. Later, perspiration, rapid A tumour composed mainly of fibrous or con-
breathing, a fast, full, bounding pulse, and a nective tissue; often malignant.
greater elevation of temperature are exhibited.
Thirst is usually marked; the appetite disap- Fibrosis
pears; the urine is scanty and of a high specific The formation of fibrous tissue, which may
gravity; the bowels are generally constipated, replace other tissue. (See also CIRRHOSIS.)
Fish, Diseases of 257
Flavine Compounds
Among these are acriflavine, euflavine, and
proflavine, derivatives of aniline. Acriflavine, the
hydrochloride of diamino-methyl-acridinium,
is an orange-red crystalline powder, soluble in
water and forming a powerful antiseptic solu-
tion in strengths of 1 in 1000. It stains horn
and skin tissues bright yellow. It has been used
to control bacterial infection, and stimulate
healing, in wounds. Pulex irritans. × 20.
Inset: head of dog flea.
Flavomycin
Proprietary name for the antibiotic flavophos-
pholipol (bambermycin) marketed by Hoechst
as an in-feed growth promoter. (See ADDITIVES.)
Flea-Collars
Flea-collars for dogs and cats are impregnated
with a parasiticide, which varies with the man-
ufacturer. Carbaril, propoxur and diazinon are
among the insecticides used. All will kill fleas
when used as directed; most are active for sev-
eral months. They should be loosely fastened
Echidnophaga gallinacea. × 30.
and the animal should not be allowed to chew
them. Animal-owners should select a reliable
make, for sometimes ineffective collars appear Ctenocephalides canis is the dog flea, but is
on the market; they should also watch for any often found on man and cat. It can transmit
signs of skin inflammation as a few animals are Dipylidium caninum, as also may the cat flea,
allergic to some of the chemicals used. Children C. felis, and the human flea, P. irritans. All these
should not be allowed to play with the collar. fleas cause severe irritation, and in young or
debilitated animals may cause anaemia if numer-
Fleas ous. Sensitisation to flea-bites is an important
Fleas are members of the order Siphonaptera, cause of ECZEMA.
and are degenerate forms of 2-winged insects. In a survey, carried out at the Royal
The eggs are mostly laid on the floor or bed- Veterinary College, London, fleas were recov-
ding; but a few may be laid on the body of the ered from 20 per cent of 193 dogs examined
host, from which they fall. They appear as post-mortem. Three species were found: C. felis,
white specks, and pop when burst. Hatching C. canis, and Orchopeas howardi.
takes from 2 days (in summer) to 12 days or so. Spilopsyllus cuniculi, the European rabbit
When fully grown, the legless larva spins a flea, infests also cats and occasionally dogs. It
cocoon, in which the pupa develops. The adult was introduced in 1966 into Australia, as a
Flies 261
vector of myxomatosis, in order to reduce the kittens must only be treated with products
rabbit population. recommended for use in young animals.
Reproduction of the flea is partly dependent (See also ‘FLEA-COLLARS’.)
on the reproductive hormones of the rabbit,
and so the greatest numbers are present during Flies
the rabbit’s pregnancy. Flies are mostly, but not exclusively, members of
In cats S. cuniculi attach to the ear pinna the order Diptera – the 2-winged flies.
causing an itchy dermatitis, but do not breed Even the common housefly can transmit
even on pregnant cats. infection such as anthrax and tuberculosis, and
Archaoppsylla erinacei, the hedgehog flea, also various species of parasitic worms. The
only occasionally and temporarily infests dogs, stablefly’s role in the production of summer
but may cause an allergic dermatitis in them. mastitis is well known, and other flies, such as
Cats might become infested too. the sheep headfly, may be responsible for cases F
Echidnophaga gallinacea, the ‘stick-tight’ or of this disease too. The autumnfly (and almost
chicken flea, is usually found attached in dense certainly others) can transmit an eye worm of
masses to the head of a fowl or the ear of a dog cattle, and also the infective agent Moraxella
or cat. Man, horses, and cattle are occasionally bovis which causes the more commonly recog-
infected. It is a common parasite throughout nised contagious keratitis or New Forest disease.
the tropics and is frequently the cause of death The approach of a cloud of flies, such as the
in poultry. The female flea, after fertilisation, headfly, will cause cattle to cease grazing and
inserts its mouth parts into the cuticle of the huddle together. The movement or presence of a
host, and remains there. Ulcers may form; and mass of even non-biting flies over the animal’s
in any case the flea is difficult to move. body represents a further cause of ‘worry’ or rest-
Tunga penetrans, the true jigger flea, differs lessness; and both the headfly and the autumnfly
only in slight details from the latter species. The feed on secretions from eyes, nose, etc., and on
female, however, penetrates the skin, and lying the serum exuding from small wounds.
in an inflammatory pocket with an opening
to the exterior, becomes as large as a pea. It is
found in Africa and America in man and all the
domestic mammals, especially the pig. The eggs
are laid in the ulcers; and the larvae crawl out
and pupate on the ground.
The sawfly was first reported in Denmark in EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, AFRICAN HORSE
1974, but sawfly poisoning of cattle and sheep SICKNESS, AND RIFT VALLEY FEVER. In temperate
has been recognised since 1955 in Australia, climates, too, mosquitoes are important disease
where heavy losses have occurred. Goats are vectors.
susceptible also. Four genera of mosquitoes are of veteri-
The sawfly larva is bright yellow with black nary importance: Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, and
dashed lines on the back. It defoliates birch Mansonia.
trees, and then drops to the ground to pupate Eggs are laid on the surface of water or float-
or search for more food. ing vegetation, either singly (Aedes and Anopheles)
or as ‘rafts’ of eggs.
Order Diptera Insects which have 1 pair of Larvae undergo 3 moults, and develop only
wings. in water, in which they are highly mobile.
F Larvae-eating fish, such as Alphanus dispar,
Simulium (buffalo gnats) The flies of this are being used in the Nile Delta and else-
genus are small, thick-set hump-back flies – where for mosquito control. (See also DDT and
hence their name. They are often black or red- DIELDRIN.)
dish-brown. The females at certain times appear
in swarms and attack cattle, horses and other Midges, biting (culicoid) (see under this
animals. heading)
with purple. It is found all over the world, becomes full grown in 4 to 5 days. It leaves the
including Britain. This genus is the carrier of manure at this stage, and crawls to a dry spot
the parasite of Calabar swelling in man. It also where it pupates. The puparia are more or less
can inflict a very painful bite. barrel-shaped and dark brown in colour. In 4 or
The non-biting 2-winged flies have an even 5 days in summer the adult fly emerges. The
greater significance to man and his animals shortest time on record between the laying of
than the biting flies. the egg and the appearance of the adult is 8 days;
10 to 12 days is more normal. In 3 to 4 days the
Muscidae The flies belonging to this family female is ready to lay eggs. The fly lives over the
are smallish to medium-sized flies. The type of winter in the pupal stage, although in kitchens
this family is Musca domestica. and warm places adults may be seen at every
season of the year.
The house-fly can transmit disease by swal- F
lowing bacterial spores, and either bringing them
up in their vomit or passing them out in their
faeces; or by carrying them about on its hairs and
legs. Two species of stomach worm are carried by
this fly, in which they pass part of their life-cycle.
Among other organisms known to be carried
by this fly are anthrax, tuberculosis, and many
species of worm eggs. (See FLY CONTROL.)
Tabanus. × 2.
Haematopa. × 3. Musca. × 4.
Chrysops. × 2.
animal. The fly will take advantage of any ‘Green-bottle fly’ (Lucilia sericata) is the
abrasion on the sheep’s skin. Both fly-repellents British sheep-maggot fly. It is also found in
and head-caps have been used and compared Australia and America.
at the Redesdale Experimental Husbandry
Farm. ‘Head-caps gave good and sometimes
complete protection,’ but are inconvenient in
use. Pine-tar oil is a useful repellent.
The headfly is responsible for carrying bacte-
ria to cows’ teats (especially when already dam-
aged by biting flies or other causes), and appears
to have an important role in producing ‘SUM-
MER MASTITIS’. It is also involved in the spread
of New Forest eye infection caused by Morexalla
bovis. Lucilia. This fly is larger than the house-fly and
smaller than the blow-fly.
Face flies These ‘autumn flies’ (Musca autum-
nalis) plague beef and dairy cattle, and horses, L. caesar, a common species in Europe, does
at pasture, feeding on watery secretions from not ‘blow’ sheep in this country, but does so in
nostrils and eyes. countries such as Russia, where other species are
absent. Other species of Lucilia in India and
Dipterous larvae or maggots—Myiasis Australia occasionally are also implicated.
Of very great importance to the veterinary sur-
geon and the agriculturist are those non-biting ‘Copper-bottle fly’ (Lucilia cuprina) is the
muscid flies which have taken on a parasitic strike fly which attacks sheep in Australia and
existence in their larval stages. Myiasis means South Africa.
the presence of dipterous larvae (or other These are of a bright metallic or bluish-green
stages) in organs and tissues of the living animal colour, with many strong bristles on the thorax
and the disorders and destruction of tissue arranged in 2 parallel rows. There are no stripes
caused thereby. (See ‘STRIKE’.) on the thorax or abdomen. The cheeks are not
The myiasis-producing flies are now usually hairy as in Calliphora.
divided into 3 groups: specific, semi-specific, This genus blows wool, but occasionally
and accidental. infects wounds.
Specific: This group consists of flies which Chrysomyia bezziana, found in India, Africa,
need to breed in living tissue. It includes and the Philippines, is a metallic greenish-blue
Chrysomyia bezziana, Cordylobia anthropophaga, blow-fly, closely related to Lucilia, but with dark
Wohlfahrtia magnifica, Booponus intonsus, and all transverse abdominal bands and with fewer and
the Oestridae. less-developed thoracic bristles. The metallic
Flies 265
Hypoderma Two species of warble-fly, H. bovis Dermatobia D. hominis, the macaw worm-
and H. lineatum, are found in cattle (and occa- fly, is a parasite of cattle and other domesticat-
sionally in the horse). Both are very extensively ed animals (and occasionally man) in tropical
found in Europe and America. America. It is a medium-sized fly, grey or steel-
H. bovis is a largish fly with yellow hair just blue in colour, with pale brown wings. The
behind the head. The underpart of the female lays its eggs on the body of some blood-
abdomen is nearly black, while the tail end is sucking arthropod, usually a mosquito. This
orange-yellow. The legs have few hairs. carrier attacks an animal 5 or 6 days later, and
H. lineatum is rather smaller with a reddish- the larvae, rapidly escaping from their shells,
orange tail and rough hairy legs. pierce the skin of the host, and form a local
H. bovis lays its eggs one on the base of tumour near where they were deposited. In a
each hair at a time. The fly has a most terrify- month or so they emerge and pupate.
ing effect on cattle, and causes them to
gallop madly in all directions. H. lineatum Pupipara This family, which includes the
irritates animals less than does H. bovis. The sheep ked and the horse ked (New Forest fly),
ova are generally deposited while the animal was so called because live larvae are produced
is lying in the shade. A number of eggs – up to which pupate at once. The adults in this case
14 – are laid on the same hair, and are often in are blood-sucking parasites with a hard integu-
full view. ment with a broad neckless head and very stout
Flies 269
viral diseases such as swine fever and foot- impregnated with 8 per cent cypermethrin, are
and-mouth have in the past been similarly also available for cattle at pasture.
transmitted in the UK. The larvae of some flies Whether measured in terms of reduced ani-
also parasitise animals; for example, the ‘green- mal suffering, or farmers’ incomes, or a lowered
bottle’ fly causing ‘strike’ in sheep, the sheep incidence of diseases – some of which are of
nostril fly, and the horse bot flies. The mere public-health as well as economic importance –
approach of warble flies causes cattle to stam- fly control is very worthwhile. If further evidence
pede, and the larvae undoubtedly cause pain of its effectiveness were needed, any doubter
during their migration through the cow’s body, should note the success of the UK government’s
and probably irritation while present in the skin 5-year plan to eradicate warble flies from the
swellings, or warbles. In a few instances, cows UK. Now, only sporadic outbreaks of warble
have died following the accidental crushing of infestation occur. Since horses, as well as cattle,
F larvae in the warbles, and larvae occasionally suffer from warble-fly larvae (although to a much
seriously damage the spinal cord. In the UK, lesser extent), eradication has also benefited
control measures have virtually eliminated them and their owners.
warble infestation in cattle.
Overseas Similar methods to those described
Deterring and killing flies The number of above, suitably adapted for tropical climates,
flies entering a milking parlour can be reduced are in use. The spraying of ground with DDT
by a spray-boom erected over the doorways, and and dieldrin has been very effective for the con-
a plain water mist, produced by ordinary sprin- trol of tsetse flies and human trypanosomiasis,
klers or misters, has been recommended for but the practice was discontinued because of
use in collecting yards where a spray-boom over the development of resistance and the toxicity
the parlour entrance is impracticable. Such mea- of those peparations to other species (see also
sures, however, do not reduce the total fly pop- under TROPICS).
ulation of the farm – they do not kill. Electric fly The release of sterile male flies from aircraft
traps do, and they can be useful when installed has been used on a large scale in Puerto Rico to
in piggeries and dairy cattle buildings. Which control the screw-worm fly.
flies are electrocuted will obviously depend on Genetically engineered blowfly maggots
the feeding and resting habits of the various have been used in attempts to eradicate sheep
species. blowflies. The maggots were altered so that
Of far wider application, and the most effec- females which mate produce blind or sterile off-
tive weapon against farm flies, is the insecticidal spring – a hereditary characteristic which will
spray. This can be used to convert a livestock ‘confer genetic death on future generations’.
building into one big fly trap. A wide variety of (See also DIPS AND DIPPING.)
effective insecticides is available.
For housed stock, spraying walls may suffice; Floods
but beef and dairy cattle at grass will be the (see PASTURE CONTAMINATION; SALMONELLOSIS;
target of flies coming from their resting places WATER-DROPWORT)
among trees. Fly control, if it is to benefit graz-
ing animals, therefore requires application of Floor
an officially approved insecticide direct to their (see
BEDDING AND BEDDING MATERIALS – Pigs;
backs. For this purpose, the synthetic pyrethroids HOUSING OF ANIMALS)
are effective.
These insecticides are chemically allied to Floor-Feeding of Pigs
the active ingredients of pyrethrum, but are This practice is attractive to the pig farmer since
more potent as fly-killers and are also light- it eliminates the cost of troughs and also saves
stable so that they stay effective for longer in space – the normal feeding passage becoming a
the sun. catwalk over the pigs’ sleeping quarters.
From a health point of view, the precise
Fly control for horses and livestock composition of the concrete floor may prove
Numerous formulations based on cypermethrin important. In an outbreak of illness among
and other synthetic pyrethroids are available, as pigs in Eire, with anaemia, gastric ulceration,
both a spray and as pour-on applications, which and haemorrhage, the cause was thought to be
are convenient to use. the ‘pit sand’ (with a high iron content) with
A PVC fly band impregnated with cyperme- which the concrete was made, giving rise to
thrin, for threading on to either the browband iron poisoning once the surface layer had been
or the crownpiece of a headcollar, and an ear tag licked off.
Flunixine Meglumine 271
More important is the fact that loss of appetite oats left over from the previous year. New oats of
in pigs – a common symptom of many diseases high quality were delivered in sacks, and the
– may not be noticed. With trough-feeding, it is delivery man opened one sack and topped up the
easy to see which pigs are uninterested in food. barrow. After he had gone, new oats continued
Feeding pellets instead of meal may also cause to be put on top of what was left in the large feed
trouble – digestive upsets. The method may barrow, which was never completely emptied. A
involve more stress than conventional systems. fortnight after the horses’ arrival, the last 4 in the
line showed signs of head and neck irritation.
Floor Space One horse had rubbed the side of its neck bare;
As a rough guide, the following minimum 2 others had dermatitis on the poll and alongside
figures may be given: bacon pig, 2 m2 (6 square the mane.
feet); veal calf, 3.5 m2 (12 square feet); laying Examination of the bottom layer of the bar-
hen on deep litter, 1 m2 (21⁄2 square feet). row’s contents revealed an enormous number of F
flour mites, and these were also isolated from
Floor Sweepings the skin lesions.
Floor sweepings in mill or barn have been added An unsuspected cause of diarrhoea in dogs
to feed and caused fatal poisoning. For example, may be dog biscuits or meal, stored in large bins,
pigs have died in this way from nitrate poison- and heavily infested with forage mites. As flies
ing, and cattle from mustard seed poisoning. may carry nymphal forage mites, fly control is
important in reducing such infestations.
‘Floppy’ Labradors Forage mites and/or their eggs may be found
The colloquial name for an inherited muscle in dog faeces, where they may have been mis-
disease of both Black and Golden Labrador taken for the eggs of strongyle worms. However,
retrievers. The condition has been seen in both the mite’s egg is nearly twice the size of the
the UK and the USA. Inheritance is associated worm’s.
with an autosomal recessive gene, leading to a Flour mites (A. siro and A. farinae), the
deficiency of type II muscle fibres. house/furniture mite (Glycyphagus domesticus),
and the mould mites (Tyrophagus putrescentiae
Signs Poor exercise tolerance, especially in cold and T. longior) may also be involved.
weather, a stiff hopping gait, with sometimes
collapse. Signs have been shown as early as Fluanisone
8 weeks of age, but in other cases after several A neuroleptic drug used in small animals (ferrets.
months. rabbits, guinea pigs, rats and mice). It is usually
mixed with FENTANYL)
Florfenicol
A chloramphenicol-like antibiotic which is used Flugestone
in cattle to treat infections caused by Pasteurella, A hormone preparation supplied in impreg-
Mannheimia and Haemophilus spp. It is also used nated sponges for the synchronisation of oestrus
in the treatment of fish, particularly in the treat- in ewes. It may also be used to induce oestrus
ment of furunculosis (Aeromonas salmonicida and ovulation in the non-breeding season (see
infection) in farmed Atlantic salmon. It is not CONTROLLED BREEDING).
recommended for use in breeding stock. The
antibiotic is administered by injection in cattle
Fluid Replacement Therapy
(see under DEHYDRATION)
and in the feed of fish.
Flukes and Fluke Disease
Flour (see LIVER FLUKES; LUNG FLUKES; SCHISTOSOMI-
(see AGENE PROCESS) ASIS for blood flukes; PANCREAS, DISEASES OF;
and RUMEN FLUKES)
Flour-Mite Infestation
Infestation of animal feeds by flour mites (Acarus Flumethrin
farinae; A. siro) can cause a significant loss of A synthetic pyrethroid compound used for the
nutrient value, as explained under DIET. Like treatment of sheep scab and tick infestation.
forage mites of various species, flour mites can Impregnated in plastic strips, it is hung in
also cause an irritating parasitic skin disease of beehives to treat varroasis in honey bees.
animals. In one incident, 36 police horses were
stabled in a building which was cleaned and Flunixine Meglumine
whitewashed before their arrival. Unfortunately a A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for
feed barrow was overlooked and still contained relief of pain and inflammation in horses, dogs
272 Fluorescent
and cattle; formulated as granules, tablets or pedal bones. Hip lameness is probably more
injection. Proprietary preparations are Finadyne common.
(Schering-Plough), Cronyxin (Bimeda), and
Binixin (Bayer). Antidote Calcium aluminate is of some limited
value as an antidote to fluorine poisoning.
Fluorescent
(see under TETRACYCLINES which make bone flu- Fluothane
oresce, and under WOOD’S LAMP which shows Fluothane is a trade name for HALOTHANE.
ringworm-affected hairs fluorescing. For the
fluorescent antibody test, see under RABIES and Flurbiprofen
IMMUNOFLUORESCENT MICROSCOPY.) Fluriprofen, Flurbiprofen and Ibuprofen are
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs used in
F Fluorescin (Fluorescein) human medicine, and sometimes given to dogs
Fluorescin (Fluorescein) is a useful diagnostic by their owners, or eaten by dogs with access
agent in injuries and ulcers on the cornea of the to the tablets, with resultant poisoning (some-
eye. A weak solution is dropped into the eye and times fatal). Stomach ulceration and kidney
the injured area can be seen clearly demarcated failure have been caused.
from the surrounding healthy cornea. Eye drops containing flurbiprofen are used as
pre-operative treatment for cataract extraction.
Fluorine
This element occurs in body tissues and in Flushing of Ewes
some natural water supplies. Excess of fluorine Flushing of ewes aims for rising metabolism in
causes mottling of the teeth. (For fluorine breeding ewes some 6 to 3 weeks before service,
poisoning, see FLUOROSIS.) by putting them on to protein-rich feed. The
purpose is to intensify subsequent oestrus and
Fluoroacetate Poisoning thereby ensure that each ewe is in fit condition
Sodium mono-fluoroacetate is used to kill rats to breed. Some trials, however, have failed to
and mice, and it is in this connection that poi- demonstrate the effectiveness of the practice.
soning in domestic animals and man may arise.
The drug causes distress, yelping, sometimes Foaling
vomiting, and convulsions in the dog. Treatment (see PARTURITION)
consists in the administration of nembutal. A
dose as small as 0.66 mg per kg body weight Foals
is fatal. Foals are young horses of either sex until the
In 1963, 2 outbreaks of fatal poisoning time they are 1 year old. Male foals are known
involving numerous dogs, cats, cattle and a pony as ‘colt foals’, and female foals are called ‘filly
were attributed to the agricultural insecticide foals’. Most foals are born between March and
fluoroacetamide, a closely related compound. June in Britain, although quite a number (espe-
cially thoroughbreds) are dropped earlier than
Fluorosis this. Thoroughbreds are conventionally aged
Fluorosis, or chronic fluorine poisoning, is as from January 1 of the year in which they
of economic importance in cattle, sheep, etc., are born, and all other horses from May 1, irre-
grazing pastures contaminated by fluorine com- spective of whether they were actually foaled
pounds emanating from iron and steel works before or after these dates.
and other industrial plant. It has also been Generally speaking, foals run with their dams
reported in dairy cattle receiving mineral sup- at grass during the summer, and are weaned at
plements with a high fluorine content, the 4 to 6 months of age. With weakly foals, how-
result of incorporation of rock phosphate. This ever, and in the case of highly bred pedigree
is something which animal feed manufacturers animals, it is not uncommon to allow them to
should guard against, and they should offer run with their dams until nearly Christmas-
guarantees concerning maximum fluorine time, so that they may get an exceptionally good
content in their products. start in life.
As a rule, foals will begin to eat grass when
Signs There is severe lameness, and a resulting they are between 3 weeks and a month old,
loss of condition; milk yield is greatly reduced. although some start earlier and some later than
The teeth may become mottled, and the bones this. At about 6 weeks to 21⁄2 months they will
particularly liable to fracture. Cows may stand begin to eat dry corn from mangers along with
with their legs crossed in cases of fracture of the their mothers.
Foals, Diseases of 273
render meat dangerous as food, see TUBERCULO- Signs In cows, there have been seen a loss
SIS; SALMONELLOSIS; ANTHRAX; TRICHINOSIS; of appetite, salivation, fever, uncertain gait, and
HYDATID DISEASE, etc. paralysis of the hindquarters. In horses, an
instance has been recorded in which a number
Food Poisoning in Man of animals ate the plant in quantity; those which
(see E. COLI; SALMONELLOSIS; CAMPYLOBACTER; had white muzzles and feet became attacked
ROTAVIRUS; also BOTULISM). In the UK, salmo- with diarrhoea and all white areas of the body
nellosis is the most frequent cause of food poi- became severely inflamed, but other horses of a
soning but E. coli is becoming more common. whole-colour remained unaffected. (See LIGHT
Clostridium prefringens, Staphylococcus aureus and SENSITISATION.) In other cases stupor, paralysis,
Bacillus cereus are also found. Yersiniosis and lis- and convulsions have been noticed.
teriosis, from infected milk or cheese, also occur.
Where meals are prepared for a number of First-aid Drenches of strong black tea or F
people, as in homes for elderly people whose coffee should be given so that the tannic acid in
resistance is lowered, the risk of food poisoning them may combine with the alkaloids of the
is increased. The very young and immunologi- plant and form inert substances.
cally comprised people are also more at risk.
Following serious outbreaks of poisoning by Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD)
E. coli 1057 in Scotland in 1997, a government A very highly contagious NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
report by Professor Hugh Pennington recom- that can affect all cloven-hooved species; other
mended a series of measures to raise hygiene names are aphthous fever or epizootic aphtha. It
standards in food shops, etc. is characterised by the formation of small vesi-
cles (fluid-filled blisters) in the mouth and on
Food Safety Act 1990 the feet or, in the female, on the skin of the
This sets out regulations covering the whole of udder or teat. Economically, it can be devastat-
the food chain from retailers back to primary ing, particularly in cattle, pigs and sheep. The
producers. costs of eradication or control, involving diag-
nostic services, slaughter of infected or at-risk
Food Standards Agency animals, compensation to farmers, disposal of
An independent body established by the UK carcases, or adoption of a vaccination policy,
government with a brief to ‘protect public and loss of trade can be enormous. Where the
health from risks which may arise with the con- disease is not dealt with and becomes endemic,
sumption of food, and otherwise to protect the failure to thrive and consequent loss of produc-
interests of consumers in relation to food’. The tion and a total ban on export of live animals
agency reports to government but can publish and, to a very large extent, animal products can
its advice independently. The Meat Hygiene be very serious. FMD has been considered the
Service, the agency responsible for meat inspec- single most important constraint to trade in
tion in all licensed abattoirs, reports to the FSA. animals and animal products.
Foot-and-mouth disease has occurred in
Foods and Feeding virtually every country in the world in which
(seeDIET AND DIETETICS; NURSING OF SICK cattle, sheep or pigs are kept. It has been
ANIMALS; RATIONS; also CAT FOODS) endemic in parts of South America, continental
Europe, Asia and Africa. Except in young
Fool’s Parsley, animals, where the death rate may be up to
Although a member of the natural order 50 per cent, the disease is not characterised by
Umbellifera – very many of the members of high mortality. Usually fewer than 5 per cent of
which are poisonous (e.g. water hemlock, water infected adult animals die.
dropwort, and hemlock) – the extremely com- The disease is transmissible to humans but
mon fool’s parsley (Aethusa cynapium) is not a the infection is usually mild and transient. It is
frequent cause of poisoning in animals. It is not the same as (human) HAND, FOOT AND
dangerous when fed to rabbits, if it is pulled MOUTH DISEASE.
in the early green succulent stage before the
flowering tops are formed. Cause Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by an
Under ordinary circumstances herbivorous aphthovirus of which 7 types are recognised –
animals do not readily eat fool’s parsley, for at including the 3 known as O (now named the
the time when its growth is most luxuriant (i.e. PanAsia strain), A and C, which have caused
in spring) there is generally an abundance of outbreaks of the disease in Britain, and 4 more
grass, which they prefer. types which so far have been confined to Asia
276 Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD)
In all affected species, the illness may cause of an outbreak) is usually practised. Israel is an
animals to lose much weight, or to cease to exception; the high-yielding diary herds are
grow. Abortion, infertility and diabetes are vaccinated annually.
occasional complications. Foot-and-mouth dis- As a temporary measure, animals in areas
ease may be the cause of sudden death in pigs, surrounding outbreaks may be vaccinated to
cattle and sheep. provide a ‘ring fence’ against infection. Contrary
to its general policy, to protect Greece, the EU
Animals in milk – cows, ewes and sows – operates a vaccination policy in European
may develop characteristic lesions upon their Turkey and part of Turkey-in-Asia. The use of
teats or upon the skin of the udder. The lesions vaccination was seriously considered in the UK
are similar to those forming in the mouth, but 2001 outbreak when the disease threatened to
they take longer to mature. In some cases run out of control and the enormous numbers
the whole of the tip of the teat shows a single of animals slaughtered, and disposal of their F
large blister, which is soon burst by milking carcases, created serious difficulties.
or sucking. Subsequently an eroded appear-
ance remains, until healing is established. Milk Vaccine bank The United Kingdom,
secretion rapidly diminishes. Permanent udder Australia, New Zealand, Finland, Ireland,
damage may result from the disease. The pain Norway and Sweden in 1985 formally estab-
is usually acute, and the milk – contami- lished a foot-and-mouth disease vaccine bank.
nated with the exudate and with discharges The participating countries are all free from the
from the lesions – is highly infective to young disease and do not normally vaccinate against
animals. it, but if an outbreak occurs, supplies of vaccine
are held at the international vaccine bank, IAH
Differential diagnosis It is necessary to Pirbright: 0.5 million doses of each of the
distinguish between foot-and-mouth disease, 7 main strains of FMD are kept in store.
swine vesicular disease and vesicular stomatitis
by laboratory tests. In the UK, tissue and blood Foot-and-mouth disease in Britain A
samples from suspect animals are sent to the serious epidemic in 1967–8 involved 2397 out-
Institute of Animal Health (IAH) Pirbright lab- breaks; the slaughter of more than 211,000
oratory for testing. If large quantities of virus head of cattle, 108,000 sheep, 113,000 pigs,
are present, the test can give a positive result in and 50 goats; and payments in compensation to
4 hours. In some cases, it may be necessary to owners of about £27 million. The policy and
multiply the virus by culture in cells and it may arrangements for dealing with the disease were
take up to 4 days to confirm that virus is not subsequently reviewed by the Northumberland
present. The cell culture technique is also used Committee, which recommended continuation
to provide material for identifying the precise of the slaughter policy with the option of ring
type and strain of the virus. vaccination.
Britain was free of FMD except for a minor,
Control A policy of slaughtering affected and easily eradicated, outbreak on the Isle of Wight
in-contact animals is operated in the UK, in 1981, until February 2001, when the worst
Canada, the USA, Norway and countries outbreak ever broke out. Believed to have
throughout the European Union where the originated from a pig farm in Durham, where
disease is not endemic. Such a policy, involving infected swill was fed, the disease spread to
compensation to owners of compulsorily slaugh- sheep which were mixed with others at markets
tered animals, is normally far less costly than a in Hexham and Longtown. Transport of ani-
long-term vaccination policy. Slaughtered ani- mals by dealers to Devon and other parts of
mals are disposed of by burning or burial; affect- the country caused rapid and widespread out-
ed premises are thoroughly disinfected and breaks; export to France and Holland caused
the holding and surrounding area subject to a further outbreaks which were rapidly con-
period of quarantine. Vaccination is practised in tained. By the middle of the year, when the
countries where a slaughter policy is unworkable disease was subsiding, more than 3 million ani-
because the disease is endemic and its incidence mals had been slaughtered. Cumbria, south
high; not vice versa, as might be thought by west Scotland, Durham, Northumberland and
those who condemn the slaughter policy without Devon were the most seriously affected areas.
having studied the reasons for it. ‘Overall’ vacci- Large parts of the countryside were out of
nation is seldom practicable in such areas for bounds and the effects for the whole of the UK
reasons of cost, so ‘frontier’, or ‘ring’, vaccination livestock farming industry, and for tourism,
(of all susceptible animals within a given radius were devastating.
278 Foot-Baths for Cattle
of the plantar cushion and nourishing the the sole. This line is of great importance in
frog, a furcal matrix, or sensitive frog. The term shoeing, as it indicates the thickness of the wall,
‘pododerm’ is applied collectively to these sensi- and is used as a guiding line through which the
tive structures. The pododermic tissues are in nails can be driven with safety. In the posterior
reality modified skin, and produce numerous part of the sole there is a V-shaped notch,
minute tubular horn fibres which are firmly between the branches of which lie the bars and
united to each other. the frog.
The frog is an exact mould of the lower sur-
The hoof is composed of the wall, the sole, face of the plantar cushion which it protects.
and the frog. It is a roughly triangular wedge-shaped mass
The wall is all that portion which can be seen filling up the space between the bars and the
when the foot rests upon the ground. It gives V-shaped notch of the sole. It projects down-
the foot its form. Its horn is hard, solid, only wards more than the sole, and receives the F
slightly elastic, and affords protection to the greatest amount of the concussion in the nor-
sensitive laminar matrix below it. mal foot; it is only seldom injured, however,
The inner surface of the wall has about for its horn is of very elastic consistency. The
600 horny leaves or laminae, which dovetail ground surface presents a well-marked median
with the sensitive laminae forming a firm union cleft, which corresponds to an elevation in its
between wall and matrix. The upper edge of the upper (inner) surface.
wall is thin, flexible, and grooved for the lodge-
ment of the coronary cushion. The lower edge Foot-Rot of Cattle
is called the ‘bearing surface’, and is the part to This name is used in the USA for what in
which the shoe is fitted. Britain is called FOUL-IN-THE-FOOT. Bacteroides
The sole is that part of the hoof which is nodosus has been isolated from some foot
nourished by the sensitive tissue covering the lesions of cattle in Britain, but its role has not
solar surface of the coffin-bone. It is divided been established.
into a body and 2 branches, and is roughly cres-
cent-shaped. The sole is markedly vaulted in Foot-Rot of Pigs
normal feet, especially in hind-feet, but in very Abscesses on the sensitive parts of the foot,
many old horses it becomes flat or even convex; often seen in pigs housed on rough concrete;
when excessively convex it is called a ‘dropped this causes abrasions which become infected.
sole’. The white line of soft horn acts as a kind Thirty per cent of casualty pigs at one UK
of cementing substance between the wall and slaughter-house had abscesses (a common reason
Diagram of the underside of a horse’s foot. (With acknowledgements to The UFAW Handbook on the Care
and Management of Farm Animals, Churchill Livingstone.)
280 Foot-Rot of Sheep
for condemnation of meat) and 12 per cent of depends upon the proteolyptic capacity of the
these abscesses were on the feet. infecting strain of D. nodosus. In benign foot-
In a survey covering more than 6000 pigs, rot the infecting strain is of low proteolytic
30 per cent of the lesions were erosion of the activity; the resultant disease is limited and
heel, 24 per cent of the toe, and 21 per cent of does not spread under the hard horn, although
the sole. Fine cracks to deep fissures constituted it might cause lifting of the sole of the foot.
another 2.7 per cent of the lesions. (See diagram In virulent foot-rot the infecting strain is of
under BIOTIN.) high proteolytic activity and results in exten-
sive separation of the hard horn, with uneven
Causes These include excessively rough con- horn growth giving the clinical appearance of
crete, which can be abrasive. Softening of the classical foot-rot.
horn under damp, dirty conditions is another It appears that transmission of foot-rot infec-
F factor; and nutrition may be involved in some tion from cattle to sheep is possible.
instances. D. nodosus cannot survive in the soil or on
pasture for more than a fortnight.
Foot-Rot of Sheep
Foot-rot of sheep is a disease of the horny Signs Lameness is the first noticeable feature.
parts and of the adjacent soft structures of At first the sheep manages to put the foot to the
the feet. The organism primarily responsible ground, but after a time it goes on 3 legs only,
is Dichelobacter nodosus (Bacteroides nodosus, the pain having greatly increased.
Fusiformis nodosus). The disease is commonly When the foot is examined either there
prevalent on wet, marshy, badly drained pas- will be found a swelling over the coronet, or
tures, in old folds or sheep pens. Wet soil, an area of the horn of the hoof is found to be
however, does not cause foot-rot but merely soft, painful on pressure, ‘rotten-looking’, with
facilitates infection. This is a mixed one, with a variable amount of foul-smelling discharge
B. necrophorus causing sufficient damage to present.
permit the entry of D. nodosus. If neglected, the horn will begin to separate
In Australia 2 forms of foot-rot are recog- from the underlying sensitive tissues, and will
nised, in both of which D. nodosus is always eventually be shed. Sometimes the disease pen-
present. The type of foot-rot which develops etrates into the foot, affecting the ligaments or
The old and the new in foot-rot treatment. Two injections with foot-rot vaccine at an interval of
six weeks can help minimise the paring and cutting of feet necessary with traditional methods of
control.
Formalin 281
even the bone. One, 2, 3, or all 4 feet may be in weight can be shown in affected ewes with
affected. If the 2 fore-feet are attacked, the reduced growth rate in lambs.
sheep very often assumes the kneeling position (See also FOOT-BATHS; CONTAGIOUS OVINE
for feeding. If the 2 hind-feet, any 3 feet, or DIGITAL DERMATITIS.)
all 4 feet are affected, standing becomes an
impossibility, and the sheep, still retaining its Forage Mites
appetite, will feed from the sitting position, (see MITES)
crawling forward a few inches at a time to a new
piece of grazing. Foramen
A hole or opening. The word is applied partic-
Prevention Foot-rot can be eradicated. Leave ularly to holes in bones through which pass
contaminated pasture free of sheep for 3 weeks. nerves or blood vessels. The foramen magnum
Isolate and treat all infected or suspected sheep. is the large opening in the posterior aspect of F
The feet of heavy sheep should not be allowed the skull through which passes the spinal cord
to get overgrown during wet weather; turning to enter the foramina in each of the vertebrae of
on to a bare fallow or stubble field, or walk- the spine. The nutrient foramina are the holes
ing along a hard road, is advocated by some to in the shafts, etc. of the bones which penetrate
wear away the feet, but is not a very practicable to the marrow cavity, by which blood and
proposition. The better way is to round up the lymph vessels and nerves pass to and from the
sheep and pare each foot individually once marrow cavity.
every 6 weeks or 2 months.
Where the disease has not yet taken hold, Foreign Body
the use of foot-rot vaccine may obviate much Any object which becomes lodged in a body
time-consuming work treating diseased feet; organ or tissue. The term includes a grass seed
the manufacturer’s directions must be followed in the ear or nose, beneath the skin between
if the vaccine is to be effective. Vaccines contain the toes or beneath the eyelid, in the prepuce
inactivated strains of D. nodosus. or penis of the cat; a needle embedded in
the tongue or a chop bone wedged in a dog’s
Treatment It is advisable to separate the mouth; a piece of bone lodged in the gullet;
infected animals from the healthy, passing a piece of wire in the reticulum; pebbles in a
the latter through a foot-bath and changing the dog’s stomach; lead shot and airgun pellets.
pasture to as high a ground as possible. If the (See AWNS; under CHOKING; STOMACH, DISEASES
lame sheep can be shut up in a dry, strawed OF, etc.)
yard, in pig-courts or in pens, and given hand- Foreign bodies also include a broken-off
feeding and individual attention daily, they portion of an intravenous needle within a vein,
recover much better than if they are left out or of a catheter. Miniature ‘button batteries’,
in the open and only attended to occasionally. swallowed by small children, have caused an
The feet should be carefully trimmed, and all obstruction of the oesophagus, and also mer-
necrotic horny material removed. When all the cury poisoning; and a similar risk could be
‘rotten’ substance has been removed, the sheep expected in dogs and cats.
should be passed through a foot-bath. In severe
cases, zinc sulphate solution is preferable to Formalin
formalin, which can cause severe pain; propri- Formalin is a gas prepared by the oxidation of
etary formulations based on zinc sulphate methyl alcohol. For commercial purposes it is
heptahydrate are available. prepared as a solution of 40 per cent strength
The shepherd should take care not to spread in water. Formalin is a powerful antiseptic,
the disease to other sheep through the medium and has the quality of hardening or fixing
of hands or knife; both should be washed after the tissues. The solution in water gives off gas
dealing with each case, and all parings, diseased slowly, and this has an irritant action on the
tissue, and infected swabs collected in a pail eyes and nose.
and burned. Neglect of these precautions often Formalin is used for preserving pathological
results in a continuance of new cases in a flock. specimens, occasionally as a disinfectant, and
Aerosol sprays containing the antibotic for the production of formaldehyde gas for
oxytetracycline, and a purple dye as marker, are fumigation of buildings. A 3 per cent solution
popular. Injection of a long-acting antibiotic of formalin has been used in a foot-bath in
can be highly effective. the treatment of foot-rot in sheep. Its applica-
The economic and welfare consequences of tion, however, may cause considerable pain if it
foot-rot can be severe. Losses of up to 15 per cent reaches sensitive tissues. Formalin gas has been
282 Fossa
used to fumigate eggs on farms and in the septicaemia of the fowl. This is a contagious
setters in the hatchery. The process carries disease of fowls, usually epizootic in type and
some risk and must be done in special cham- characterised by sudden onset, high fever, exten-
bers; approved alternatives are available. sive blood extravasations into the different
Formalin gas must never be used to fumigate organs, and severe diarrhoea. The disease occurs
duck or goose eggs. (See also under FOOT-BATHS; all over Europe, in North and South America, in
DISINFECTION.) most parts of Africa, and in Asia. All common
fowls, including domestic poultry (chickens,
Fossa ducks, geese, guinea-fowl, turkeys, pigeons,
Fossa is an anatomical term applied to a depres- pheasants, and fancy birds), are susceptible.
sion in a bone which lodges some other struc- Most common wild birds are also liable to infec-
ture, such as part of the brain in the skull. It is tion and serve to spread the disease. Rabbits
F also used to describe grooves or pockets in soft and mice may also contract it under special
tissues, such as the renal fossa of the liver in circumstances.
which is lodged the right kidney.
Cause Pasteurella multocida.
Foul-in-the-Foot
Called FOOT-ROT in the USA. A disease that Signs After a brief incubation period (usually
affects cattle. Technically known as interdigital 2 to 4 days) the birds may be seen to stagger
necrobacillosis, the lesion takes the form of a and fall down, or more commonly are just
swelling which tends to force the claws apart. found dead. In the less acute type, which per-
The whole length of the space between the haps is the more common, the birds are seen
claws may be involved, with 1 or 2 fissures in to look ill, to stand apart from the rest, droop
the skin evident, and a slough of dead tissue. their wings, and refuse both food and water.
The combs, wattles, and ear lobes become dis-
Cause Fusiformis necrophorus (Fusabacterium coloured, and there is great nervous prostration.
necrophorum) is the usual cause, entering tissues A discharge comes away from the eyes and
through a wound or through devitalisation of nose, a frothy saliva from the mouth, and there
the skin from frost, mud, decomposing urine or is usually severe diarrhoea. The respirations
faeces, or other irritants. become rapid; the temperature may reach 43.3°
or 43.9°C (110° or 111°F). The feathers are
Signs There is nearly always well-marked ruffled and draggled, and those of the hinder
lameness, with swelling of the interdigital tis- parts of the body are soiled with faecal dis-
sues and a typical foul smell. Hind-feet are charges. Vomiting may take place, and in from
more often affected than fore-feet, probably 1 to 3 days the affected birds usually die. In
owing to their greater liability to soiling from other cases the symptoms are more subacute,
urine and faeces, in which the necrosis bacillus and the disease may run on for from 7 to 9
can generally be easily found. In many cases a or 10 days, but as a rule ends fatally. In the
cow will suddenly stop walking, and shake the more chronic type, arthritis may be seen and it
affected foot as though she desires to dislodge a may take several weeks before death ensues.
stone or other hard object which has become In acute outbreaks 90–95 per cent may die,
wedged between the claws. although in others the death-rate may be only
A ‘super foul’ has been seen recently, which 20 per cent.
spreads very rapidly in the foot; it causes severe
pain and deep erosion at the heel unless treated Treatment Tetracycline antibiotics are more
promptly. Tissue damage may be so extensive useful than sulfonamides as these adversely
that the animal has to be culled. affect egg production.
Treatment This calls for prompt professional Prevention is by vaccination and avoiding
aid. The foot is dried and an oxytetracycline contact with wild birds.
spray applied. In severe cases, parenteral antibi-
otics may be necessary and are essential in ‘super Fowl Paralysis
foul’. Affected animals should be isolated. (See (Neuro-lymphomatosis.) (See MAREK’S DISEASE.)
FOOT-BATHS.)
Fowl Pest
Fowl Cholera This term usually refers to NEWCASTLE DISEASE,
Synonyms: cholera gallinarium, avian pasteurel- but also includes fowl plague (see AVIAN
losis, pasteurellosis of the fowl, haemorrhagic INFLUENZA)
Fowl Typhoid 283
Fowl Typhoid
This is an acute infectious disease of fowls (also
Head of cock affected with fowl pox (avian conta-
gious epithelioma). Wattles and comb are mainly of ducks, geese, turkeys, game and wild birds)
affected. caused by Salmonella gallinarium. The disease
has a worldwide distribution, but has been
virtually eradicated from the UK.
Fowl Plague Most outbreaks occur in pullets near point of
(see AVIAN INFLUENZA) lay, but birds of all ages are susceptible – even
chicks. The disease is usually introduced into
Fowl Pox a flock by the purchase of ‘carrier’ fowls, and
Also known as avian contagious epithelioma thereafter spreads by contamination of food
and avian diphtheria, this is a disease caused and water with the droppings of such birds.
by the avian poxvirus in which wartlike nodules The incubation period is from 4 to 6 days.
appear on the comb, wattles, eyelids, and
openings of the nostrils. Signs are not always characteristic. There is
The disease attacks the fowl most often, but generally marked drowsiness, loss of appetite,
other domesticated birds are all susceptible; and great weakness. The fowls prefer to sit about
likewise wild and domesticated pigeons. It in dark corners. The comb and wattles are some-
occurs in almost all parts of the world. (See times pale and anaemic; they may in other cases
POX.) be markedly congested. Diarrhoea is usually pre-
The virus infects the skin through abrasions, sent. Death, following progressive weakness,
and may be transmitted by insect vectors (espe- occurs in from 4 to 14 days after the onset of
cially mosquitoes). Various secondary organisms the symptoms. The percentage mortality varies
are usually responsible for deaths. from about 20 to 30 per cent, and many or most
The period of incubation is usually between of the recovered birds become ‘carriers’, which
3 and 12 days, and bad housing conditions, serve to spread the disease to other birds.
severe weather, and poor feeding serve to lower
vitality and render an outbreak much more Diagnosis If fowl typhoid is suspected, sam-
serious. ples of blood from the surviving and appar-
ently healthy birds should be submitted to the
Signs There are 3 types of lesion: (i) nodular agglutination test, and all reactors should be
eruptive lesions on comb and wattles; (ii) a isolated and destroyed – the carcases being
cheesy, yellowish membrane in the mouth and burned or buried in quicklime. The remaining
throat; (iii) oculo-nasal form (possibly due to a birds should be treated with antibiotics, moved
different virus). to fresh premises, and retreated.
The mouth lesions consist of patches of a After removal of the reacting birds, the
greyish, fairly firm, cheesy-looking material, houses, utensils, etc. should be disinfected.
284 Fox, Diseases of
very often penetrates through the skin and is Causes Disease, such as osteomalacia, in which
found exposed. Bleeding is apt to be severe; there is a reduction in the density of bone and
infection of the ends of the bones with patho- of its tensile strength, is one cause. However,
genic organisms may occur. the common cause is external violence. (See also
Incomplete fractures are those in which the ELECTRIC SHOCK.)
bone is broken only partly across, or in which
the tough periosteum (the tissue covering the Horses Fractures result from kicks, falls or
bone) is not torn. This variety occurs in the blows; errors in judgement during jumping; the
shin-bones (tibiae) of horses which have been putting of feet into rabbit-holes when galloping;
kicked, and in the bones of young animals. In and accidents when the animal collides with
these the bone cracks like a twig half-way some stationary object, or is struck by a vehicle.
across, and then splits for some distance along Fractures incurred by 53 race horses at a New
its length, just as does a branch which has been York track were found to be due to 3 lesions: F
cut halfway through and then bent; these osteochondrosis, chondro-osteo necrosis, and
fractures are known as ‘greenstick fractures’. degeneration of tendons and ligaments.
Fissured fractures are mere cracks in the bone
which are found in the skull and face bones Cattle Fractures result from injuries during
after blows or falls. They are usually not serious fighting, slipping, and falling when struggling;
unless haemorrhage accompanies them and from running, bulling and mounting or during
the blood clot presses upon a nerve or on the service; from jumping fences, hedges, ditches;
brain itself. from crowding accidents at markets, etc.; and
Deferred fractures occur when the bone has from crushes in cattle-trucks.
actually been fractured, but the fractions do not Fracture of the 3rd phalanx in a medial front
separate until or unless some extra severe strain claw is commonly associated with fluorine
is put upon the part. poisoning, and causes cattle to stand with their
Distracted fractures are those in which mus- legs crossed. (See also SHOEING.)
cular contraction causes the detached fragment
to be drawn away from the main body of the Pigs and sheep The causes are usually
bone. similar, but legs are broken more easily. Careless
Depressed fractures also occur in the skull use of the shepherd’s crook is responsible for
bones as a rule, and consist of fractures in which many. Falling over precipices and getting a limb
a fragment of bone is forced in below the level fast in a gate, fence, or hurdle may also result in
of the surrounding surface. They may give rise a broken bone.
to very serious symptoms when the depressed
portion presses upon the brain substance. Dogs and cats Of 298 cats brought, on
Complicated fractures are those in which account of fractures, to a small-animal hos-
there is some other serious injury produced in pital in London over a 2-year period, more
addition to the fracture, e.g. dislocation of the than 90 per cent had been injured in road
dog’s hip along with fracture of the shaft of the accidents. The bones most frequently broken
femur; tearing of a large nerve, etc. were the femur (28 per cent of the cats), pelvis
Comminuted fractures are those in which (25 per cent), and jaw (11 per cent).
there is much splintering, the term ‘sequestra’ In a survey of 26 feline fractures diagnosed
being applied to those splinters of bone which at the Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, the femur,
are separated and eventually die. jaw, tibia, pelvis, and spine were the most
Impacted fractures are those in which, after common sites of fracture, in that order.
the break has occurred, one fragment is jammed Of 61 dogs covered by the same survey, the
inside another, usually at an angle. femur, tibia, pelvis, radius and ulna were the
Ununited fractures are those in which, after bones most often involved. Nearly half the cases
the usual time has elapsed for the fracture to were the result of road-traffic accidents; with
heal, it is found that union has not taken place. 6 being ascribed to nutritional causes, 4 to falls,
The failure to unite may be simply due to and 1 to a bullet wound.
‘delayed union’, on account of debility or illness
or due to the fact that the limb or other mem- Signs The chief signs of a fracture are useless-
ber is not kept at rest sufficiently for the process ness of the part, crepitus of the fragments,
of healing to occur. In other cases of ununited and sometimes unnatural mobility and defor-
fracture, a piece of muscle or other tissue mity. If a limb is affected there is usually an
becomes placed between the broken ends of the unnatural mobility, inability to sustain weight,
bones and effectively prevents their union. distortion or deformity, shortening of the
286 Fractures of special parts
length, a thickness or swelling at the seat of Special types of extension splints, having
the fracture (due to overlapping of the frag- transverse pins which transfix the bone, have
ments), and a variable amount of pain. (See also been used with success in appropriate cases.
‘Fractures of special parts’, below.) Medullary pins, driven down the marrow cavi-
ty of long bones; wiring; and plating have all
Healing of fractures When the bone breaks, been used with success. (See BONE PINNING.)
many blood vessels are torn, and accordingly a Whenever splints, plaster, or other bandages
large clot of blood forms around the ends, are being applied to fractured limbs it is essen-
between them, and for some distance up the tial to ensure that the surface of the skin is
inside of the bone. Later, great numbers of well padded with cotton-wool, and that the
white blood cells find their way into this clot, pressure is evenly distributed. Failure in this
which becomes ‘organised’ – blood vessels and, respect may result in parts of the skin becom-
F later, fibrous tissue being formed in it (soft cal- ing gangrenous through obstruction to the
lus). Next, lime salts are gradually deposited in blood-flow.
this fibrous tissue, which thus develops into
bone (hard callus). In this process a thick ring Bone Grafts These are used to a limited
of new bone forms round the broken ends, fill- extent in veterinary surgery to repair fractures of
ing up all crevices; and when union is complete, the femur, humerus, tibia, radius and ulna; or
this thickening is again gradually absorbed, to replace comminuted fragments, to lengthen
leaving the bone as it was before the injury. bones, to correct delayed or faulty union.
In racing greyhounds, badly fractured The allografts are harvested aseptically from
scaphoids have been removed and replaced by healthy dogs, autoclaved the same day, and may
plastic or metal prostheses. In one case, the use be stored at between –10° and –20°C (14° and
of a titanium-alloy prosthesis enabled a grey- –4°F) in a domestic freezer for use up to 1 year
hound to race again 43 times before retirement later. Ordinary bone-plating techniques are
from the track. used to secure the implant.
3. The vertebrae Commonest in horse and dogs, if one is broken the other acts as a nat-
dog through accidents (e.g. in horses getting ural splint. Lameness is always marked, and
cast in stall, casting for operation, road-traffic there is pain on pressure. Local swelling is
accidents in dogs, falls from heights, blows usually noticed, and deformity. Bandaging is
from sticks). If a vertebra is fractured, paralysis advisable. Young horses should be placed in
results. There is often a fatal termination, or a slings. Bone-pinning has been carried out
need for euthanasia. Tail-bones are often bro- successfully in the dog and the horse.
ken in dogs and cattle through getting caught 9. Coronoid process In 130 cases of frag-
in doors, gates, fences, etc. mented coronoid process of the ulna in 109
4. The ribs Due to external violence usually, dogs, 68 were treated surgically by medial
but the 1st rib is sometimes broken through elbow arthro-tomy and 62 with rest and anti-
muscular action in a side-slip and violent recov- inflammatory drugs. Surgical treatment did
not decrease the incidence of lameness after
F
ery, when it often results in RADIAL PARALYSIS.
Otherwise broken ribs show little or nothing treatment, but the dogs treated surgically were
characteristic except local pain and deformity, more active and less lame than those treated
unless many are involved, when breathing may without surgery. Young dogs with mild lame-
be short and/or difficult. (See ‘FLAIL-CHEST’; ness due to fragmented medial coronoid
PNEUMOTHORAX.) processes probably do not benefit from surgery,
but dogs with chronic, moderate or severe
5. The pelvis In 123 cases of fracture of the lameness do.
pelvis in dogs in 1 practice, all were the result of
road accidents. Twenty-eight of the dogs were 10. Bones of knee These are seldom frac-
treated surgically, and 66 conservatively. The tured, but if they are it is usually impossible to
conclusion drawn was that, although the major- bring about recovery without stiffening of the
ity of patients would recover without surgery, joint (ankylosis).
the latter could reduce the time taken for recov- 11. The metacarpals In the horse, good
ery, especially with multiple fractures on both recoveries are made in cases of clean transverse
sides of the pelvis. In bulls and stallions, pelvic fractures without complications or splinters.
fractures occur sometimes during service when Prognosis is best in fractures occurring in the
their hind-feet slip from under them and they middle of the cannon. The limb is bandaged
fall backwards on to buttocks. These are least with a plaster or proprietary resin-impregnated
serious when only the external angle of ilium bandage and the horse slung; the plaster is left
(‘point of hip’) is involved. in position for at least 6 weeks. In the dog, such
6. The scapula Fractures are uncommon. fractures usually respond well after setting and
Mostly, they occur through the neck of the supporting of the affected bone.
bone, or on the projecting spine. The muscula- 12. The pastern bone Fractures may be trans-
ture covering the bone may impede diagnosis verse, oblique, or longitudinal (‘split pastern’),
but assists recovery, acting as natural bandage. often comminuted. Severe lameness always
7. The humerus Lameness, intense in all ani- results. Simple transverse fractures can be treated
mals, follows fracture; the limb is usually quite satisfactorily if the temperament of horse will
useless. Horses and cattle do not make good allow rest and slinging; oblique, longitudinal,
recoveries except when young, but healing in and all comminuted cases are unsatisfactory and
small animals is more satisfactory. (See BONE- if recovery occurs, usually some deformity or
PINNING.) Absolute rest is essential; horses may blemish is left.
be slung. 13. The second phalanx, coffin and
In a series of 130 cases in dogs and cats, most navicular bones Fractures in these bones are
animals with proximal, shaft and supracondylar rare; they may the caused by direct violence,
fractures had excellent results. The poor prog- and sometimes follow an operation of neurec-
nosis associated with distal articular fractures tomy (un-nerving); may be seen in cattle as a
was most often because of failure of the fixation result of weakening of bone through FLUORO-
device in the supracondylar area. The best SIS. Fracture of the coffin-bone, if simple and
results were achieved with a plate on the caudal joint surfaces are not involved, makes good
and medial surface of the distal humerus. recovery as a rule, since hoof acts as splint and
8. The radius and ulna One or both bones bandage. Fracture of the 2nd phalanx (short
may be broken; fracture of the ulna is less pastern bone) is usually difficult to resolve.
serious unless the elbow-joint is involved. In Most fractures of the navicular bone are
288 Francisella
Francisella
(see TULARAEMIA)
Free Radicals
Highly reactive molecules, formed in the pres-
ence of oxygen and capable of damaging living
tissue. They have been implicated in human
heart disease and arthritis. They may also be a
cause of sudden death of pigs – those being
Two Rush-type intramedullary pins used to repair transported for long distances or subject to
a supracondyloid fracture of the femur. other forms of stress. However, it has been sug-
gested that protection may be given by feeding
sagittal and minimally displaced, but the prog- vitamin E, which ‘scavenges’ radicals.
nosis is usually poor because the fibrous callus
causes permanent lameness. Such fractures Freemartin
have been repaired by inserting a 50 mm screw Usually defined as a sterile heifer born twin to a
which exerts compression between the 2 frag- normal bull calf; the most widely accepted
ments. The pilot hole is drilled and the screw is explanation being that sex hormones from the
inserted precisely along the transverse axis of earlier developing male twin pass across to the
the navicular bone by means of a mechanical female twin, with the result that sexual differ-
guide, the process being monitored by image- entiation of both male and female proceeds
intensifying fluoroscopy. The fractures are said under control of male hormones.
to heal without superfluous callus formation. However, as long ago as 1917 it had been
suggested that hermaphrodites might occur in
14. The femur Very commonly fractured
female single births, as a consequence of early
in dogs after street accidents. Shaft, neck, or
fetal death and resorption of the male twin in
one of the trochanters may be involved.
the uterus. During the 1970s chromosome
Frequently in dogs, dislocation of the hip-joint
analysis had revealed the presence of both male
accompanies fracture. Extreme lameness, short-
and female cells in single-born bull calves.
ening of the limb, local swelling, and great pain
Dr W. V. S. Wijeratne and colleagues were the
on movement are usually seen. There may or
first to demonstrate this condition – technically
may not be crepitus. In horses, fracture of pelvis
known as secondary chimerism – in single-born
very often accompanies fractured femur and
freemartins. (Primary chimerism can occur
makes diagnosis difficult. A fractured femur
where 2 sperms fertilise the same ovum.)
usually necessitates euthanasia in large animals,
Not every female fetus having a male twin
but in small animals recovery may be either
sharing the uterus will become a freemartin,
partial or complete. (See BONE-PINNING.)
because in some instances death of the male
15. The patella Fracture is a very serious twin fetus occurs before about day 39 of preg-
condition, resulting in a lowering of the affect- nancy – when a common blood supply may
ed stifle and inability to advance the limb. become established. Moreover, in between 5 and
There is great pain. Treatment is union of the 10 per cent of heterosexual twin pregnancies a
fragments by wire sutures; this may be difficult common blood supply is not established.
Frost-Bite 289
Galvayne’s Groove
A vertical groove in the front surface of the
horse’s upper corner incisor teeth. It first
Gad-Fly appears at the gum margin at about 10 years old
(see FLIES; WARBLES). In Britain, warble flies are and gradually moves down the surface of the
on the wing from late May onwards. tooth as the horse ages until it grows out at
about 30 years old. (see DENTITION – Horses)
Gadding
Excitement, restlessness, uncontrolled rushing Game Birds, Mortality
around in horses or cattle due to the presence This may be considered under 2 headings:
of biting flies; also, in the case of cattle, warble
flies. From farm chemicals Many farm chemicals
can cause poisoning in game and other birds.
Gag Deaths have resulted from the use, as seed dress-
A device to facilitate oral examination or ings, of compounds such as dieldrin, aldrin and
treatment by holding the mouth open. heptachlor, now banned in the UK. Some of the
organophosphorus insecticides; dimethoate; and
Gait, Abnormal the ‘nitro-type’ of weedkillers such as DNC,
(see ATAXIA; ‘GOOSE-STEPPING’; LAMENESS) which stains the carcase yellow; are among other
chemicals hazardous to birds.
Pheasant poults have died as a result of being
Gall-Bladder treated for lice with a 5 per cent gamma benzene
The little pouch-like sac in which bile produced
hexachloride (BHC) dusting powder.
by the liver is stored until it is required during
An organophosphorus insecticide does not
the process of digestion. It is a hollow, pear-
necessarily act quickly. Death may occur 8 weeks
shaped organ lying in a depression on the
after eating the poisoned food. The symptoms
posterior surface of the liver. The gall-bladder
shown by poisoned birds include ruffled feathers,
is not present in the horse and in animals of
saliva around the beak, high-stepping gait or
the horse tribe, but is found in the other
unsteadiness on the legs, distressed breathing,
domesticated animals.
and paralysis. However, as their use is now
Blockages of the bile-duct by liver flukes or
reduced, problems caused by organophosphorus
by gallstones may result in jaundice as well as
compounds are less frequent.
severe local inflammation. Acute inflammation
Spraying an orchard with either DDD or
of the gall-bladder is painful, and there is
DDT (now banned) has caused heavy game-
danger of rupture or gangrene.
bird losses. A partridge was found dead in a
field where blackcurrants had been sprayed
‘Gall Sickness’ with the insecticide endrin. It was reported
(see ANAPLASMOSIS) from the farm that 8 or 9 partridges died with-
in a few hours of eating earthworms which
Gallstones came to the surface of the soil soon after spray-
Gallstones, which are also known as biliary ing. Rat poisons may perhaps be included in
calculi (see under CALCULI), are concretions the term ‘farm chemicals’. Owls die after eating
which are formed in the gall-bladder or in the poisoned rodents.
bile-ducts of the liver. As a rule they are hard,
brownish in colour, coated with mucus, and of From natural causes Impacted gizzard,
a more or less rounded shape. They may be tuberculosis, aspergillosis, swine erysipelas,
composed of cholesterol; of cholesterol and bile fowl-pox, fowl cholera, fowl typhoid, infectious
pigments; or of pigment and lime salts. One sinusitis. Gapes is another cause of death; also in
or several may be present, causing pain and the USA, encephalomyelitis. Deaths from fowl
jaundice. pest (Newcastle disease) have been reported in
Gallstones are more prevalent in sheep than the UK; blackhead in pheasants and partridges.
in cows, dogs, cats, and horses.
In human medicine, ursodeoxycholic acid ‘Grouse disease’ is the colloquial name for
has been used to dissolve gallstones. infestation with Trichostrongylus tenuis. Mortality
Gangrene 293
Gangrenous Dermatitis
A disease of poultry caused by Clostridium sep-
G ticum; often associated with infectious bursal
disease and inclusion-body hepatitis, it usually
affects birds between 25 and 100 days of age.
Mortality can be very high.
Ganjam Ulrus
The Indian name for a bunyavirus infection
transmitted by ticks.
taking place in 4 to 6 weeks. The sponge may be as a ‘false rig’. Such an animal may mount
sterilised in dry heat, and applied either dry or mares and achieve both erection and intromis-
moistened with normal saline, an antibiotic sion. The chasing, or rounding up, of mares,
solution, or a solution of thrombin. Absorbable and nipping them, may also occur. This behav-
gelatin sponge complies with the requirements iour is not hormonally induced or hormone
of the British Pharmacopoeia. dependent; it has been suggested that it is part
of the normal social interaction between horses.
Gelatin, Succinylated ‘False rigs’ and cryptorchids may show similar
A modified, fluid, gelatin used as a plasma sub- behaviour.
stitute to restore body fluid volume in cases Blood samples from 104 horses with either
of hypovolemic shock. sexual and/or aggressive male behaviour, but
which had no palpable or visible testes, were
Gelbviehs assayed for testosterone levels 30 to 100 minutes
This German yellow breed of cattle, as it is also after an intravenous injection of human chorion-
G known, was evolved by crossing Swiss breeds ic gonadotrophin. All but 8 horses were classified
with German breeds, and is dual-purpose, aver- as either geldings (<40 pg/ml) or cryptorchids
aging nearly 3640 litres (800 gallons) of milk at (τ100 pg/ml). Surgical investigation confirmed
4 per cent butterfat. Fattening stock give a daily the diagnosis in 23 geldings and 47 cryptorchids;
liveweight gain of 1.1 kg (2.5 lb) and are ready the remaining horses were not operated on.
for the butcher at 405 days in Germany. (See also CASTRATION – Immuno-castration, for
treatment of an aggressive cryptorchid stallion.)
Gelding
A castrated horse. Occasionally a horse which Generic Products
has had both testicles completely removed Those sold under their Pharmacopoeia names
shows stallion-like behaviour, when it is known rather than brand names.
Spleen cells from mice previously injected with parasite, and secreting antibody to the parasite, can be
fused with other cells to form hybrid cells that live and multiply. From these a cell line is selected by
‘cloning’ (i.e. a colony that represents the progeny of a single cell is isolated) which secretes appropriate
antiparasite antibody. (With acknowledgements to WHO Chronicle, 36.)
298 Genetics, Heredity and Breeding
the original host, and may have usefulness for has been done successfully and nucleotides of
later vaccine purposes. One method of adapting up to 500 characters have been constructed.
the micro-organisms to grow in laboratory Another technique in genetic engineering
animals is to fuse, artificially, cells to form a involves monoclonal antibodies. These are pro-
HETEROKARYON. (See illustration.) duced by fusing antibody-producing cells from
an immunised donor with another type of
Uses Genetic engineering has provided infor- white blood cell, thereby producing hybrid cells
mation on the molecular basis of gene action, which in tissue culture could provide the
on bacterial virulence and bacterial resistance. desired antibodies. Among potential uses are,
ln agriculture it offers the hope of being able again, vaccines, but also diagnostic reagents; for
to transfer from bacteria to plants the genes blood-typing, in race-horses, for example.
which confer the ability to fix nitrogen – and
so reduce farmers’ dependence on scarce and Genetics, Heredity and
costly nitrogen fertilisers. Breeding
G In the UK, at the AFRC’s Unit of Nitrogen PAGE
Fixation, genes for nitrogen fixation were Phenotype and genotype 299
transferred with the aid of a PLASMID from a Homozygous and heterozygous 299
naturally occurring nitrogen-fixer Klebsiella Inheritance through multiple genes 300
pneumoniae to E. coli, which had never fixed Inheritance and high milk yields 300
nitrogen before. The plasmid, of the exchange- Selection 300
able class, was able, when transferring, to take Inbreeding 301
along fragments of its host’s chromosomes, Fusion of 2 inbred lines 301
including pieces bearing the nitrogen-fixation Hybrid vigour 301
genes. ‘Nicking’ 302
Some of the new nitrogen-fixing E. coli ‘Pedigree and purity’ 302
strains converted these fragments of Klebsiella Chromosomes 302
chromosome into new, separate plasmids. Genetic aspects of infertility 302
Geneticists in the unit therefore constructed, Inheritance of twinning 302
by ordinary genetic manipulations, plasmids Heritability of certain traits 303
carrying nitrogen-fixation genes which would Lethal and semi-lethal factors 303
transfer themselves alone, without the aid of Heredity and disease 303
another plasmid. Genetic defects 303
In veterinary medicine the greatest potential
lies in the preparation of completely safe viral Introduction The science of genetics deals
vaccines. One of the first successes was with foot- with the physiology of heredity – the mecha-
and-mouth virus. The specific viral protein, free nism by which resemblance between parent and
of infectivity, was produced by a genetically offspring is conserved and transmitted; and
manipulated E. coli. This protein from a bacteri- with the origin and significance of variation –
al culture is capable of stimulating antibody pro- the mechanism by which such resemblance is
duction in animals. The technique is used also in modified and transformed. It seeks to define
the production of a number of other vaccines. the manner in which the hereditary characters
of the individual are represented in the fertilised
Recombinant DNA techniques Develop- egg in which the individual has its beginning.
ment of such techniques involved 3 lines of Stock-breeding is a craft concerned with the
research: (1) recognition and isolation of extra- maintenance of the desirable qualities of a
chromosomal DNA, or plasmids; (2) the manip- stock, the improvement of these qualities gen-
ulation of DNA with ‘restriction’ enzymes which eration by generation, and the elimination
selectively split DNA into fragments which through breeding of qualities which are held to
could then be rejoined; (3) reinserting the frag- be undesirable. The problems of the geneticist
mented DNA into living cells so that it became and of the stock-breeder are identical, though
part of the genetic material of the cells. their interests are dissimilar.
In this way, genetic instructions for produc- The geneticist has made much progress by
ing mammalian enzymes could be transferred studying, quickly maturing, very highly fertile
into E. coli, the cell most used for propagating animals such as the mouse, rat, guinea-pig,
such plasmid vectors to produce insulin, for rabbit, and above all the fruit fly Drosophila.
example. A better understanding of heredity was ren-
The next step was to develop synthetic dered possible by the concept that the individ-
nucleotides, actually to construct genes. This ual as a whole was not the unit in inheritance,
Genetics, Heredity and Breeding 299
but could be regarded as a definite orderly most skilful stockman cannot improve upon
combination of independently heritable units. the hand of genes once dealt.
Breed was now interpreted as signifying Genotype can be defined as the entire array
different combinations of independently herita- of genes carried by an individual (or, in anoth-
ble characters, all drawn from the common er sense, the genetic constitution of an individ-
source of the stock in which modern domesti- ual with respect to any limited number of genes
cated cattle had their origin – just as different under examination).
arrangements and combinations of letters make Phenotype is the appearance and/or the per-
different words, though all words are made up formance of an individual animal. Phenotypic
of letters derived from a common source: the variation of a population results from the com-
alphabet. bined effects of inheritance and environment.
The breeder has employed the methods of Genetic variation is that part of the phenotypic
hybridisation and inbreeding associated with variation which is due to genes.
selection in the creation of the modern breeds.
He has practised inbreeding with selection in Homozygous and heterozygous In G
order that the desired type of his stock may order to illustrate one of the simpler aspects of
be fixed, and he has sought hybrid vigour in heredity in relation to stock-breeding, the
outcrossing. The geneticist has employed these appearance of red calf in a herd in which the fash-
very same methods in his studies. The method ionable coat colour is black, and in which all red
of genetics is character-analysis. The object of animals are eliminated, will serve as an example.
the breeder is character-synthesis. Black-and-red coat colours in cattle consti-
Instead of the hereditary mechanism being a tute a typical pair of Mendelian characters,
simple affair as was first thought, it is one of the black being the dominant and red being the
most complex. recessive member of the pair. A red calf can only
be produced by black parents when both of
Phenotype and genotype Allan Fraser these are heterozygous in respect of their coat-
MD, DSc, when senior lecturer in animal hus- colour character. For the character black-coat
bandry at Aberdeen University, once drew a colour, there is a determiner or factor: this
helpful analogy between heredity and a game factor may be present in the zygote in the
of cards, with each card representing a gene, duplex state, having been conveyed thereinto
and Honours cards representing genes most by both egg and sperm. When the factor for
desirable to a breeder. black is present in the duplex state, the individ-
A game of cards is preceded by the shuffling ual that arises for that fertilised egg or zygote is
of packs, and so also is the conception of an ani- spoken of as being ‘homozygous’ for the char-
mal preceded by a shuffling of genes. Each pack acter black-coat colour. On the other hand,
is then halved – just as before sperm and ovum into the zygote there may have been brought a
meet, and the number of genes in both is factor for black from 1 parent and a factor for
halved by what is called the reduction division. red, the alternative character, from the other
Fertilisation then reunites the 2 half-packs to parent. Under these circumstances, of these
form 1 new pack. The cards in this represent 2 factors (that for black and that for red) it is
the genes in the new individual animal. the former alone that determines what the coat
‘The cards in any one hand or the gene colour shall be. Black is said to be dominant in
sample in any individual animal are the result of its relation to red. Homozygous and heterozy-
pure chance – no one can predict how the run gous blacks will be indistinguishable on inspec-
of the cards or of the genes will go.’ tion. If 2 heterozygous blacks are mated there
Of 2 animals, sharing the same sire and dam, will occur on the average in every 4, 3 black
1 may have a much better genotype, be a more calves to 1 red. To explain this 3:1 ratio it is
valuable breeding animal than its full brother or assumed that half of both male and female
sister. gametes of such heterozygous individuals (i.e.
If the cards dealt at conception be called the sperm and ovum) carry the factor for the dom-
unalterable genotype of the animal, the playing inant character black, and the other half the
of that hand may be called the environment, factor for the alternative recessive red, and the
which includes climate, nutrition, exposure to 2 sorts of egg and of sperm occur in equal num-
infections, stocking rates, and every aspect of bers. If it is assumed that for every pair of
husbandry and animal management. factors that correspond to a pair of characters,
Some stockmen can make a surprisingly only 1 can pass into the ripe gamete, it follows
good job with poor genetic material; others a that a 3:1 ratio in the next generation will be
sorry job with the best stock; but of course the obtained, and of the individuals exhibiting the
300 Genetics, Heredity and Breeding
dominant character, 1 will be homozygous for many of economic importance to the farmer,
that character and 2 heterozygous, whilst the are inherited in a far more complex manner
individual exhibiting the recessive character through multiple genes.
must of necessity carry the factor for that Multiple genes may have an additive effect as
character in the duplex state, since if in its regards the expression of some character; or
hereditary constitution it carries a factor for the they may interact, one with another, in the
dominant, it will exhibit the dominant charac- production of a character, inheritance of which
ter. It is possible by examining the records of is even more complex.
the coat colours of the offspring to define the
hereditary constitution of the parent in respect Inheritance and high milk yields It
of the coat colours black and red. The following seems that it is easier to increase the butter-fat
matings are possible: content and solids-not-fat content than it is to
Homozygous black to homozygous black increase the milk yield through breeding. The
will give none but blacks, all homozygous. heritability of milk yield is not as high as that of
G Homozygous black to heterozygous black some other characters.
will give all blacks, of which 50 per cent will be There is a correlation between high yields
homozygous and 50 per cent heterozygous. and body size, but conformation is by no means
Homozygous black to homozygous red will always associated with high yields. A few of
give all heterozygous blacks. the highest-yielding cows have had, to put it
Heterozygous black to heterozygous black mildly, an unfashionable conformation.
will give 25 per cent homozygous blacks, 50 per The diagram below shows how 2 bulls, full
cent heterozygous blacks, and 25 per cent reds. brothers, may influence milk production in
Heterozygous black to red will give 50 per their daughters in opposite ways. It also shows
cent heterozygous blacks and 50 per cent red. how the ‘gene lottery’ can make nonsense out of
Red to red will give all reds, of necessity the expectations of a breeder.
homozygous. The only mating of blacks that For this reason, progeny testing has proved
can yield a red calf is that of two individuals of the greatest importance in the selection of
heterozygous in respect of this coat-colour bulls, each of which – through AI – may have
character. not 100 offspring but tens of thousands.
The coat-colour character has to be consid- It is possible for a farmer to use (by means of
ered quite apart from all the rest of the charac- AI) a bull with the proved ability to produce
ters that in their association make the animal daughters with a high milk yield, as compared
what it is. An individual is a pure black when it with the yield resulting from use of an
is in respect of this character homozygous, improved or average bull. Proven bulls are list-
when in its hereditary constitution the deter- ed in terms of ‘a bonus of 50 or of anything up
miner or factor for this character has been to 100 gallons’ and also in terms of a butterfat
received from both its parents. bonus. (See also PROGENY TESTING.)
Researchers have reported an association
Inheritance through multiple genes between blood groups and production charac-
The above example shows how a character – ters in cattle and other animals. The work on
coat colour – may be inherited through single transferrin and milk yield is an example; that of
genes. This is the mechanism of heredity at its blood groups and milk yield another. However,
simplest. Most characters, however, including the results were not sufficiently significant to be
of practical value in selecting for productivity.
The effect of inbreeding and crossing. These 2 sheep were sired by the same ram, but the smaller
one was highly inbred (59 per cent) and when 10 months old had attained little more than 40 per
cent of the weight of its half-sib (left), which was a 3-way cross of inbred lines, its dam being a 2-
way line cross. These hoggs are of Chevoit × Welsh extraction. (Animal Breeding Research
Organisation photograph.)
Inbreeding may be defined as the mating characters, and if these 2 strains are then
of individuals more closely related than the crossed, the resulting progeny can be expected
average relationship of the population. to possess both desirable characters to a useful
Both crossbreeding and inbreeding are degree. The mechanism has been notably
methods of bringing about genetic change. successful in producing strains of poultry with
Inbreeding was practised by the early devel- large egg size and high annual yields, and has
opers and improvers of livestock breeds in order been exploited commercially.
to fix the type of their animals. Inbreeding can When the generation in which the 2 desirable
be expected to increase the proportion of ani- characters are expressed is bred from again, an
mals homozygous for a given desired character. immediate reassortment of characters occurs,
As the process proceeds, however, individuals and only in a small percentage of the individu-
with undesirable characters are likely to appear als will the desirable characters be expressed.
– animals which are abnormal in some respect, The others are most likely to be useless.
sterile, or weak. Inbreeding could prove disas-
trously expensive if the proportion of such Hybrid vigour (Heterosis), usually demon-
animals were high. (Test mating of a bull to strated by increase in size, better liveweight
related or carrier females may be carried out gains and greater resistance to disease and in the
in order to detect specific genes such as lethal earlier attainment of sexual maturity, occurs in
factors; the carriers then being culled from the the first cross-bred generation out of the mating
herd.) of 2 widely dissimilar pure-bred parental stocks.
Prolonged inbreeding will lead to disappoint- Hybrid vigour is an indication of heterozygosis.
ing regression, diminution of vigour, decreased The 2 parental breeds must be within reason as
fertility, and a reduction in body size. dissimilar in their characterisation as possible;
then in the pooling of those hereditary consti-
The fusion of 2 inbred lines By inbreed- tutions there will be a very considerable degree
ing for a specific character, and by practising of heterozygosis in the 1st cross-bred offspring;
rigid selection for 2, 3, or more generations, the desirable characters are pooled, and in
a strain of relatively homozygous individuals respect of those characters exhibited by the 2
for the selected character can be created. If 2 parents the offspring will be heterozygous.
such strains are developed separately but simul- Generally, a characteristic with poor heritability
taneously for 2 different but highly desirable is enhanced more than one of high heritability.
302 Genetics, Heredity and Breeding
twinning may be a desirable character for the Recessive inheritance: many diseases are
farmer it is not one which is easy to obtain inherited as autosomal recessives. Neither parent
through breeding. It seems that there is a rather is usually affected, but the disease comes from
low level of genetic variation in frequency of both; the sexes are affected equally, inbreeding is
twinning, and that prospects for rapidly often being practised, the incidence is generally
increasing litter size in dairy cattle do not at low and exact genetic ratios are obtainable. Few
present seem good. In some breeds of sheep, diseases, however, fulfil all the criteria of simple
and perhaps also in cattle, it may not be the recessives.
ovulation rate which is the limiting factor but, Diseases due to sex-linked recessives, e.g.
as indicated above, the survival rate of fertilised canine haemophilia, are uncommon in domes-
eggs. tic mammals and, not being transmitted by
unaffected males – the carrier female transmits
Heritability of certain traits The follow- the disease to half her male offspring – are
ing table, compiled at the Animal Breeding unlikely to be a major problem. In poultry,
Research Organisation, shows the degree of however, sex-linked abnormalities such as G
heritability of certain traits sought by the pig familiar cerebellar degeneration are transmitted
breeder. by the male to half his female progeny and are
relatively common.
Trait Heritability Diseases such as cryptorchidism and inter-
% sexes are sex-limited and sometimes regarded as
Litter size at weaning 7 due to recessives, the homozygote only express-
Average weaning weight 8 ing itself in 1 sex. While both parents are proba-
Daily gain, after weaning 0 bly involved, their exact inheritance is unknown
Food conversion 5 and cryptorchidism is certainly subject to
Average back fat 50 environmental modification.
Percentage of lean meat 45 Irregular inheritance: many defects have a
It will be seen that litter performance has a low complex inheritance. Sporadic abnormalities,
heritability, and must be achieved by suitable which increase on inbreeding, such as chicken
crossbreeding. The crossbred sow has a marked ‘crooked toes’ or pig ‘kinky tails’, are called
superiority in this respect. pheno-deviants, and are probably caused by
recessives exhibiting a threshold of manifestation.
Lethal and semi-lethal factors Lethal Dominant inheritance: the disease usually
factors have been defined as genes which, when comes from 1 affected parent, and half its off-
present in the homozygous condition, cause spring are affected. Few dominant diseases are
the death of the embryo and when present in known in livestock, except in poultry. Irregular
the heterozygous conditions cause a serious dominants, exemplified by ‘curved limbs’,
impairment in the individual often leading to where an unaffected male transmits a gene
non-survival. producing defective offspring out of unrelated
Lethals may be dominant or incompletely females, and less than half are affected, do,
dominant, but many are certainly recessive. however, occur. Environment or modifying
They are not always recognised since they may genes may cause the defect inherent in the gene
cause death of the embryo early in development, to develop.
and the mating may be regarded as having been Semi-dominant inheritance: several diseases
infertile – another illustration of the difficulty of are due to semi-dominants, the heterozygote
defining the genetics of infertility. being distinguishable from both homozygotes.
Several lethals are met with in cattle, such as A single dose of a semi-dominant gene pro-
parrot-mouthed, in which calves die at a few duces a Dexter, a double dose a bulldog
hours of age, or amputated, in which calves are calf, and the homozygous normal allele pro-
born dead with legs and lower jaws absent. duces a long-legged Dexter. Some American
Semi-lethals include over-shot jaws in calves. dwarf cattle result from semi-dominants (with
acknowledgements to Dr G. B. Young, Animal
Heredity and disease Diseases exhibit a Breeding Research Organisation).
spectrum according to the genetic influence.
Canine haemophilia is entirely genetic. Swedish Genetic defects All breeds of livestock may
gonad hypoplasia is mainly genetic, mastitis is harbour some genetic defects, but their inci-
mainly environmental and injuries are entirely dence is usually low. However, specific defects
environmental. Simply dividing diseases into sometimes become more frequent in certain
genetic and non-genetic is, therefore, inaccurate. breeds, and give cause for concern.
304 Genital Organs
Cattle Examples of genetic defects include the so that the breeding value of the parent is exact-
following: ly known. The expression is also loosely used
Arthrogryposis in Charolais cattle. This defect as a synonym for progeny testing without this
is characterised by twisted limbs, cleft palate, and proviso.
twisted spine. In France about 1 per cent of
Charolais cattle are affected. AI records show that Gentian
while many bulls transmit an occasional defect of The dried and powdered root of the yellow
this nature, a few sire about 5 per cent of off- gentian plant (Gentiana lutea). It is a bitter
spring having this abnormality. Another defect tonic used as an appetiser.
encountered in some Charolais cattle involves
the eyes. (See EYE, DISEASES OF – Coloboma.) Gentian Violet
Decapitated sperms. This defect causes the A stain used in microscopical work and a valu-
rejection for AI in Britain of many Hereford able antiseptic, of use against fungal and bacter-
bulls ‘with superior test performance’ because ial skin infections. (See also ANTISEPTICS – Crystal
G their semen contains a high percentage of violet.)
sperms with the head separated from the tail.
Tibial hemimelia. A dog-sitting position in the Genus
newborn Galloway calf is suggestive of this defect, Genus is a group of species. One of the species
which involves bones missing from the hind legs is chosen as being typical, and referred to as the
(but has to be differentiated from another defect genotype.
involving the pelvis, which also prevents the calf
from standing on its hind legs). It is estimated Gerbil
that about 16 per cent of Galloways now carry A small burrowing rodent, originating in deserts,
the gene which transmits this defect. (The popular as pets.They live for 3 to 5 years; adults
Galloway Breed Society has an excellent scheme, weigh 50 to 90 g, the females being larger than
requiring compulsory insurance and compulsory males. Sexual maturity occurs at 10 weeks. The
slaughter of any bulls leaving offspring with this gestation period is 24 to 26 days and the young
defect.) (See also MANNOSIDOSIS.) are weaned at 21 to 24 days. Rectal temperatue
is 37.4 to 39°C. They are naturally healthy ani-
Sheep Genetic defects include achondroplasia mals, remarkably free from infectious diseases:
in some South Country Cheviot flocks. A Tyzzer’s disease is usually the only finding. In
‘squashed-in’ face, shortened forelimbs and the wild they ‘play dead’ when attacked; this is a
defective hooves are characteristic of these self-induced epileptic seizure and may occur
‘dwarf lambs’. when they are handled. (See also PETS.)
Cerebellar ataxia is seen in some Border
Leicester flocks, and these ‘daft lambs’ have a Geriatrics
staggering gait and incoordination of the head. The study of the problems and diseases of the
This is due to a recessive gene. older animal.
is due to the entrance and growth in the body Glanders may be of the nasal, pulmonary, or
of the glanders bacillus Pseudomonas mallei glandular form, of the type producing skin
(formerly known as Pfeifferella mallei). lesions (farcy), or an admixture of these, and it
may also become generalised. One of the dan-
History Glanders has been known as a serious gers of the disease is that a horse may work for
disease since about 450 BC, when it was men- weeks or even months with ‘open’ lesions – not
tioned by Hippocrates, and its contagious losing a great deal of flesh nor appearing very ill
nature was pointed out by Vegetius (a veterinary – and so spread the disease to healthy horses
writer) in the 4th century. with which it comes into contact.
When farcy is present the glands inside the
Distribution Glanders has been distributed axilla or inside the groin may be somewhat
to practically every country in the world at enlarged and even painful to the touch. In entire
some time or other, and was once a usual con- horses the testicles often become enlarged and
comitant of wars. It became prevalent, both in painful, or even the seat of glanderous abscesses.
G the United Kingdom and in South Africa, after There may be a nasal discharge, thin and
the South African war (1899–1902). In the year watery in the early stages, but later becoming
1892 there were more than 3000 cases of glan- thick, greyish, or yellow and oily. Examination
ders recorded in Britain; in 1904 between 2000 of the nose in these cases is dangerous; strict
and 3000; while only 9 outbreaks were record- hygenic precautions should be taken, as man
ed in the year 1923, and none since 1926. may easily contract the disease by this means.
Farcy: in this form of the disease, the skin is
Glanders is still endemic in Mongolia, involved. It is usually chronic in nature, but
other parts of Asia, East Africa and South farcy buds and subcutaneous swellings may
America and, recently, it has been spreading complicate the most acute form of the disease
from enzootic zones. shortly before death. This complication is
The donkey is the most susceptible to the especially common in the mule, which often
disease and nearly always suffers from the acute succumbs to the disease before the farcy buds
form, from which it dies in from 2 to 3 weeks. have time to burst. In chronic farcy there is
In the horse, glanders occurs in an acute or a usually swelling of one or more limbs, more
chronic form, the latter existing for months or frequently a hind one. The lymphatic glands of
even years before it finally kills its victim; how- the affected limb become enlarged, the lymph
ever, under modern conditions it is rare to allow vessels corded, and usually a chain of farcy buds
the disease to run its natural course. The mule develops along their course.
is intermediate in susceptibility between the In acute glanders there may be all the signs of
donkey and the horse, but usually shows the an acute broncho-pneumonia, a high tempera-
acute type. Dogs and cats may become infected ture, a rapid loss of flesh, rapid and sometimes
if fed upon meat from a horse which had glan- noisy breathing, followed by death in a few
ders. The camel is susceptible, though natural weeks; in fact, this is the common form seen
cases are very rare. in the donkey and often in the mule, with or
Horses can be infected naturally by 3 different without the complication of farcy.
channels:
1. By the digestive tract, through the medium Diagnosis This is confirmed by means of the
of infected food and water. This is by far the mallein test.
commonest method of spread.
2. By inhalation (rarely) when some abrasion Treatment Sulfathiazole has been used, but
of the respiratory passage is present. in most western countries treatment is not
3. By skin infection. permitted; the policy being one of slaughter
and eradication.
Incubation period This may last several
months in the horse. Glanders in man is a distressing and nearly
always fatal disease, and may be contracted by
Signs The signs of glanders in the horse are grooms and others working with infected horses.
very varied. The disease may run an acute Laboratory workers handling infected material or
course of only 2 to 3 weeks, but by far the great- pure cultures of the organism are especially liable
est number of cases met with are of a subacute to infection, so that every precaution against this
or chronic nature. A horse may be affected and contingency has to be taken; in fact, the glanders
show no outward sign of disease, and yet it may bacillus is amongst the most dangerous of all
have nodules in 1 or both lungs. disease-producing bacteria cultivated.
Glottis 307
form in which carbohydrates taken in the food to adult pigs. There must be a way clear for the
are stored in the liver and muscles before they animals to move forward. The Welfare of
are converted into glucose when needed. Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Regulations
Glycogen can become depleted when animals 1995 state that electric goads should be applied
are stressed, as by travelling over long periods. If for no more than 2 seconds at a time and
not replaced, animals slaughtered after a long that there should be adequate time between
journey may have dry, firm, dark (DFD) meat. applications.
(cervical spondolithesis) may be inherited. commercial mash or pellets without corn. Too
Deafness, distortion of the nictitating mem- much limestone grit can be harmful.
brane and osteochondritis dissecans and
calcinosis circumscripta may also develop. Grooming
The purpose of grooming horses, cattle, and
‘Green-Bottle’ Fly dogs, especially when kept shut up in buildings,
(see FLIES) is fourfold: it is undertaken for the purpose of
cleanliness, for the prevention of disease of the
Greenstick Fracture skin; to stimulate the skin circulation; and to
A greenstick fracture is one in which the bone remove waste products of metabolism.
fractures incompletely somewhat similar to the
break of a green stick. They mostly occur in Horses
young animals. (See FRACTURES.)
Quartering This consists of going over the
G Greyface horse’s body with a dandy-brush and removing
The term often applied to a Border Leicester × the coarse adherent particles of bedding, dried
Scottish Blackface cross. dung, etc., as a preliminary before the horse
leaves the stable for morning exercise. At the
Greyhound same time a cloth and a pail of water are used to
Medium to large dog, bred for racing, with wipe away discharges from the eyes, nose, and
smooth coat, small head and abdomen, long dock, in this order, and to remove any urine
legs and deep chest. It has acute vision but a less stains from other parts of the body. Quartering
good sense of smell than some other breeds. is usually only carried out in high-class stables,
The racing life is short and dogs not selected for where the horses go out for a short walk before
breeding may be abandoned or destoyed when the stablehands have had their breakfasts, or
comparatively young. Rescued greyhounds when a horse is not going to work but is to be
make good pets as they do not require more turned out to grass for the day. (See SPONGES.)
exercise than the average dog; they tire easily
after a short burst of speed. Haemophilia and Dandy-brushing The dandy-brush is made
calcinosis circumscripta may be inherited. of stiff, coarse, whisk fibre, generally of the
yellow variety, with the bristles not close togeth-
Griffon Bruxellois er. It removes the coarser particles of matter
A breed of toy dog with wiry coat, prominent from the coat, and stirs up the finer debris, as
chin, short nose and erect folded-over ears. well as disentangling matted hairs. Owing to its
Patellar luxation may be inherited. stiffness it is not used over the head, but each
side of the neck, the whole of the body, and the
Griseofulvin 4 quarters are well brushed. It should be used in
An antibiotic, which can be given by mouth, the left hand for the near side of the animal and
effective against ringworm and other fungal in the right hand for the off-side. It is advisable
diseases. Dosing over a 3-week period may be to make short, vigorous sweeps, turning the
necessary in the treatment of ringworm in wrist at the end of each sweep, so that the mate-
calves. It is advisable not to use griseofulvin rial collected in the bristles is thrown out of the
in pregnant animals, as there is some risk of coat. Care is necessary when the undersides of
malformed offspring resulting. the body and the insides of the legs of thin-
skinned or ticklish horses are being groomed
Grit for Poultry with the dandy, for they may kick if this rough
Insoluble grit – sand, flint grit, tiny pebbles – is brush is used carelessly.
necessary for the grinding of the food in the giz-
zard (poultry possessing no teeth). Flint grit Body-brushing and curry-combing
should be provided at the rate of 500 g (1 lb) The body-brush is made from finer whisk fibre
per 100 birds, and is best broadcast with the than the dandy, the bristles are set much closer
grain every 2 or 3 months; except for battery together, and they are softer and more flexible.
birds, which require a monthly ration. There is usually a strap across the back of the
Soluble limestone grit is given in order to brush into which the hand is thrust, so that a
supply calcium for bone formation and eggshell better grip can be obtained. The curry-comb is
production, and it dissolves in the gizzard made of metal, either in the form of a square
within 48 hours. It is not necessary for chicks, plate with a series of alternately toothed and
growers or birds in early lay if they are receiving smooth ridges set across it, or it may be oval
Grooming 315
with crenated ridges running round it. The leaves the stable, for otherwise he may collect
former variety is provided with a handle, and fresh dung in his feet. It is an important matter
the latter has a strap across its back like the not to neglect this cleaning-out of the feet, for
body-brush. The body-brush is used all over if there is a cake of dung in the soles of each
the horse’s body, head, and neck. It picks up the foot, not only is it extremely untidy, but small
finer particles of matter left behind by the stones are liable to be picked up and may cause
dandy-brush and holds them between the fine injury to the soles.
bristles. To clean the brush it is necessary every
3 or 4 sweeps to draw it across the face of the Parts often neglected When examining a
curry-comb and transfer the dirt to the latter. horse to discover the thoroughness or otherwise
The body-brush should be used in long firm of the grooming, it is usual to take a white
sweeps, without any turn of the wrist. While handkerchief and to rub it along the coat; the
grooming the near side, the body-brush is held size of the particles of grey debris which adhere
in the left hand and the curry-comb in the to its surface are in inverse ratio to the efficien-
right, and for the off-side the positions are cy of the grooming – i.e. the larger the particles, G
reversed. the less efficiently has the horse been groomed.
The following parts should be carefully exam-
Wisping A wisp is a small mat of plaited straw ined: under the forelock, the poll, jowl, under
or hay, which is used to remove fine dust from the mane, between the fore-legs, behind the
the coat, scour and polish the surface hair, and elbows, along the belly, inside the thighs, in the
to promote a better skin and superficial circula- hollows of the heels, and around the dock and
tion. When properly applied it acts as massage between the buttocks.
to the surface of the body, and gives the coat a
fine shine. To dry a wet horse When a horse returns
to a stable soaked with rain, snow, or sweat, it is
Combing the mane and tail For this advisable that it be dried to avoid the risk of
purpose a bone or metal comb is used, fash- chill through too-rapid evaporation of the
ioned after the familiar manner of a toilet moisture in the coat.
comb, with stouter teeth. The mane is combed First of all it should be given a warm drink.
a few strands at a time, both from the outside The harness is next removed and the surface of
and also from the inside (with the teeth the body scraped down with a sweat-scraper.
through the whole thickness of the mane), so This is a flexible ribbon of copper provided
that the hair may be laid straight and all tangles with a handle at either end. The scraper
removed. Afterwards the tail is treated similarly. removes the excess water from the coat, and
When a few unruly strands will not lie in may be used to scrape away adherent mud from
position it is usual to damp the fibres of the the legs and belly, but it should not be used over
water-brush (which is not unlike a small, fine bony prominences owing to the danger of
dandy-brush pointed at each end) and lay the abrading the skin. Two or 3 hay wisps are made
strands with the damp brush. Neither the mane ready, and the horse is vigorously wisped down
nor the tail, however, should be soaked. all over. As 1 wisp becomes wet it is discarded
and another taken. Sometimes a coarse, rough
Rubbing or shining is carried out either towel is used instead of a wisp. In about 10
with a stable-rubber, which is a piece of tow- minutes all the moisture that can be removed
elling about 45 cm (18 inches) square, or with by this means will have been eliminated, and
a chamois leather. During this process the hairs the rest must be allowed to evaporate. An arm-
of the coat are laid straight all over the body, ful of straw is arranged across the horse’s back;
any loose pieces of hay or straw from the wisp a rug is thrown over all, and girthed up. The
are removed, and the final gloss is put on to straw allows a certain amount of ventilation
the coat. under the rug, and prevents too-rapid cooling
and chilling. In about 2 hours’ time the rug
Cleaning-out of the feet The last opera- should be removed, a second wisping should be
tion of grooming consists of picking up each of given, and a new dry rug should be applied. If
the feet and removing any adherent dung, etc., the feet and legs are very wet, especially if there
by means of a hoof-pick, and brushing out the is much feather, they should be bandaged with
sole of each foot with the water-brush. If woollen stable bandages, and a little bran or
desired, the walls of the hoofs may also be sawdust may be sprinkled on to the wet hair
blackened or oiled at this time. This operation below the bandage. Sometimes a horse’s feet are
should be left till last, just before the horse washed immediately after coming in from
316 Grootlamsiekte
work, especially if they are coated with mud; of the liver was found in pigs which survived
when this is carried out, care should be taken to illness following the feeding of a mixture of
see that they are well dried again afterwards, for oil-cakes. The same effect has been observed
frequent washing predisposes to grease, eczema, in rats. Toxicity trials in ducklings produced
and other skin conditions, through maceration carcinoma of the bile ducts.
of the surface epithelium. Groundnut meal contains an alkaloid, ara-
chine, which can cause a fatal hepatitis in dogs,
Dogs When grooming it is always advisable to and temporary paralysis in frogs and rabbits.
begin by combing and brushing the coat in the (See also AFLATOXINS.)
wrong direction (against the lie of the hair), so
as to remove pieces of dirt, debris, etc. which Grouse Disease
have become lodged under a lock of the coat. A wasting disease caused by heavy infestation
Finish by brushing and combing in the direc- with Trichostrongylus tenuis, a nematode para-
tion in which it is desired that the hair shall site. Grouse tend to remain on the moor where
G eventually lie. they were hatched and a build-up of the parasite
In the spring, and again in the autumn, results. If the grouse population increases too
when the coat is changing, both dogs and cats much, food may become short. Coupled with
require more careful grooming than they do at the infestation, survival of chicks may become
other times of the year. very difficult. Further, an ageing population of
birds becomes less fertile. Paradoxically, in the
Cats benefit from regular grooming. With proper management of a moor efficiently regu-
long-haired breeds, this is essential. lated shooting maintains the numbers of grouse.
(See TRICHOSTRONGYLOSIS.)
Grootlamsiekte
A disease of sheep in SW Africa, associated with Growth Hormone
a prolonged gestation period, and caused by a (see SOMATOTROPHIN)
poisonous shrub (Salsola ruberculata).
Growth Plates
Groundnut Meal Growth plates (for growth-plate defects, see
Groundnut meal may be infected by a mould, BONE, DISEASES OF)
Aspergillus flavus, which produces a toxin
(aflatoxin). In an outbreak of fatalities among Growth Promoters
turkeys fed in Britain on proprietary feeding- Substances which, given in animal feeds,
stuffs, the cause was traced to Brazilian ground- increase feed conversion efficiency or result in
nut meal (not all samples of which, however, better daily liveweight gains, or both. Although
proved harmful). Calves and pigs also died. very useful when given properly, there have
In calves, groundnut poisoning resembles that been problems in the past caused by the misuse
of ragwort. of some hormonal growth promoters, particu-
The mould can grow on decorticated ground- larly in Italy, which led to the banning in
nuts when their moisture content exceeds about Europe of some potentially useful products.
9 per cent, or on meal at about 16 per cent. (For types and examples, see under ADDITIVES; see
It usually develops on the nuts after they are also SOMATOSTATIN; STILBENES; SURFACTANTS;
harvested, particularly if drying is delayed and HORMONES IN MEAT PRODUCTION; WORMS,
the shells damaged. However, if harvesting is FARM TREATMENT AGAINST.)
delayed the nuts may become toxic in the
ground, and if the nuts are stored at a moisture Growths
content in excess of 9 per cent they can also (see TUMOURS; CANCER; GRANULOMA)
become toxic.
Pigs of from 3 to 12 weeks are particularly Guarnieri Bodies
susceptible, and pregnant sows to a lesser extent. (see INCLUSION BODIES)
It was found that cows fed on hay and a
concentrate ration containing 20 per cent toxic Guernsey
groundnut meal excreted a toxin in the milk Cattle originating from the Channel Islands
which produced the same biological effect in yielding milk of a high butterfat content. The
ducklings as aflatoxin. There is evidence strong- coat is pale brown and white in colour.
ly suggesting that aflatoxin may be a carcino-
gen, giving rise to cancer of the liver or bile Guide Dogs
ducts. A 100 per cent incidence of carcinoma (see DOGS: WORKING)
Gunshot Injuries 317
Accidental or malicious shooting of dogs and nostrils. Drinking may be difficult. Water is
cats often leads to serious eye injury, usually conveyed back into the bucket via the nostrils.
with some permanent impairment of vision. Laryngeal hemiplegia. Paralysis of one side of
To give some examples, an 11-month-old dog, the larynx, resulting in abnormal inspiratory
shot with a 12-bore, suffered injury to the iris noise when exercised.
of 1 eye; the iris became partly adherent to Soft palate paresis. In racehorses this is shown
the lens (posterior synechia). Six weeks after the by the sudden onset of respiratory obstruction
accident the rest of the iris was mobile, and during a race.
the pupil able to respond to light. An opaque
pigmented spot remained on the cornea where Diagnosis This involves an examination of
it had been penetrated. the guttural pouches by endoscope.
Another dog received a lead shot in the lens
and another in the vitreous body of 1 eye. Seven Guttural Pouch Empyema
months later a cataract had developed. Caused by bacterial infection of the guttural
G A 3rd dog needed amputation of a part of the pouch, empyema produces a painful swelling
iris protruding through the shot wound in the near the ear. Raised temperature, nasal discharge
cornea, which needed sutures. and anorexia may also be seen. Treatment with
antibiotics and lavage of the guttural pouches
‘Gut-Tie’ is often effective; surgical drainage and removal
‘Gut-tie’ is the colloquial name for a type of of purulent material may be required in some
hernia in which a piece of bowel becomes cases.
entangled in the spermatic cord following
castration of cattle. Guttural Pouch Mycosis
Guttural pouch mycosis is usually caused by
Guttural Pouch infection with Aspergillosis spp. Nosebleeding,
A diverticulum of the Eustachian tube developed which may be very severe, is common but dys-
from the pharynx. phasia and other signs may be seen. Mycosis can
Diseases of the guttural pouch include fungal usually be successfully treated with benzimida-
infections, which may be followed by paralysis zole drugs given by mouth. A specially designed
of the cranial nerves; and also a haemangioma, catheter has been used for local treatment with
which may have a similar result. With both, antifungal agents.
the signs include difficulty in swallowing and
the return of food and water through the Guttural Pouch Tympany
nostrils. (See also GUTTURAL POUCH MYCOSIS; Found mainly in young foals. Usually only
EAR – Middle.) 1 guttural pouch is affected, which becomes
distended with air, causing a painless swelling
Guttural Pouch Disease (GPD) near the ear. Breathing may be noisy and in
Sometimes known as guttural pouch diphthe- severe cases empyema may develop. Surgical
ria, GPD is a general term for a number of treatment involves an incision in the membrane
diseases in horses locating in the guttural between the two pouches to release trapped air.
pouch. Empyema, mycosis or tympany have all Prognosis is usually good.
been involved. GPD of one kind or another has
been encountered in horses from 2 months to Gyrodactylus
18 years old – in ponies, cobs, hunters, and A fluke living on the skin of freshwater fish. It
thoroughbreds. It may prove fatal within a is viviparous and a developing embryo may be
week, or may be chronic, with symptoms seen within an adult. It can invade the gills and
shown over a period of 7 months or more. the eyes, causing behavioural changes such as
‘flashing’ followed by skin erosin and secondary
Signs Clinical signs vary. Epistaxis (nosebleed- fungal infections. Although apparently harmless
ing) is often seen. Haemorrhage occurs sponta- to fish stocks in its native habitat, the rivers
neously while the horse was at rest in the stable. of the Baltic, G. salaris has had severe effects
It is generally recurrent and may be mild, on salmon in Norway. Gryrodactylosis is a
severe, or fatal. Other signs may include: NOTIFIABLE DISEASE.
Dysphagia (difficulty in swallowing). Attempts
to eat solid food result in coughing and the Gyrus
discharge of food material from mouth and A convolution of the brain.
H
Haematocrit Value
The percentage by volume of whole blood that
is composed of erythrocytes. It is determined by
filling a graduated haematocrit tube with blood
– treated so that it will not clot – and then cen-
trifuging the tube until the red cells are packed
in the lower end. As a rough guide, values range
H-Y Antigen as follows: sheep, 32; cow, 40; horse and pig,
This histocompatability antigen is present in 42; dog, 45.
the gonads of the bovine freemartin. It causes
XX cells in the female gonad to assume testicu- Haematoma
lar organisation. It is responsible for the rejec- A swelling containing clotted blood under the
tion of male grafts by females of the same skin, or deeper in the musculature, following
species. serious bruising; for example, after an animal
has been struck by a car. Haematomas also
Habronemiasis occur in cases of warfarin poisoning and canine
Infection of horses with worms of the genus haemophilia, and may result from shaking
Habronema, the cause of ‘summer sores’ and a the head or scratching the ear. They are also
usually mild chronic gastritis. (See ROUNDWORMS seen in pigs and sheep. (See also under EAR,
– Horses.) DISEASES OF for haematomas in the ear in cats
and dogs.)
Haemangioma
Haemangioma is a tumour composed of blood Haematopedesis
vessels. In the liver of adult cattle small haeman- (see HAEMATIDROSIS)
giomata are not uncommonly found, but they
are seldom of any practical importance. (See also
under GUTTURAL POUCH for haemangioma in
Haematopinus
A genus of sucking lice. (See LICE.)
horses.)
this is the cause of death, which may in fact have Halothane (Fluothane)
been caused by some infection.) A widely used, potent, non-irritant inhalation
anaesthetic used for horses, dogs, cats, laboratory
Signs are usually vague, but may include animals and, to a lesser extent, in cattle. It offers
grinding of the teeth, an unnatural gait, and smooth induction, and gives moderate to good
in chronic cases a general loss of condition, analgesia and muscle relaxation. Side-effects
although the appetite remains fairly good. are usually dose-dependent and can include
Convulsions may also occur. vasodilation, hypotension, cardiac arrythmia and
hypothermia. High inspired concentrations can
Prevention Ensure a well-balanced diet, ade- lead to cardio-respiratory depression. Halothane
quate minerals and roughage, and attend to any is usually administered in a mixture of oxygen
skin disease. (See SALT – Salt licks.) and nitrous oxide.
Treatment is sometimes feasible by surgically Canine heart repair Skeletal muscle trans-
opening the rumen and removing the piece of plants were used to replace or repair defects in
metal. the left ventricle of dogs, some of which were
kept alive for over a year. At autopsy the trans-
Prevention In Switzerland the percentage of plants were found to be in good condition,
cows slaughtered on account of traumatic peri- according to a report in Circulation.
carditis was reduced following the use of magnets
for the treatment of traumatic reticulitis. Magnets Hypertrophy, or enlargement of the heart,
weighing 114 g, 90 mm long and 15 mm in takes place as the result of some constant simple
diameter were used orally 10 minutes after a strain, such as occurs in racehorses, hunters,
subcutaneous injection of atropine sulphate. and sporting dogs; or as the result of backward
Without this it was found that only 53 per cent pressure from a diseased valve, and which
of the magnets dropped at once into the reticu- entails the heart muscle ‘compensating’ for
lum. The correct siting of the magnets was the effects of valvular disease. Alternatively it
checked with a compass. may be due to resistance to the flow of blood in
some diseased organ or tissue which results in
Myocarditis is inflammation of the heart high blood pressure. (See COMPENSATION.) H
muscle. In the pig it is seen in HERZTOD disease, Hypertrophy of the left ventricle, leading to
for example; in cattle, in MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY. heart failure, may in the dog follow Leptospira
(See also CANINE PARVOVIRUS; MYOCARDIUM.) canicola infection.
Dilatation of the heart may precede hypertro-
Endocarditis is an inflammation of the phy, i.e. when it occurs before the heart muscle
membrane lining the heart. It frequently leads has had an opportunity to increase to meet the
to the development of nodules on the valves. extra demands upon it; and it very frequently
The nodules result in an incomplete closing of follows hypertrophy, especially when there is
the valves, and since the fibrin deposited upon some disease process at work which hinders the
them tends to become converted into fibrous proper nutrition of the heart muscle.
tissue (‘organised’), the growths slowly increase Hypertrophy may be a beneficial condition
in size. They are seen in chronic erysipelas of in any animal, and, except when it is due to
pigs. (See SWINE ERYSIPELAS.) valvular trouble, need not cause any worry to
The valvular insufficiency can be diagnosed the owner. It is sometimes excessive in horses;
by auscultation. Congestive heart failure may be in some instances the heart may weigh as much
the outcome (sometimes embolism); but com- as 11 kg (25 lb) instead of the 3 or 3.5 kg (7 or
pensation takes place, and the animal may live a 8 lb) of the normal. Degenerative changes may
long time with faulty valves. follow hypertrophy when the animal becomes
Bacterial endocarditis is a cause of death in cat- less active during later life.
tle, especially in South Wales. (See HEARTWORMS
for another cause of endocarditis in the dog.) Congenital defects These include a patent
ductus arteriosus. (See diagram of fetal circulation
Valvular diseases form a most important under CIRCULATION OF BLOOD; also LIGAMENTUM
and common group of heart disorders, and ARTERIOSUM; ECTOPIA CORDIS.) Tetralogy of
although the power of compensation already Fallot consists of: (1) stenosis of the pulmonary
referred to may so neutralise the ill-effects of a valve; (2) a defect in the septum which separates
narrowed valve, or one which leaks, severe the 2 ventricles; (3) the aorta over-riding both
strains or exertion – or even trying conditions ventricles; (4) marked hypertrophy of the right
such as parturition – may precipitate ill-effects. ventricle.
Very often when an animal ‘drops dead’, per- The signs are often vague: in kittens, for
haps after running a race or while undergoing example, these may be a failure to thrive, and
some departure from its normal mode of life, inability to cope with exercise. More serious
the actual cause is afterwards found to be a dis- defects result in the death of newborn kittens.
eased heart valve. Fainting fits are not by any
means rare in incompetence of the tricuspid Functional disorders Palpitation is a condi-
valves. Congestion of the lungs may be brought tion in which the heart beats fast and strongly,
about by incompetence of the auriculo-ventric- due to fright, for example(see tachycardia, below).
ular valve on the left side of the heart (mitral Bradycardia is a condition of unusually slow
insufficiency); this same condition may lead to action of the heart. Intermittency or irregularity
a chronic asthmatical cough in old dogs, which is an exceedingly common condition among
is occasionally mistaken for bronchitis. animals, and as a rule appears to cause them no
328 Heart Stimulants
inconvenience whatever. In some horses at rest In 1980 the existence of heartwater in many
in the stable the heart constantly misses every islands of the Caribbean was discovered; previ-
3rd, 4th, or 5th beat, a long pause taking the ously the disease had been known only in Africa.
place of the pulsation, but when at exercise or The tick involved is A. variegatum, introduced
work the normal rhythm is restored. into Guadeloupe with cattle from Senegal.
Heart-block is a condition in which the
conducting mechanism between atrium and Cause Infection of the nymphal or larval
ventricle (atrio-ventricular bundle of His) is stages of the bont-tick with Rickettsia ruminan-
damaged in whole or part, so that the two beat tium (Cowdria ruminantium) which is trans-
independently of each other. mitted to other animals upon which the tick
Rapid heart action (tachycardia) may have a feeds at a later state of its life-history.
number of causes including exertion or excite-
ment. It is normally harmless in such cases. It is Incubation After sheep and goats have been
also seen in diseases which affect the transmission bitten by infected ticks, a period of between 11
of the heartbeat stimulus. and 18 days elapses before any symptoms are
Cardiac flutter and fibrillation are conditions shown; in cattle the disease appears between
H of great irregularity in the pulse, due to the atria 20 and 25 days after infestation with ticks.
emptying themselves, not by a series of regular These periods are influenced by the stage of the
waves, but by an irregular series of flutters or disease in the animal supplying the infected
twitches instead, which fail to stimulate the blood to the ticks, and also by individual sus-
ventricles properly. ceptibility, which is less in native-bred cattle
Five cases of atrial fibrillation were described than in those imported from other countries,
in horses after racing. In 4 of them, which and especially those brought from Britain.
had performed poorly during their races, the
arrhythmias disappeared spontaneously within Signs
24 hours; these cases were regarded as paroxys-
mal. In the 5th horse, which won its race, the Sheep and goats Sheep and goats at first
arrhythmia persisted for at least 45 hours after show nothing more than a rise in temperature
the race and it was regarded as an example (which gradually increases to 41.7°C (107°F),
of persistent atrial fibrillation. Treatment with falling each evening a few degrees lower), a gen-
quinidine sulphate restored the sinus rhythm. eral dullness, prostration, and lack of appetite.
Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation may cause a As these conditions are common to many other
sudden decrease in racing performance. diseases, the difficulty of diagnosis is great. The
affected animals isolate themselves from the rest
Diagnosis of heart disease is based of the flock, lie about in secluded spots, cease to
largely on the character of the pulse and heart ruminate, and when handled or driven are very
sounds. Murmurs, for example, indicate valvu- easily tired and lie down.
lar incompetence, cardiac dilatation, or congen- Many animals show peculiar nervous symp-
ital lesions. Muffled sounds may indicate fluid toms, which vary in different individuals; some
in the pericardium (or pleurisy). may bleat almost continuously; others champ the
Additionally radiography and cardiography jaws as if feeding, moving the tongue backward
are used in diagnosis. (See PACEMAKERS as a and forward between the lips; others lick the
possible treatment of some canine patients.) ground; some turn in circles until they finally
fall to the ground and lie prostrate or perform
Heart Stimulants galloping movements with their limbs; while
Drugs used as cardiac stimulants include others show profuse salivation. Convulsions are
theophylline, adrenaline, isoprenaline and not uncommon, especially when the animals
dobutamine. are handled. Death usually follows soon after
convulsions make their appearance. magesty
Heartwater
Heartwater, also known as BUSH SICKNESS Cattle The symptoms in cattle are very similar
(Boschziekte), VELD SICKNESS, and INAPUNGA, to those seen in sheep. The nervous form in
is a specific disease of cattle, sheep, and goats which peculiar masticatory movements are
transmitted by the bont-tick (Amblyomma made by the mouth is common. Animals show
hebraeum) in South Africa, and A. variegatum a tendency to bite at their feet or legs, espe-
in Kenya. The disease is characterised by the cially when lying on the ground, and biting the
accumulation of a large amount of fluid in the ground is also seen. A number of animals in the
pericardial sac and nervous symptoms. early stages may show a dangerous tendency to
Heat Loss 329
charge any human being approaching them. In Diagnosis An ELISA test, based on the detec-
cattle the disease is usually at its height about tion of antibodies to heartworms, is useful when
the 4th day after the first rise in temperature, no microfilariae are present. Radiography has
and death usually occurs about the 6th day. also been recommended as a diagnostic aid.
Hyperacute cases occur in cattle, and the
animal is found dead on the veld. Treatment and control of 5 dogs dosed with
ivermectin 1 day after artificial infection with 50
Autopsy Fluid in the pericardial sac surround- infective larvae of D. immitis, none harboured
ing the heart (hence the name ‘heartwater’); but any heartworms when killed 201 days later. The
while this is usually found in sheep and goats, 5 control dogs had an average of 11 worms each
it may be absent in the case of cattle. In typical at post-mortem examination. It is suggested that
instances there is also a collection of similar treatment with ivermectin at monthly intervals
fluid in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. would prevent heartworm disease.
Both the pericardium and the endocardium In the UK selamectin, a derivative of iver-
which lines the heart may show several small or mectin, is licensed for use in dogs and thiac-
a few large ‘petechiae’, i.e. areas where a slight etamide has been used on imported dogs.
amount of haemorrhage has taken place. Another canine heartworm is Angiostrongylus H
vasorum which inhabits the pulmonary artery
Prevention Entirely successful results have and the right ventricle of the heart. Symptoms
followed measures taken against the ticks which include malaise and large subcutaneous swellings.
transmit the disease. These consist in ‘5-day Slugs and snails may act as intermediate hosts.
dippings’. In a case seen at the Liverpool School of
Antibiotics and sulfonamides are used in Tropical Medicine, a 3-year-old dog, which
treatment. died suddenly after an acute attack of dyspnoea,
was found to have an A. vasorum.
Heartworms
Dirofilaria immitis is a common parasite of dogs Heat
in Central Europe, Russia, Australia, America, A female animal is said to be on heat when it
and Asia. The disease has been introduced into will accept the service of a male (see OESTRUS;
the UK by dogs returning from travel in main- for the suppression of ‘heat’ in the bitch, see
land Europe via the Pet Travel Scheme. The OESTRUS, SUPPRESSION OF).
worm larvae are transmitted by various mosqui-
toes and gnats. They are present in the blood- Heat Detection in Cows
stream of infected animals as microfilariae. The (see under OESTRUS, DETECTION OF)
adult worms reach a length of up to 30.5 cm
(12 inches) (females) and inhabit the right Heat Exhaustion
side of the heart, causing some degree of A syndrome in which there is a depletion
endocarditis and a variety of symptoms, e.g. of electrolytes and water in the body. (See
cough, hind-leg weakness, collapse on exercise, HEAT-STROKE.)
laboured breathing, anaemia, emaciation.
This infestation is known as canine filariasis Heat Loss
or dirofilariasis. The kidneys and urinary tract Heat loss from the body occurs by radiation, by
may be affected. (See also EYE, DISEASES OF.) conduction and convection from the skin, and
In a survey in Canada, 560 dogs (1.79 per cent by evaporation from the skin and lungs. The
of those tested) were found to have heartworms. normal body temperature is controlled partly by
About 20 per cent of dogs may be infected alteration of the rate of metabolism, and partly
with adult worms without having microfilariae. by constriction of the surface blood vessels when
Heartworms can cause devastating cardio- the animal is exposed to cold, as well as by
pulmonary effects in cats. The disease may be shivering which generates heat. There comes a
present without microfilariae, not only during point, however, as body temperature falls still
the prepatent period, for adult worms may be further, at which shivering ceases. Then the
males, ‘geriatric females’, or of 1 sex only. danger of hypothermia may not be recognised.
There have been reports of dirofilaria worms (See BEDDING for pigs; also HYPOTHERMIA.)
being recovered from the brains of cats. One
such report referred to a cat with ataxia which Sensible loss of heat This is the heat which
died 48 hours later. At autopsy, 3 heartworms animals lose by convection, conduction, and radi-
were found in the heart, 3 in the brain, and 4 in ation. It does not include heat lost by vaporising
a kidney. water from the skin and respiratory passages.
330 Heat-Stroke
H Signs The animal is usually suddenly overcome Anaesthesia Fentanyl citrate + fluanisone
by a great lethargy and inability to work or move. (Hypnorm; Janssen) by subcutaneous injection
The gait is staggering, and if the animal is made is suitable for anaesthetising hedgehogs.
to move it falls to the ground. Convulsions may
occur, and if the temperature is taken it is found Heifer
to be very high, perhaps as much as 42.2°C A year-old female up to her 1st calving.
(108°F) in the horse. Death often takes place in
a few hours, but some cases last as long as 3 days. Heinz Bodies
If recovery occurs, great dullness for a number of Heinz bodies in red cells are seen in cases of
weeks is liable to follow. haemolytic anaemia caused by, e.g., an excess of
kale in dairy cattle. Heinz-body anaemia has
Treatment Removal to a cool place; douching also been seen in cats as a result of poisoning by
the head and neck with cold water from a methylene blue, formerly used in America as a
hosepipe. Ice cubes may be used for the smaller urinary antiseptic. This form of anaemia has
animals. been linked with onions, and a case was report-
An animal may die as a result of combined ed in a puppy which preferred raw onions and
heat-stroke and heat exhaustion, or either other vegetables to conventional dog foods.
separately. (See also HEAT EXHAUSTION.) After a change of diet the puppy became well,
and no longer tended to collapse after exercise.
Hebdomadis Serogroup Heinz bodies are present in cats poisoned by
(see LEPTOSPIROSIS) paracetamol.
Hedgehogs Hellebores
Hedgehogs are of veterinary interest in that There are 4 hellebores of importance to the
they are susceptible to natural infection with owners of animals because of their toxicity.
foot-and-mouth disease, which they transmit to Black hellebore is the dried rhizome and rootlets
other animals. of the Christmas rose, or bear’s-foot, Helleborus
Hedgehogs, like horses, are the natural hosts niger. It may be eaten by livestock when garden
for Leptospira bratislava. A possible case of this trimmings are thrown out on to fields to which
infection occurred in a dog, previously vacci- livestock have access. It contains 2 very irritant
nated against leptospirosis, but known to have glycosides – helleborin and helleborein. Stinking
access to hedgehogs. hellebore (H. fetidus) and green hellebore (H.
A UK survey of mortality in hedgehogs viridis or Veratrum viride) are sometimes the
(Erinaceus europaeus) showed that 47 per cent cause of livestock poisoning. The latter, along
were road casualties; 39 per cent had salmo- with white hellebore (V. album), contain several
nellosis. Other zoonoses were ringworm alkaloids. They are depressants of the motor
(Trichophyton erinacei) and Yersinia pseudotu- nervous centres.
berculosis in a very small proportion of the
hedgehogs. Lungworms, flukes (Brachylaemus Poisoning by hellebores Symptoms are
erinacei), tapeworms (Rodentolepsis erinacei), stupor, convulsions, and death when large
ticks, fleas, and mange mites (Caparinia tripilis) amounts have been taken, and purgation, sali-
were other parasites found. Deaths have vation, excessive urination, attempts to vomit,
Hen Yards 331
Henneguya Herdsmen
A group of parasites found in the skin and mus- Occupational hazards of those looking after
cles of fish, notably sea trout and salmon. The cattle include BRUCELLOSIS; Q FEVER; TUBERCU-
parasites are seen as tadpole-shaped cysts con- LOSIS; COWPOX; MILKER’S NODULE; SALMONEL-
taining two ‘eye-spots’. They cause ‘milky flesh LOSIS; SPOROTRICHOSIS; BUBONIC PLAGUE (not
disease’. This is seen in fish, apparently healthy, in the UK).
which on being cut into are found to have areas
of muscle replaced by a milky fluid. Heredity
The transfer of genetic traits from parent to
Heparin offspring (see GENETICS).
A naturally occurring anticoagulant.
Hermaphrodite
H Hepatic Encephalopathy An animal in which reproductive tissue of both
A disease of the brain caused by cirrhosis of the sexes is present. A lateral hermaphrodite has an
liver; or it may possibly result from a congeni- ovary on one side, and a testicle on the other;
tal condition, portosystemic shunt. It is usually whereas a bilateral hermaphrodite has an ovary
seen in dogs and cats but can occur in other and testicle (or a combined ovary-testis) on
animals. Affected animals are lethargic, become each side. (See also INTER-SEX.)
blind, have convulsions, ataxia and behavioural In one case, a hermaphrodite rabbit served
changes. The disease is clinically indistinguish- several females and sired more than 250 young
able from FELINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPA- of both sexes. In the next breeding season the
THY but blood samples show high ammonia rabbit (housed in isolation) became pregnant
levels. Neomycin may improve the liver condi- and produced 7 healthy young of both sexes.
tion and a low-protein diet is recommended.
Hernia
Hepatisation The protrusion of part of an organ through
Hepatisation means the solidified state of the the membrane which contains it. In a typical
lung that is seen in pneumonia, which gives it abdominal hernia there are always the following
the appearance and consistence of the liver. parts: a ‘ring’, or opening in the muscular wall
of the abdomen, which may have been brought
Hepatitis about as the result of an accident or may have
Inflammation of the LIVER. been present at birth; and a swelling appearing
Hepatitis in the horse occurs after infectious below the skin, composed of the ‘hernial sac’
equine encephalomyelitis, especially where vac- and its contents.
cines or sera have been used. In cattle and sheep, The contents vary according to the situation,
it can occur after liver fluke, ragwort poisoning size, and nature of the hernia, but the following
and aflatoxicosis. organs or parts of them are most commonly
For hepatitis in dogs, see CANINE VIRAL herniated: a loop of bowel with its attached
HEPATITIS and also under DUCK HEPATITIS. mesentery omentum, either the whole or a part
(very common in dogs); the stomach; the uri-
Hepatozoon nary bladder; the spleen or liver (through the
A single-celled parasite transmitted by the tick diaphragm); the uterus, either when non-
Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Heptazoon canis infects pregnant or with its contained fetus or fetuses;
both dogs and cats, often causing anaemia, fever, and sometimes a kidney in the cat.
and occasionally paraplegia. Other species infect (For strangulated hernia, see under ‘Signs’,
rodents. below.)
interfered with, or bowel becoming obstructed enlarged to permit extrication of the intestine.
or strangulated – both serious conditions The cow recovered.
requiring immediate surgery.
Diaphragmatic hernia may occur in any
Inguinal hernia, which is practically the animal, but is commonest in the dog and the
same as scrotal hernia, but at a less advanced cat. It usually results from jumping downwards
stage, is almost wholly confined to the male sex from a great height – an act which throws the
in all animals, except the bitch, where a horn full weight of the abdominal contents forward
of the uterus may, upon occasion, come down against the diaphragm when the animal lands
through the inguinal canal. Inguinal and scrotal on its feet; it may also occur in road accidents.
forms of hernia may be either congenital or The rent may be in the muscular or tendi-
acquired; congenital forms (most common in nous portion of the diaphragm, but it very
young animals) result through some failure frequently involves one or other of the natural
of the inguinal canal, through which the testi- openings (hiati), giving passage to the oesopha-
cle descends, to close properly; while acquired gus, the vena cava, or the aorta, (although a
forms (commoner in adults) result from such hernia through an enlarged aortic hiatus is very
accidents as slipping sideways with the hind- rare on account of the powerful nature of the
feet, injuries to the abdomen from falls, blows,
H
diaphragm in its upper parts).
and kicks.
Signs The symptoms vary greatly, depending
Femoral hernia is very rare, but sometimes upon the particular organ which is protruded,
occurs in performing dogs which have been upon the size of the opening, which may or
trained to walk upon their hind legs for consid- may not compress the hernia, and upon the
erable periods of time. The vertical position of condition of the latter. In very many cases
the body imposes an unusual strain upon the among animals, herniae contain either omen-
muscles at the fold of the thigh, and they give tum or a loop of bowel, or both. The swelling
way. It is always acquired. may be present at birth, or it may appear sud-
denly or gradually at almost any time during
Perineal hernia is almost exclusively con- life. To the touch it may present one of several
fined to the dog. It may occur in either sex, usu- sensations: (1) in the simple form it feels soft,
ally as the result of much straining occasioned fluctuating (as if it contained fluid), painless,
by constipation or diarrhoea, chronic coughing neither hot nor cold, and causes no discomfort
or asthma, bronchitis, etc., and in old male to the animal when being handled. If it be
dogs suffering from enlarged prostate glands. pressed upon it can usually be returned to the
abdominal cavity, though it will reappear as
Ventral hernia is almost invariably the soon as the pressure is released. In small animals
result of a serious injury to the muscular por- it will disappear when they are laid upon their
tion of the abdominal wall. It is commonest in backs, and remain out of sight until they regain
mares, especially those used for breeding pur- their feet; (2) when the structures are adherent
poses. Very often there is little or nothing to to the skin which covers them, return to the
be noticed if the mare is injured when non- abdomen is impossible, no reduction can be
pregnant, but when pregnancy follows and achieved by manipulation, no definite ring can
the tension upon the abdominal wall increases, be determined as a rule, and there is no increase
the muscular part gives way and a large mass in size with exertion, but otherwise an adherent
appears along the lower line of the abdomen. In hernia presents the same appearances as a sim-
cows it very often results from horn-gores from ple one; (3) in the strangulated form, which
neighbours; in such, the skin remains intact but may supervene upon a hitherto simple hernia,
the muscle is torn and a swelling appears at the there are very definite and serious symptoms
seat of the injury. Hernia due to a gore is prob- of general disturbance: breathing is fast and
ably commonest in the region of the flank, distressed, an anxious expression is visible on
where the muscle is naturally thin. the face, and the swelling shows a marked
tenseness and pain when being handled. It may
Mesenteric hernia is rare in cattle (‘proba- be red and inflamed-looking at first, but later
bly because of the thickness of the mesentery’) it frequently becomes bluish. After about 12 to
but not in horses. In a case involving a cow, 24 hours gangrene sets in; the swelling becomes
intestine was herniated through a tear or defect cold and painless to the touch; the temperature
in the mesentery, resulting in incarceration. falls subnormal, and the animal becomes alarm-
A laparotomy was performed, and the defect ingly weak. Death usually follows shortly after,
334 Herpesviruses
unless the strangulation is relieved by operation contents returned to the abdomen, the peri-
and perhaps amputation of the strangulated toneal sac obliterated if it is present, the edges of
portion of bowel. An obstructed hernia is the ring carefully sutured so that they will form a
usually merely the preliminary of strangulation. strong union, and finally the skin wound closed.
The operation for a strangulated hernia differs
Treatment Palliative treatment, such as is from that for a simple one in that it is necessary
common in human beings consisting in the to enlarge the tight ring, to allow restoration of
application of trusses, bandages, etc., is of no use the circulation.
whatever where animals are concerned. With Fifty-two perineal hernias in dogs have been
young animals of any species it is usual to leave successfully repaired by transposing both the
herniae alone provided that they are not acute, internal obturator muscle and the superficial
for it often happens that during the growth and gluteal muscle together. The technique results in
development of the young creature the hernia a strong pelvic diaphragm and good long-term
disappears of its own accord, and the hole in the results. Fewer post-operative complications are
abdominal wall heals over. There is, however, claimed to occur than with other techniques.
always a danger that, as the result of some extra
H exertion, heavy feeding, boisterous playfulness, Herpesviruses
fighting, etc., strangulation may occur. Herpesviruses cause, for example, Aujeszky’s
The most rational method is one in which disease, jaagsiekte, feline rhinotracheitis. (See
the animal is anaesthetised, skin incised, the the table above; also under MONKEYS and FADING.)
Hogg Hoof-Prints
Sheep up to the 1st shearing. (See also under Hoof-prints, and other places where the soil is
SHEEP.) exposed below the turf, are on wet pastures a
common habitat of the snails which act as inter-
Hogget mediate hosts of the liver-fluke. Dressing with
(see under SHEEP) 12.5 kg (28 1b) of finely powdered bluestone
(copper sulphate), mixed with 50 kg (1 cwt) of
Hogweed dry sand, to the acre (0.4 hectare), will reduce
(see under GIANT) the snail population if done each year in June
and repeated in August.
Holly (Ilex)
Holly leaves eaten by lambs have caused deaths Hoof Repair with Plastics
by obstructing the pharynx and larynx. One Plastic material, consisting of acrylic resin with
farmer lost 5 good lambs in 3 weeks while they a filler, can be bonded with the horn, so that H
had been grazing under holly trees. this can be built up. Cracks, deformities, and
cavities can be repaired, using one or other of
Holoprosencephaly the proprietary preparations marketed. With
A rare congenital brain malformation, accom- one type, the acrylic assumes in about 5 min-
panied by various facial deformities. The condi- utes the hardness of wall horn; with the other,
tion appears to be inherited in an autosomal that of the frog tissue. The former can be rasped
recessive manner. and nailed; the latter rasped or trimmed with a
knife. Large defects should be repaired with a
Holstein-Friesian series of layers in order to avoid damage from
This breed of cattle in the USA and Canada heat generated by the process.
has its origin in animals imported from the
Netherlands mostly between 1857 and 1887. Hookworms
They are also known as American or Canadian These include Uncinaria stenocephala, present in
Holsteins or Friesians. temperate regions (including the UK), and the
more pathogenic Ancylostoma caninum in warmer
Homatropine climates. Infestation occurs either through skin
Homatropine is an artificial alkaloid prepared penetration or by ingestion of larvae in bitch’s
from atropine. It is used to dilate the pupil of milk, etc. (See also ROUNDWORMS.)
the eye for careful examination of the deeper
parts of that structure. It does not interfere with Hoose
vision for such a length of time as does atropine. (see PARASITIC BRONCHITIS)
Homeostasis Hordeolum
Maintenance of the body fluids (as opposed to A stye. (See EYE, DISEASES OF.)
fluid within cells) at the correct pH and chemical
composition. Hormone Therapy
Hormone therapy is of value in cases where a
Homograft Reaction true endocrine failure or imbalance is at fault,
The process by which an animal rejects grafts but it is obviously not a panacea. Moreover, the
of another’s tissue. (See IMMUNE RESPONSE and indiscriminate use of hormones is fraught with
KIDNEYS – Function.) The term ‘allograft’ is danger, and if persisted with may give rise to the
now regarded as preferable to ‘homograft’. production of ANTIHORMONES. Therapy should
be carried out by a veterinary surgeon only.
Homozygous The uses of insulin, thyroxine, adrenaline,
(see GENETICS) and pituitrin are described under these head-
ings, and extracts of thyroid and parathyroid
Honey gland are similarly dealt with. Apart from these,
This appears to have an antibiotic effect and to considerable use is made in veterinary practice
be a successful dressing for bed sores in human of the sex hormones. (See HORMONES.)
patients. Some honeys contain PYRROLIZIDINE Chorionic gonadotrophin is used in the
ALKALOIDS. treatment of nymphomania due to cystic
338 Hormones
ovaries, of cryptorchidism, and also of pyome- each other, so that an excess of one amounts to
tra and of some cases of infertility due to a much the same thing as too little of another. In
deficiency of luteinising hormone. In the mare some conditions, such as ‘milk fever’ in the cow,
and cow a single dose given intramuscularly will a number of endocrine glands are believed to be
usually correct nymphomania. involved – the imbalance being far from a simple
Serum gonadotrophin (PMS) is used in cases one. The thyroid might be regarded as the ‘mas-
of anoestrus and infertility, and to obtain an ter gland’; its secretion profoundly influencies
extra crop of lambs. (PMS = pregnant mare’s growth, sexual development, immunity, and the
serum.) rate of metabolism. Yet the thyroid is itself stim-
Progesterone is used to prevent abortion or ulated by a hormone secreted by the anterior
resorption of the fetus occurring as a result of pituitary gland – an example which illustrates the
luteal deficiency. It is also used to treat cases of interdependence of the whole endocrine system.
cystic ovaries, and may be tried to relieve uter- An animal’s disposition and its hormone
ine haemorrhage. Luteal hormone preparations secretions are closely linked. Fear or anger, for
are given either intramuscularly (if in oil) or by example, will cause an outpouring of adrenaline
implantation (if in tablet or pellet form). – the ‘fight or flee’ hormone. And, probably,
H Synthetic oestrogens were formerly used in the animal’s ‘endocrine make-up’ determines
cases of retention of the afterbirth, in some cases to some extent its capacity for, or tendency to,
of pyometra, uterine inertia and dystokia, and anger, fear, etc., as it does for sexual appetite.
in order to cut short lactation. Some synthetic Insulin (see PANCREAS; DIABETES; HORMONE
oestrogens can be given by the mouth. In the THERAPY).
dog, stilboestrol was used in treating enlarged Glucagon (see PANCREAS).
prostate; in the bitch stilboestrol diproprionate Thyroxine (see under this heading and THYROID
may be used by intramuscular injection after GLAND).
mating to prevent conception. Adrenaline (see under this heading and ADRENAL
Testosterone propionate is of use in sexually GLANDS).
underdeveloped young males, and in adult Aldosterone (see under this heading and ADRENAL
males it may be given to improve fertility or to GLANDS). (See also GLUCOCORTICOIDS.)
overcome impotence. In castrated or androgen- Hormones of the anterior pituitary lobe
deficient males it may be of service in obesity, stimulate the gonads (gonadotrophin), thyroid,
alopecia, and possibly eczema. In the female adrenals, the skeleton, milk secretion, etc.
it may be used to cut short oestrus in racing Pituitary gonadotrophin influences both the
bitches and mares, to suppress lactation, and in ovary and the testis. In the latter it stimulates
the treatment of pyometra. It has been used with development of the sperm-secreting tissue and of
success in the treatment of alopecia (baldness) in actual sperm production, and of the interstitial
spayed cats and also in the bitch (non-spayed). tissue and the secretion of male sex hormones. In
(See CORTICOSTEROIDS; SYNCHRONISATION OF the ovary it stimulates growth of the ovarian fol-
OESTRUS.) licles and development of corpora lutea. Pituitary
gonadotrophin is thus considered as having
Hormones 2 parts or principles: FSH (follicle stimulating
Hormones are substances which upon absorp- hormone) and LH (luteinising hormone).
tion into the bloodstream influence the action Chorionic gonadotrophin. This is a hormone
of tissues or organs other than those in which resembling that of the anterior pituitary, but
they were produced. The internal secretions formed in the placenta and excreted in the
of the ovary, testicles, thyroid, parathyroid, urine of pregnant women. The action of this
adrenal, pituitary body, and the pancreas are hormone is predominantly luteinising.
examples of hormones. (See ENDOCRINE Serum gonadotrophin (PMS) is a hormone
GLANDS.) The placenta is also a source of one or similar to the above but predominantly follicle-
more hormones. stimulating, obtained from the serum of pregnant
Most animal hormones are either polypeptides mares.
(small proteins) or steroids, and the 2 groups Pituitrin is the hormone from the posterior
have different modes of action. lobe of the pituitary, and comprises a pressor
The interaction of the hormones is far-reach- principle (vasopressin), which acts upon the heart
ing and complex. In health, a delicate balance – and circulation, causing a rise in blood pressure,
the ‘endocrine balance’ – is maintained. In and an oxytocic principle (oxytocin) which stim-
ill-health this balance may be disturbed by an ulates involuntary muscles such as those of the
insufficiency of a particular hormone or by excess intestines and of the uterus (when pregnant). (See
of another. Some hormones are antagonistic to also under ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE.)
Horse-Sickness, African 339
Natural oestrogens are hormones obtained spite of the great strength of the horns of cattle,
from the follicles of the ovary and include oestrin fracture of the horn cores, from fighting, colli-
and its chemical variants oestrone, oestriol, sion, etc., may arise with comparative ease
oestradiol, etc. At puberty oestrin brings about when the force has been applied in a lateral or
development of the teats, udder, vagina, etc. transverse manner. Frequently the horn itself
Oestrin is, to some extent, antagonistic to luteal remains apparently intact, but the bony core is
hormone and the parathyroid secretion. fractured, and the injury is not suspected until
Synthetic oestrogens have a similar effect to it is noticed that the animal is bleeding pro-
the above. They include stilboestrol, hexoestrol, fusely from 1 nostril, i.e. that on the same side
and dienoestrol. as the injured horn. Sometimes the tip of a
Progestin, progesterone, or the luteal hor- horn may be broken clean off, and the external
mone is produced by the corpus luteum. This haemorrhage is liable to be alarming.
hormone, stimulates preparation of the lining
of the uterus for pregnancy, and by counteract- Horse Bots
ing other hormones ensures the undisturbed Maggots of the common horse bot fly. Horse
maintenance of the gravid uterus; meanwhile bots have been known to infect the liver,
suppressing oestrus, and – with the oestrogens causing hepatitis and jaundice.
– stimulates development of the udder and As bot flies have only 1 generation per year,
H
onset of lactation. it has been suggested that a single annual treat-
Androgens are sex hormones, e.g. testos- ment of horses, preferably during early winter,
terone secreted by the testes, and hormone(s) would remove most, if not all, the bots. (See
secreted by the adrenal supplementing, it under FLIES.)
seems, the action of testosterone. The latter is Haloxon in the feed or paste preparations of
responsible for the development of secondary IVERMECTIN are used for the control of bots.
sexual characters, is capable of counteracting A survey carried out in Ireland showed that
the female sex hormones, and apparently during the months of October to May (inclu-
inhibits the deposition of fat. sive), 90 per cent of horses slaughtered at an
abattoir near Dublin, and just under 67 per
Hormones in Meat Production cent of those at an abattoir near Belfast, were
Hormonal preparations, such as stilboestrol, infected with Gastrophilus intestinalis. Over
were formerly used to improve meat produc- 28 per cent of horses at the former abattoir
tion. Often administered in unauthorised doses, harboured G. nasalis; but none of those in the
serious health problems resulted in the animals Ulster abattoir.
and in the humans consuming the meat
produced. The use of stilboestrol and similar Horse-Meat
hormones was banned. Uncooked liver, lungs, etc. may be a source of
ANABOLIC STEROIDS such as trenbolone the hydatid cysts of the tapeworm Echinococcus
became popular in the 1970s. They were granulosus of the dog. The diaphragm may
claimed to have only slight side-effects, and harbour Trichinella spiralis and, though this
improved food-conversion efficiency. However, parasite is unknown in the UK, horse-meat may
their use as growth promoters is banned in live- have to be examined for it.
stock in the EU. They are used clinically in
debilitating diseases, anaemia, renal failure and Dogs and cats have occasionally been poi-
to promote tissue repair. soned, some fatally, after being fed horse-
(See GROWTH PROMOTERS.) meat containing barbiturates or chloral hydrate
(administered to the horse for purposes of
Horn Fly euthanasia). Signs include drowsiness and
Lyperosia irritans is a parasite of cattle in muscular incoordination.
America, Hawaii, and Europe. Heavy infesta-
tions of cattle have been reported in the UK. Human cases of TRICHINOSIS have followed
(See FLIES.) the eating of horse-meat served rare.
In Africa, the species is Culiodes imicola; with complete history of the animal to be taken, since
climate changes, this midge has expanded problems in schooling and equitation may be
northwards and the disease is present along the the real trouble, and to rule these out details of
north African coast. Culicoides nebeculosus can management, tack, performance, and previous
also transmit the disease, but not so success- temperament need to be studied.
fully; however, it is able to spread into more The thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine
temperate areas. Europe is at risk via the Straits are commonly involved. Lesions may be
of Gibraltar, the Middle East or the Balkans. grouped as shown in the table.
In one study, 3 types of ACUPUNCTURE were
Signs The acute form of the disease is a severe found to be equally useful in the treatment of
respiratory condition with the horses literally horses with chronic back pain. Three groups of
‘drowning in their own juices’. A chronic form is 15 horses suffering from this condition for
seen as a cardiovascular problem. Subacute forms between 2 and 108 months were treated by: (1)
show both cardiac and respiratory symptoms. needle acupuncture (once a week for 8 weeks); or
(2) laser acupuncture (once a week for 11 weeks);
Treatment All that can be done is to treat the or (3) injection acupuncture (once a week for 9
H symptoms. weeks). Pain was reduced in 13 horses in group l;
in 11 in group 2; and in 13 in group 3; they were
Prevention Horses must be protected against able to resume training and competition work.
night-flying insects. Vaccines can be used but
they must be prepared from local strains of virus. Horses, Common Causes of
NB The statutory surveillance zone around an Death in
infected horse is 150 km: it follows that dis- Records of consecutive post-mortem examina-
ease does not have to reach the UK before a tions, carried out at the University of Liverpool
surveillance zone has to be established there. Veterinary Field Station between 1958 and
1980, showed that in 480 horses the following
Horse-Tails, Poisoning by conditions accounted for 10 or more deaths:
In different localities and under different condi- Alimentary system. Perforations, 21; specific
tions there may be considerable variation in the and non-specific enteritis, 21; volvuli, 18; stran-
chemical composition of species of Equisetum, gulated hernias, 15; malabsorption due to
with results accordingly. It would appear that on atrophic enteropathy, 14; intestinal obstructions,
the continent of Europe and in Britain, E. palus- 13; parasitic enteritis, 12; (e.g. cyathostome
tre and E. sylvaticum are the most dangerous, larvae).
and that in America E. arvense is most to be Nervous system. Grass sickness, 51.
feared, particularly when they are fed among Cardiovascular system. Verminous arteritis,
hay. (See also BRACKEN POISONING; THIAMIN.) 14; haemorrhage, 13.
Haemopoetic system. Lymphosarcoma, 12.
Horses, Back Troubles in Miscellaneous. Pyaemia or septicaemia, 14.
A deterioration in a horse’s performance or abil- The following conditions were not consid-
ity to jump may be the result of chronic back ered to have caused death in the 480 horses, but
pain or discomfort. This may alter the animal’s were found 30 times or more:
behaviour or temperament. Some may become Alimentary system. Parasitic peritonitis, 93;
fractious when handled or worked; some may gastrophilus larval infestation, 82; parasitic
resent any weight on their backs at all. When enteritis, 54; hepatic hydatidosis, 44; gastric
investigating back problems, it is essential for a ulceration with no gastrophilus present, 37.
Major causes of back troubles in horses. (With acknowledgements to Professor L. Jeffcott.)
PAGE PAGE
Anaesthesia 21 Identification 358
Import controls 344
Back troubles in horses 340 Infectious anaemia, Equine 227
Bacteroides (Fusiformis) 51 Influenza, Equine 228
Biliary fever, Equine 226 Ionised calcium 379
‘Bleeder’ horses 67
Blood typing, Equine 226 Lameness 398
Bots, Horse 339 Laminitis 399
Laryngeal paralysis 402
Colic 146 Loss of condition 344
Common causes of death in horses 340 Lung haemorrhage 344
Contagious equine metritis 152 Lymphosarcoma, Equine 229
Cyathostomiasis 166
Measurement of horses 344
Diseases of horses (list) 341 Myoglobinuria, Equine 229 H
Encephalitis, Equine 226 Piroplasmosis, Equine 229
Epizootic cerebrospinal nematodiasis 225 Pneumonia in horses 550
Exercising 234 Potomac horse fever 559
Horses are fussy feeders, and can be affected Cereals are rich in starch, comparatively poor in
by the age, composition and type of pasture – protein, and mostly provide too little calcium
all of which influence dry matter intake. (For but too much phosphorus. This mineral imbal-
grasses most suitable for horses, see PASTURE ance is also found in bran, which should not
MANAGEMENT – Grass varieties.) form a significant proportion of the ration.
With concentrate feed, the aroma, freshness, Hay and oats feed rations are sufficient to
and physical characteristics influence both cover the requirements of adult horses both for
initial acceptance and continued consumption. maintenance and for work, gestation and lacta-
(See DIET for preparation of feeds, palatability, tion, only if the feed rations are of good quality.
and deterioration in storage, etc.; also LUCERNE; If of poor quality, mares in the late phase of ges-
LINSEED; HAY; HYDROPONIC ‘GRASS’.) tation may suffer from a deficiency in minerals,
The horse can only eat relatively small quan- whereas lactating mares and young horses may
tities of feed at a time. The number of feeding suffer from a deficiency not only in minerals but
times per day should therefore be increased with also in energy and in high-grade digestible crude
increasing workload because otherwise the horse protein.
cannot get enough feed to cover requirements. For safety reasons (as a safeguard against unde-
H In addition, the horse chews its feed thoroughly tected poor quality of feed rations) it is there-
and therefore requires relatively long feeding fore advisable to supplement both grazing and
times (about 1 hour). A horse under an average hay and oats feeding of horses in all phases of
workload requires per day about 2 kg feed (air- life with minerals and trace elements (mineral
dry weight) per 100 kg (4 lb 6 oz per 220 lb) supplement feed).
bodyweight. Mares at the peak of lactation and young
Horses in all phases of life can largely cover horses up to 6 months after weaning, if they are
their nutrient requirements by sufficiently long fed on hay and oats, require feed supplementa-
daily grazing on a good pasture. If the pasture is tion with high-energy low-fibre concentrate
of poor quality then the nutrition of horses will feed containing high-grade protein, e.g. dried
be deficient unless supplemented. skimmed milk.
Oats are the most widely used cereal for feed- Regardless of the stage of life and of perfor-
ing horses; they do not need processing for mance requirements, all horses should be given
adults, but should be crimped or rolled for foals. all necessary vitamins as a supplement to the
Barley, wheat and maize are used to a lesser feed. This is the only way to avoid uncertainties
extent. Barley should be crimped or rolled, wheat or actual deficiencies in vitamin supply which
should be rolled, and maize cracked. If included may arise owing to the variability of vitamin
in horse feeds, beans should be split or kibbled. contents of feedstuffs. In addition, over and
above a sufficient supply of minerals, all horses
should have free access to common salt in the
form of mineral licks.
A way ‘to avoid deficiency situations when
feeding horses on hay and oats rations is to
replace the oats partly or entirely by a com-
pound feed for horses. With such hay/oats/
compound feed rations or hay/compound
feed rations, no further supplementation is
required provided the compound feed contains
the necessary ingredients’. (Roche Information
Service.)
For growth The protein requirements of a and barley were liked least, but when the choice
young, growing horse are much greater than was restricted to these 2 grains the ponies’ feed
those referred to under ‘Maintenance rations’ intake was not greatly depressed. Given oats or
above. Both digestibility and amino-acid con- oats plus 2 per cent or 10 per cent sucrose, 4 of
tent are important. Diets containing only poor- 6 pony geldings selected the sweetened oats but
quality protein should be supplemented with 1 disliked sucrose and the other selected from 1
LYSINE, or some soya could be substituted for feed bucket regardless of its content. The 6 pony
linseed. mares preferred a basal diet containing 54 per
cent maize, 20 per cent whole oats, 10 per cent
Pregnant/lactating mares In America wheat bran, 8 per cent soyabean meal, 7 per cent
under poor range conditions, where grazing molasses and 1 per cent limestone when it was
provides inadequate protein, feed blocks sup- supplemented with 20 per cent of distillers’
plying 50 g urea daily improve a pregnant grain, but not when it was supplemented with
mare’s condition. 20 per cent beet pulp, 20 per cent blood meal or
During the last 3rd of pregnancy, energy 20 per cent meat and bone meal. They did not
requirements increase above those of mainte- prefer the same basal diet containing 20 per cent
nance. The mare should still be able to con- alfalfa meal, although horses are reported to
prefer alfalfa pasture to other legumes.
H
sume daily 1 kg of hay and 0.25 to 0.5 kg cubes
per 100 kg of bodyweight. (Levels of feed for The following rules should be adhered to
thoroughbreds need to be 30 per cent higher as far as the feeding of horses in Britain is
than those for pleasure horses.) concerned:
During peak lactation a 500 kg mare may (1) Water before feeding (see WATERING).
produce over 13.5 litres (3 gallons) of milk daily (2) Feed in small amounts and as often as the
and, if she is also undertaking some work, her nature of the work or other circumstances will
energy demands are considerable. Requirements allow.
for concentrate cubes during the 3rd month of (3) Do not work immediately after the horse
lactation may reach 250 g to 500 g per 100 kg finishes feeding. An hour should be given for a
bodyweight. full feed.
Proprietary concentrates are widely used. For (4) Give the 1st feed of the day early, and
novices, these concentrates are a boon, since give the majority of the bulky food at the last
they are likely to be well balanced. Some con- feed of the day, so that the horse can eat it at its
centrates contain soya-bean meal, which is a leisure.
good source of lysine in which home-mixed (5) Always buy the best quality of food
rations are often deficient. obtainable; it is false economy to use inferior
Horses do need some long hay in addition to food-stuffs.
concentrates to provide bulk, assist peristalsis, (6) Inspect the teeth periodically, and have
and mitigate the boredom which can lead to any errors corrected at once.
habits such as crib-biting.
In recent years silage has, to a very limited Horses, Identification of
extent, become an item of horses’ diet. Care Under the Horse Passports Order 1997, the
must be taken to avoid any mouldy samples, keeper of any horse born in the UK after
and it may take a week for a horse to accept January 1, 1998 must have the horse registered
silage. with an authorised organisation and receive a
Hydroponics have been used by a few horse- passport for it. This has to accompany the ani-
owners, who lay down 8 trays to grow mats mal when it is moved in or out of Great Britain,
of barley seedlings. These are harvested at the when it goes to competitions, when it is moved
8-day stage, when the flag is 8 or 9 inches high, for veterinary treatment, when it is moved
and growing from a 2-inch accumulation of to new premises, or for any other purpose.
roots and barley husks.This food is relished, The passport contains an outline silhouette of
and parasite-free. the animal properly filled in and details of all
vaccinations it has been given.
Food preferences of ponies Studies of From 1999 it became a requirement of entry
the feed preferences of ponies should help to pre- into the General Stud Book and Weatherbys
dict the acceptability and intake of rations con- Non-Thoroughbred Register that foals had to be
taining sucrose, grains or by-product feedstuffs. identifiable by means of a microchip implanted
Given a choice between oats, maize, barley, rye in the neck at the same time that the blood
and wheat, 6 mature pony mares preferred oats, sample (for typing) was taken and marking
with maize ranking 2nd and barley 3rd. Wheat recorded for the animal’s passport.
344 Horses, Import Controls
Freeze branding or hoof branding are also used the stomach. Chronic disease of liver or kidneys
for identification. Semi-feral equines, such as may be present; or cancer or tuberculosis. These
Dartmoor ponies, must be registered on capture. and many other conditions may be causing the
pony to be unthrifty.
Horses, Import Controls A scheme of regular visits by a veterinary sur-
There is free movement of horses throughout the geon (often on a contract basis) can help to
EU. Importation of horses into Great Britain is keep horses and ponies in good condition. (See
allowed only through 1 of 4 Border Inspection HORSES, DISEASES OF.)
Posts: Heathrow Airport, Immingham Port,
Luton Airport and Tilbury Port. Unregistered Horses, Lung Haemorrhage
equidae can be imported through Bristol. A study carried out at the Animal Health Trust’s
Importing a horse elsewhere is an offence, but equine research station confirmed the high inci-
factors such as the designated airport being fog- dence of blood pigment present in tracheal
bound and the aircraft diverted will be taken into washes from ‘normal’ racehorses, and indicated
account. Each animal is examined, and if found that exercise-induced subclinical bleeding from
clinically free from evidence of infectious disease, the lungs occurs in British as in other racehorses.
is free to travel anywhere in the EU. Each horse (See RACEHORSES, EXERCISE.)
H
has to be accompanied by a health certificate.
The health certificate accompanying competi- Horses, Measurement of
tion horses is valid for 90 days’ stay in the EU As equine veterinarian D. F. Oliver has pointed
and does not require proof of freedom from out, the precise height of a horse may deter-
venereal disease, whereas the certificate for per- mine whether it is worth thousands of pounds
manent residency does. or only hundreds. ‘The value of a horse which
Horses from the USA must have been tested “measures in” may well be in the order of
for evidence of NOTIFIABLE DISEASE. Restrictions £35,000; if “measured out” only £500,’ he said.
may be applied in the case of a new equine Consequently, there is great pressure on the
disease being identified. For example, in 1996 a measurer. The use of a spirit level, to check
respiratory disease was linked to certain race the level of the ground, is now required in the
meetings in New England. No horse which had UK. The horse must be measured from both
been in contact with any horse involved in those sides, and the mean taken. Some horses resent
meetings was allowed into the UK until the the slightest pressure on their withers; others
matter had been cleared up. are taught to crouch at such pressure – both
The Animals and Animal Products (Import making accurate measurement extremely diffi-
and Export) Regulations 1998 specify the terms cult. Horses should be familiarised with the
of importation. measuring standard. (See HAND.)
Horses should be examined for ‘over-prepa-
Horses, Infectious Diseases of ration of the foot’ and measuring postponed if
(see HORSES, IMPORT CONTROLS) they are found in this condition.
In one study, the heights of 89 horses were
Horses, Infertility in measured at the withers before and after half a
(seeCONTAGIOUS EQUINE METRITIS; UTERINE
furlong of trotting exercise. The average height-
INFECTIONS)
increase after the exercise was 1.75cm; the
horses returning to their ‘resting height’ within
7 minutes.
Horses, Loss of Condition in
When ponies and other riding horses lose condi- Horses, Motor Neuron Disease
tion, a veterinary surgeon should be consulted, This is characterised by a considerable loss of
for the possible causes are many and a profes- weight, trembling, sweating, and a stiff gait.
sional diagnosis is important. Some pony-owners,
inexperienced or otherwise, may be underfeeding Horses, Shoeing
their animals, not supplying enough drinking In the UK, horses may only be shod by a farrier
water, or overworking them. Appetite may be registered with the Farriers Registration Council
depressed because of pain – perhaps in the joints after completing an approved apprenticeship
or feet, perhaps associated with brucellosis. The and passing the examination for the Diploma of
teeth may need attention. Chronic grass disease the Worshipful Company of Farriers.
will result in loss of condition. Migrating red
worm larvae may be causing circulatory distur- Horses, Spinal Cord Diseases in
bance, or the animal may have a severe infestation A survey based on 81 horses examined at the New
of worms in the intestine. Bots may be present in York State College of Veterinary Medicine,
Housing of Animals 345
Cornell University, revealed 20 (25 per cent) cases (See ROUNDWORMS; IVERMECTIN; FLUKES;
of injury including cervical vertebral stenotic TAPEWORMS.)
myelopathy (CSM – 11 cases), compressive * Frequently, but incorrectly, called Habronema megastoma.
myelopathy (4), occipitoatlantoaxial malforma-
tion (2), cervical vertebral osteomyelitis (2) and Hospital-Acquired Disease
cervical injury (1). Of the 37 (45 per cent) (see NOSOCOMIAL; IATROGENIC; ANTS
inflammatory lesions, equine protozoal myeloen- (Pharaoh’s); SALMONELLOSIS)
cephalitis (EPM) as the most common.
Organisms were seen in 16 of the 32 cases. There Hounds
were also 23 (28 per cent) cases of equine degen- (see MEAT, KNACKER’S; HOOKWORMS; ORF;
erative myeloencephalopathy (EDM). BOTULISM; HORSE-MEAT; SALMONELLOSIS;
CSM occurred particularly in young male AUJESZKY’S DISEASE)
thoroughbreds and horses that were large for
their age and breed. They were identified accu- House Decorating, Poisoning
rately by measuring (on radiographs) the mini- In one case, old lead primer was stripped by
mum saggittal diameter at the level of each means of an electric sander, which dispersed
vertebra (it should exceed 16 mm) and also particles of the primer so that the air soon con-
between adjacent vertebrae in the flexed position
H
tained a toxic amount of lead. An infant and a
(it should exceed 13 mm). cat suffered lead poisoning as a result.
EDM was characterised by the onset of pro- In another case, the purchaser of a house
gressive symmetric ataxia, spasticity and paresis had the downstairs floors professionally treated
in animals, particularly Arabs, under 2 years of against woodworm. Six pedigree cats were
age. EDM was distinguished from CSM and accordingly kept upstairs for 6 weeks. Even so,
other conditions with focal lesions because of 4 weeks after being admitted to the down-
differences in the patterns of pelvic and thoracic stairs rooms, 5 of the cats died from dieldrin
limb gait deficits. poisoning.
EPM was most frequent in young mature
standardbred and thoroughbred horses in the House Plants
spring and summer. In addition to ataxia and Poisoning in cats and dogs may be caused by
paresis there is frequently acute to chronic pro- the needles from Christmas trees, holly, mistle-
gressive asymmetrical defects in the gait and toe, laurel, oleander, azalea, lily-of-the-valley,
evidence of sensory deficits, loss of reflexes rhododendron, honeysuckle and hydrangea.
and muscle atrophy. Tetraplegia was associated Ingestion of dumb cane (Dieffenbachia spp.)
with severe lesions in the spinal cord or brain causes swelling of the mouth and throat and
stem. The protozoon parasite involved is prob- difficulty in breathing.
ably a coccidian; morphological and serological
evidence mitigates against the suggestion that Housing of Animals
EPM is a form of toxoplasmosis. This is, obviously, a vast subject, and for
detailed information reference should be made
Horses, Worms in to specialist texts. (See also TROPICS.)
The following list shows those adult worms Two things must be said at the outset. The
regarded as of most importance. first is that, generally speaking – given wind-
breaks, the possibility of shelter in inclement
Adult worms in the intestines: weather and of shade in summer, the avoidance
Strongylus edentatus of muddy conditions and of overstocking –
S. equinus animals kept out-of-doors are likely to be
S. vulgaris healthier than those which are housed for long
Triodontophorus spp. periods. In the past, housing of animals so often
Oesophagodontus robustus meant overcrowding in dark, damp, draughty
or ill-ventilated buildings. Under such condi-
Adult worms mainly in other tissues: tions disease is almost inevitable – pneumonia
Echinococcus granulosus (larval stage) or scours in calves; infertility in the bull; agalac-
Dracunculus medinensis tia in the sow; mastitis in the dairy cow; respi-
Draschia megastoma* (larval stages in the ratory disease in poultry. Parasitic conditions
skin) such as lice and mange tend to spread in housed
Dictyocaulus arnfieldi animals, as does ringworm in cattle and horses.
Fasciola spp. Some modern and costly buildings still have
Habronema spp. (larval stages in the skin) ventilation defects, leading to condensation
346 Housing of Animals
inside and resulting in ill-health of the housed Intensivism has led to development in
stock. The use of Yorkshire boarding can obvi- forced-draught ventilation, and to the efficient
ate both the condensation problem and much insulation of walls and roof of animal houses by
of the pneumonia. means of polystyrene, fibreglass, and other sub-
The second thing is that, from a health point stances. Insulated roofs are not usually used for
of view, not every ‘development’ is an advance. cattle or calves. Housing for poultry and pigs,
Commercial competition may dictate the over- however, should have roof insulation as well as
crowding of chickens to the point where feath- wall insulation as these animals have a higher
er-picking has to be counteracted by red light- critical temperature than ruminants. (See under
ing or de-beaking; this may lead to short-term CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT.)
economic gains, but it is the antithesis of good It costs over 4 times as much to keep an
animal husbandry, and the solving of the veteri- animal warm by feeding concentrates – ‘an
nary problems raised must be viewed accord- internal fuel’ – as by warming the livestock
ingly. Intensivism can surely be pushed to a house. Minimum economic temperatures are
stage where only a return to good husbandry given below.
will succeed in reducing the incidence of disease Housing has an important bearing upon the
H – and also, incidentally, the size of the drug bill. feeding of animals. Pigs, for instance, confined
On the other hand, the dairy cow has on concrete have no opportunity for the normal
undoubtedly benefited from another dictate of scavenging which can obviate mineral or vita-
economy – the change from cowshed to the min deficiencies, and special rations accordingly
yard-and-parlour system – for instead of being become necessary for such housed animals.
yoked or closely chained for long periods, she is Vitamin A and E deficiencies are particularly
free to move around; and such exercise is in likely to occur.
itself important. (See CUBICLES FOR COWS.) Residual infection is obviously important,
Cattle were housed on slatted floors in and advice is given on this under SALMONEL-
England in 1860 – with straw. Their use LOSIS and DISINFECTION. In a building used,
without straw may lead to welfare problems successively, for calves and pigs, or pigs and
such as hygromata, damaged teats or injured turkeys, for example, a cross-infection between
legs, and housing on wholly slatted floors is not the species may arise with a particular strain of
recommended. E. coli. Buildings in which pigs and sheep are
A dairy unit, with lying area, parlour and dairy under one roof. Note the Yorkshire boarding to the
left of the picture – a means of ensuring good ventilation and an absence of condensation.
Housing of Animals 347
housed may carry-over erysipelas; ringworm mended for the first 4 days. Cold, damp floors
can pass from cattle to sheep, pigs or horses via result in liver disorders which do not appear
an infected building. On land surrounding in buildings where the pigs have a warm, dry
buildings it is worth remembering that the bed. Pregnant sows are better not housed. (See
worm Trichostrongylus axei is common to cattle, CONCRETE; HYPOTHERMIA.)
sheep, horses, and goats. For fattening pigs, an optimum temperature
would appear to be about 18°C (65°F); 15.5°C
Cattle An open-ridge method of ventilation is (60°F) should be the minimum. Humidity does
still recommended as the best for cowsheds. In not appear to have an adverse effect, though few
winter, the optimum temperature inside authorities recommend it. Good ventilation is
appears to be within 6 and 13°C (44–55°F). advocated.
Milk yields are said to be depressed when the
temperature falls below freezing point. In sum- Sheep In general, the disease problems associ-
mer, there is an upper limit of about 25°C ated with the housing of sheep have been less
(77°F), at which point cattle begin showing serious than might have been expected, and
distress. High humidity at a temperature above there is a credit side as well as a debit side.
15.5°C (60°F) appears to diminish milk yield. For example, if lambs are born and reared to
For covered yards, ventilators should be pro- market weight indoors, there is far less risk of
vided at the highest point, with a gap of 60 cm worm infestation causing trouble. It is recom-
(2 ft) between the top of the walls and the mended that pens should not contain more
eaves. Open-fronted covered yards should not than 15 to 25 ewes, grouped according to
have a gap. About 2 tonnes of straw per cow is lambing dates.
required for straw yards in winter. Ewes and hoggs housed for the winter after
grazing should be wormed during the 1st week.
Pigs Given adequate straw, the most primitive If it is a liver-fluke area, dosing against flukes is
arks on range will yield better results than a advisable 6 weeks after housing.
cold, damp house. A warm environment will Lambs must be protected against lamb dysen-
reduce the risk of overlying by the sow. While tery, and any from unvaccinated ewes should be
different optimum temperatures have been given antiserum.
given by different research workers, it seems Infestation with lice may be aggravated by
that 21°C (70°F) is about the figure to aim at housing and spread more rapidly. Since it can
in the farrowing house. For artificial rearing, a cause serious loss of condition, dipping or
temperature of 30°C (86°F) has been recom- spraying before housing is recommended.
348 Huckleberry Poisoning
Humerus Hyaluronate
Humerus is the bone of the foreleg between the A mucopolysaccharide used as an injection into
shoulder-joint and the elbow-joint. It has a the joint to treat arthritis.
rounded head which, with the corresponding
depression of the scapula, forms the ‘ball-and- Hybrid
socket’ shoulder-joint. At the opposite extremi- At one time this word meant a cross between two
ty it forms with the radius and ulna the hinged inbred lines; now it is used to describe a simple
elbow-joint. cross between 2 different strains or breeds.
Hydraulic Fluid 349
For a comparison between a hybrid and a and cattle offal from this cause runs into hun-
chimera (with reference to fertile mules), see dreds of thousands of pounds annually. Routine
CHIMERA. worming of dogs is essential for control. E.
granulosus is far from being a typical tapeworm,
Hybrid Vigour as it has only 3 or 4 segments and a total length
The improved performance produced in the of a mere 3 to 9 mm, so that the dog-owner will
offspring by mating 2 breeds (see GENETICS; not notice the voided segments.
BLOOD-TYPING; T-CELLS). A problem of diagnosis also arises, in that this
worm’s eggs are indistinguishable from those of
Hybridoma Taenia tapeworms. Previously, one could dose
(see GENETIC ENGINEERING; also under RABIES – dogs with arecoline hydrochloride and examine
Diagnosis) the faeces for the presence of the intact tape-
worm, but in Britain this anthelmintic is no
Hydatid Disease longer obtainable, having been replaced by more
Hydatid disease is caused by the cystic larval modern drugs which destroy the tapeworm but
stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus, leave it unrecognisable.
of which the dog and fox are the usual hosts.
Eggs released from tapeworm segments passed Equine hydatidosis in Britain is caused by
H
in the faeces by these animals are later swallowed a strain of E. granulosus which has become
by grazing cattle, sheep and horses, which may specifically adapted to the horse as its interme-
become infested also through drinking water diate host, and is often referred to now as E.
contaminated by wind-blown eggs. granulosus equinus. This apparently is of low
In Australia an anti-hydatid disease cam- pathenogenicity for man.
paign has proved successful; though in New In a survey covering 1388 horses and ponies
South Wales there is a sylvatic strain which cir- examined at 2 abattoirs in the north of
culates predominantly between wild dogs and England, 8.7 per cent were infected. Prevalence
wallabies. of infection was closely related to age – rising
Swallowed eggs hatch in the intestines and from zero in animals up to 2 years old to over
are carried via the portal vein to the liver. Some 20 per cent of those over 8 years old.
remain there, developing into hydatid cysts; Sixty-six per cent of the infected animals had
others may form cysts in the lungs or occasion- viable cysts. Prevalence appeared to be greatest
ally elsewhere, e.g. spleen, kidney, bone marrow in central and north-west England.
cavity, or brain. Inside the cysts, brood capsules,
containing the infective stage of the tapeworm, Treatment of human patients Hydatid
develop, and after 5 or 6 months these can disease has been said to be one of the rare para-
infest dog or fox. sitic conditions that can be treated only by
People become infested through swallowing surgery. However, the result is often incomplete,
eggs attached to inadequately washed vegeta- with frequent local recurrences or accidents of
bles; eggs may possibly be inhaled in dust or secondary dissemination. Repeated interven-
carried by flies to uncovered food. The han- tions are often mutilating and do not guarantee
dling of infested dogs is an important source. a definite cure. Mebendazole has been used
In Beirut the risk is put at 21 times greater successfully in some patients, but is not always
for dog-owners than others, by the World effective.
Health Organisation, which states also that
in California, nomadic sheep-rearers are 1000 Hydralazine
times more likely to have hydatid disease than An arterial dilator, useful in treating dogs
other inhabitants of the state. with failing heart due to mitral regurgitation
There have been successful campaigns to (usually caused by fibrosis of the valve) and
control human hydatid disease in both Cyprus left-sided congestive heart failure.
and Iceland, by compulsory treatment and/or
banning of dogs. Hydrargyrum
In Wales, where the incidence of hydatid dis- (see MERCURY)
ease is relatively high, farm dogs and foxhounds
are important in its spread. Hydraulic Fluid
Only some 7 people are known to die from Intense generalised pruritis was suffered by ani-
this disease in England and Wales each year – a mals grazing in a field beneath the flight path to
figure which would probably be higher were an airfield after they ate grass contaminated by
diagnosis less difficult. Condemnation of sheep hydraulic fluid leaked from an aircraft.
350 Hydrocele
broiler chicks and results in up to 60 per cent 3 weeks. The wounds healed satisfactorily, and
mortality. the hygroma was obliterated in all 18 cases.
Hygiene Hyperaesthesia
(see INFECTION; VENTILATION; HOUSING; WATER- Oversensitivity to bright light, sudden noise
SUPPLY; DIET AND DIETETICS; DISINFECTION; or touch. It occurs in diseases such as rabies,
SLURRY) tetanus and hypomagnesaemia. It is the main
consistent clinical sign in bovine spongiform
Hygroma encephalopathy (BSE).
Hygroma is a swelling occurring in connec-
tion with a joint, usually the knee or hock, and Feline hyperaesthesia may result also from
the result of repeated bruising against a hard poisoning by, for example, benzoic acid.
surface. (See CAPPED HOCK.)
Hygroma in cattle may arise through an Signs Aggressiveness, excitement.
insufficiency of bedding, or through faulty
building design. (See also CALLOSITY.) Hyperbaric
Hygroma of the elbow in large dogs has been (see OXYGEN)
successfully treated by means of the following
technique. A 6 mm diameter Penrose drain was Hypercalcaemia
passed through incisions made dorsally and An excess of calcium in the blood.
ventrally into the hygroma, and secured firmly
to the skin. Dressings were changed every 4 to Causes In dogs these include cancer, an excess
5 days, and the drain taken out after 2 or of vitamin D, osteolytic lesions, kidney failure,
352 Hypercapnia
excess parathyroid hormone, Addison’s disease, and death may precede any obvious skin
severe hypothermia, and, rarely, blastomycosis. changes.
In man, additional causes of hypercalcaemia
include acromegaly, increased thyroid gland Treatment Vitamin A will assist recovery.
activity, long-term immobilisation, too much
vitamin A, treatment with thiazide diuretics, Hyperkinesis
tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, histoplasmosis, coccid- Overactivity that may be caused by dietary or
iomycosis, and silicone-induced granuloma. environmental factors. It can be accompanied
by aggression, especially in the reaction to
Hypercapnia attempted restraint (e.g. putting on a lead). The
The presence in the blood of a raised level of heart and respiratory rates may increase; seda-
carbon dioxide. tion may be a temporary measure. Expert eval-
uation of the diet may be necessary and the
Hyperchlorhydria animal may have to be referred to an animal
Hyperchlorhydria is a form of indigestion asso- behaviour specialist.
ciated with excessive secretion of hydrochloric
H acid. Hyperlipaemia
An excess of lipids in the blood, which can
Hyperglycaemia be fatal in ponies and donkeys. It was first
An excess of sugar in the blood. (See DIABETES reported in Europe, then in Australia. Mares are
MELLITUS.) affected in late pregnancy or early lactation.
Hyperkalaemia Hypermetria
High concentration of potassium in the blood. A high-stepping gait. (See COENURIASIS.)
Hyperkeratosis Hyperoxaluria
Hyperkeratosis means an excess of horn or KER- An excess of oxalates in the urine. This accom-
ATIN. The specific disease is also characterised panies L-glyceric aciduria in kidney disease of
by hardening of the skin. kittens 5 to 9 months old.
Acute kidney failure develops together with
Cause In cattle, the disease has been caused by atrophy of nerves supplying muscles.
poisoning by minute quantities of chlorinated
naphthalene compounds (and possibly other
Signs Extreme weakness, affecting standing and
walking.
chemical substances also). These are found in
many wood-preserving compounds in insecti- Cause A recessive gene.
cides, lubricants, and electrical insulation mate-
rial. These substances bring about a secondary Hyperparathyroidism
vitamin A deficiency. In America the disease has Of 21 dogs suffering from this, 20 had an ade-
followed the feeding of pellets prepared by noma, and 1 a carcinoma. (See PARATHYROID
machinery lubricated with grease or oil con- GLANDS.)
taining naphthalene compounds – an indica-
tion of the minute quantities sufficient to cause Signs Thirst, listlessness, weakness, loss of
trouble. Usually, however, the disease is a sequel appetite.
to housing stock in recently creosoted build-
ings. (For the disease in pigs, see also ZINC and Hyperplasia
CALCIUM SUPPLEMENTS.) Hyperplasia is the term applied to abnormally
great development of some organ or tissue.
Signs A thickening of the skin, sometimes
with loss of hair, on neck and shoulders. In Hyperpotassaemia
calves, stunted growth, a discharge from the Too high a level of potassium in the blood-
eye (often with a corneal opacity), frothing at stream. This may be brought about artificially,
the mouth, weakness and emaciation occur, with fatal results, by the mistaken use of potas-
Hypoalbuminaemia 353
H
I
Icelandic Pneumonia
(see PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS; also MAEDI/
VISNA)
Ichthyophonus
A fungus that usually infects marine fish but is
pathogenic to salmon in both sea and fresh water.
Iatrogenic Disease It is caused by feeding salmon infected dead fish
Any illness resulting from treatment, such as which have not been processed properly.
the side-effects of some drugs. Adverse drug
reactions were suspected in 130 of 39,541 cases Ichthyosis
treated at the Veterinary Hospital, University Ichthyosis is a condition of the skin in the dog,
of California, Davis. In 66 cases there was especially over the elbow and hocks in which
reasonable evidence to link the reaction large and irregular cracks appear. These become
observed to the drug. Antibiotics and antipara- filled with dirt, and infection results.
siticides were incriminated 21 times, with ana-
phylaxis being the most commonly observed
reaction. There were 3 deaths following the
Icterus
(see JAUNDICE)
administration of procaine penicillin (inadver-
tently intravenously) to a lamb; potassium
penicillin (10,000 units/kg) to a cat; and oxyte- Identichip
tracycline (25 mg/kg) to a cow. Anaesthetic and An electronically coded microchip, the size of a
related agents were involved 20 times. Severe grain of rice, encased in implant-grade glass. It
clonic convulsions developed in 5 cats receiving is inserted in the loose skin of the neck of the
more than 80 mg ketamine hydrochloride; animal (under local anaesthesia).
cardiac arrest, hypotension, dyspnoea and The microchip is encoded with the animal-
muscular rigidity in 2 horses given xylazine owner’s address, etc., kept on a central computer
(1 mg/kg intravenously); and severe bradycar- register. Electronic scanners (‘readers’) are used
dia and respiratory arrest in 2 dogs given to read the data in the chips.
fentanyl-droperidol. Anti-cancer drugs were A database of animals so identified is kept,
implicated in 10 cases with the most dramatic under the name Anibase, by Animalcare Ltd.,
reactions being observed in 5 dogs treated with of Common Road, Dunnington, York YO1
5-fluorouracil. One of these died as a result of SRU (see also MICROCHIP).
neural toxicosis. (See also SIDE-EFFECTS; DRUG
INTERACTIONS.)
Identification of Cattle
This is controlled by law in the UK. The
Bovine Animals (Records, Identification and
IBK Movement) Order 1995, as amended by the
Infectious bovine keratitis (infectious ophthalmia Cattle Identification (Amendment) Regulations
of cattle). (See EYE, DISEASES OF.) 1999 and the Cattle (Identification of Older
Animals) Regulations 2000, requires that all
IBR cattle be identified by an ear tag in each ear.
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis. (See RHINO- Each animal must have a ‘passport’ that must
TRACHEITIS.) accompany it wherever it goes and in which
the following details must be entered: date of
Ibuprofen movement on to a particular holding, or date
A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, much of birth on the holding; eartag number; breed;
used in human medicine. It has a narrow sex; dam’s identification number (replacement
margin of safety in dogs, in which it can cause ear tag where applicable). When the animal is
a sometimes fatal gastric ulceration. The same is moved off a holding, its age or date of birth, the
true of flurbiprofen. holding from which it is moved, and that to
which it is moved are recorded. Ear tags must be
Ice, Ice Cubes applied to dairy cattle within 36 hours of birth
Of use in cases of haemorrhage from the stom- and, in other cattle, within 30 days of birth.
ach, as an aid to control bleeding from wounds,
and as an application in cases of meningitis and Identification of Goats
paraphimosis; also in cases of hyperthermia and Identification of Goats is controlled by the
sunstroke. Sheep and Goats (Records, Identification
358 Identification of Horses
I
Immunodeficiency 361
measurably low levels of immunoglobulins and entering the body at a specific site, e.g. upper
a deficiency of lymphoid follicles in lymph respiratory tract, lungs, intestines.
nodes. Such an animal would be susceptible IgE is present in increased amounts in
to pyogenic bacterial infection, but would be animals with allergies. It is attached to the
able to cope with most viral infections. mast cells and, on exposure to the antigen,
Conversely, if the deficiency is mainly of anaphylactic and allergic mediators are released.
T-lymphocytes, the animal will have reduced IgG is the main circulating immunoglobulin
‘delayed skin hypersensitivity’ and will be more and the one responsible for transferring passive
susceptible to viruses. immunity from parent to offspring.
Foals affected by the inherited combined IgM is found in the serum and is the 1st anti-
immunodeficiency frequently suffer from body produced in an immune response. It is
adenoviral pneumonia due to their inability the only antibody produced by fish.
to resist infection. All domestic animals have IgA, IgG and
IgM; a 5th immunoglobulin, IgD of uncertain
Secondary partial immunodeficiency function, is found in some other species,
is much more common, and is being increas- including man.
ingly recognised as an important cause of failure
I to recover completely from certain diseases. Immunoperoxidase Test
Severe malnutrition, certain viral infections, A method of staining tissue to show the
exposure to X-rays, and corticosteroid therapy presence of specific antigens.
can all lead to a reduction in the immune
response. (See also IMMUNOSUPPRESSION.) Immunostimulation
(see LEVAMISOLE; BCG)
Immunofluorescent Microscopy
This is a useful laboratory method of diagnosis, Immunosuppression
described as specific and very sensitive. It Suppression of the immune response, leading to
enables a virus to be identified during the greater susceptibility of an animal to pathogens,
course of an unknown infection. It can demon- such as may occur in trypanosomiasis, influenza,
strate the presence of swine fever virus, for distemper, and brucellosis. (See under CORTISONE;
example, even before the appearance of symp- ANERGY; LEVAMISOLE; SPLEEN.)
toms. Results can be obtained within a matter The occurrence of anergy following certain
of hours. viral infections is worth emphasising; affected
The principle involved is that antigens in animals show a reduced cell-mediated response,
tissues are identified by using their ability to especially following infections by viruses
respond to, and fix, the homologous antibody having a cytotoxic effect on lymphoid cells, e.g.
previously labelled with a fluorescent tracer Newcastle disease virus.
which does not affect its properties.
The method has demonstrated swine fever Immunosuppressants include CORTICOS-
virus using impressions from lymph nodes TEROIDS and cytotoxic drugs such as
taken from pigs killed during the first 60 hours CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE.
after experimental infection. The virus is
revealed first in the cytoplasm as a diffuse Impaction
granular fluorescence; later bright, fluorescent Impaction is a condition in which 2 things are
particles become visible within the nucleus. firmly lodged together. For example, when after
The term ‘fluorescent antibody test’ is a fracture 1 piece of bone is driven within
applied to this technique. (See also under RABIES.) the other, this is known as an impacted fracture;
when a temporary tooth is so firmly lodged
Immunoglobulins in its socket that the eruption of the perma-
Immunoglobulins – found in blood, colostrum, nent tooth below is prevented, this is known as
and most secretions – are proteins produced dental impaction. Impaction of rumen or of
by PLASMA CELLS in response to stimulation by colon means that food materials have become
antigens, and play an important part in the tightly packed into these organs, causing a
IMMUNE RESPONSE. Immunoglobulins inacti- blockage. (See STOMACH, DISEASES OF;
vate or destroy antigens. In cattle, 4 main INTESTINES, DISEASES OF; and COLIC in horses.)
classes of immunoglobulin are recognised: IgA,
IgE, IgG, and IgM. Impetigo
IgA is mainly secreted locally in mammals. Its A staphylococcal infection of the skin seen on
function is aimed at combating micro-organisms the teats and udders of cows, facial skin in pugs
Incision 363
and abdomen in puppies. It is characterised by on-farm isolation following release from the
the formation of painless pustules, shallow, reception/quarantine station. During the isola-
thin-walled, and usually projecting upwards tion period, testing for maedi/visna, Brucella
above the level of the surface of the skin. It ovis, and Mycoplasma agalactiae is carried out;
is seen in puppies affected with worms, distem- with slaughter or re-export required for positive
per, and teething troubles, in bitches and reactors.
cows after parturition, and in other animals. (See also HORSES, IMPORT CONTROL; BIRDS,
(See also ACNE.) IMPORT CONTROL; RABIES; QUARANTINE.)
Implantation Impotence
This term is used in connection with the appli- Inability of the male to mate successfully.
cation beneath the skin of pellets containing Causes include malformation of the genital
medication released gradually to provide a organs, weakness, starvation, and constric-
long-lasting effect. Microchips coded with tions resulting from injuries or operations.
identity data are also implanted. (See HOR- Impotence may be only a temporary phase in
MONES IN MEAT PRODUCTION; CAPONISATION; the life of the animal from which it recov-
also IDENTICHIP.) ers with rest and good food. (See also PENIS;
INFERTILITY.)
Implant I
Any material, tissue, or object inserted into Imprinting
the body on a more or less permanent This is a mental process in which an inborn
basis. Implants may be prosthetic, such as tendency in the animal causes it to attach
replacement hip-joints; biodegradable, such as itself to a set group of objects or a single
long-acting medicinal preparations; or for the object within a few hours after birth. It is
purposes of identification, such as electronic a very important process if the young
microchips. lamb or calf is to be properly suckled and
cared for.
Importing/Exporting Animals
Many animal-owners – including sophisticated In Vitro
travellers completely familiar with passports, In the test-tube.
visas, and vaccination certificates – overlook
the fact that they cannot legally take their In Vivo
pet animals with them across any and every In the living body.
national frontier. Some governments exercise
a total ban on the import of certain species Inactivated
of animal; others require prior vaccination Made inactive. The term may be used to
and production of a certificate; others insist describe bacteria or viruses whose virulence
upon an animal going straight into quarantine has been removed, without destroying the
on arrival. Australia and New Zealand, for antigenic properties. This may be achieved by
example, will admit dogs only from each other’s heat, ultra-violet light or chemicals. Many
territories or from the UK. vaccines are manufactured using inactivated
micro-organisms.
Pet animals Dogs and cats may travel to and
from certain countries and the UK, without the Inbreeding
need for quarantine, provided that strict condi- Mating of closely related animals. It may be
tions for vaccination against rabies and health practised deliberately to preserve desirable char-
checks are observed. For details, see under PET acteristics, but tends to encourage undesirable
TRAVEL SCHEME. and enfeebling ones.
The Export of Animals (Protection) Order
1981 laid down certain welfare requirements Incidence
for the export of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs In relation to disease outbreaks, incidence
from Britain. describes the number of new cases in a
There are restrictions on the import of cattle particular area in a specific time period (see also
and semen on account of BLUE-TONGUE and PREVALENCE).
other diseases.
Incision
Sheep Animals imported to Britain from A surgical incision is a cut made by a surgeon
outside the EU require a period of month-long with a sharp instrument such as a scalpel.
364 Incisor
disease from one animal to another. Exposure sufficient damage to permit the entry of
to infection may or may not be followed by dis- Bacteroides nodosus. Liver-flukes and bacteria
ease, depending upon whether the potential may both be involved in production of BLACK
host animal has or has not a useful degree of DISEASE.
immunity against that particular infective Experimental work at the Institute for
agent, whether the animal is well nourished, Research on Animal Diseases, Compton, has
not under stress, and has not any other major shown that fluke-free cattle can withstand an
infection, disease, or defect which might lower intravenous dose of 108 Salmonella dublin,
its power to resist the new infection. (See whereas those infested with live-fluke are killed
IMMUNOSUPPRESSION; IMMUNODEFICIENCY.) by this same dose.
The virulence or otherwise of the infective
agent, and the quantity of it, will also have a Clinical and subclinical infections
bearing upon whether disease will follow. For Exposure to infection may lead to overt or
example, a heifer vaccinated against Brucella clinical disease in which symptoms are in
abortus will normally be able to resist exposure evidence; or there may be a subclinical infection
to these organisms; but her immunity might in which few if any symptoms – detectable
break down if challenged by a massive dose of without laboratory aids – are shown. A good
B. abortus. example is subclinical mastitis. (See MASTITIS
With rabies, for example, there is a ‘thresh-
I
IN THE COW.)
old’ dose of virus, and below this the infected Infection may persist in an animal which has
animal will not become rabid (at any rate in the recovered from a disease and is no longer show-
absence of stress). ing symptoms but is excreting the infective
Susceptibility to infection is also influenced agent. Such an animal is known as a carrier.
by genetics. For example, see K88 and MAREK’S For example, a bull may be a carrier of brucel-
DISEASE. losis; a dog of leptospirosis; a horse of equine
infectious anaemia; a cat of feline leukaemia.
Concurrent infections The average farm
animal is host to several different parasites at Routes/modes of infection An animal
one and the same time – including viruses, may breathe in air containing droplets in which
mycoplasmas, bacteria, fungi, and worms. the infective agent is present, e.g. influenza
Accordingly, when one speaks of a calf having virus or tubercle bacillus. This is sometimes
pneumonia, it is unrealistic to imagine that, called an aerosol infection.
say, the parainfluenza 3 virus (causing the The oral route provides a common mode of
inflammation of the lungs) is the calf ’s sole infection. Infective material may be licked, an
resident parasite. infected carcase eaten, or a cow may eat feed
Some parasites may be present in relatively contaminated with salmonella organisms or
small numbers and not be causing active anthrax spores. (In some instances, an infective
disease. Some, owing to the host’s powers of agent, such as salmonella, is already in the
resistance (the immune response), may be on intestine but becomes pathogenic when its
the decline. Others may have a sudden oppor- bacterial competitors are mostly destroyed by
tunity for multiplication and increased activity an antibiotic. See DIARRHOEA – Horses.)
as the host’s resistance becomes lowered by Spirochaetes and hookworm larvae are
some additional infection or by stress arising examples of parasites which can enter the host
from cold, insufficiency of good food, poor through unbroken skin. Small, even insignifi-
ventilation, or the rigours of transport, etc. cant, wounds can be followed by tetanus. Biting
Again, infections should be thought of as flies can transmit diseases (see under FLIES), and
not merely mixed but changing all the time, ticks are notorious vectors. Dog bites and cat
developing, and with complex interactions scratches can lead to rabies, the virus of which
between a number of factors, including man- can penetrate intact mucous membrane.
agement ones. (See under RESPIRATORY DISEASE Infection may be transmitted at mating, e.g.
IN PIGS.) brucellosis by the carrier bull. Dourine in the
In respiratory diseases there is often a syner- horse, and venereal tumours in the dog, are 2
gism between viruses and certain bacteria. In other examples of infections transmitted at
canine distemper, for instance, Bordetella bron- coitus. Congenital infections also occur.
chiseptica is quick to invade in the wake of the
canine distemper virus and produce bronchitis. Inter-species infections Many micro-
Foot-rot in sheep is often a mixed bacterial organisms have a wide range of possible hosts,
infection, with Fusiformis necrophorus causing e.g. the rabies virus, the influenza viruses, the
366 Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis
Blood cells which counter infection Infectious bronchitis can result in a marked deteri-
When bacteria gain entrance through a wound oration in egg quality with consequent heavy eco-
nomic loss. The illustration shows some of the
in the skin, for example, they are attacked by effects, which include roughening and scoring of
white blood cells (leucocytes). The first to the shell. Shells may also be distorted and thin, or
attack are neutrophils, which have their origin soft-shelled eggs may be laid by infected birds.
in the bone marrow. They pass through the
walls of the capillaries and engulf the bacteria. low and due to secondary infections such as
Monocytes perform a similar task when mycoplasma or E. coli.
they have turned into macrophages, but in
addition to engulfing bacteria they also dispose Prevention Live vaccines are available to
of disintegrating neutrophils. Lymphocytes control the disease; compound vaccines offer
(T-cells or B-cells) also reach the site of protection against other avian viral diseases as
infection. (See LYMPHOCYTES; also INTERFERON, well as infectious bronchitis.
IRON-BINDING.)
Other aspects of infection are dealt with Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD)
under separate headings such as ANTIBODY; Infectious bursal disease (IBD) of chickens
COLOSTRUM; FOMITES; IMMUNE RESPONSE; affects the Bursa of Fabricius, an important part
IMMUNITY; ISOLATION; NOTIFIABLE DISEASES; of the avian immune system, leaving the birds
NURSING; DISINFECTION. with lowered resistance to infection. It is also
known as Gumboro disease from the town
Infectious Bovine in Maryland, USA, where it was first identi-
Keratoconjunctivitis fied. Young birds between 1 and 5 weeks are
(see EYE, DISEASES OF) affected, with a peak at 31⁄2 weeks. Mortality
from IBD may be high; because of subsequent
Infectious Bovine infections, high rates of mortality will continue.
Rhinotracheitis The main signs of disease are listlessness and
(see under RHINOTRACHEITIS) diarrhoea. Post-mortem examination shows
haemorrhage or a caseous plug in the bursa.
Infectious Bronchitis of Prevention is by vaccination of breeding stock.
Chickens
Infectious Canine Hepatitis
Cause A coronavirus. (see CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS)
Infectious Haematopoietic
Necrosis
A viral disease of salmonid fish, at present
confined to North America and Japan.
the part of the male to accomplish coitus. (See diseases, their overall importance in causing
also FATTY LIVER SYNDROME.) infertility is much less than that of management
In cows, temporary infertility may appar- problems such as poor oestrus detection.
ently be closely associated with the feeding at Inflammation or other disease of the ovaries:
about the time of service. Cows losing weight ovaritis; the non-maturation of Graafian
are likely to be affected, especially if fed on follicles, from any cause, and the presence in
poor-quality hay or silage. With ad lib feeding the ovary of cysts (which often form from
systems, heifers and more timid cows may a corpus luteum), are causes of infertility;
not be receiving enough roughage. Kale is another is blocked Fallopian tubes.
sometimes responsible. Persistent corpora lutea: as a true clinical
In ewes, infertility and fetal death are always condition, these are not very common. Where
serious in many hill areas, the result – to quote they do exist, the animals may have a uterine
Dr John Stamp – ‘of keeping pregnant sheep infection. The persistence of the corpus luteum
under conditions of near-starvation during prevents the ripening of the Graafian follicle,
the winter months when weather conditions so the animal does not display oestrus and is
are atrocious’. (See DIET; FLUSHING OF EWES; not mated. (See under OVARIES, DISEASES OF;
STILLBORN PIGS; REPRODUCTION; VITAMINS; HORMONES; HORMONE THERAPY.)
KALE; SELENIUM.) Inflammation of the uterine mucous mem-
I brane: a large number of cases of infertility
2. Environment and Management A
can be ascribed to infection of the uterus
sudden change of environment, close confine-
(metritis) or the oviduct by organisms. (For a
ment in dark quarters (formerly the
list of the infections which cause infertility,
lot of many a bull), and lack of exercise may all
see under ABORTION. For infections causing
predispose to, or produce, infertility. Abnormal
infertility in the mare, see under EQUINE
segregation of the sexes and the use of vasec-
GENITAL INFECTIONS.)
tomised males (for purposes of detecting
When the condition is mild, following a pre-
oestrus) are other factors. A low level of nutri-
vious calving, it may disappear spontaneously,
tion may cause a quiescent or dormant state
but in many instances it persists and becomes
on the part of the ovaries. At the same time
chronic. Associated with inflammation of the
there are seasonal cycles of sexual activity, and
mucous membrane of the uterus or oviduct is
a ‘failure to breed’ during the winter months
often a persistent corpus luteum in the ovary.
may be natural enough, even if the farmer
Carelessness during parturition, the use of
regards it as infertility. This ‘winter infertility’,
unclean instruments or appliances, decomposi-
as it is often called, may be influenced by tem-
tion of retained membranes, and other similar
perature, length of daylight, lack of pasture
factors, also bring about infection of the uterus.
oestrogens, underfeeding, etc. At this season,
Brucellosis though not necessarily itself a cause
heifers often have inactive ovaries, while in
of sterility, by lowering the vital resistance of the
cows irregular and ‘silent’ heats give low con-
uterus, favours infection by a multitude of other
ception rates.
organisms which normally may be non-patho-
Infertility may result from the oestrogenic
genic. The details of uterine infection, includ-
effects of red clover in the UK, as well as from
ing salpingitis (inflammation of the oviduct), in
subterranean clovers in Australia.
the causation of sterility, are highly technical,
In outdoor pig herds, ‘summer infertility’ is
but, generally speaking, it may be said that the
common, partly due to seasonal loss of fertility
presence of organisms in the uterus, or the pres-
in the boars.
ence of the products of their activity, either kills
The most frequent reason for poor fertility is
the spermatozoa, or renders the locality unsuit-
poor management. In cows, poor oestrus
able for anchorage of thefertilised ovum (or
detection or timing, or bad technique if
ova), with the result thatit perishes.
artificial insemination is used, are common.
Abnormalities of the cervix may prevent
Similar problems occur in pigs. In cattle and,
conception – mechanically when the lumen is
particularly, pigs, when natural service is
occluded or plugged by mucus of a thick tena-
used, all matings must be seen and at least
cious nature; and pathologically when there is
2 undertaken within the heat period. In sheep,
acute inflammation of the mucous membrane
fertility problems often follow when too few
of the cervix, or even of the whole uterus.
rams are used, or those which are too young
Scirrhous cervix – where much fibrous tissue is
or unproven.
laid down in the cervix – when very advanced
3. Diseases of the Genital Organs in the may cause sterility, but by itself is not usually
Female While there is a very long list of such of great importance. It is much more serious
Infertility 369
as a hindrance to parturition (see, for example, pass semen, while in other cases the semen may
‘RINGWOMB’ of the ewe). be so altered as to cause death of the sperms in
Cysts and fibrous bands in the os are seldom the female passages.
sufficiently extensive to occlude the passage Affection of the prepuce, such as balanitis,
through the cervical canal. Occlusion may, and injuries accompanied by laceration or
however, occur as the result of swelling and severe bruising, may cause temporary sterility,
congestion of the mucous membrane, due to but when recovery occurs fertility returns. (See
infection and inflammation. In such cases the also under PENIS.)
sperms are unable to penetrate into the uterus,
and fertilisation does not occur. This may also
6.Hereditary Abnormalities in the
be the result of acidity (and thickened mucus)
Male Cryptorchidism, in which 1 or both
testes do not descend into the scrotum, is a well-
following a mild infection, and sometimes
known cause of infertility in the male. When 1
syringing the vagina a short time before service
testis properly descends, and is fully developed,
with a weak alkaline solution (e.g. 5 per cent
conception may follow service, and a sire suffer-
potassium bicarbonate ) proves successful. (See
ing from this disability has upon some occa-
‘WHITES’; ‘EPIVAG’.)
sions been regularly used in a flock or herd; but
Tumours – either malignant or benign.
when the rig animal has both organs retained,
Specific disease, such as tuberculosis in cattle,
or in mares. Contagious equine uretritis. (See
although sexual desire may be emphatic, service I
is usually unsuccessful. The condition unfits
VULVOVAGINITIS.)
a male animal for use as a breeding sire,
4. Hereditary Abnormalities in the since there is evidence that it is a hereditary
Female (see FREEMARTIN). unsoundness. (See HORMONE THERAPY.)
Hypoplasia of the ovaries of cows may occur Hypoplasia or under-development of the
as an inherited condition in the female. It may male sex organs, particularly of the testis, is an
involve 1 or both ovaries, causing either infer- important cause of sterility. It may involve
tility or complete sterility. The uterus, also, may both testicles or only 1.
be hypoplastic. (See also under GENETICS.) Endocrine failure may arise as a result of an
Endocrine failure: heredity may be involved. inherited predisposition. In bulls this may
Hermaphroditism. occur in later life, rendering them sterile after
‘White heifer disease’ (see under this heading). they have produced a number of progeny
It has been estimated that up to 10 per cent which, in their turn, may perpetuate this form
of female pigs are sterile. Group studies have of infertility.
shown that 25 to 50 per cent of infertile gilts Hermaphrodism, or hermaphroditism, in
had abnormalities of the genital tract sufficient which an animal possesses both male and
to cause sterility, and two-thirds of these were female organs, but is without a full complement
regarded as hereditary. of either, is usually, but not always, associated
with sterility. (See also GENETICS; INTERSEX.)
5. Disease of the Genital Organs in the
Male Orchitis, or inflammation of the testicle, 7. Physical or Psychical Inability or
and epididymitis, inflammation of the epi- Disturbance Under this heading are grouped
didymis, due to injury from kicks, or a number of conditions which are difficult to
to infection from external wounds, or from classify elsewhere. Some occur in the male,
specific infection, such as brucellosis or tri- some in the female, and some are common to
chomoniasis in the bull. (See TESTICLE, DISEASES both sexes.
OF; VENEREAL DISEASES.) Incompatibility between the blood of sire
Tumours of the testicles may destroy the and dam may be responsible for some cases
tubules or prevent spermatogenesis, and on of abortion in cattle, etc. (See HAEMOLYTIC
the penis, or in connection with the prepuce, DISEASE.)
may act as purely mechanical agents, which Old age: when an animal reaches a certain
prevent coitus by the male. age, reproduction becomes impossible. The
Adhesions between penis and prepuce, the periods of oestrus cease. Breeding ceases earlier
result of acute or chronic balanitis, though rare, in the female than in the male.
may cause mechanical inability to protrude the Discrepancies in size between male and
penis and fertilise the female. (See also under PENIS.) female may result in failure to breed. The penis
Inflammation in the secondary sexual may be too short or too large; the vagina may be
glands – i.e. in prostate, seminal vesicles, or too long or too small; the female may not have
other glands – may occlude the vasa deferentia the strength to carry a heavy male; or the male
or ejaculatory ducts, and cause inability to may not be tall enough to reach the female.
370 Inflammation
Injuries to the back, hips, hind legs, or feet of the inter-species transfer of influenza viruses.
of the male, and sometimes to the same regions Pigs experimentally inoculated with that virus
of the female, may be severe enough to prevent transmitted it to pen-mates. Moreover, the
successful coitus. Progressive spinal arthritis is a Taiwan virus taken from pigs readily infected
common condition in bulls. (See also BREEDING human volunteers, who developed antibodies
OF ANIMALS; REPRODUCTION; EMBRYOLOGY; effective against virus from both pigs and
UTERUS, DISEASES OF; HORMONE THERAPY; people.
GENETICS; VENEREAL DISEASES; ANOESTRUS; It is now suggested that the Hong Kong
ABORTION; MUMMIFICATION.) human influenza virus did not arise by muta-
tion from a pre-existing human strain, but that
Inflammation it probably arose from the mixed infection in a
Inflammation may be briefly defined as the mammal or bird with an animal influenza virus
reaction of the tissues to any injury short of one and a human type A Asian strain. The animal
sufficiently severe to cause death. There are 4 virus may have provided certain subunits or
cardinal symptoms of inflammation – heat, components; the other subunits having come
pain, redness, and swelling – to which may be from a human strain.
added interference with function. (See ABSCESS; For influenza in the horse, see under EQUINE
WOUNDS; ALLERGY.) INFLUENZA.
I For the inflammations of special organs, see Pneumonia in calves may be caused by a
under PNEUMONIA; PLEURISY; PERITONITIS; virus of influenza-type.
MAMMARY GLAND. In the dog, parainfluenza virus SV5 has been
For anti-inflammatory drugs, see CORTI- isolated in the USA and the UK from dogs
COSTEROIDS; CORTICOTROPHIN; CORTISONE; with upper respiratory disease. (See ‘KENNEL
NSAIDs; IBUPROFEN; FLURBIPROFEN; ANTIHISTA- COUGH’.)
MINES; CALAMINE. Avian strains of type A influenza virus cause
a number of diseases in hens, ducks, turkeys,
Influenza etc. During 1980 and 1981, 9 subtypes of
Scientifically, this term is now applied only to influenza A virus were isolated from birds in
diseases caused by a myxovirus. Britain, usually as a result of investigations of
The World Health Organisation (WHO) disease or death. However, these viruses were
was much exercised as to what happens to the shown to be of low virulence for chickens.
virus of human influenza between epidemics. Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus has
It has long been known that there is a relation- caused serious outbreaks among turkeys.
ship between this disease and swine influenza. Avian influenza is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
The human influenza virus (type A) was throughout the EU. Waterfowl are the main
isolated from the parasitic pig lung-worm. reservoir host for both avian and mammalian
Larvae of these lung-worms are harboured by strains but they are not themselves much
earthworms – the only known intermediate affected by the disease. The slaughter of all
hosts – which live for as long as 10 years. chickens in Hong Kong in 1997 was justified
Between epidemics, the virus is not found in as the strain of virus present transmitted fairly
the tissues of the pigs. However, earthworms easily to the human population. (See AVIAN
taken from infected pig farms seem to carry INFLUENZA.)
inapparent viruses, and these can develop, in
pigs eating the worms, into normal viruses ‘Influenza’, Cat
capable of being isolated from the respiratory (see FELINE INFLUENZA)
system. The question, therefore, arises whether
the pigs are, in fact, the virus reservoirs, rather Infra-Red Lamps
than being secondarily infected by the human Infra-red lamps are used as a source of heat in
virus. (See also SWINE INFLUENZA.) the creeps of piggeries and in poultry brooders;
There is evidence that influenza viruses of also for sickly lambs and calves. Either ‘bright’
mammals and birds play an important part or ‘dull’ emitters are available, the latter being
in the emergence of new viruses which preferred for chick-rearing. They have many
cause out-breaks of illness in man in several advantages, but a power-cut can cause severe
continents. losses. (See also under TOES, TWISTED.)
The recovery from pigs in Taiwan in 1970 of
influenza virus indistinguishable from that caus- Inguinal Canal
ing type A Hong Kong influenza epidemics in Inguinal canal is the passage from the abdomi-
man in 1968 provided the first direct evidence nal cavity to the outside, down which pass the
Injections 371
spermatic cords and their associated structures For subcutaneous injections, a fold of the
in the male, and in the female, the round skin is picked up between the thumb and
ligament of the uterus. It is a slit-like opening, forefinger of the left hand, and the needle is
about 12.5 cm (5 inches) long in the horse, and inserted into the middle of this fold. The
is directed downwards, inwards, and forwards. nozzle of the syringe, preloaded with the injec-
It is bounded behind by a strong band called tion fluid, is slipped into the head of the needle
the inguinal or Poupart’s ligament. The canal is and the piston is slowly but firmly pressed
important, because if it is dilated from any home so as to expel the contents into the loose
cause, some part of the small intestines may tissues under the skin. Care should be taken
pass through it, resulting in inguinal hernia. (See that all air-bubbles are excluded from the barrel
HERNIAS.) It serves as the opening through of the syringe, as it is unwise to introduce them.
which retained testicles are removed in the ‘rig’ A number of proprietary multi-injection
or cryptorchid animal. devices are manufactured for herd inoculations.
Accidental self-inoculation may occur horse may tread on the clip which penetrates
owing to the sudden violent movement of a the sole of the foot and inflict a very severe
large animal. People have been infected with wound. This is treated as for pricking, the area
BRUCELLOSIS in this way; and veterinary being pared out.
surgeons have died from IMMOBILON. 3. The Shoe may cause injury if it has an
Accidental self-injection with oil-based uneven surface and presses upon a part too
vaccines requires prompt hospital attention. much. This is particularly liable to happen
when the horn of the foot is weak and thin.
Injuries Horses with flat feet, or those with dropped
(seeACCIDENTS; WOUNDS; FRACTURES; BLEED-
sole, may develop bruises of the sole if the
ING; SHOCK)
web of the shoe presses upon the outer circum-
ference of the sole, where it joins the white line.
Injuries from Shoeing In such cases the shoe should be removed and
These are not always the fault of the farrier. the unevenness corrected, or the bearing surface
There are some horses with such bad feet that it of the foot should be eased. Some horses may
may be quite impossible to shoe them without require to be shod with a bar shoe, so that
running the risk of injuring the sensitive struc- the frog may take some of the weight off the
I tures in the process. The nails, toe-clips, or even affected part, and others need a run at grass.
the shoe, may inflict damage. Burning of the sensitive parts of the foot may
1. The Nails either may produce lameness by occur through the carelessness of the farrier, not
actually penetrating the sensitive laminae – a by making the shoe too hot, but by holding
condition called ‘pricking’; or, by being driven it in position on the foot for too long a time,
too close to the laminae, by pressing upon the so that it may ‘bed itself in’. This is a most rep-
sensitive structures – a condition known as rehensible practice and should not be tolerated.
‘binding’. The injury usually results in a separation of the
Pricking may be only slight when the farrier horn from the sensitive tissues below, and some
knows that the nail has stabbed the quick weeks pass before the horse can resume his
and immediately withdraws it. All nail injuries work again. (See CORNS; BRUISED SOLE.)
should receive prompt attention, for they
are usually amenable to treatment in the Innominate
early stages; but if neglected they rapidly sup- Innominate is the bone of the pelvis and the
purate, causing the horse great pain and often structures associated with it. The pelvis is
permanent damage. composed of 6 separate bones, 3 on either side:
Binding is not so serious. Generally it suffices ilium, pubis, and ischium.
to remove the shoe, to allow the horse to remain
barefooted for a day or so, and then to replace Inoculation
the shoe, taking special care that the nails are (1) Introduction into an animal or culture
not driven too coarsely upon the 2nd occasion. medium of micro-organisms. (2) To induce
The lameness in this case very often only immunity by introducing a vaccine or serum.
appears 2 or 3 days after the horse has been (See INJECTIONS; VACCINATION; INFECTION;
shod, and is attributed to some other cause. IMMUNITY.)
Small animals Insecticides are available in following large-scale use of insecticides in control
numerous formulations for application as wet programmes. (See also under FLY CONTROL.)
shampoos, aerosol sprays, dry dusting powders,
‘spot-on’ formulations and ‘flea collars’. Active Insects
ingredients include permethrin, dichlorvos, For a general description of these, see FLIES.
fenthion and carbaril. There are many
others. Dichlorvos and diazinon (both organo- Insemination
phosphorus compounds) are used in ‘flea The introduction of semen into the vagina or
collars’. cervix. (See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION.)
Manufacturers’ instructions should be
strictly followed, and only preparations Insulation of Buildings, Floors
stated to be safe for cats should be used on (see under HOUSING OF ANIMALS)
those animals.
Over-exposure of animals to insecticides, Insulin
either through too frequent use or use of excessive Insulin is a hormone secreted by part of the
quantities, can lead to poisoning. (See CHLORI- pancreas, where it is produced by the islets
NATED HYDROCARBONS; ORGANOPHOSPHORUS of Langerhans. It is used in the treatment of
POISONING; PERMETHRIN.) diabetes in dogs and cats. (See DIABETES.)
I
Accidental poisoning DDT fell into Insulinoma
disrepute in the UK, the USA, Australia and A tumour affecting cells of the islets of
New Zealand, but is still used for ground spray- Langerhans in the pancreas, which may lead to
ing in parts of Africa (see DDT). The use of collapse, convulsions, coma and death in the
unsuitable insecticides can lead to fatal poison- dog as a result of hypoglycaemia.
ing in cattle, etc. (See TEPP.) Poisoning may
occur following absorption of an unsuitable Insurance
insecticide spray through the skin. This, or In the UK there is now a wide choice of
inhalation of spray droplets, may lead to dan- comprehensive insurance policies available to
gerously contaminated milk. The following animal-owners. Farmers can insure against the
insecticides are not recommended for dairy risks of foot-and-mouth disease or brucellosis,
and cowshed use on account of this risk: for example. There is insurance for horses, and
DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, lindane, dog- and cat-owners can avail themselves of
methoxychlor, toxaphene, and heptachlor. policies covering veterinary fees, third-party
(See CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS.) liability, theft or death of an animal from illness
Some insecticides may be safe for one species or accident. Policies can be issued through
of animal but fatal to another. For example, on veterinary surgeons. With the possibility of
a farm in New York State, an insecticide spray having to pay for a major operation or prolonged
containing thiophosphate had no effect on 50 treatment, such policies can minimise the owner’s
chickens, but killed more than 7000 ducklings. financial outlay, and are a safeguard against
Dieldrin, used as a seed dressing, has caused unexpected and sometimes large expenses.
fatal poisoning in wood-pigeons and other
wild birds. Lambs have been killed by ALDRIN. Intensive Livestock Production
(See BHC; DDT; DIELDRIN; DERRIS; TEPP; This means, generally speaking, having farm
PARATHION; PYRETHROIDS; FLY CONTROL; animals indoors to a greater extent, and also
CARBAMATES; CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS; having them within a smaller space inside
GAME-BIRDS.) a building. All intensive systems require
skilled management and veterinary input to
Insecticide resistance Extensive use of an prevent the problems intrinsic among large
insecticide can encourage resistance among concentrations of livestock.
the target species. Only a few years after its The economic advantages claimed for inten-
introduction in the 1940s, house flies showed sive livestock production are the economies of
resistance to DDT, and by 1970 some 250 scale through reducing costs of labour and
species of fly affecting man, his animals or equipment per animal housed; lower feed costs
crops, had developed resistance to one or through bulk buying and home mixing; the
more of the organochlorines, e.g. dieldrin; ability to afford skilled management and
organophosphates; or carbamates. labour; also a saving in acres of valuable land.
Most cases of resistance apparently depend The disadvantages are the effect on stock of
on a single gene, and are developed mostly large concentration, disease, cannibalism and
374 Intercostal
all the problems of stress, and intensive feeding Sheep Respiratory troubles, including various
methods. forms of pneumonia, are a danger in buildings
The following describes potential hazards where ventilation is poor. There are some
and health problems, and should not be very successful flock houses, with one end vir-
regarded as condemnation of all current tually open, where disease problems have been
farming methods. minimal – foot-rot being controlled by regular
use of a foot-bath. In such buildings, the ewes
Poultry De-beaking, to prevent feather pick- lamb indoors, to the great advantage of the
ing and cannibalism, if badly done can cause shepherd. Straw is used for bedding. Yorkshire
injury and reduce resistance to infection. Birds boarding assists ventilation.
de-beaked and unable to take a dust bath are
prone to severe infestation with lice and mites, Lameness Intensive systems of farming tend
which may be resistant to the commonly used to ignore the social behaviour of animals to the
parasiticides; and infestation can be a problem detriment of their health. Two examples involv-
in battery houses. Lack of exercise is conducive ing lameness in cattle may be given. In the first
to fatty degeneration of the liver in battery case 12 heifers accustomed to being in a small
birds. Among birds crowded together on deep social group outside in a straw yard were
litter, coccidiosis and worm infestations are abruptly transferred at calving and put in with
I apt to be serious. Faulty ventilation often gives cows in modern concrete-based cow cubicles.
rise to a harmful concentration of ammonia Five became acutely lame with septic and
in houses where there is litter, and also predis- aseptic laminitis and solar ulceration. In 2, the
poses to infectious bronchitis and other respira- condition was so severe that they had to be
tory infections. The greater the concentration slaughtered, but the other heifers improved
of birds, the greater the stress, it seems; and when they were transferred to straw yards.
the more chance of an increasing proportion The outbreak was attributed to the sudden
both of susceptible birds and of ‘carriers’ of introduction to concrete surfaces and uncom-
various infections. fortable cubicles which reduced the time that
the animals lay down. Increased activity caused
Beef cattle In calf-rearing units, salmonella by behavioural interactions with the established
infections cause a high proportion of the cows was probably also a factor.
deaths of bought-in calves. Bronchitis is also The 2nd case involved an outbreak of solar
an important cause of losses, which often ulcerations in 90 per cent of a small herd of
amount to 7 per cent. dairy cows. It coincided with the occupation of
In units taking in 12-week-old calves, respi- a new cubicle house with concrete-based lipless
ratory disease, principally viral infections, is cubicles. When given an opportunity the cows
important. Other conditions encountered ‘voted with their feet’ and returned to their old
include foul-in-the-foot, infectious bovine earth-floored cubicles.
keratitis, and bloat. (See also HOUSING OF ANIMALS.)
If trough space is too limited, inflammation
of the eyes may be caused by cattle flicking their Intercostal
ears into their neighbours’ eyes – simulating the Between the ribs.
effects of infectious bovine kerato-conjunctivitis.
Among veal calves, pneumonia, bronchitis Intercurrent
and a peracute coliform septicaemia are major Intercurrent is a term applied to a disease which
causes of losses. Anaemia, parasites, and a occurs during the course of another disease
form of anaphylactic shock are also among the already present, and modifies its course or
hazards of rearing. increases its severity.
Airedales, Scots terriers, Sealyhams, and Dandie Treatment of severe internal haemorrhage
Dinmonts. can seldom be undertaken in time to save life.
When the internal bleeding is less profuse,
Causes are generally held to be an infection of success may be achieved with ADRENALINE,
the hair follicles between the toes, or to grit BLOOD TRANSFUSION or DEXTRAN, VITAMIN K.
penetrating the skin there. In some instances
the lesion may be a true cyst. Intersex
An individual with characteristics intermediate
Signs The dog licks its foot, and upon exami- between those of a male and a female. In
nation a swelling (which is painful) is noticed cattle, examples include the FREEMARTIN; XY
in the interdigital space. Within a couple of gonadal dysgenesis (in which there are no
days or so, the swelling may discharge a little gonads); and testicular feminisation. A case of
blood-stained pus. If the lesions have been the latter, described by Dr S. E. Long, was a
repeatedly forming, they may suddenly cease, single-born cow showing signs of virilism
and the dog remains free from them for perhaps and found to have abdominal testes, some
months at a time. Unfortunately, recurrences undeveloped Mullerian duct derivatives, a
are likely at varying intervals. normal vagina, and a 60XY genotype in all
tissues examined. I
Treatment The foot is bandaged to keep the In a canine example of intersex, the os penis
wound clean, and dressed daily until there is no was absent, the penis could not be extruded
more discharge and the wound has healed. from the prepuce, and no testicles were present
Some encouraging results have been obtained in the scrotum. A laparotomy revealed a uterus
by the professional use of CRYOSURGERY. and ovaries.
(See under TRISOMY for the case of an
Interdigital Necrobacillosis intersex Spanish-bred horse, ‘considered to be
(see FOUL-IN-THE-FOOT) a mare’, which had the characteristics of a
pseudo-hermaphrodite male.)
Interferon
A glycoprotein which inhibits the multiplication Interstitial
of viruses within living cells. Interstitial is a term applied to cells of different
Many types of cells can produce interferon tissue set amongst the active tissue cells of an
as a means of defence against further viral organ. It is generally of a supporting character
infection. and formed of fibrous tissue. The term is also
Recombinant DNA techniques have made applied to diseases which specially affect
possible the production of interferons for this tissue, as interstitial nephritis. (See under
therapeutic use. KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF – Chronic nephritis.)
Interferon is being used in several countries
as an adjunct to post-exposure prophylaxis of Intervertebral Disc Protrusion
human rabies. (see under SPINE)
Signs Colic, passage of stomach contents The caecum is a large blind sac lying on the
down both nostrils. right side of the abdomen and extending down-
wards and forwards to within a hand’s-breadth
Treatment Enterotomy under a general from the sternum. It is shaped somewhat like a
anaesthetic; and removal of the obstruction. reversed comma, having both its entrance and
its exit near the base, and has a capacity of
Duodenal obstruction in cattle is not about 36 litres (8 gallons). Foodstuff enters
common but can occur. In most cases the it by the ileo-caecal valve, and leaves by the
obstruction is due to decreased motility of caeco-colic valve, which opens into the large
the duodenum, caused by inflammation of the colon.
duodenal wall and preperforative peritonitis,
resulting from duodenal ulcers or penetrating Cows The intestines lie entirely to the right of
foreign bodies respectively. the middle line of the abdomen. (1) Small intes-
tine, measuring 40 metres (130 feet) in length,
Other causes A strangulated HERNIA is a lies in the lower part of the right side of the
serious cause of obstruction, compression of abdomen, filling in the spaces left between more
blood vessels and nerves making matters worse. fixed organs. (2) Large intestine is much smaller
INTUSSUSCEPTION, in which a part of the intes- than in the horse, and not so complicated. The
I caecum lies in the upper posterior part of the
tine becomes turned in on itself (like the finger
of a rubber glove may do), is fraught with abdomen, with its blind sac posteriorly in or
similar dangers. VOLVULUS, or the twisting of a near the pelvic inlet. The caecum is about 75 cm
loop of intestine, is another cause. All these (21⁄2 feet) long and is followed by the colon (there
conditions may be followed by GANGRENE is no small colon in the ox), which has a length of
and PERITONITIS. Prompt surgical treatment is about 11 metres (35 feet). The colon is arranged
necessary to save life. like the coils of a watch-spring, with each coil
A growth affecting either the lumen of the double, consisting of one part running towards
intestine so blocking it, or the exterior and so the centre (centripetal), and a corresponding part
constricting it, is another possibility. (See running from the centre (centrifugal).
TUMOURS; CANCER.)
Sheep The intestines of the sheep are similar
Signs Intestinal obstruction can be expected to those of the cow.
to cause depression, loss of appetite, dehydra-
tion, fever, some degree of toxaemia, vomiting, Pigs (1) Small intestine. This varies from 15 to
and pain. 20 metres (50 to 65 feet) in length, and mainly
TYMPANY (distension of the intestine with lies on the left side and floor of the abdomen,
gas) may occur in some cases of intestinal with some coils pushed across on to the right
obstruction. In brood mares, tympany of the side of the body. (2) Large intestine is about
large intestine may predispose to rupture of the 4.5 metres (15 feet) long and considerably
caecum (or other part) from pressure exerted by wider than the small bowel.
the fetal hind feet at the onset of parturition.
(See also COLIC for diseases in horses.) Dogs The intestines are short in this animal,
only reaching a length of about 4.5 or 5 metres
Intestines (15 or 16 feet), of which the small intestine
measures 3.75 to 4.25 metres (12 to 14 feet).
Horse (1) Small intestine. This measures The small intestine occupies the right side
about 20 metres, (70 feet), and is divided into a of the abdomen and part of the floor. From
fixed portion – duodenum and a more or less here the colon has a short course upwards
free portion – jejunum and ileum. Its diameter towards the head, turns across to the left side of
varies from 4 to 8 cm (11⁄2 to 3 inches) when the body, and then runs backwards to end in
moderately distended, and its capacity is the rectum.
about 55 litres (12 gallons). (2) Large intestine.
This extends from the end of the ileum to Structure In all animals the intestines, both
the anus, and measures about 8 metres (25 feet) small and large, are constructed of 4 main coats.
in length. Its diameter varies in different They all consist of an inner mucous membrane
parts from about 8 cm (3 inches) in the small lining, a submucous coat, a middle muscular
colon to nearly 50 cm (20 inches) across the coat, and an outer peritoneal one.
widest part of the caecum. It is divided into Mucous membrane coat: this is the soft,
caecum, large colon, small colon, and rectum. moist, velvety lining which is found in all parts
Intussusception 377
of the intestine. (See BRUSH BORDER; PEYER’S PERFORATION of part of the intestine may
PATCHES; VILLUS.) follow ulceration, itself a complication of some
Muscular coat: there are 2 definite layers of cases of enteritis. Perforation injuries received
muscle fibres in the wall of the bowel. The in battle used to be common in cavalry horses;
innermost of these has its fibres all running in a they may follow stabbing injuries such as goring
circular manner round the submucous coat, by bulls, farm and road accidents, or the swal-
and the outer layer has fibres running length- lowing of sharp-pointed objects. (See FOREIGN
wise. In the large intestine some of these longi- BODY.) Perforation of the wall of the intestine
tudinal fibres are collected into distinct bands is obviously a very serious condition and an
called ‘taenia’, which, being somewhat shorter immediate threat to the animal’s life, since
than the other fibres, cause a certain amount of bacteria which accompany partly digested
puckering of the bowels. The muscular arrange- food escaping from the intestine will cause
ment of the intestines is very important, as it PERITONITIS.
is responsible for all the movement of the Necrosis and infarction may be detected by
bowels. In health it is continually contracting assessing the serum levels of CREATINE kinase.
and expanding, shortening and lengthening, (See also VOLVULUS; INTUSSUSCEPTION; COLIC.)
and moving the food either onwards or back-
wards. During the process the food is squeezed Intracranial I
and churned and most thoroughly mixed with Intracranial is the term applied to structures,
the digestive juices. The movement is called diseases, or operations associated with the
‘peristalsis’ when it tends to move the food contents of the cranium.
towards the anus, and ‘antiperistalsis’ when it is
in the opposite direction. Intradermal
Peritoneal coat: this forms the outermost cov- Into the thickness of the skin as in intradermal
ering of the bowel. It is continuous for the injections.
whole length of the canal from the pylorus to
the anus, except for certain comparatively small Intramedullary
regions where, for example, the duodenum and Within the marrow cavity of long bones. Thus,
the caecum are bound directly to the roof of the intramedullary pins – used in the treatment of
abdomen or to other organs by fibrous tissue. It fractures.
is a tough membrane with a layer of smooth
glistening cells on its outer surface which rub Intramammary
against similar cells on the surfaces of adjacent Within, or into, the mammary gland (udder).
organs and reduce friction to a minimum. (See
PERITONEUM.) Intramuscular
Within a muscle, e.g. intramuscular injection.
Attachments The intestines are hung or held
in position by folds of peritoneum which bind Intraperitoneal Injections
them, directly or indirectly, to some part of the Intraperitoneal injections are those made direct
abdominal wall. The fold in which the free part into the abdominal cavity.
of the small intestine hangs is called the ‘mesen-
tery of the small intestine’, and it is through this Intrathecal
that the blood and lymph vessels and the nerves Into a sheath; intraspinal.
enter and leave the bowel. It is composed of 2
layers, in the middle of which pass the vessels. Intratracheal
Into the ‘windpipe’. (See also ENDOTRACHEAL
Functions (see DIGESTION) ANAESTHESIA.)
Iodine deficiency – comparison of body size between the normal and deficient animal.
pain, and to induce local construction of vessels regulate the amount of light that is allowed to I
in treating inflammatory changes. reach the inner parts of the eye. It possesses
radiating and circular fibres which, when they
Ionised Calcium contract under the influence of light, enlarge
In horses treated surgically for colic, the con- and decrease the size of the pupil respectively.
centration of calcium ions (Ca+) was lower in (See EYE.)
71 horses with strangulating and non-strangu-
lating infarctions of the caecum, ascending Iridectomy An operation by which a part or
colon, or small intestine than in 76 horses with the whole of the iris is removed.
non-strangulating obstructions of the ascend-
ing or descending colon. Treatment with 23 per Irish Setter
cent calcium gluconate restored the ionised This largish dog with pendulous ears and a
calcium concentration to within the normal silky chestnut coat was originally a gun dog.
range. Calcium has an important role in medi- Inherited defects include quadriplegia, ambly-
ating the contractile activity of intestinal opia and progressive retinal atrophy. Other
smooth muscle. It is recommended that ionised conditions that may possibly be inherited
calcium should be monitored after surgery for are haemophilia, spondylolithesis (‘Wobbler
colic in horses, and that calcium gluconate be syndrome’), and mega-oesophagus.
administered intravenously as required.
Irish Wolfhound
Ionising Radiation Regulations A very large, tall dog with long head, deep
1985 chest and rough wiry coat; usually grey or
These were introduced in the UK and cover the beige in colour. Ununited anconeal process
inspection of X-ray equipment in veterinary (incompletely developed elbow-joint) and
practices, from a safety point of view. calcinosis circumspecta may be inherited. The
breed is prone to rhinitis.
Ionophores
These include the antibiotics monensin, Iritis
narasin, salinomycin, and lasalocid. They are Inflammation of the iris. (See EYE.)
so-called because they have the capability to
combine with particular ions and to transport Iron
these ions through biological membranes. They Iron is a nutritional TRACE ELEMENT – essential
are used as growth promoters and to control for life. Over half the body’s iron is contained in
protozoal infections such as coccidiosis. the haemoglobin of the red blood cells and
myoglobin of muscles. Iron is additionally
Ionophore poisoning (see MONENSIN present as beta-globulin transferrin in the
SODIUM) blood plasma, in the myoglobin of muscles,
and in enzymes.
Iris Iron deficiency results in anaemia, often
Iris is the muscular and fibrous curtain which seen in fast- growing piglets reared indoors;
hangs behind the cornea of the eye and serves to there is paleness, dyspnoea and diarrhoea. It is
380 Iron-Binding Proteins
An isotonic solution used in medicine is one including Ostertagia larvae; against ticks, mange
which can be mixed with body fluids without mites, warbles, etc. Horses can be dosed
causing any disturbance. An isotonic saline solu- orally with a paste formulation of ivermectin
tion for injection into the blood, so that it may for the control of roundworms and horse
possess the same osmotic pressure as the blood bots. (See WORMS, FARM TREATMENT AGAINST;
serum, contains 0.9 per cent sodium chloride. HORSE BOTS.)
This is also known as normal or physiological Formulations of ivermectin (Ivomec from
salt solution. An isotonic solution of glucose MSD Agvet) are available in the UK for sheep,
for injection into the blood is one of 5 per cent pigs, cattle and horses; but not for dogs or cats.
strength in water. Solutions, which are weaker A pour-on formulation of Ivomec is available
or stronger than the fluids of the body with for the control of internal and external parasites
which they are intended to be mixed, are known of cattle. The product contains isopropyl
as hypotonic and hypertonic respectively. alcohol which is highly inflammable. Protective
clothing (including gloves) must be worn
Itchiness when liquid Ivermectin products are applied.
(see PRURITUS)
Ivermectin poisoning in dogs has
‘Itchy Leg’ occurred as a result of ignoring manufacturers’ I
A common term for choriotic mange. recommendations.
A dog which had been injected with iver-
-Itis mectin by a friend of the owner was in a coma
A suffix added to the name of an organ to for 7 weeks. On veterinary examination the day
signify inflammation of that organ. after the injection, the signs were dilated pupils,
ataxia, and depression, with no response to
IV sound and apparent blindness. Four days later,
Short for intravenous; usually refers to that complete coma had developed. Only the
route of injection. swallowing reflex was present. The animal
was maintained, after preliminary treatment,
Ivermectin on oral glucose and hydrolised protein solution
Ivermectin, an AVERMECTIN, is a potent given by the owner
anthelmintic, effective at very low dosage, Twitching of an ear when spoken to was the
which can be given orally, by subcutaneous first response on day 26. By 5 weeks the dog
injection or as a pour-on (transdermally). was eating, able to stand if lifted, but still blind.
Ivermectin also gives control of lungworms At 7 weeks, sight had returned and the dog
in addition to external parasites such as warbles, appeared normal again.
lice, and sarcoptic mange mites on pigs; it is
an effective treatment for sheep scab, given as Ixodes
2 injections, 1 week apart. It is effective against Ixodes is the generic name of one of the
mature and immature roundworms of cattle, varieties of ticks that infest animals. (See TICKS.)
J
the fore-legs but are kept angled so that the
back is level. There are similarities with the
Manx, but there does not appear to be the same
frequency of defects as occurs in that breed.
Japanese Tosa
A breed of dog raised in Japan for fighting.
Jaagsiekte Importation into the UK is banned under the
A disease of adult sheep, first recognised in South Dangerous Dogs Act.
Africa. (See PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS.)
Jack Jaundice
Jaundice is a yellowish discoloration of the visi-
A male donkey.
ble mucous membranes of the body (eye, nose,
mouth, and genital organs). The discoloration
Jack Beans is caused by bilirubin, an orange-yellow pig-
Jack Beans may cause poisoning if fed raw.
ment produced following the breakdown of
(See LEGUME POISONING.)
erythrocytes due to liver disease or obstruction
Jack Russell Terrier of the bile flow from the liver and gall-bladder.
A small, lively dog, having a white coat with The symptom of jaundice (icterus) may
brown or black patches. Originally a cross- also follow the destruction of red blood cells
breed, it now breeds true. Prone to patellar by parasites, such as may occur in cases of
luxation, it may inherit ataxia, lens luxation and biliary fever and surra in the horse; red-water
Perthe’s disease. in cattle; malignant jaundice (canine babesio-
sis); it is seen also in leptospiral jaundice (see
LEPTOSPIROSIS), and canine viral hepatitis.
Jacobson’s Organ
Also known as the vomeronasal organ, this is In cats, jaundice is seen in the dry form of
associated with the detection of flavours such as feline infectious peritonitis, toxoplasmosis.
those of food, but is thought also to be able to Jaundice may indicate an incompatibility
detect pheromones. The organ has 2 small tubes between the blood of sire and dam causing
which extend from the floor of the nasal cavity haemolytic jaundice of the newborn foal or
to the level of the 2nd/4th cheek tooth. It is piglet.
active in most mammals, but even more highly When bile cannot enter into the small intes-
developed in certain reptiles, especially snakes. tine by the bile-duct from the liver in the usual
way, it becomes dammed back, is absorbed by
Janet the lymphatics and the blood vessels, carried
A female mule. into the general circulation, and some of its
constituents are deposited in the tissues. (See
Japanese B Encephalitis GALL-STONES, also under GALL-BLADDER; CIR-
This disease is present in Nepal and other RHOSIS; LIVER, DISEASES OF; EQUINE BILIARY
regions of Asia. FEVER.)
It may be seen during poisoning with copper,
Cause A flavivirus. The disease is transmitted mercury, phosphorus, chloroform, or lead, and
by mosquitoes from avian species which act as after some snakebites. Aflatoxins may cause
reservoirs of infection but are themselves jaundice.
asymptomatic. (See also LEPTOSPIROSIS; JAUNDICE; FOALS,
DISEASES OF; and BILIARY FEVER.)
Signs In horses, the sight is affected first. Later
they become drowsy. Many die, and the recov- Jaundice, Leptospiral
ery of others is seldom complete. Pigs are also (see under LEPTOSPIROSIS for the appropriate
susceptible; abortion and stillbirths result from animal)
infection.
The disease is a zoonosis, and for its preven- Java Bean Poisoning
tion in people a vaccine has been used. The Java beans, Phaseolus lunatus, were once
imported in large amounts. The beans are of
Japanese Bobtail varying origin, and differ in colour, thus: Java
A breed of cat of ‘foreign’ conformation with a beans are as a rule reddish-brown, but they may
rudimentary tail. The hind-legs are longer than be almost black; Rangoon or Burmah beans are
Johne’s Disease (Paratuberculosis) 383
Treatment When well established, Johne’s the joints of the limbs, due, in the majority of
disease is invariably fatal, and no treatment is cases, to the entrance of organisms into the
effective or worthwhile. body by way of the unclosed navel. There are
numerous organisms associated with the dis-
Prevention Attention should be paid to the ease, the commonest of which are streptococci,
prevention of infection in other animals, espe- staphylococci, Pasteurella, E. coli, the necrosis
cially calves. Pastures that are suspected of being bacillus, and see under FOALS, DISEASES OF.
heavily infected should be left without stock for
4 or 5 months. All infected litter should be Signs Usually the young animal becomes dull,
stored in a dung-pit which is not accessible to takes no interest in its dam, refuses to suckle;
other animals, and should be used for cultivat- the breathing is hurried; the temperature rises
ed land. Loose-boxes, sheds, etc., that have from 0.6° to 1.2°C (2° to 4°F) above normal;
housed a case should be carefully disinfected the foal prefers to lie stretched out on its side,
and diseased animals should be fed after healthy and may have attacks of either diarrhoea or con-
ones. Ponds and water-courses should be fenced stipation. If the navel is examined it is found to
to prevent fouling by faeces, water for drinking be wet and oozing with bloodstained serous
being pumped out. material, or it may be dry, swollen, painful to
Calfhood vaccination may prevent clinical the touch, and hard, owing to abscess formation
disease but interferes with subsequent tuberculin within. In cases that appear later in life there
J may be no umbilical symptoms. In the course
tests.
Vaccination is being practised in Iceland, the of a day or so, one or more of the joints swells
Netherlands, Belgium, and France. up. The joints most commonly attacked are the
In Norway a vaccination campaign to con- stifle, hip, knee, hock, shoulder and elbow, but
trol the disease in goats reduced the infection it may be seen in any of the others. The swelling
rate from 53 to 1 per cent. Kids are vaccinated is tense, painful, hot, and oedematous. There is
at the age of 2 to 4 weeks. the danger of a fatal septicaemia.
A chronic form of infection resulting in
Diagnosis The disease can usually be diag- internal umbilical abscesses is sometimes seen.
nosed on clinical evidence, with some confir- The primary infection occurs at, or soon after,
mation afforded by microscopic examination of birth; but once the umbilicus has sealed over,
the faeces. Typical clumps of acid-fast bacilli external signs are not evident, and the umbilical
may be found, and the complement fixation test remnant appears normal.
is positive in about 90 per cent of cattle with The calves are usually presented as unthrifty,
advanced disease. The fluorescent antibody test depressed and slow in their movements. Their
is equally useful. temperature invariably normal.
Unfortunately, diagnosis of the carrier state
is not possible with any certainty. There is no Prevention Attention must always be paid to
single test which can conclusively detect the the cleanliness of the foaling-box, the calving-
presence or absence of M. johnei, although box and the lambing-pen. Where climatic and
laboratory tests can identify the presence of other conditions are favourable, the pregnant
Mycobacteria spp. The complement fixation test females should be allowed to give birth to their
is positive in only a small proportion of carriers young out of doors. Lambing-pens should with-
and can give false positive results. out fail be changed to a fresh site every year.
The difficulty in identifying ‘carriers’ makes Investigations undertaken by the Animal
Johne’s disease a difficult one to control. Health Trust suggest that thoroughbred foals in
the UK suffer severe illness as a result of being
Johnin deprived of a not inconsiderable volume of
A diagnostic agent derived from M. paratuber- blood when the navel cord is severed prema-
culosis used for JOHNE’S DISEASE. Cutaneous turely by attendants. Severance of the cord, it
injection results in thickening of the skin seems, is always best left to the mare. The use of
in positive cases. While insufficiently sensitive strong disinfectants applied to the stump of the
for individual diagnosis, the test is useful for navel cord is likewise deprecated.
identifying infected herds. An application of a sulphanilamide or other
antibiotic dry dressing may be safer than iodine
Joint-Ill solution.
Also called NAVEL-ILL or POLYARTHRITIS, this is When cutting the cord, it is necessary to
a disease of foals, lambs, and calves, in which maintain the strictest cleanliness. Scissors should
abscesses form at the umbilicus and in some of be sterilised, and tape scrupulously clean.
Joints, Diseases of 385
Treatment Antibiotics and, if available, anti- Varieties Apart from the division into fixed
serum for the causative micro-organisms. and movable joints, those that are movable are
Surgically, the umbilicus is opened up, evacuat- further classified. Gliding joints are those in
ed, and disinfected. Isolation and other hygiene which the bones have flat surfaces capable only
measures are needed. of a limited amount of movement, such as the
All pails, and other feeding utensils that are bones of the carpus and tarsus. In hinge-joints
liable to get infected, should be thoroughly like the elbow, fetlock, and pastern, movement
cleaned using boiling water or steamed before can take place around one axis only, and is called
future use, and the pen or box that houses a flexion and extension. In the ball-and-socket
case should be occasionally washed out with joints, such as the shoulder and hip-joints, free
disinfectant. (See also FOALS, DISEASES OF.) movement can occur in any direction. There are
other subsidiary varieties, named according to
Joints the shape of the bones which enter into the
Joints fall into 2 great divisions, namely mov- joint.
able joints and fixed joints. In a movable joint
there are 4 main structures. Firstly, there are the Joints, Diseases of
2 bones whose junction forms the joint; sec-
ondly, there is a layer of smooth cartilage cover- Arthritis means inflammation which involves
ing the ends of these bones where they meet, all the structures of the joint – viz. synovial J
which is called ‘articular’ cartilage; thirdly, there membrane, capsular ligaments, cartilages, and
is a sheath of fibrous tissue known as the ‘joint the ends of the bones that take part in the for-
capsule’, which is thickened into bands of ‘liga- mation of the joint. Arthritis is a general term
ments’ which hold the bones together at various which includes osteoarthritis and rheumatoid
points; and finally, there is a closed bladder of arthritis. Arthritis often begins as a synovitis (see
membrane, known as the ‘synovial membrane’, below), but the degree of inflammation is severe
which lines the capsule and produces a synovial enough to extend to the structures around the
fluid to lubricate the movements of the joint. synovial membrane. Its causes, symptoms, and
Further, the bones are kept in position at the treatment are similar to those given for synovi-
joints by the various muscles passing over them. tis, but it sometimes leads to ankylosis and fix-
This type is known as a diarthrodial joint. ation of the joint. (See CORTISONE.) The joints
Some joints possess subsidiary structures such that are most often affected are the stifle, hock,
as discs of fibro-cartilage, which adapt the bones knee, and fetlocks, but the shoulder, hip, elbow,
more perfectly to one another where they do not and the lower joints of the digit are not infre-
quite correspond, and allow of slightly freer quently the seat of disease as well. Among dis-
movement, e.g. the stifle-joint. In others, mov- eases that are associated with joints, and which
able pads of fat under the synovial membrane fill are treated separately, are NAVICULAR DISEASE;
up larger cavities and afford additional protec- SLIPPED SHOULDER; SLIPPED STIFLE; HYGROMA;
tion to the joint, e.g. the hock-joint. In some the CAPPED ELBOW; CAPPED HOCK; KNUCKLING OF
edge of one bone is amplified by a margin of car- THE FETLOCK; JOINT-ILL; see also below and BUR-
tilage which makes dislocation less of a risk than SITIS; ANKYLOSIS; FRACTURES; DISLOCATIONS;
otherwise, e.g. the hip and the shoulder-joints. GLASSER’S DISEASE; HIP DYSPLASIA IN DOGS;
In the fixed joints a layer of cartilage or of SWINE ERYSIPELAS.
fibrous tissue intervenes between the bones and
binds them firmly together (synarthrodial Rheumatoid arthritis This can be impor-
joint). This type of joint is exemplified by tant in the dog, and may occur at any age from
the ‘sutures’ between the bones that make up 2 years. Symptoms may be vague at first; the
the skull. Classified among these fixed joints are animal appears depressed, with a poor appetite
the amphi-arthrodial joints, in which there is a and often some degree of fever, but with no
thick disc of fibro-cartilage between the bones, lameness. Eventually the latter symptom
so that, although the individual joint is capable appears, sometimes involving several joints,
of only limited movement, a series of these, like sometimes affecting only one limb and then
the joints between the bodies of the vertebrae, shifting to another. There may be crepitus – a
gives the column, as a whole, a very flexible grating sound – when the limb is moved.
character. In this connection it is noticeable Diagnosis depends upon radiography and –
that the movement in the region of the neck as in human medicine – there are certain
may be much more free than in some of the laboratory tests, the results of which provide
true movable joints, such as between the small additional criteria for deciding whether the
bones of the hock or carpus. condition really is rheumatoid arthritis or not.
386 Joule
‘Kangaroo Gait’
‘Kangaroo gait’ in ewes, both in New Zealand
and in the UK, appears to be associated with
disease of the radial nerves, which causes diffi-
culty in advancing the front feet. When made to
move rapidly, they do so with a bounding gait.
The condition is seen in ewes during lactation;
it normally resolves after weaning. Melophagus × 4.
388 Keeshond
Keeshond Keratitis
A medium-sized breed of dog, originally from Inflammation of the cornea. (See EYE, DISEASES
Flanders, with a very thick coat, fox-like face OF.)
and a tail that curls over the back. It is prone to
hip dysplasia. The incidence of tetralogy of Keratocoele
Fallot (a potentially fatal heart defect) in the Keratocoele is a hernia through the cornea.
breed is 1 in 10,000 births, the highest known (See EYE, DISEASES OF.)
in any animal.
Keratoma
Kemps Keratoma is a horn tumour affecting the inner
Coarse hairs, the presence of which reduces the aspect of the wall of the hoof.
value of a fleece.
Kerosene Poisoning
Kennel Cough (see PARAFFIN)
Kennel cough is a convenient term for those
outbreaks of respiratory disease, distinct from Kerry Blue Terrier
canine distemper, which are troublesome in A medium-sized dog, born with a black coat
boarding kennels and dog pounds. Other that gradually lightens to grey, and an upright
names are canine infectious tracheobronchitis tail. It is predisposed to cerebellar abiotrophy, a
K and bordetellosis. degeneration in the cerebellum, that manifests
Usually only the upper air passages are as ataxia.
involved in kennel cough, the chief symptom
being a fit of coughing which is aggravated by Ketamine
exercise or excitement. The cough is a harsh, dry Ketamine is a non-barbiturate, non-narcotic
one. It has to be differentiated from infestation anaesthetic. It can be administered by intra-
with TRACHEAL WORMS. venous, intramusuclar or subcutaneous injec-
tion and is used in various species including cat,
Causes Bordetella bronchiseptica is the princi- dog and horse. Ketamine is often used in con-
pal cause (hence the name bordetellosis). Other junction with other agents, such as xylazine,
organisms involved are the canine parain- medetomidine and detomidine, to improve
fluenza virus (CPI), a canine herpesvirus, two muscle relaxation during surgical procedures.
adenoviruses, a reovirus, and a mycoplasma.
Bacterial secondary invaders may complicate Ketoconazole
the syndrome. An antifungal compound used to treat systemic
candidiasis and ringworm in dogs and cats. It is
Prevention Vaccination is advisable a fort- administered orally.
night before a dog is taken to a show or left
in boarding kennels. An intranasal live B. bron- Ketone Bodies
chiseptica vaccine is available. Ketone bodies arise from acetyl coenzyme A.
The 3 main ketone bodies are acetone, acetoac-
Kennel Lameness etate and beta hydroxybutyrate. While acetone
A colloquial term for lameness arising from a is not part of the metabolic process in the
nutritional deficiency, such as may occur in a healthy animal, the others are involved in the
dog fed entirely on dog-biscuits. (See RICKETS.) energy metabolism of ruminants. If the diet
provides insufficient energy sources in the dia-
Kennel Sickness betic, excess ketone bodies arise, producing
A colloquial name used in the USA for out- ketosis (acetonaemia). Professor Sir Hans Krebs
breaks of salmonellosis, the symptoms of which describes the process thus: ‘The severe forms of
may include pneumonia and convulsions. (See ketosis of the diabetic coma or of the lactating
also under SALMONELLOSIS.) cow are connected with the high rates of gluco-
neogenesis which occur under these conditions.
Keratin Oxaloacetate, which is an intermediate in glu-
Keratin is the substance of which horn and the coneogenesis, is diverted from the tricarboxylic
surface layers of the skin are composed. It is a acid cycle to gluconeogenesis, owing to the high
modified form of skin which has undergone activity of the enzyme converting it to phos-
compression and toughening. It is present in phopyruvate. The liver compensates the loss of
the hoof of the feet of animals, in claws, horns, energy from a reduced rate of the tricarboxylic
and nails. acid cycle by an increased rate of oxidations
Kidneys 389
outside the cycle. The main reaction of this transverse process of the first lumbar vertebra,
type is the oxidation of fatty acids to ketone while the left is roughly bean-shaped and lies
bodies. These arise grossly in excess of needs, as under the last rib and the first 2 or 3 lumbar
a by-product of reactions which satisfy the transverse processes. They are held in place
requirements for energy.’ by the surrounding organs and by fibrous
tissue, called the renal fascia. Each of them
Ketonuria is the term applied to the presence moves slightly backwards and forwards during
of ketone bodies in the urine. (See also ACETON- the respiratory movements of the animal.
AEMIA.)
Cattle The kidneys are lobulated, each pos-
Ketoacidosis. A condition leading to sessing from 20 to 25 lobes separated by fissures
diabetic coma. (See DIABETES.) filled with fat in the living animal. The right
kidney lies below the last rib and the first 2 or
Ketosis 3 lumbar transverse processes, and is somewhat
(see ACETONAEMIA) elliptical in outline. The left occupies a variable
position. When the rumen is full, it pushes
Key-Gaskell Syndrome the left kidney over to the right side of the
(see FELINE DYSAUTONOMIA) body into a position slightly below and behind
the right organ, but when it is empty the left
Khat kidney lies underneath the vertebral column
This plant (Catha edulis) contains 2 compounds about the level of the third to the fifth lumbar K
– cathine and cathinone – which are both vertebra. It may lie partly on the left side of the
structurally related to amphetamine. body in this position in some cases.
Chewing of khat leaves, popular in Arabia
and East Africa, appears to be on the increase in Sheep In the sheep the kidneys are bean-
the UK. Addicts esteem khat for the euphoria shaped and smooth. In position they resemble
and extra energy which it provides, but over-use those of the ox, except that the right is usually
can lead to mental illness. a little farther back.
Veterinary surgeons in small-animal practice
will need to be on the lookout for cases of khat Pig In this animal the kidneys are shaped like
poisoning in dogs and cats – as they already are elongated beans, and they are placed almost
for the effects of CANNABIS. symmetrically on either side of the bodies of the
first 4 lumbar vertebrae. They sometimes vary
Kicking in position.
(see ‘VICES’)
Dogs and cats In these animals the kidneys
Kidney Worm (Stephanurus are again bean-shaped, but they are thicker
Dentatus) than in other animals, and relatively larger.
Kidney worm (stephanurus dentatus) is a para- As in most animals, the right kidney is placed
site of pigs. Affected animals fail to thrive. farther forward than the left, the latter varying
Occasionally migration of the larvae in the in position according to the degree of fullness
spinal canal causes some degree of paralysis. The of the digestive organs. In the cat the left
intermediate host is the earthworm. In the USA kidney is very loosely attached and can usually
the advice is to breed from gilts only, as a means be felt as a rounded mass which is quite
of eradicating the parasite – anthelmintics so far movable in the anterior part of the abdominal
not having proved effective. (For the kidney cavity.
worm of dogs, see DIOCTOPHYMOSIS.)
Birds have paired kidneys, seen as elongated
Kidneys brown organs closely attached on each side of
Kidneys are paired organs situated high up the vertebrae.
against the roof of the abdomen, and in most
animals lying one on either side of the spinal Fish have a single kidney which is seen in
column. salmonids as a long black strucure in the dorsal
part of the abdomen extending from the back
Horse The kidneys of the horse differ from of the head to the vent. The vena cava runs
each other in both shape and position. The through the centre of the organ. The kidney
right has the outline of a playing-card heart, also has a role in the development of blood cells
and lies under the last 2 or 3 ribs and the and in combating infection.
390 Kidneys, Diseases of
Structure The organ is enveloped in a fibrous The proximal tubules reabsorb a high per-
coat continuous with the rest of the peritoneal centage of the water, sodium chloride and bicar-
membrane, and attached to the kidney capsule. bonate. The distal tubules reabsorb sodium, or
This capsule does not permit of much swelling exchange sodium ions for hydrogen, potassium
or enlargement of the organ, and consequently or ammonium ions; determining thereby the
any inflammation of the kidney is attended pH of the urine.
with much pain. On the inner border there is The kidney also secretes the hormone
an indentation called the hilus, which acts as a erythropoietin (see under ERYTHROPOIESIS) and
place of entrance and exit for vessels, nerves, produces RENIN. Additionally, the kidney
etc. Entering each kidney at its hilus are a renal converts vitamin D1 into its active form.
artery and renal nerves; leaving the kidney are
renal vein or veins, lymphatics, and the ureter. Kidneys, Diseases of
If the kidney is cut across, there are 2 distinct These are particularly common in the dog, and
areas seen in its substance. Lying outermost must account for a high proportion of deaths in
is the reddish-brown granular cortex, which dogs and cats.
contains small dark spots known as Malpighian Exact diagnosis is based almost entirely upon
corpuscles. macroscopic, microscopic, and chemical exam-
Within the cortex is the medulla, an area pre- ination of the urine in the laboratory. Blood
senting a radiated appearance, whose periphery urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine con-
is of a deep red colour. centrations are used to evaluate renal function
K The kidney tissue contains many thousands in several species.
of filtration units called nephrons. Each of these
comprises the glomerulus (almost a spherical Nephrosis/nephrotic syndrome This
arrangement of capillaries on an arteriole); may be a stage in nephritis and involves damage
Bowman’s capsule, the blind end of a proximal to the tubules of the kidneys, resulting in defec-
tubule which expands so as almost to surround tive filtering, so that albumin is excreted in the
the glomerulus; the convoluted tubule itself urine to the detriment of albumin levels in the
(with its loop of Henle); and the distal convo- blood. Oedema occurs.
luted tubule which leads on to an arched Nephrosis may be caused by poisoning with
collecting tubule. The latter continues with a the salts of heavy metals, and with various tox-
straight tubule in the cortex of the kidney, and ins; or it may follow certain other diseases. In
on into the medulla, where papillary ducts are lambs, clostridial infections have been suggest-
formed to take the urine to the pelvis of the ed as a cause of the disease, while nematodirus
kidney. infestation may be responsible in older animals.
The Malpighian corpuscle, comprising the (See also MEMBRANOUS NEPHROPATHY.)
glomerulus and inner and outer layers of
Bowman’s capsule, is where most of the filtra- Acute nephritis is a rapid inflammation of
tion of fluid from the blood occurs; but only a the kidney tissues as a whole, or of the glomeruli
small percentage of this fluid is finally excreted and the secreting tubules only. The latter is much
as urine. the more common among all animals. Since the
In birds, the glomeruli are of 2 different diagnosis and symptoms of each are clinically the
kinds; 1 type is similar to mammalian same, and as their differentiation is only possible
glomeruli; the other is more akin to the type by microscopic examination after death it will
found in reptiles. suffice to describe the commoner type only.
Function The kidney’s 2 main functions Dogs Acute and subacute nephritis is often
are:first, the excretion of waste (and excess) associated with LEPTOSPIROSIS, especially with
materials from the bloodstream; and, second, Leptospira canicola infection; it may follow the
the maintenance of the correct proportions nephrotic syndrome, and may co-exist with dis-
of water in the blood, the correct levels of temper or canine viral hepatitis. A predisposing
its chemical constituents, and the correct pH. cause is often, it seems, exposure to cold, wet
(See HOMEOSTASIS.) conditions, which lower the animal’s resistance
Blood pressure in the arteries determines and so exacerbates any existing infection.
pressure in each glomerulus and has an impor-
tant bearing on the quantity of fluid filtered Signs may include depression, loss of appetite,
from the blood. thirst, vomiting. The back may be arched, and
For its controlling effect on the kidney, see there may be stiffness. There is fever, and some-
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE. times ulcers are present in the mouth.
Kidneys, Diseases of 391
Lambs Acute kidney failure was diagnosed by Horses Nephritis may be a complication of
clinical examination and autopsy in 39 flocks influenza and other infections; follow contusions
served by 6 veterinary investigation centres. (arising from blows, falls) in the lumbar region;
Forty-eight lambs of 12 different breeds or or follow feeding with mouldy or otherwise con-
crosses were investigated. The mean age of taminated fodder. (See also pyelonephritis below.)
affected lambs was 38 days; 21 lambs were aged In the horse, symptoms of kidney disease
7 to 28 days, while only 8 were older than may be somewhat vague, but in severe cases
2 months. Mortality in clinically affected lambs there is usually evidence of pain, stiffness in the
was almost 100 per cent, with no response to gait, a poor appetite, often fever, and urine is
various treatments. passed as described above for cattle. Oedema
may involve abdomen, chest, and legs.
First-aid The animal needs rest, warmth, and
light food. Reliable proprietary foods can be Cats Kidney disease is, generally speaking,
obtained for kidney disease cases. Barley water likely to result in a poor appetite, loss of weight,
instead of plain water is often advisable. (See dullness, thirst. Intermittent vomiting may
under NURSING.) occur. The cat may become pot-bellied, due to
ASCITES.
Treatment includes the use of antibiotics. If A cat with chronic nephritis may live to old
there is much vomiting, normal saline may be
age, seemingly still able to enjoy life. There
necessary.
is likely to come a time, however, when the
kidneys fail, and uraemia occurs. K
Chronic nephritis may follow the acute
form, or it may arise insidiously. One attack of If a cat is losing protein in its urine, the need
nephritis is always likely to render the dog more is for a high-protein diet; but with chronic
susceptible to subsequent attacks, and chronic nephritis, a low-protein diet is usually indicated.
nephritis is common in middle-aged and old A number of specially formulated proprietary
dogs. In some cases of this disease RUBBER JAW diets are available. (See PRESCRIPTION DIETS.)
may be present. Sometimes, despite treatment, B vitamins and diuretics are used in treating
kidney failure occurs. the nephrotic syndrome.
Kidney failure may follow either chronic
interstitial nephritis (involving some degree of Other animals Causes, symptoms, and
fibrosis), which often results from leptospiral treatment (antibiotics, sometimes diuretics) are
nephritis; or from glomerular disease (glomeru- in general similar. Vomiting may occur in the
lonephritis). Clinically, the 2 conditions are pig. (See also AVIAN NEPHRITIS.)
virtually indistinguishable.
Polycystic kidneys A congenital renal
Cattle Kidney disease may also be associated problem in which the kidney is enlarged and
with LEPTOSPIROSIS, and may be a sequel to contains multiple fluid filled cysts. The condi-
various other infections. Corynebacterium renale tion, which has been recorded in pigs, is
attacks the kidneys, and abscesses of these sporadic and does not usually cause illness.
organs are not uncommonly found in cattle.
(See also pyelitis and pyelonephritis below.) Purulent nephritis, or ‘suppurative nephri-
Some poisons may damage the kidneys. tis’, is a condition in which one or both kidneys
Symptoms in cattle include stiffness, an show abscess formation. All species may be
arched back, often the passing of small amounts affected. It is caused by pus-producing (pyo-
of blood-stained urine, a poor appetite. genic) organisms, which may gain access to
Rumination may cease. the kidneys either by the bloodstream – when
However, in non-acute cases symptoms may the term ‘pyaemic nephritis’ is used – or by the
not be noticed, and the existence of nephritis ureters from the bladder – when the condition is
discovered only after death. A survey carried pyelonephritis. Pyelitis, meaning pus in the pelvis
out at a Dublin abattoir showed that of 4166 of the kidney, is used to indicate abscess forma-
cattle, 4.2 per cent had kidneys rejected under tion in the pelvis only, and generally precedes the
EU export regulations. The rejection rate was more severe form of pyelonephritis. It may be
7.7, 1.7, 2.2, and 28 per cent for cows, bul- associated with stone formation (renal calculus).
locks, heifers and bulls, respec-tively; the most Pyelonephritis is generally preceded by an
common reason being focal interstitial nephri- attack of inflammation of the bladder, vagina,
tis (60 per cent). Other lesions included cysts or uterus. It is commonest in cows and mares
(26 per cent), pyelonephritis, pigmentation, after parturition when the genital tract has
amyloidosis, and glomerulonephritis. become septic, but it is seen in all females under
392 Kilopascal (KpA)
Knee Koala
(Phascolarctos cinereus) The koala bear is an
Knee is the name, wrongly applied, to the car-
arboreal, marsupial creature, a native of
pus of the horse, ox, sheep, and pig. This joint
Australia. It is prone to chlamydial infections
really corresponds to the human wrist and
which can cause blindness and infertility.
should not be called ‘knee’, but custom has
ordained otherwise. (See JOINTS.) Kudu, Greater (Tragelaphus
Strepsiceros)
Knocked-Up Shoe An antelope with long spiral horns. One of
Knocked-up shoe is one in which the inner these creatures died in the London Zoo in 1992
branch is hammered laterally so as to increase from a scrapie-like spongiform encephalopathy.
its height but decrease its width. There is 1 nail-
hole at the inside toe, and 4 or 5 along the Kuppfer’s Cells
outside branch. The shoe generally has a clip at Phagocytic cells lining the walls of sinusoids in
the toe and the outside quarter, and may have a the liver.
small calkin on the outside heel.
It is used for horses given to brushing, cutting, Kuru
or interfering with their hind feet. A spongiform encephalopathy of humans,
described in Papua New Guinea. It was trasmit-
Knocked-Up Toe ted by ritual cannibalism. Men ate the victims’
A term used in racing greyhound circles to muscles and heart while women and children
describe a type of lameness associated with the ate the brain and other organs. 154 clinical
digits. It sometimes yields to rest but may cases occurred as a result of eating a single
require surgical treatment (even amputation of infected body. Although affected women did
the 3rd phalanx). not produce affected infants, and the practice
394 Kyasanur Forest Fever
was outlawed in the 1950s, occasional cases still the tick Haemaphysalis spinigera, and believed
occur in the tribe that used to practise this to have been brought by birds from the former
ceremonial. ‘Kuru’ translates as ‘trembling with Soviet Union.
fear’.
Kyphosis
Kyasanur Forest Fever Kyphosis is a curvature of the spine when the
Kyasanur forest fever is a disease of man and concavity of the curve is directed downwards. It
monkeys, occurring in Mysore, and resembling is sometimes seen in tetanus, rabies, etc., and is
Omsk fever. The causal virus is transmitted by a sign of abdominal pain in the dog.
K
L
In cattle, milk is increasingly used both to
determine biological levels and to determine
the herd exposure levels to infections such as
bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) and enzootic
bovine leukosis (EBL). Milk samples may also
be used to determine the levels of bacteria
present in the herd.
L-Carnitine
A vitamin of the B complex present in meat
extracts and needed for fat oxidation. In human
Labour
(see PARTURITION)
medicine it is claimed to improve exercise
tolerance, and so might have a potential use in
racehorses. Labrador Retriever
A popular medium-sized breed of dog
L-Forms of Bacteria with black, beige or brown coat. Progressive
Those which can survive without a true cell retinal atrophy, entropion and cataract are
wall. L-forms of staphylococci and streptococci inherited as dominant traits; haemophilia,
have been recovered from cases of mastitis. osteochondrotis and laryngeal paralysis may
They are completely resistant to antibiotics also be found.
such as penicillin which interfere with bacterial
cell-wall formation. Laburnum Poisoning
All parts of the plant, whose botanical name is
Labial Cytisus – root, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, and
Relating to the lips. particularly the seeds in their pods – are poiso-
nous, and all the domestic animals and birds are
Labile susceptible.
Unstable. Thermo-labile – unstable in the pres-
ence of heat. Signs The toxic agent is an alkaloid called
cystine, which produces firstly excitement,
Labium then unconsciousness with incoordination of
Labium is the Latin word for lip or lip-shaped movement, and finally convulsions and death.
organ. In the horse, when small amounts have been
taken, there is little to be seen beyond a stag-
Laboratory Animals gering gait, yawning, and a general abnormali-
Animals bred specifically for scientific purpos- ty in the behaviour of the animal. With larger
es; it is illegal to use non-purpose-bred animals doses there may be sweating, excitement,
for scientific research. Their welfare and the collapse, convulsions, coma and death.
conditions in which they are kept are strictly In cattle and sheep, which are more resistant
controlled by the Animals (Scientific than the horse, the rumen becomes filled with
Procedures) Act 1986 (as amended 1998); by gas, the limbs become paralysed, the pupils
far the largest number of such animals are mice are dilated, the animal becomes sleepy, and
and rats. later, salivation, coma, and convulsive move-
ments follow each other. Fatal cases in these
Laboratory Tests animals are not common; the symptoms
Laboratory tests are widely used as an aid to may last for several days and then gradually
diagnosis but should always be interpreted in pass off.
the light of the signs presented by the animal. In the dog and pig, which vomit easily, the
Many tests involve examination of samples of irritant and acrid nature of the plant causes free
the blood or its cells (haematology), or plasma vomiting, and usually the animal is enabled to
or serum. Other tests are based on urine, pus, get rid of what has been eaten before the symp-
peritoneal or pleural fluid. Occasionally, sam- toms become acute. However, this is not always
ples of tissues are taken for examination (biop- so. One dog, after 24 hours’ mild diarrhoea fol-
sy). Tests may be used to determine the various lowing repeated chewing of a low-lying branch,
biochemical constituents of the sample or to suddenly collapsed and died. In another case, a
detect the presence of bacteria, viruses, fungi, stick, which had been cut from a laburnum tree
mycoplasma or parasites. Samples (usually 3 months previously, was thrown for a dog to
serum) may be used to detect the presence of retrieve, and caused fatal poisoning after being
antibodies to various infective agents. chewed.
396 Labyrinth
First-aid Very strong black tea or coffee that MILK YIELD; ‘LICKING SYNDROME’; MAMMARY
has been boiled instead of infused may be given GLAND; MILK; WEANING.)
as a drench.
Lactation, Artificial
Labyrinth The artificial induction of lactation may be
(see EAR) brought about by means of hormones. For
example, barren, anoestrus ewes have been ren-
Lacombe dered good foster-mothers to lambs by a single
A lop-eared pig from Alberta, Canada. dose of 40 mg stilboestrol. Persistence of lacta-
Breeding: Danish Landrace 51 per cent, tion in cows has been obtained experimentally
Chester White 25 per cent, Berkshire 24 per by using bovine somatotrophin. (See also under
cent. (The Chester White comes from SPAYING.)
Pennsylvania, and originates from 18th century
imports.) Lactation Tetany
HYPOMAGNESAEMIA; ECLAMPSIA; HYPOCAL-
(see
Lacrimal (Lachrymal) CAEMIA; LAMBING SICKNESS. See also MILK
Lacrimal (Lachrymal) relates to tears, to the FEVER; MILK TETANY)
gland which secretes these, and to the ducts of
the gland. Lactescent Serum (Plasma)
Lactescent serum (Plasma) is milky in appear-
Lachrymation This term is often used to ance because of high levels of triglyceride.
L describe an excess of tears, as a result of a Especially if fasted, patients are at risk of devel-
blocked duct or conjunctivitis, etc. oping acute pancreatitis and gastroenteritis
(dogs) and skin eruptions (cats).
β-Lactamase
Enzymes produced by bacteria which cause Lactic Acid
resistance to certain antibiotics (e.g. penicillins, (See also MILK.) Excessive production of lactic
cephalosporins) by breaking down the β-lactam acid in the rumen – such as occurs after cattle
ring. have gorged themselves with grain – is a serious
condition, and is followed by absorption of
Lactation fluid from the general circulation (with conse-
Lactation depends directly upon the fact that if quent dehydration), ruminal stasis, and often
the milk is not regularly removed, the secretion death. (See BARLEY POISONING.)
will cease. It reaches its maximum duration in Lactic acid is produced in muscle by the
the cow and goat which are milked by human breakdown of glycogen. (Oxidation of lactic
agency for the production of milk for con- acid provides energy for the recovery phase after
sumption. By this artificial method the dura- a muscle has contracted.)
tion of lactation and the quantities of milk have After strenuous exercise, excess of lactic acid
been enormously increased. can lead to CRAMP (see MUSCLE – Action).
The duration of a lactation in the cow is
taken to be 305 days, commencing from calv- Lactose
ing and ending when the cow ceases to be Sugar of milk. Lactose in cow’s milk has a com-
milked at least twice a day. This is in line with mercial value. Cows with low lactose produc-
other European records. The period for butter- tion often have higher mastitis cell counts, a
fat sampling continues to be from the 4th day factor in deciding culling policy. (See SUGAR.)
after calving.
To produce 9090 litres (2000 gallons) of Lagomorphs
milk, the cow must secrete over 10,700 kg (91⁄2 A group of mammals that includes rabbits and
tons) of milk from the mammary gland, e.g. hares.
roughly about 12 or 14 times the weight of her
whole body. A remarkable British Friesian cow, Lagos Bat Virus
Manningford Faith Jan Graceful, which died at A rhabdovirus, carried by bats in Nigeria; it has
the age of 171⁄2 , gave a lifetime yield of similarities to rabies virus.
142 tonnes, 750 kg (145 tons, 14 cwt, 85 lb);
and her highest 365-day yield – with her 3rd calf Lakeland Terrier
– was 17,409 litres (3829.5 gallons). A Jersey A small active dog whose coat resembles an
has, in 361 days, given over 12,120 litres (2666 Airedale’s. Ununited anconeal process may be
gallons) (525 kg (1157.46 lb) butterfat). (See inherited.
Lameness 397
Diagnostic representation of forces involved in pedal bone rotation. (Reproduced by courtesy of the
Veterinary Record, C. M. Colles and L. B. Jeffcott.)
400 Laminitis in Horses
the blood circulation of the foot; however, care showed that the best means of preventing
must be taken that further damage is not caused lamziekte is to feed sterilised bone- meal to
to the laminae by exercise. For the relief of pain cattle during the winter months in areas which
acetylpromazine is also used, and this drug are naturally deficient in phosphorus. (See
tends to reduce blood pressure. Phenylbutazone BOTULISM.)
is another drug which has been used, and simi-
larly corticosteroids. Warm or hot water appli- Landrace
cations to the feet are regarded as preferable to A large white, lop-eared pig used to produce
hosing with cold water. commercial hybrid breeds.
Green food in small amounts is good, and a
little hay should be supplied. Lanolin
In chronic cases the shoeing is of great A type of fat found in sheep wool. It is widely
importance and special surgical shoes may be used in ointments and creams.
needed. (See also HOOF REPAIR.)
Lantana Poisoning
Lampas Lantana poisoning of cattle and sheep has
A swelling of the mucous membrane of the occurred in Australia and New Zealand. L.
hard palate of the horse immediately behind the camara is the species commonly involved; espe-
arch of the incisor teeth in the upper jaw. It is cially the red-flowered variety. It causes light
often seen about the time when the permanent sensitisation, with exudative dermatitis of teats
teeth are cutting through the gums, i.e. at 21⁄2 , and vulva. Deaths have occurred.
31⁄2, and 41⁄2 years, and for a short time after- L
wards. It is erroneously thought that it is the Laparoscopy
cause of a falling-off in condition which natu- The use of optical instruments for viewing the
rally occurs when the teeth are cutting; it is interior of organs such as the bladder, the inte-
really rather an effect. It was the custom to rior of joints for signs of arthritis, etc., and for
lance ‘lampas’ in many parts of the country; this avian sex determination.
occasions unnecessary pain and discomfort
to the horse, and if the incision is made towards Laparotomy
1 side instead of in the middle-line there is a Laparotomy means surgical opening of the
serious risk of wounding the palatine artery on abdominal cavity. The incision is either made in
that side. the middle line of the abdomen, or through one
or other of the flanks.
Lampreys
Primitive fish that are parasites on other fish. Lapinised
There are saltwater and freshwater species, the This term is applied to a virus which has been
freshwater species being larger (up to 50 cm attenuated by passage through rabbits. An exam-
long). They can be a problem for freshwater fish ple is afforded by lapinised swine fever vaccine.
farms, particularly in the USA.
Larkspur Poisoning
Lamziekte Of the several varieties of larkspur, most of
Lamziekte is botulism of cattle in South Africa which occur in America in the ranges of the
which occurs as an enzootic in animals on West, where they cause great loss to cattle own-
phosphorus-deficient areas of the veldt. During ers, only 1 species is commonly found in Britain
winter, lack of phosphorus leads grazing cattle – Delphinium ajacis. The seeds are the most
to chew the bones of animals (often cattle) that dangerous parts of the plant, although the leaves
have died, in an endeavour to take phosphorus have proved fatal when fed experimentally.
into the body to make good the deficiency. This Horses and sheep are not as susceptible as cattle.
condition of bone-eating (osteophagia) is actu- The active principles are 4 in number: delphine,
ally only the result of a craving for minerals. delphisine, delphinoidine and staphisagrine,
Where the animals whose skeletons are left on and of these the first 3 are highly poisonous.
the veldt harboured in their alimentary canals
Clostridium botulinum, this organism invades Signs Salivation, vomiting, colicky pains,
the carcase, and both it and its toxin are present convulsions, and general paralysis.
in the decomposing remains.
Laryngeal Obstruction
Prevention The researches of Sir Arnold Chronic obstruction of the larynx in cattle is
Theiler and the workers at Onderstepoort characterised by difficult or painful inspiration,
402 Laryngitis
giving rise to ‘ROARING’. The most common when influenza is present, or if other specific
causes are calf diphtheria (necrobacillosis); but diseases arise, the signs of fever are more dis-
there is uncertainty as to the primary infective tinct. Uncomplicated laryngitis usually lasts
agent causing chronic laryngitis – Fusebacterium from a week to about a fortnight. Occasionally
necroforum, for instance, is unable to penetrate complications, such as roaring or whistling,
intact mucous membrane. follow recovery from the initial disease.
Laryngoplasty is sometimes used for the condition. In certain cases be cartilages may
treatment of roaring, especially in those horses become injured from treads or tramps by neigh-
not required to perform at high speeds. The bouring horses, or from the other foot; the
operation involves securing the arytenoid carti- cartilage, being poorly supplied with blood,
lage in a lateral position, using prostheses to undergoes necrosis. (See SIDEBONES; QUITTOR;
prevent intrusion of the arytenoid cartilage and FOOT OF THE HORSE.)
vocal cord into the lumen of the larynx.
Lateral Line
Poisoning Four 2-year-old thoroughbreds A structure along the sides of fish that is sensi-
suffered an acute gastrointestinal illness shortly tive to movement in the water, enabling the fish
after being dosed with contaminated mineral to detect the presence of other fish, currents, etc.
oil. Three weeks later they had developed bilat-
eral laryngeal paralysis. Two of the horses died Latex (Natural Rubber)
during severe bouts of dyspnoea 6 and 8 weeks Hypersensitivity to this can result in contact
later, and a 3rd was put down. In these horses urticaria, respiratory symptoms, and shock.
there was a severe loss of myelinated fibres from The main source of the allergens is the wearing
both recurrent laryngeal nerves. The 4th horse of rubber gloves during surgery. Even a vaginal
had bilateral pharyngeal paralysis 2 years later. examination can result in an anaphylactic
The acute clinical signs and delayed neurologi- reaction in atopic people.
cal effects were typical of ORGANOPHOSPHORUS In the rubber-growing areas of Malaysia,
POISONING. the ingestion of latex by cattle, e.g. from
buckets left by rubber-tappers, is a ‘frequent L
Lasalocid occurrence’, and can be fatal.
A coccidiostat used as a feed additive in the pre- In 1 reported case, 2 bulls consumed 9 and
vention of coccidiosis in chickens, turkeys and 14 litres, respectively, of latex from the tree
game birds. It must not be used in breeding or Hevea brasiliensis. Rumenotomy brought a
laying birds; birds may be slaughtered only after temporary improvement in both bulls, but they
5 days from the last administration of the drug. died, despite supportive treatment, 11 days
after ingesting the latex.
Laser
An acronym for light amplification by stimu- Latex agglutination test This can be
lated emission of radiation. used for measuring the concentration of IgG1 in
Lasers emit beams of intense, monochromat- the plasma of newborn calves. The commercial
ic, non-dispersing light, and can be used as test reagent (Ab-Ag Laboratories, Ely) is pre-
powerful sources of localised energy. They are pared by coating polystyrene latex beads with
used in ophthalmic and other surgery and may antibodies against bovine IgG1.
be used instead of needles in acupuncture.
Operators must wear protective glasses to Lathyrism (Lathyrus Poisoning)
Shield their eyes. Lathyrism (Lathyrus Poisoning) is caused by
feeding upon one of the various ‘Mutter peas’ –
Lassa Fever Lathyrus sativus principally, and L. cicera and
This disease occurs in West Africa, and is L. clymenum, less frequently. The latter 2 sam-
caused by an arenavirus first isolated in 1969. ples of field peas grown in Southern Europe
In man the infection is likely to prove fatal. The and North Africa, while L. sativus is imported
virus has been isolated from the rat Mastomys from India mainly. They are poisonous to all
natalensis, which (possibly with other rodents) the domesticated animals, but seem especially
acts as a reservoir of infection. dangerous for horses. Many outbreaks have
been recorded, and in most the percentage of
Lateral Cartilages deaths has been high, sometimes as much as
Lateral cartilages are rhomboid plates of carti- 50 per cent of the affected.
lage which are attached, one on either side, to Symptoms of poisoning may not appear
angles of the 3rd phalanx (os pedis) of the until the lapse of as much as 50 days after the
foot of the horse. They extend above the coro- peas cease to be used as a food-stuff. The cause
net sufficiently to be felt distinctly at the heels of lathyrism is the high selenium content of the
and for a certain distance in front of this. In old plants. (See SELENIUM.)
age they often become ossified in their lower
parts. When they ossify in their upper palpable Signs usually become visible when the animal
margins, the name ‘sidebones’ is applied to the is put to work or exercised. Typically, the chief
404 Laudanum
Welfare of Animals (Staging Posts) Order haylage contained small particles of clay
1998 pigeons and lead shot. The cows in the high-
Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997 yielding herd of 115 Holsteins began to lose
Welfare of Horses at Markets (and Other their appetite, became dull, and had diarrhoea.
Places of Sale) Order 1990 A few developed stiff and swollen joints. Many
Welfare of Livestock Regulations 1994 became uncoordinated in their movements;
Wild Mammals Protection Act 1996 also there were 25 stillbirths or abortions.
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (variations Appropriate treatment brought some improve-
to schedules orders 1989, 1991, 1992, ment, but 21 cows either died or had to be
1994, 1998) slaughtered.
Wildlife and Countryside (Registration and A 24-volt lead battery was discarded but
Ringing of Certain Captive Birds) unfortunately scooped up with straw being
Regulations 1982 (amended 1982, 1994) added to a ‘complete diet’ in a feeder box. The
Wildlife and Countryside (Registration to Sell, result was that 55 heifers died – some rapidly,
etc. Certain Dead Wild Birds) Regulations some after ataxia, head pressing, teeth grinding
1982 (amended 1991) and convulsions.
Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996
Dogs They are sometimes poisoned through
Zoo Licensing Act 1981 (amended 2002) eating paint scrapings where a room is being
Zoonoses Order 1988, 1989 re-decorated, or after licking out a paint tin.
(See also EUROPEAN UNION.)
L Cats In one case, old lead paint was stripped by
Laxatives means of an electric sander, which dispersed
SENNA, which has been recommended for preg- particles of the primer so that the air soon con-
nant sows; DIHYDROXYANTHRAQUINONE, use- tained a toxic amount of lead. One cat and an
ful in all domestic animals, including horses; infant suffered lead poisoning as a result.
EPSOM SALTS (magnesium sulphate), but of
doubtful efficacy in ruminants; GLAUBER’S Pigs have been shown to be less sensitive than
SALTS, but they may have ill-effects in pigs. (See other farm animals.They can consume, without
also PARAFFIN – Uses.) showing symptoms, a daily dose of lead which
would rapidly kill a cow.
LD50
Ld50value is a statistical estimate of the number Geese Ten lead pellets can kill a goose.
of mg of a given substance per kg of body-
weight required to kill 50 per cent of a large Swans Many cases have been reported of
population of test animals. The LD value of swans dying after swallowing lead weights used
a compound may refer to oral or parenteral by anglers.
administration or to application to the skin.
Signs Nervous signs are an important feature
Lead Poisoning of lead poisoning, and may include excitement,
Also called plumbism. ataxia, blindness, paresis, and convulsions;
affected animals may also show depression.
Acute form of lead poisoning Cattle may bellow, charge around, and at
intervals press their heads against a wall or other
Cattle This is very common in cattle which fixed object.
have eaten paint, licked out discarded paint Abdominal pain, sometimes with constipa-
tins, licked newly painted railings, etc., or tion followed by diarrhoea, are other signs; also
which have eaten tarpaulins. It is frequently anaemia in chronic or subacute cases.
fatal and many cattle are unnecessarily lost each In horses, ‘roaring’ (laryngeal paralysis) may
year from this cause. Cows have also been fatal- be a sign, together with carpal swelling and
ly poisoned after licking lead-rich ash from a posterior paralysis.
burnt-down shed; and after eating silage conta-
minated by an old battery broken up by a for- Treatment The treatment of lead poisoning
age harvester; also by eating roofing material was revolutionised by the introduction of the
from an old railway carriage. chelating agent, calcium di-sodium adetate,
In another instance cows were poisoned after which converts inorganic lead in the tissues into
eating haylage made from grass in a field which a harmless lead chelate which is excreted by the
had been used for clay-pigeon shooting. The kidneys. The drug must be given intravenously.
Leishmaniasis 409
In chronic cases, potassium iodide is given 3 or H. zeylanica occurs in Asia and lives on land.
4 times daily to hasten the elimination of the It is a clear brown colour with a yellow lateral
lead salt from the system. (See also CHELATING stripe on each side and a greenish dorsal stripe.
AGENTS.) It has 5 pairs of eyes and 3 teeth. It lives in
damp weather on the lower vegetation. These
Diagnosis of lead poisoning may be made leeches are small forms, about 2.5 cm long, but
by estimating the lead content of the blood, are very serious pests. The bite is painless but, as
kidneys or liver. they occur in such enormous numbers, very
deadly. They attack all vertebrates and many
A differential diagnosis must take into different species of mammals have been killed
account other possibilities such as hypomagne- by them through sheer loss of blood.
saemia, encephalitis, acetonaemia, listeriosis, Two cases of infestation of dogs with
and poisoning by other substances. Diestecostoma mexicanum have been reported
from Honduras. In the non-fatal case, a
Chronic lead poisoning has occurred as a catheter was passed through the inferior nasal
result of flaking paintwork in dog kennels, and meatus and a 50-ml capacity syringe containing
also in the proximity of former lead-mining chloroform water attached. The solution was
sites. Four out of 5 sheepdogs, in an Australian injected slowly while the catheter was revolved.
incident, became agitated after working sheep Over 70 leeches emerged after treatment.
satisfactorily for some 20 minutes. They left the
work area and retreated to the underside of a Legionella Pneumophila
vehicle or to a kennel. This organism, first discovered in 1976, can L
The behavioural effects of lead poisoning in tolerate hot water, and is spread by aerosols of
dogs may also include hysteria or aggressiveness. it. People, cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, goats, dogs
Falcons kept in painted cages developed lead and cats are all at risk of pneumonia caused by
poisoning after gnawing at the bars. this infection (Legionaires disease).
Lenses, Contact
Lenses, contact made of a softish hydrophilic
Leishmania as seen in spleen cells. material have been used in horses, dogs and cats
with keratitis and/or penetration of the cornea.
Such lenses can act more or less as a bandage for
the cornea, and promote healing by reducing
trauma from inflamed eyelids and so reducing
pain. Ointment and eye-drops can be still used.
The lens can be removed at the end of a week
or so.
The effect of bright light on the retina of
a racing greyhound’s eye caused a lack of speed.
Improvement was reported after a tinted
contact lens had been fitted.
L Lentiviruses
Members of this group include EQUINE INFEC-
TIOUS ANAEMIA; MAEDI/VISNA of sheep; and
CAPRINE ARTHRITIS-ENCEPHALITIS, as well as
the human AIDS virus.
was active L. hardjo infection of 2- and 3-year- Prevention Single and multiple vaccines are
old cattle. Conventional measures for protect- available.
ing milkers from contact with infected urine Most of the dogs which recover from lep-
appeared to be ineffective, and it was conclud- tospirosis excrete the organisms in the urine
ed that herd vaccination of cattle was the only for long periods (sometimes 4 to 18 months).
means of protecting dairy farm workers. This obviously makes control of the disease
difficult.
Leptospirosis in Dogs
Jaundice in dogs may be caused by Leptospira Leptospirosis in Horses
icterohaemorrhagiae. This organism also causes Leptospirosis in horses is usually a mild disease,
jaundice (Weil’s disease) in man, and illness though sometimes fatal in foals; but see PERIOD-
(with or without jaundice) in a number of IC OPHTHALMIA.
domestic animals, including pigs and calves. In
a Glasgow survey it was found that 40 per cent Leptospirosis in Pigs
of dogs had at some time been infected with Cases of leptospiral jaundice in piglets due
L. canicola (the cause of Canicola fever in man), to Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae and also to
which is 2 or 3 times more common as a para- L. canicola have been reported in the UK.
site in dogs than L. icterohaemorrhagiae. The Symptoms in pigs include loss of appetite,
parasite is the cause of much of the acute and fever, jaundice, and – in some cases – death.
subacute nephritis in younger dogs, especially Pigs which have recovered excrete leptospires
between November and April for some time afterwards. Indeed, infection in a
L It was shown in a survey in the USA that of herd may persist for years, with risk to human
100 rats, 55 had Leptospira in the kidneys, and health. Sows may abort.
that 23 per cent of the farm rats and 49, or 66 L. canicola can survive for 12 days in natu-
per cent, of the urban rats harboured Leptospira rally infected pig kidneys kept in a refrigerator.
in those organs. (The incidence of the (See CANICOLA FEVER, which farm workers may
Leptospira in the rat varied with the location of contract from pigs.)
the rubbish dump on which they were found. L. pomona and L. interrogans hardjo may
Nearly all the rats obtained in 1 area were posi- cause leptospiral abortion. L. australia, which in
tive.) Similar surveys in the UK have shown the UK has many free-living carnivore hosts,
37.6 per cent of rats infected. also infects pigs.
The parasite is the cause of much of the
acute and subacute nephritis in younger dogs, Leptospirosis in Sheep
especially between November and April. In Britain, leptospirosis is rare in sheep, though
serological surveys have shown evidence of
Signs of infection with L. canicola are very infection. In Northern Ireland the infection was
variable. There may be loss of appetite, depres- demonstrated in aborted, stillborn and weak
sion, and fever alone, or together with marked lambs, by culture, immunofluorescence and
thirst and vomiting, loss of weight, and some- fetal serology, from 9 out of 42 flocks investi-
times a foul odour from the mouth. In a few gated during the 1980 and 1981 lambing
cases there is jaundice. Ulceration of the tongue seasons. Three serogroups were implicated:
may occur. Collapse, coma, and death may Hebdomadis, Australis, and Pomona.
supervene. Clinical leptospirosis in sheep and goats in
The symptoms first described above are relat- other countries has been characterised either
ed to leptospiral invasion of the bloodstream. by abortion, or by an acute, often fatal disease,
This may be followed by invasion of, and dam- with symptoms of jaundice, fever, and haemo-
age to, the kidneys. This primary nephritis globinuria.
may be followed later by chronic interstitial
nephritis, kidney failure, uraemia, and death. Lernea
The anchor worm. The female (only) is a para-
Treatment Antibiotics have been used with site on fish. It attaches itself to the muscles by
considerable success in the early stage of L. cani- penetrating the skin. They may be seen round
cola infection. Once the kidneys have been dam- the vent. Affected fish are sluggish and grow
aged, however, treatment is as for nephritis. poorly. There may be heavy mortaliy.
In severe cases – where the ‘Stuttgart’ syndrome
or symptoms of uraemia are evident – the ani- Lhasa Apso
mal dies, as a rule, despite all treatment. (See KID- A small dog with long straight hair almost
NEYS, DISEASES OF; URAEMIA; NURSING; HEART.) covering the face. The breed originates in Tibet.
Leukosis 413
Leukosis in Turkeys biting lice. All the fowl lice belong to the latter
Two distinct forms of leukosis infection are family. The lice are wingless insects which
recognised in the UK and have caused serious undergo a direct development. The egg is laid
and widespread economic loss among turkey on the body, glues itself to a hair or feather, and
flocks. the young louse is, except for size, identical to
(a) Lymphoproliferative disease (LPD) the adult. There is no pupal stage, although sev-
affects turkeys from 9 weeks of age and can eral moults take place. The sucking lice belong
cause a mortality of 1 per cent a week. It is char- to the order Siphunculata.
acterised by sudden death of birds in good con- The biting lice belong to the order
dition with gross enlargement of the spleen and Mallophaga. The mouth parts are very different
tumours in the liver, lungs and elsewhere. The from those of the sucking lice. They cannot
causative agent of LPD is suspected to be an suck blood, and the mouth parts consist of a
oncovirus unrelated to recognised avian viruses pair of mandibles on the ventral side of the
of this group. blunt head. In this order, as in the last, all the
(b) Reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) infec- mammalian hosts, except the horse, have their
tion can be distinguished clinically from lym- own species.
phoproliferative disease by the fact that it is
associated with a diarrhoea which frequently Horses Only 1 species of sucking louse is
affects turkeys between 8 and 10 weeks of age. found on the horse, called Haematopinus asini.
This is followed by the development of tumours Two species of closely related biting lice are also
resulting in mortality of up to 20 per cent. The found: Damalinia equi and D. pilosus. Sucking
L most consistent post-mortem finding has been lice are more generally found at the base of
a large leukotic liver. The causative agent is the mane and tail, while the biting species are
an RE virus which can be replicated in tissue commonly on the lower parts of the body. They
culture. Viraemia develops within 2 weeks of cause poorness of condition, itching, and loss
infection and antibodies persist for the lifetime of hair.
of infected birds.
Cattle Sucking lice include Haematopinus
Leukovirus eurysternus, H tuberculatus, and Linognathus
This genus of virus includes the Rous sarcoma vituli. In addition, 1 species of biting louse
virus, feline leukaemia virus and fowl sarcoma occurs, Damalinia bovis. The sucking lice are
virus.
Levamisole
A broad-spectrum anthelmintic. It can be
administered by injection or in the feed.
Levamisole is also of value in stimulating the
bodily defence mechanisms, when these have
been depressed by, for example, viral infections,
or by Brucella abortus. Any reduction of
T-lymphocytes is apparently restored to nor-
mal, and phagocytosis increased, among other
immuno-stimulant effects. (See ANERGY.)
In dogs, levamisole is used mainly to treat Sucking lice. × 10. (Left, Haematopinus; centre,
heartworm infections. Its side-effects (vomit- Linognathus; right, Solenopotus.)
ing, diarrhoea, loss of appetite) can be reduced
by giving it with or after food.
Leys, New
Highly productive pastures. Cattle grazing
these are, generally speaking, more prone to
hypomagnesaemia than when on permanent
pasture. Clover-rich leys are also conducive to
bloat, unless precautions are taken.
Lice
Two distinct families of lice are found on
the domestic animals: the sucking lice and the Biting louse. × 15. (Trichodectes.)
Ligaments 415
found mainly on the head and shoulders; the experience suggests that 2 or 3 applications may
biting lice on any part of the body. They cause be necessary, but that the owner is not always
itchiness and scratching which may produce willing to persevere. (For a similar condition in
thickening of the skin, and cause mange to be cats, see EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA.)
suspected.
A 4th species of sucking louse, Solenoptes ‘Licked Beef’
capillatus, is found in the UK, New Zealand, ‘Licked beef ’ is that which shows greenish or
etc., but is not very common. yellowish tracks made by the larvae of warble-
flies, with the formation of ‘butcher’s jelly’. This
Sheep Haematopinus ovillus (on the body), is of importance in food inspection.
Linognathus pedalis (on the foot), and L.
africanus are sucking lice. Damalinia ovis is a ‘Licking Syndrome’
biting louse. This is the name for a condition in which
cattle tend to lick each other, or each other’s
Goats Linognathus stenopsis and L. africanus, urine, or the soil, in an attempt to obtain the
attack the goat. Biting lice include Damalinia extra salt they need, and is a sign of sodium
caprae and D. limbata. deficiency. This occurs, in the absence of salt
licks or the provision of sufficient salt in the
Pigs Haematopinus suis, a large species causing feed, on sodium-deficient pastures which,
intense pruritus, which seriously interferes with according to ADAS surveys in the south of
fattening. Young pigs have been known to England, may amount to 50 per cent. A cow
die from the loss of blood and the extensive giving 23 litres (5 gallons) of milk loses nearly L
irritation. The lice are usually found near the 42.5 g (11⁄2 oz) of sodium chloride in its
ears, inside the elbows and on the breast. milk each day, and the ARC has stated that
the cow has only 85 g (3 oz) of salt in her
Dogs and cats Important species include body which can safely be used to balance
a sucking louse, Linognathus setosus, and a this loss if the supply of salt in the diet is
biting louse, Trichodectes canis. The latter is an inadequate.
intermediate host of Dipylidium caninum. Urine-drinking has been seen in yarded
cows, even when given free access to salt and
Poultry All the lice affecting birds are magnesium, in France. The habit disappeared
biting lice, and include Menopon gallinae and once the herd gained access to spring pasture.
Goniodes gallinae. Having drinking troughs placed too close
Lice can cause a severe anaemia in young together, or too few of them, in the yards led to
animals especially. dominant cows preventing others from
approaching the sources of water and salt. (See
Control involves 2 applications of a suitable under SALT – Salt licks; SODIUM DEFICIENCY;
insecticide at a 7- to 10-day interval, repeated HAIR-BALLS; METABOLIC PROFILE TESTS.)
if necessary. Permethrin is suitable for dogs and
cats. Lien
For larger animals, sprays or dips, or Lien is the Latin name for the spleen.
ivermectin by injection, may be used. (See
IVERMECTIN; BHC; FLEA COLLARS; AEROSOL; Life after Freezing
BATHS – Cats.) A lively litter of 10 albino mice, born to a
brown mouse, was exhibited at the Royal
Lick Granuloma Society’s premises in London, in 1993. The
A tumour-like mass of granulation tissue on albinos had been implanted into their surrogate
the skin of dogs which can form as a result of mother after being, as embryos, kept for 13
the incessant licking of a wound, ulcer, or even weeks in liquid nitrogen at a temperature
unbroken skin – in which case there may be a of –196°C.
local neuritis causing itching of the spot, and so
accounting for the licking. Ligaments
Ligaments are strong bands of fibrous tissue
Treatment An ELIZABETHAN COLLAR may be that serve to bind together the bones forming a
necessary to prevent the dog’s access to the part. joint. They are cord-like in some instances, flat
A corticosteroid may be used. In long-standing, bands in others, and sheets in the case of the
intractable cases cryosurgery is usually the joint-capsule which surrounds a joint. (See
recommended treatment, but American JOINTS.)
416 Ligamentum Arteriosum
Lipoma Listeriosis
Lipoma is a tumour mainly composed of fat. A disease caused by Listeria monocytogenes
They are liable to arise almost anywhere in the which attacks rodents, poultry, ruminants, pigs,
418 Lithiasis
Shape There are probably few organs which Dogs The liver is very large, being about 5 per
vary so much in shape as the liver, not only cent of the whole bodyweight, and possesses
in different animals; but also in different 6 or 7 lobes. The gall-bladder is buried almost
individuals of the same species. completely in the space between the 2 parts of
the right central lobe, only a very small portion
Horse It lies obliquely across the abdominal of it being visible from the outside.
surface of the diaphragm, its highest and most
posterior part being at the level of the right Minute structure The liver is enveloped
kidney. It possesses a strongly convex diaphrag- in an outer capsule of fibrous tissue with which
matic surface which is moulded into the con- is blended the hepatic peritoneum. The hepatic
cavity of the diaphragm, and a posterior or artery, portal vein, and bile-duct divide and
abdominal surface which lies in contact with subdivide. Between the rows of liver cells also
the stomach, duodenum, and right kidney, lie fine bile capillaries which collect the bile
each of which organs forms a depression in the discharged by the cells and pass it into the
liver substance. It is only incompletely divided bile-ducts lying around the margins of the
into 3 lobes in the horse. Lying mainly in lobules. The liver cells are amongst the largest
the right lobe on its abdominal surface is the cells of the body, and each contains 1 large
‘porta’ of the liver, where the portal vein and nucleus. With careful special staining methods
hepatic artery enter and from whence the there can also be seen tiny passages or canals,
hepatic duct (bile-duct) emerges. Part of passing into the cells themselves; some of these
the posterior vena cava passes through the liver communicate with the bile-duct, and others
substance, whose blood it eventually drains. with the ultimate branches of the portal vein. L
The liver is held in position by the pressure After a mixed meal many of the liver cells
of other organs and by 6 ligaments. These can be seen to contain droplets of fat, and
are: the coronary, which attaches it to the granules of glycogen (animal starch) can also be
diaphragm; the falciform, from the middle determined. In addition to the cells above
lobe to the diaphragm and abdominal floor; described, there occur at intervals along the
the round, to the umbilicus; the right lateral, walls of the sinusoids in a lobule stellate cells
to the costal part of the diaphragm; the left which represent the remains of the endothe-
lateral, to the tendinous part of the diaphragm; lium from which the capillary-likesinusoids are
and the hepatorenal or caudate, to the right developed. They are known as ‘Kupfer’s cells’.
kidney.
Liver, Diseases of
Cattle The liver lies mainly to the right of One of the commonly known signs of liver dis-
the middle-line through the body, and its long turbance is JAUNDICE – a yellow coloration of
axis is directed downward and forward. Its the visible membranes. Gallstones, which are a
diaphragmatic surface fits into the concavity complication of some liver diseases, are treated
of the right part of the diaphragm, and its under GALL-BLADDER and GALLSTONES.
posterior surface is very irregular. It presents
impressions of the 2 main organs with which Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver, may
it comes into contact – the omasum and be acute, suppurative (in which abscesses are
reticulum. There is only 1 distinct lobe – the formed), or chronic. Acute inflammation pro-
caudate. There is no left lateral ligament, and duced by viruses, bacteria or poisons (of
the round ligament is only found in the calf. A bacterial, vegetable, animal, or mineral origin),
gall-bladder is present; it is situated partly in a from the intestines, and it is sometimes caused
slight depression on the posterior surface of the by the migration of parasites through the liver.
liver, and partly on the abdominal wall. The symptoms are pain on pressure over the
abdomen, an elevation of temperature, suppres-
Sheep The bile-duct joins the pancreatic to sion of the appetite, a disinclination to move,
form a common duct instead of opening and often diarrhoea or constipation in the later
separately as in other animals. stages. (See also CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS.)
Chronic inflammation accompanies many
Pigs The liver is large, very thick, and very diseases among animals, the commonest prob-
much curved. It lies in the anterior part of ably being infestation with liver-flukes, but it
the abdominal cavity, occupying the whole of may also be present as a result of tuberculosis.
the anterior hollow of the diaphragm and more Poisoning may be responsible. (See, for example,
to the right than to the left side of the body. lt RAGWORT POISONING which gives rise to CIR-
has 4 main lobes. RHOSIS.)
420 Liver, Displacement of
Rupture of the liver is by no means rare Life-history of a typical fluke The egg
among old animals, especially dogs and cats. It is usually passed to the exterior in the faeces of
may result from a blow, a kick, a traffic acci- the host and under suitable conditions, chiefly
dent, a fall, or from violent struggling, when of moisture and warmth, a small ciliated larva,
the liver is diseased. Even a small wound in called a ‘miracidium’, hatches from it. This
such a vascular organ as the liver is likely to larva, which is unable to feed and will die
prove fatal. (See also ‘MILKSPOT LIVER’ of pigs and within some hours unless it finds a suitable host,
sheep.) gains access to the liver or some other special
Rupture of the liver in lambs, aged 1 to 3 organ by actively penetrating the skin of an
months, may be the cause of sudden death. In appropriate snail – usually a specific snail for
a survey covering a period of 12 years, the any one parasite. In the snail’s tissue it develops
Thurso (Scotland) Veterinary Investigation into a sac-like sporocyst which, by a process of
Laboratory found that liver rupture in neonatal budding from the internal lining of cells, gives
lambs from 16 farms exceeded 8 per cent. The rise to a number of elongated ‘rediae’. Each redia
liver surface was covered with haemorrhagic is a simple, cylindrical sac-like organism which
tracts made by migrating metacestodes of gives rise, by budding of cells, either to another
Taenia hydatigena (see TAPEWORMS). generation of ‘daughter rediae’ or to ‘cercariae’.
The cercaria, which resembles a miniature tad-
Liver, Displacement of pole in general form, leaves the snail and, after
A 1-year-old cat with a history of anaemia, leading a free existence in water or on wet vege-
jaundice and ascites was found to have its liver tation for a short time, comes to rest on grass or
in the pericardium. other objects, loses its tail and becomes encysted
within a protective covering and remains in this
Liver-Flukes state until it is swallowed by the final host, in
Liver-flukes are parasitic flat worms which which it becomes a sexually mature fluke.
infest the livers of various animals, especially
sheep and cattle. They may cause severe illness Fasciola hepatica This is the common
and even death. liver-fluke of sheep. (Other hosts are cattle,
Liver-Flukes 421
goats, pigs, rabbits, hares, horses, dogs, man, Incidence of liver-flukes Although surveys
beavers, elephants, and kangaroos.) It is have reported a higher incidence of fluke in L
shaped more or less like a leaf, about 2.5 cm cattle (up to 40 per cent) than in sheep (13 per
(1 in) long, but considerable variations exist, cent), this is because cattle show calcification
and elongated forms are found. It has been of the bile ducts following exposure to the
recorded in most herbivorous animals and in parasite. In sheep, this calcification does not
man; but it is in cattle and sheep that it is of occur and so only sheep with recent infections
most importance. It is generally found in the will be recorded.
bile-ducts of the liver, but may be found in
other organs. Control measures To be effective, control
The life-history is typical, the intermediate requires a planned campaign rather than a
host being various species of Limnaea snails. single battle or weapon. In the sheep, infesta-
Cercariae may be swallowed with drinking tion does not lead to subsequent immunity, and
water or encysted on grass. this fact gives very little hope of an effective
Infestation, sometimes called ‘fluke disease’, vaccine (similar to the irradiated huskworm
results in anaemia and hepatitis. larvae vaccine) ever being produced. Not until
1971 was there any drug to kill all young,
Fasciola gigantica A parasite of cattle, immature flukes within the body, and it is these
sheep, and wild animals in the tropics and sub- which on their mass migrations through the
tropics, and more pathogenic than F. hepatica.
liver can damage it so severely that sudden duck-rearing scheme was introduced in areas
death inevitably follows. flooded by the River Zambesi as a method
Triclabendazole (Fasinex) is very effective of fluke-disease and bilharzia control. Hoof-
against flukes as it removes both immature and prints, where the soil is exposed, are favourite
adult stages. habitats of the snails. (See also under ANTS.)
Other drugs used against liver-flukes
include aldendazole, closantel, nitroxynil and Public health Watercress is the chief source
oxycyclozanide. of infestation. Illness is most marked during
In the UK, over 60 per cent of cattle and migration of immature flukes. Eosinophilia is
80 per cent of sheep are kept in the main a pointer to aid diagnosis; eggs may not appear
fluke areas. in the faeces for 12 weeks.
While sheep farmers are mostly fully alive to Symptoms in the human patient include
the fluke problem, it is suggested that most urticaria, jaundice, enlarged and tender liver,
cattle farmers are not. It has been pointed out and eosinophilia.
that on farms where mixed grazing is practised,
it is a waste of time and money to dose only the Cats (see under ‘LIZARD POISONING’; PANCREAS,
sheep and not the cattle. DISEASES of IN CATS)
Profit margins in beef production have been
improved by a combined anti-fluke attack, Liver/Kidney Syndrome of
using routine dosing of the cattle together with Poultry (FLKS)
a chemical spray (Frescon) on pasture to kill the Liver/kidney syndrome of poultry (FLKS)
L host snails. In trials, 18-month-old beef animals affects birds usually 2 to 3 weeks old.
finished 25 to 30 days earlier than controls, Symptoms may not be observed – or there may
giving higher profitability through savings in be depression for a day or two; occasionally
feed. Returns were further increased by better trembling or paralysis of legs. Mortality: 1 to
carcase grading. 5 per cent. The whole carcase may have a pink
An 8 per cent drop in milk yield has resulted tinge. It is the result of failure of the liver to
from low-grade infestations in dairy cattle, and synthesise glucose. The liver is pale, swollen,
it is claimed that autumn and winter dosing and fatty. The kidneys may be very swollen.
of dairy cattle helps to improve, or at least Biotin supplementation of the feed has been
maintain, milk quality levels. shown to alleviate the condition. (See also under
A vaccine against black disease – in which FATTY LIVER.)
spores of one of the gas-gangrene group of The syndrome has to be differentiated
organisms are stimulated into activity by young from toxic fat disease, Gumboro disease, and
flukes in the liver – can prevent deaths from infectious avian nephrosis.
the resulting toxaemia. Against the liver-flukes
themselves, routine dosing is essential on all Livestock Production
farms where they are likely to occur. (seeBEEF CATTLE HUSBANDRY; DAIRY HERD
Land drainage is still high on the list of MANAGEMENT; TROPICS; and to under PIGS and
control measures. SHEEP)
The use of snail-killers is a recommended
part of the campaign against fluke disease, but ‘Lizard Poisoning’ in Cats
is not a snag-free method. It is easy to miss This term is applied to infestation with
small areas inhabited by snails, and this applies the liver-fluke Plarynosomum concinnum, which
even when using a knapsack sprayer – the has been reported from South America, the
only possible method of spraying if the land Caribbean Islands, Malaysia, the USA and,
is too wet, is to take a tractor. Snail-killers can more recently, Nigeria. The life-cycle of the
be unpleasant to work with: the cheapest is parasite involves a large land snail, a crustacean,
sodium pentachlorophenate. N-trityemorpho- and lizards, frogs, and probably other amphib-
line is expensive per acre but has the advantage ians and reptiles. Symptoms in the cat include
of being relatively harmless to stock, so that listlessness, fever, jaundice, diarrhoea, vomiting,
grazing need not be delayed for a fort- and emaciation; but subclinical infestations
night as after copper sulphate dressings or also occur.
pentachlorophenate. All are poisonous to fish.
Running ducks over snaily land is not among Lizards
the official recommendations but it might The largest group of reptiles. These cold-
prove of some value. A few farmers have tried it blooded vertebrates, some of which are aquatic,
in the past. In Zambia years ago, a large-scale are often kept as pets. The environment must
Louping-Ill 423
be kept at the temperature appropriate for the Lobules are divisions of a lobe. The term
particular type of lizard. It is essential to provide ‘lobular’ is applied to disease which occurs in a
the diet recommended for the particular scattered irregular manner affecting lobules
species. Most lizards require meat; crickets may here and there, such as ‘lobular pneumonia’.
provide a suitable source. Iguanas, however, are
mainly, but not entirely, vegetarian. Adequate Local Anaesthetics
ultraviolet (UV) light must be available if (see under ANAESTHESIA; ANALGESICS)
normal bone development is to take place. Any
lizard wih a swollen limb may have osteodys- Local Immunity
trophy, and the source of UV light should be (see under IMMUNE RESPONSE; ORIFICES;
checked and a calcium supplement provided. SECRETORY IgA)
Chameleons and some other lizards have
pigment cells (chromatophores) in their skin Lockjaw
and can change colour to blend in with their (see TETANUS)
surroundings. However, a colour change can be
a sign of illness, particularly when the animal ‘Loco Weed’
cannot blend in with its surroundings. The legumes oxytropis and astragalus in the
The water in which aquatic lizards live USA contain toxins that cause incoordination,
must be kept fresh, otherwise a build-up of and extreme excitability in animals grazing
aeromonas or pseudomonas organisms may them. They are also teratogenic and if
occur. Conjunctivitis is not uncommon; it consumed in sufficient quantity, abortifacient.
shows as caseous (cheesy) discharge which must L
be gently removed before treatment can be Loose-Boxes
given. When diarrhoea occurs it is usually as a Individual enclosures for accommodating an
result of infestation with protozoan parasites. animal; also called box-stalls. The best type has
Skin parasites can be removed by (for example) well-built brick walls lined on the inside to the
treatment with ivermectin. The reptiles must roof with cement-plaster finished off smooth.
be removed to a clean cage or tank while the The floor is of cement-concrete, grooved to
original one is cleaned and treated with a suit- facilitate the draining away of fluids and to pro-
able inseticide. Egg-binding is usually associ- vide a foothold, and the corners are rounded off
ated with a calcium deficiency but may happen with fillets of cement. The only fittings inside
if no suitable site for laying has been provided. are hay-rack, water-bowl, and manger – of iron,
Any heating device must be located so that the and rather larger than in the stall of a stable, so
lizard does not come into contact with it. that cattle as well as horses may use them; in
some cases 1 or 2 rings, to which animals may
Llamas be tied, are provided. One or more windows,
Long-legged, long-necked domesticated ani- high up out of reach of the animals’ heads,
mals widely used as pack animals and for wool should be included, and the door should always
and hide in the South American Andes. They be made in 2 halves, so that horses with respi-
belong to the order Camelidae, which includes ratory diseases may stand with their heads out
also Alpaca, Guanaco and Vicuna. They are of the box, and so obtain a plentiful supply of
increasingly farmed in the UK. fresh air. Wherever possible, loose-boxes should
Importation of llamas and alpacas direct be built with a southerly aspect, so that the dis-
from South America into a Border Inspection infectant action of sunlight may be taken full
Post is permitted. On arrival, each animal is advantage of, whenever sick animals are housed
examined for infectious or contagious disease. in the box.
If no disease is apparent, the animals are
quarantined for a month (to eliminate the Lordosis
possibility of foot-and-mouth disease) before Lordosis is an unnatural curvature of the spine,
going on to their destination. so that the concavity of the spine is directed
upwards. It is seen in tetanus, and sometimes in
Lobe rabies.
Lobe is the term applied to the larger divisions
of various organs, such as the lungs, liver, and Louping-Ill
brain. The term ‘lobar’ is applied to structures Louping-ill is a paralytic disease of sheep, also
which are connected with lobes of organs, or called ovine encephalomyelitis; it is transmitted
to diseases which have a tendency to be limited by Ixodes ricinus, the tick commonly present on
to one lobe only, such as ‘lobar pneumonia’. hill pastures. It occurs in western Scotland, the
424 Louping-Ill
North of England, and the Northwest of the symptoms may appear in from 4 to 6 days
Ireland. There is a definite seasonal incidence, after the sheep is infested with the carrier ticks.
most cases occurring between March and June, The sheep becomes uneasy, lies down and rises
and between September and October; only a frequently during the day. Its temperature
few sporadic cases are met with at other ranges between 40° and 41.6°C (104° and
times of the year. All breeds of sheep are 107°F) during the next week or 10 days, and
susceptible. It occurs in cattle and has been it develops nervous symptoms. At first, it is
recorded as affecting pigs, horses, deer and also merely more timid and more easily frightened
dogs, in which the signs are fever, nystagmus, than usual; later, the muscles of the jaws and
hyperaesthesia, and sometimes a tetanus-like neck begin to twitch and quiver, and there may
rigidity. In 2 cases, bitches had whelped 5 weeks be frothing at the mouth. It staggers when
previously, and eclampsia was at first suspected. made to move rapidly or turn suddenly, and as
the disease becomes firmly established it may be
Cattle On upland grazings where ticks seen taking short spasmodic jumps, rising
abound, louping-ill has become of economic apparently from all 4 feet at the same time, and
importance in cattle. The animals become dull landing upon all 4 feet again. In this way an
and uninterested in food, walk in an unnatural affected sheep can usually be easily noticed
way, sometimes with their heads down, and among a flock when the sheep are being driven
occasionally become excited. or collected by a dog. In more advanced stages
the animal becomes paralysed, unable to stand,
Pigs The first naturally occurring outbreak in and often has its head drawn round over its
L pigs was reported in 1980 by the West of fore flank. Unconsciousness quickly appears,
Scotland Agricultural College’s veterinary inves- and the animal dies a short time afterwards.
tigation centre. Ten out of 16 piglets became In the subacute type the sheep is seen taking
severely affected with the disease when about 6 very high steps with its fore-legs; it holds its
weeks old. They showed nervous symptoms, head very high, and sometimes carries it to one
were either reluctant to move or wandered aim- side (often the left); the pupils are dilated, and
lessly and pressed their heads into corners. Of the expression of the sheep is one of extreme
the 3 worst cases, 2 failed to survive transport to fear when caught. It may attempt to feed, but
the VI centre, and the 3rd – being in a state of actually eats very little. Tremblings of the
convulsions – was killed on arrival there. Of the muscles, staggering and falling, and sometimes
remainder, 5 more died and 2 recovered. paralysis of one or more groups of muscles,
Those piglets had been housed in a covered are seen. As times goes on the sheep loses
pen with a concrete run considered to be condition. If not fed by hand it dies from
tick-proof; and the louping-ill virus was prob- starvation.
ably transmitted through the feeding of Recovery from an attack confers a degree
uncooked carcases of lambs which had died of immunity, which may last for life. (See also
on the farm after showing symptoms suggestive TICK-BORNE FEVER).
of louping-ill.
In another outbreak, pigs 6 to 8 months old Prevention Control measures should aim at
died of louping-ill after being allowed free the eradication of the infecting ticks from graz-
range on tick-infested pasture. ing lands. This is not easy, as the tick can live
under rough herbage without access to the
Cause A flavivirus. This is transmitted by the living sheep for as long as one year. A vaccine is
bites of infected ticks (adult or nymphal). The available and affords good protection. Cattle
virus primarily multiplies in the blood, and in should be vaccinated annually; sheep and goats
certain cases invades the central nervous system every 2 years.
at a later stage in the infection.
It would appear that accessory conditions Sheep Vaccination of ewes confers protection
favour such invasion, e.g. tick-borne fever, a in their lambs. Inoculations are carried out in
disease also transmitted by I. ricinus. spring prior to the season when ticks become
The ticks can survive, in the absence of sheep active.
and cattle, on deer, rabbits, hares, voles, field
mice, grouse, etc., and these animals may act as Cattle Investigations on hill farms where
host of the virus. louping-ill is a problem have shown that cattle
play an important part in the maintenance of
Signs Two forms of the disease are recognised: virus. Hill cattle as well as sheep therefore
an acute and a subacute form. In the acute form should be vaccinated, not only for their own
Lung-Flukes (Paragonimus Genus) 425
Functions Apart from their main function of Dogs The lungs are thicker than in either the
gaseous exchange (see AIR), the lungs can release horse or the ox in conformity with the more
histamine, metabolise noradrenaline, and barrel-like shape of the chest. There is no
inactivate prostaglandins. Local immune cardiac impression in the left lung. Each has
mechanisms also operate in the lungs. 3 large lobes, but the right has a small extra
Lung is composed of very highly elastic tissue mediastinal lobe, and there may be 1 or more
which consists of multitudes of tiny sacs accessory lobes in either lung.
arranged at the terminal parts of the smallest of
the bronchioles, and which collapse when the Colour In the perfectly fresh lung from a
balance of pressure between the air in the young unbled animal the colour of the lung is
sacs and on the outside of the lung surface a bright rose-pink with a glistening surface, the
is disturbed. Thus a lung shrinks to about pleural membrane; but in the lungs of older
one-third of its normal size when removed animals there is usually a certain amount of
from the chest cavity. deposit of soot, dust, etc., which has been
inhaled with the air and collected in the lymph
Horses The lungs occupy the greater part of spaces between the air cells.
the thoracic cavity, and are accurately moulded
to the walls of the chest and to the other organs Connections The lungs are firmly anchored
contained within it. The right is considerably in position by their roots to the heart and
larger than the left, owing to the presence of the trachea, and by the pleura to a longitudinal
heart, which lies mostly to the left side of septum running vertically from front to back,
the middle plane of the cavity. In the Equidae (the mediastinum) (see PLEURA). The pul-
the lung is not divided into lobes as it is in some monary artery, carrying unoxygenated blood
of the other animals. The apex is that portion to the lungs, divides into 2 large branches
which occupies the most anterior part of the after only a very short course. Each of these
chest cavity, and just immediately behind it is branches enters into the formation of the root
the deep impression for the heart. Behind this of the lung, and there begins to divide up into
again, and a little above it, is the ‘root’ of the a very large number of smaller vessels. These
lung, which consists of the blood vessels enter- subdivide many times until the final capillaries
ing and leaving the lung, lymph vessels, nerves, are given off around the walls of the air-sacs.
the bronchus, and here also are situated the From these the blood, after oxygenation, is car-
bronchial lymph nodes. In cross-section each ried by larger and larger veins, till it eventually
Lungs 427
Relationship of alveoli to terminations of pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein. (From John A. Clements,
Surface Tension in the Lungs. © Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.)
leaves the lung by one of the several pulmonary membrane is composed of columnar epithelial
veins. These number 6 or 7 or more, and leave cells, provided with little whip-like processes
the lungs by the roots. In addition to the blood known as ‘cilia’, which have the double func-
carried to the lung for aeration a small tion of moving any expectoration upwards
bronchial artery carries blood to the lung towards the throat, and of warming the air as it
substance for nutritive purposes. This accompa- passes over them. The walls of the bronchial
nies the bronchi and splits into branches corre- tubes are rich in fibres of elastic tissue, and
sponding to the small bronchi and bronchioles. immediately below the mucous membrane of
The lymph vessels in the root of the lungs are the small tubes is a layer of plain muscle fibres
very numerous, and are all connected with the placed circularly. To this muscular layer belongs
large bronchial glands for this part. the function of altering the lumen of the tube,
and, consequently, its air-carrying capacity. It is
Minute structure The main bronchial tube, a spasmodic contraction of the muscular layer
entering the lung at its root, divides into that produces the characteristic expiratory
branches, which subdivide again and again, to ‘cough’ of true asthma.
be distributed all through the substance of the The smallest divisions of the bronchial tubes
lung, till the finest tubes, known as ‘bronchi- open out into a number of dilatations, known as
oles’ or ‘capillary bronchi’, have a diameter ‘infundibula’, each of which measures about
of only about 0.25 mm. In structure, all these 1.25 mm across, and these are covered with
tubes consist of a mucous membrane sur- minute sacs, variously known as ‘air-vesicles’,
rounded by a fibrous sheath. The larger and ‘air-alveoli’, or ‘air cells’. An air cell consists of a
medium bronchi have plates of cartilage in delicate membrane composed of flattened plate-
the fibrous layer, and are richly supplied with like cells, strengthened by a wide network of
glands secreting mucus, which is poured out elastic fibres, to which the great elasticity of the
on to the surface of the lining membrane and lung is due; and it is in these thin-walled air cells
serves to keep it moist. The surface of this that the respiratory exchange of gases takes place.
428 Lungs, Diseases of
The branches of the pulmonary arteries hay or straw contaminated with micro-organ-
accompany the bronchial tubes to the farthest isms such as Thermopolyspora polyspora, and
recesses of the lung, dividing like the latter into resembling ‘FARMER’S LUNG’.
finer and finer branches, and ending in a dense
network of capillaries, which lies everywhere Tumours of the lung are usually of
between the air vesicles, the capillaries being so metastatic origin, i.e. they are secondary growths
closely placed that they occupy a much greater which have started from another centre in the
area than the spaces between them. The air in body, being carried to the lung tissue either by
the air vesicles is separated from the blood only the blood- or lymph-stream. (See CANCER.)
by 2 most delicate membranes, the wall of the
air cell and the wall of the capillary, and it is Gangrene of the lung may be a complica-
through these walls that the respiratory tion of, or a sequel to, pneumonia, and is usu-
exchange takes place. ally fatal. It is characterised by the presence of a
foul-smelling, usually rusty-red, and almost
Lungs, Diseases of always very copious discharge from both nos-
The chief of these is PNEUMONIA. (See also trils, in addition to the other symptoms of
under PLEURISY; EMPHYSEMA; TUBERCULOSIS; pneumonia. It is commonest in the horse as a
MAEDI/VISNA; CALF PNEUMONIA; EQUINE RESPI- sequel to ordinary pneumonia, and in other
RATORY VIRUSES; ENZOOTIC PNEUMONIA animals it may occur when the pneumonia has
OF PIGS; CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEURO-PNEU- been produced through faulty administration
MONIA; PARASITIC BRONCHITIS; PULMONARY of drenches. (See PNEUMONIA.)
L ADENOMATOSIS.)
Collapse of the lung The lungs are so
Congestion of the lungs Accumulation resilient, in consequence of the elastic fibres
of fluid, or ‘congestion’, is the preliminary stage throughout their substance, that if air be
of several types of acute pneumonia. It also admitted within the pleural cavities the lungs
occurs in disease of the left side of the heart. immediately collapse to about a third of their
FOG FEVER of cattle is another condition in natural size. Accordingly, if the chest wall is
which congestion of the lungs is seen. wounded and air gains entrance through the
‘Hydrostatic congestion’ of a lung is apt to wound (pneumothorax), the lung collapses.
occur if an animal which cannot stand, lies After the wound has healed, and provided that
for too long on one side. Regular turning of no complications occur, the elasticity is restored
the animal on to its other side is a necessary as the air is absorbed. (See PNEUMOTHORAX.)
nursing procedure.
Torsion of a lung lobe, usually the right
Pulmonary oedema This may occur cardiac lobe, is seen rarely in dogs and cats;
during pneumonia (some forms), in disease of it causes dyspnoea, pulmonary oedema, and
the left side of the heart, and (in cattle) in FOG death. The lobe may become twice its normal
FEVER, and in PARASITIC BRONCHITIS of cattle size and blackish.
and sheep.
An acute and usually rapidly fatal oedema Wounds of the lung are serious on
of the lungs occurs in animals exposed to smoke account of the air admitted through the chest
in a burning building; the animal almost liter- wall, which leads to collapse; also the haemor-
ally ‘drowns’ in its own blood serum. rhage, and the difficulty of checking it. The
(Administration of oxygen can be tried if an lung may be wounded by the end of a fractured
animal has been rescued before severe lung rib pointing inwards. (See ‘FLAIL-CHEST’.)
damage has been caused.)
Poisoning by PARAQUAT and ANTU results in Parasites of the lungs. Liver-flukes
oedema and consolidation of the lungs. (See also are sometimes found in the lungs of cattle
DIPS AND DIPPING; ELECTROCUTION.) and sheep; lung-flukes attack cats, dogs, pigs,
and man in the Far East and the USA.
Pulmonary emphysema (see FOG FEVER) Other parasites include LUNGWORMS. (See also
HEARTWORMS, for pulmonary dirofilariasis.)
Pulmonary haemorrhage (see RACE-
HORSES) Lupins, Poisoning by
Lupins of different species have often been
Allergic alveolitis Inflammation of the found to cause poisoning of sheep; sometimes
alveoli of the lungs of cattle exposed to mouldy also of horses, cattle, and goats.
Lymph Nodes 429
Poisoning by lupins is of 2 kinds: (1) due to A number of procedures for inducing luteol-
alkaloids within the plant producing a nervous ysis in domestic animals have been used. These
disease; and (2) due to infestation of the plant range from the squeezing out of an established
with a fungus which produces a toxin affecting corpus luteum by rectal palpation in cattle, to
the liver. This 2nd type of poisoning is known the use of oestrogens. Synthetic prostaglandins
as lupinosis, is usually chronic, and produces are now used.
loss of appetite and weight, jaundice, cirrhosis
of the liver, oedema of the head, ascites and Luxation
death. A few animals do recover but seldom (see DISLOCATION)
thrive well afterwards.
In the USA great loss among sheep flocks Lyme Disease
has been occasioned by feeding on lupins by This was first recognised in Connecticut, USA,
animals not accustomed to them. The alkaloids in 1975; the vector of infection is Ixodes ticks
are present chiefly in the seeds. on deer.
Poisoning by the alkaloids gives rise to symp- The disease occurs both in the UK and
toms which include loss of appetite, laboured in other EU countries; in adults as well as in
breathing, excitement, convulsions and death children.
from respiratory paralysis. There is no jaundice
or cirrhosis of the liver, and animals which Cause Borrelia burgdorfei. (See BORRELIA.)
recover are likely to do so completely.
Signs Blurred vision, lethargy, headaches, arthri-
Lupus Erythematosus tis. In a few cases meningitis or encephalitis or L
An autoimmune disease of dogs and cats which myocarditis result.
occurs in 2 forms: (1) the cutaneous or discoid
form, and (2) the systemic form. Lyme disease in dogs has been reported
The discoid form is characterised by sym- in the UK, other EU countries, the USA and
metrical lesions on face, nose, and ears. Australia.
Alopecia, loss of pigment, erythema, and a
scaliness may be seen. Exposure to sunlight Lymph
worsens the condition. Lymph is a clear fluid collected from the tissues
The systemic form affects many tissues and which enters the lymph vessels and thence
organs. Autoantibodies against platelets, red the blood. It contains less protein than, but is
and white blood cells may be present; with otherwise similar to, the blood plasma. It also
antibodies also in joints, kidney, skin, and contains lymphocytes.
other organs. Symptoms include bilateral pol- Lymph nourishes the tissues and returns
yarthritis, fever, muscle pain, enlarged lymph waste products from them back into the blood-
nodes, and sometimes nervous symptoms. stream. There are certain tissues which are not
Prednisolone is used in treatment. provided with a blood supply at all, (e.g. the
cornea of the eye, cartilage, horn, etc.) and in
Luteinising Hormone (LH) them the lymph is the only nourishing medium.
A secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary The lymph is derived in the first place from
gland. LH controls the development of the the bloodstream, of which the watery con-
CORPUS LUTEUM and its production of proges- stituents exude through the fine walls of the
terone. In the male animal, LH stimulates capillaries into the tissue spaces. After meals,
secretion of testosterone by the testicle. lymph from the small intestine may be milky in
appearance due to contained fat. (See also LYMPH
Luteolysis NODES; LYMPHOCYTE.)
Regression of a CORPUS LUTEUM. Two factors The term ‘lymph’ was also applied to the
appear to be involved in luteolysis in most material which collects in the vesicles of
domestic animals – one being prostaglandin F2α cow-pox and was used for vaccination.
and the other being follicular oestrogen synthe-
sis. It has been suggested that PGF2α is the nor- Lymph Nodes
mal luteolytic compound, and that it is trans- Formerly called lymph glands, these are situat-
ferred from the non-gravid uterus to the ovary ed on the lymphatic vessels, act as filters, and
by some form of counter-current distribution have an important role in body defence by
between the uterine vein and ovarian artery. producing lymphocytes. (See also RETICULO-
While the actual route for PGF2α transfer is in ENDOTHELIAL SYSTEM; IMMUNE RESPONSE;
some doubt, its physiological role is certain. LYMPHOCYTES; PLASMA CELLS.)
430 Lymphadenitis
Relationships between antigen and lymphoid cells illustrating the many stages at which antigen can be
destroyed. If antibodies are formed they may be passed on from mother to young.
Lysis Lyssa
Lysis has 2 meanings: the gradual ending of Lyssa is the name of a virus, similar but not
a fever (as compared with crisis); and the identical to rabies, which is carried by certain
destruction of a cell by an antibody. European bats. The bite of a bat carrying the
virus can infect man. Fatalities have been
Lysosomes recorded in Finland and the former
Lysosomes are structures within the cytoplasm Czechoslovakia. In 1996, an infected bat was
of a cell which are surrounded by a mem- found in Southern England; as a result, the UK
brane, contain enzymes and may carry out a was not officially rabies free until summer 1998.
digestive function for the cell, getting rid of Rabies vaccine will protect against lyssa virus.
bacteria, etc.
Malignant Theileriasis of Sheep Bitch As in the sow, there are 2 rows of glands
and Goats along the lower line of the abdomen. They are
A tick-borne disease caused by the protozoan usually 10 in number, but in the smaller breeds
parasite Theileria hirci, and occurring in there may only be 8, and in the larger breeds
Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Egypt, and there are sometimes 12. The teats each possess
Sudan. from 10 to 12 tiny lactiferous ducts.
Mammary Glands, Diseases of 435
Diagram showing one-half of the cow’s udder, and the median suspensory ligament which separates
the 2 halves.
Secretion of milk This is a continuous deficiency in those substances from the milk of
process, initiated at parturition (or before) by the old cows.
the hormone prolactin (from the pituitary (5) Lactation. A cow yields the greatest amount M
gland) and another from the thyroid. A number of milk between the 6th and 8th week after
of other hormones may be involved, both in calving; thence she gives a smaller amount each
stimulating and in maintaining secretion of day till about the 300th day, when she goes
milk. Milk accumulates in the alveoli, upper dry. Cows give best results when their lacta-
channels, and milk cisterns; the rate of secretion tion period does not exceed 81⁄2 to 9 months, i.e.
decreases as internal udder pressure rises. when they are dried off about 8 weeks before
Milk ‘let-down’ in the cow, associated with they are due to calve, having settled in-calf at
the hormone oxytocin, is referred to under the first. (See also PROGENY TESTING; RATIONS
MILKING. FOR LIVESTOCK.)
Colostrum is the name given to the first milk Mammary Glands, Diseases of
that is secreted by the udder.
(The importance of the newly born of any Mastitis, or inflammation of the udder. All
species of animal getting a supply of colostrum- the domestic animals are liable to the disease,
containing first milk, soon after it is born, is but it is commonest in the cow, ewe, and goat.
explained under COLOSTRUM.) (See MASTITIS IN COWS.)
(For other information concerning milk, see
MILK.) Abscess formation Antibiotics or sulpha
drugs are indicated; lancing the abscess can
Conditions affecting the milk yield give relief. (See ABSCESS: specific abscesses
of cows are considered under ACTINOMYCOSIS;
(1) Breed. TUBERCULOSIS.)
(2) Temperament. There is no doubt that a
placid but not sluggish, alert but not highly Tuberculosis of the udder (see TUBERCULOSIS).
nervous, cow makes the best milker.
(3) Health. It is, of course, necessary that a cow Tumours include papillomas, fibro-adeno-
should be in good general health if the best mas, and adenocarcinomas. Some tumours
results are to be obtained from her. of the bitch's mammary glands appear to be
(4) Age. A cow in good health improves in her hormone-dependent and contain oestrogen
milk yield up to her 7th or 8th year, and receptor protein. Of 2075 malignant tumours
remains at a high level until her 10th or 12th in bitches reported by 14 veterinary schools in
year. The milk of a young cow is much richer in the USA and Canada, 1187 were histologically
fats and solids than that of an aged animal, so malignant, 557 benign, and 331 in the ‘malig-
that the ideal position in a herd is to have nancy not determined’ category. (W. A. Priester,
enough young stock to counteract any possible National Cancer Institute, Maryland, USA.) In
436 Manchester Terrier
itching, the hair falls out, and the skin becomes Demodectic mange Cigar-shaped mites
covered with scab or with wart-like projections. invade the hair follicles, causing the hair to fall
It is found in the UK and North America. out in patches.
Treatment Improved liveweight gains have Demodectic mange (also known as follicular
followed treatment of sarcoptic mange. or ‘black mange’) is most common in dogs.
Amitraz, doramectin or IVERMECTIN may be
effective. Signs Two types of demodectic mange in dogs
have been described: (1) the squamous type, in
Mange in dogs and cats which the skin becomes scaly, wrinkled and
ringworm-like in appearance (and sometimes
Sarcoptic mange in the dog generally mistaken for ringworm); and (2) the pustular
starts on the muzzle and spreads backwards. type in which secondary bacterial infection
The animal should be clipped and bathed occurs. This is always very serious, and consti-
with green soap. It may then be treated with tutes an illness as well as a mere skin disease,
phosmet. If the infection is generalised, treat since the dog suffers from toxaemia. Indeed,
one-half of the body, and the other half after sometimes euthanasia becomes the only
2 or 3 days. humane course, especially when extensive
areas of skin are involved.
Notoedric mange in cats is similar to the
latter form in dogs. It is intensely irritating, Cause Demodex canis.
affecting face, ears, and occasionally legs
and external genitalia. It is now very rare in Treatment is made difficult by the fact
M the UK. that the mites are sometimes living at a depth
Benzyl benzoate may prove toxic to cats and difficult to reach. However, amitraz and
so one of the sulphur preparations or piperonyl IVERMECTIN are effective.
butoxide is recommended.
Diagnosis is made or confirmed by the
Otodectic or auricular mange occurs in examination of skin scrapings under a
dogs and cats. Otodectes is the most frequent microscope.
cause of irritation in the ears; it causes scratching The disease often appears in the dog when
and shaking of the ear. 8 to 12 months old, usually first on the head,
The eggs and larvae are very resistant, and around the eyes and nose, and on or near the feet.
survive under treatments which kill the adults.
Mange in goats may be caused by
First-aid Cat-owners may be able to provide D. caprae, and characterised by palpable
a little temporary relief by means of a few nodules or pustules without loss of hair.
drops of olive or vegetable oil, which will help The disease usually starts on face, neck and
to soften waxy deposits and kill some mites. shoulders. Ivermectin and related drugs or
A few drops of warm, soapy water (not dish- phosmet have proved successful in treatment.
washing detergent liquid) may achieve the
same result. However, professional advice Mange in fowls
should be obtained without delay.
Owners should not poke around with ‘Depluming scabies’ in fowls is caused by
cotton-wool wound round an orange stick or Cnemidocoptes laevis, which lives at the base of
tweezers, as the wool will slip off, and the skin the feathers, and so irritates the fowl that it
of the external ear canal is then likely to be pulls them out. The stumps left may be seen to
abraded, or even the ear-drum punctured. be surrounded with crusts. The affected spots
and surrounding areas may be treated with
Professional treatment consists in the use IVERMECTIN.
of eardrops containing an effective mite-killer,
plus an analgesic to reduce the irritation caused ‘Scaly leg’ is caused by C. mutans. The feet
by the mites. and legs become enlarged and crusted. The
In neglected cases, or those complicated by birds may become very lame and even lose a
bacterial or fungal infections, where a painful, toe. Destruction of infected birds combined
suppurating condition is present, antibacterial with rigorous disinfection is the most common
or anti-fungal drugs must be used. method of eradication. If this procedure is
(See DEAFNESS and EARS, DISEASES OF; also not convenient, the scab should be removed
HAEMATOMA.) with soap and water, the leg dried, and one of
Marek's Disease 439
the preparations mentioned above used. This position, carpal contractures, pastern joint
should be repeated in 3 or 4 days. hyperextension, a dome-shaped skull, and
Cage birds may suffer from this infestation. deafness.
C. pilae causes ‘scaly face’ and ‘tassel foot’.
Manure Heaps
Dermanyssus gallinae is the chicken mite Manure heaps are potentially a source of infec-
of Europe and North America. It is whitish to tion and should be fenced off. Grass growing
red in colour. The complete life-cycle takes near manure heaps may also contain pathogens
about 7 to 10 days. and parasites. New manure should be buried
The mite lives exclusively on blood. It is under older manure; the new manure will
nocturnal in its habits, living in crevices then heat up to about 70°C, destroying
during the day. most pathogens, if left for a few days. (See also
Eradication of the mite must be thorough. SLURRY.)
All wooden structures must be disinfected. A
painter's blow lamp is very useful for cracks. Manx
Affected flocks may be treated by A breed of cat that is without a tail, or has
cypermethrin, as a dilute spray. only a very short one. The breed originated on
Although primarily a parasite of fowls, this the Isle of Man and the Manx government
mite will attack horses and other mammals, maintains a breeding colony. The lack of tail is
causing much irritation, with the eruption of due to a dominant mutation and is seen as a
papules and the formation of scabs. The mite, depression at the end of the spinal column.
as it feeds only at night, may be overlooked as There may be associated defects in vertebrae,
the cause of the disease. The proximity of fowls and malfunction of the sphincter muscle. If M
suffering from the mite may give a clue. both parents carry the mutant gene, kittens die
before birth. Early deaths in kittens may be due
Ornithonyssus sylviarum, the northern to malformations such as fused vertebrae or
fowl mite which is also common in Britain, spina bifida. Manx cats with a short tail are
causes scab formation, soiling of the feathers, called ‘stumpies’; some are born with tails and
and thickening of the skin around the vent. In are known as ‘longies’. Manx cats have longer
contrast to the chicken mite, this parasite back legs than forelegs, causing an unusual gait.
remains on its host.
In Israel allergic rhinitis and bronchial ‘Marble Bone Disease’
asthma have been caused by this mite among (see OSTEOPETROSIS)
poultry farmers.
Marburg Disease
Liponyssus bursa, the tropical ‘fowl mite’, (see MONKEYS)
replaces the last species in the warmer parts
of the world. Unlike it, however, this species Marek's Disease
is found on the fowls and in the nest. It may This contagious disease of domestic poultry
feed during the day. It also lays eggs and moults was first described in Austria-Hungary in 1907.
on its host. The symptoms are similar. It was first recorded in America in 1914, and
in Britain in 1929, and spread widely. The
Manioc availability of vaccines, with good hygienic
An ingredient of some compound animal feeds practice, has greatly reduced the losses from
which has been found unsafe for turkeys. (See Marek's disease, which is a neoplasm caused by
CASSAVA.) a herpesvirus. Turkeys are rarely affected as they
normally harbour a different herpesvirus – one
Mannosidosis that affords protection against Marek's disease.
The most widely recognised lyosomal storage The turkey virus has been used in a vaccine for
disease of cattle, especially of Aberdeen Angus. chickens.
It is due to a genetic deficiency of the enzyme Formerly called fowl paralysis, Marek's
mannosidase. Affected calves develop ataxia and disease had, before the advent of vaccination
become aggressive; finally, paralysis sets in. against it, become the most economically
important disease of poultry in many
Beta-mannosidosis, an inherited disorder countries, in terms of fowl mortality, carcase
of glycoprotein metabolism, has been condemnation, and lost egg production.
identified in goats, and is rapidly fatal. Signs At least 2 forms of Marek's disease are recog-
include inability to rise from a recumbent nised: the classical form, in which paralysis – to
440 Mares, Infertility in
a varying degree – is the outstanding feature; stored in liquid nitrogen; care is needed in
and an acute leukosis form, in which lymphoid handling as the ampoules may shatter or cause
tumour formation is the main feature, with freeze burns. The manufacturers' instructions
nervous symptoms less in evidence. must be followed.
poisoning, and is similar in its effects to Once it is known that it exists, bacteriological
BUTTERCUP POISONING. tests can be used to identify the organisms
responsible and to determine the best treat-
Marsupial ments. Sometimes an excess of white cells
A mammal of an order in which the young are (more than 500,000 per ml) in the milk is the
born in an immature state and continue their result of inflammation due to trauma and not
development in a maternal pouch. Examples to infection. Thus the California or Whiteside
are kangaroos and opossums in Australia. Test may draw attention to a faulty milking
machine or bad milking technique.
Marteiliosis The mastitis situation in a herd can be
A disease caused by Marteillia refringens that monitored on a monthly basis by laboratories
affects molluscs, especially oysters. It is a operating electronic cell counters. The table
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE in the UK and parts of shows the ranges of white cell counts.
the EU. The graph shows the spread of mastitis in an
autumn calving herd.
Masham Mastitis tends to rise as the winter progresses
The cross resulting from a Blackface ewe and a and fall when the cows first go out to grass. The
Wensleydale ram. cell counts rise again in July and August chiefly
because of the high proportion of the cows
Mast Cell nearing the end of their lactation. Cell counts
Mast cell is a type of connective tissue cell. and mastitis levels fall again in September when
It releases histamine and heparin, which cause some of the older cows are being culled and first
anaphyllaxis and atopy in cases of allergic calf heifers are coming into the herd. Mastitis M
reaction. (See under BLOOD – Basophils; also levels rise again through the winter period.
REAGINIC ANTIBODIES.)
Clinical mastitis should be regarded as a
Mast-Cell Tumours herd problem.
Nodular tumours of the skin which are usually
benign but may become malignant. (See also Acute Shivering may usher in the attack. Later,
MASTOCYTOMA.) there is a rise in temperature; fast, full pulse;
short, quick respirations; and an uneasy appear-
Mastiff ance. The animal paddles with her feet, but is
A very large, light-coloured dog with short usually afraid to lie on account of the pain occa-
coat, folded-over ears and a broad muzzle. Hip sioned to the udder. She refuses food, and
dysplasia may be present and the breed is prone rumination is in abeyance. When the udder is
to extropion. examined it is found that one (or more) quarter
is swollen, tense, reddened, and very painful
Mastitis to the touch; the cow may stand with her
Inflammation of the udder. (See MAMMARY hind-legs straddled apart.
GLAND, DISEASES OF, for mastitis in animals
other than the cow.) ‘Summer mastitis’ (often involving gan-
grene of the udder) usually occurs either in
Mastitis in Cows heifers or in dry cows; however, it is seen occa-
Inflammation of the udder, involving the secret- sionally in cows just after calving. It is caused by
ing cells of the mammary glands, or its connective Actinomyces pyogenes, often in association with
tissue, or both. (See diagram, page 442.) other pathogenic bacteria (e.g. Peptococcus
indolicus).
Subclinical mastitis Mastitis may be unac- ‘Summer mastitis’ is something of a
companied by obvious symptoms. This form misnomer, in that, while it is most common
commonly reduces milk yields by 10 per cent in July and August, it is also seen in January
or so, and is consequently of great economic and February.
importance. It has been stated that approxi- If the gangrene affects a large part of the
mately 1 cow in 3 in Britain is affected by quarter, or when more than one-quarter is
subclinical mastitis. attacked, the condition of the cow is serious
Simple tests have been used to detect the in the extreme.
presence of an abnormally high content of The animal may stand aloof from the rest of
white cells in an ordinary-looking sample of the herd, sometimes paddles with her hind feet,
milk, and so indicate the presence of mastitis. and is obviously in pain. On examination the
442 Mastitis in Cows
Diagram showing the relationship between the amount of mammary gland tissue involved and the form
of mastitis which results.
Estimate of
Estimate of milk production
Cell count ranges mastitis loss per cow
(cells/cc) problem per year
Below 250,000 Negligible —
250,000–499,000 Slight 190 litres (42 gallons)
500,000–749,000 Average 330 litres (74 gallons)
750,000–999,000 Bad 760 litres (169 gallons)
1,000,000 and over Very bad 885 litres (197 gallons)
trouble is soon located to the udder, where seldom a serious problem; S. uberis is more
hardness – but not necessarily swelling – of a resistant.
quarter is detected. Foul-smelling pus (grey, In a survey of 5 herds, S. uberis was found to
greenish-yellow, or blood-stained) is present. be the major pathogen associated with dry cow
mastitis.
Treatment Antibiotics, by injection or
intramammary administration, may save the Coliform or ‘Environmental’ mastitis
animal's life, though use of the quarter is has become increasingly prevalent in recent
usually lost. years, and is common during the winter. This
infection of the udder is often long-lasting, and
Prevention The injection into the teat-canal the cow is ill with it, so that its economic effects
of long-acting intramammary antibiotic prior may be greater than with streptococcal or
to turning out, repeated every 3 to 6 weeks staphylococcal mastitis. Many outbreaks have
depending on the product used, during been linked with cold, wet weather; they
summer. (In maiden heifers and in-calf heifers, are aggravated by damp bedding, sawdust,
this procedure may be difficult and not always and muddy conditions underfoot when strip-
practicable. Care is needed to avoid both grazing kale, etc. The above conditions would
damage to the teat and the introduction of appear to favour the entry of E. coli through
pathogenic bacteria.) the teat-canal, but the organism may also
Give such protection against flies as is reach the udder via the bloodstream in cattle
practicable. which are scouring – often after a sudden
change of diet – as a result of an active E. coli
Subacute mastitis The disease runs a course gut infection. M
not unlike that of the acute form, but the symp- ‘Experimentally, severe cases of coliform
toms appear much more slowly. There is a mastitis can be produced only in early
greater difficulty in milking, the first drawn lactation following the stress of calving – a
milk often containing little clots and always situation commonly prevailing in naturally
large numbers of shed epithelial cells; later, occurring field cases.’ (IRAD, Compton.) (See
there is a gradually increasing pain and swelling COLIFORM.)
in the affected quarter, accompanied by Klebsiella spp. and Enterobacter aerogenes are
an alteration in the colour of the milk to other organisms involved in mastitic infections.
yellowish or yellowish-grey. The amount of
milk decreases. As a rule, appetite remains Leptospiral mastitis Leptospiral infection
normal, pulse and breathing are unaltered, and often causes agalactia rather than mastitis.
if there is any rise in the temperature it is slight. However, in 1 outbreak in Northern Ireland,
involving half a herd of 140 cows over a
Chronic mastitis shows little general consti- 2-month period, symptoms included a sudden
tutional disturbance, and an almost complete drop in milk yield, flaccid udders with all
absence of pain, a slowly progressing increase 4 quarters affected, thickish and sometimes
in the density of the gland, a diminution in bloodstained milk, fever (a temperature of up
the secretion of milk, and a gradual increase in to 41°C (106°F)), and quickened breathing
the size of the affected quarter or quarters. and pulse rates. The illness in individual cows
Pathological changes in the udder may lasted from 1 to 4 days. Leptospira hardjo was
render any antibiotic ineffectual. One such isolated from the milk and blood of cows with
problem is the survival within phagocytes of clinical mastitis. (See LEPTOSPIROSIS IN CATTLE.)
staphylococci, where they are protected from Among other bacteria which may cause
the lethal action of most antibiotics. (See mastitis are Bacillus subtilis, which has been
PHAGOCYTOSIS.) isolated from washing water, header tanks, and
Antibiotics can more economically be used teat-cup liners; Pseudomonas; and Chlamydia.
when the cow is in the dry period. Long-acting Campylobacter jejuni has also caused mastitis.
antibiotics can then be given without aggravat-
ing the problem of antibiotic residues in milk. Mycoplasmal mastitis occurs in Britain and
(See under MILK – Antibiotics in milk.) many other countries, and may prove resistant
to antibiotics. In an outbreak in North Wales
Bacterial mastitis Staphylococcus aureus, over a 5-week period, half a herd of 115 cows
Streptococcus agalactiae, S. uberis and S. dys- became infected, and 14 had to be sold for
galactiae are among the main organisms respon- slaughter. The milk was at first brownish
sible for mastitis. However, S. dysgalactiae is in colour. The mastitis was rapid in onset,
444 Mastitis in Cows
producing a hard swollen quarter which was Algal mastitis A UK outbreak of severe
neither hot nor tender; the cows showed little indurative mastitis in newly calved cows, from
sign of general illness. Unlike in other forms which Prototheca zopfii was isolated, has been
of mastitis, there was a rapid spread to other reported. (See ALGAE.)
quarters of the udder. The first isolation of
Mycoplasma californicum from cows with Man-to-cow-infections Occasionally,
chronic, incurable mastitis in the UK was mastitis in cattle arises from infection by
made in 1982 – 10 years after its first isolation human beings. The kind of streptococci which
in California. Other species include M. can give rise either to a severe sore throat or to
bovigenitalium. scarlet fever can result in an outbreak of mas-
titis in a dairy herd, and several such outbreaks
Viral mastitis has been associated with have been reported in various countries. The
vesicular stomatitis and infectious bovine pneumococcus, a cause of human pneumonia,
rhinotracheitis. has been isolated from the udders of cows with
streptococcal mastitis in Essex, Bedfordshire,
Mycotic mastitis More than 25 species of and other counties, the source being the
fungi have been implicated. The worst of these cowman's throat. Campylobacter jejuni has also
is called Cryptococcus neoformans and it can been transmitted from man to cow. (See under
cause outbreaks of mastitis severe enough to MILK-BORNE DISEASE for Corynebacterium
lead to cows being slaughtered. ulcerans, etc.; see also SALMONELLOSIS.)
The spread of infection Infection enters 40 per cent and practised only in 11 per cent
by way of the teat and can easily be spread from (but see MILK – Sediment in milk).
cow to cow by milkers' hands or the cups of the Questions which the farmer must ask are as
machine, but apparently less easily by the latter follows:
method. Udder cloths and towels are also (1) Is the person doing the milking capable
commonly infected. It has also been shown that of handling the cows properly, and keen to do
in an infected herd, a large proportion of sores so?
or chaps harbour organisms, and these may be (2) Are the vacuum gauges and cup-liners
a source of infection of the udder itself in the kept correctly adjusted?
same cow or in another. The skin of the teats (3) Is hand-stripping avoided?
and the milkers' hands may remain infected (4) If a disinfectant is used, is it used at the
from one milking to another, and in a correct strength?
heavily infected herd the skin of the cows' (5) Are there disposable paper towels?
bodies, milkers' clothes, floor, partitions, etc. (6) Are there any old, chronically infected
become contaminated and may remain so for cows in the herd which do not respond to
considerable periods. treatment and would be better disposed of?
(7) Is fly-control being practised in the
Treatment Proper treatment depends upon a milking parlour?
correct diagnosis and the use of suitable antibi- (8) Is attention being given to the 96-hour
otics in adequate dosage, introduced into the rule regarding the withholding of milk from
udder with aseptic precautions so as not to a cow after calving, whether treated with
introduce further (and perhaps more virulent) antibiotics or not?
infection. Adequate dosage is important, as Rough inexpert milking and stripping M
otherwise strains of resistant organisms may predispose to mastitis. With machine milking,
arise. In some cases sulfanilamide may be used. the use of a badly designed teat-cup liner, for
(See ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE.) instance, or leaving the cups on an empty
quarter, may lead to trouble. (See under MILKING
The control of mastitis An important aid MACHINES for faulty use of these, leading to
is teat-dipping. The liquid mainly used for teat- mastitis.) Bruising is an important predisposing
dipping is an iodophor – a type of disinfectant cause, and for this reason cows should never be
containing iodine but extremely mild in its hurried, especially before milking, as the udder
effect upon the tissues. Good results can also may be injured. This applies particularly to
be obtained with hypochlorite teat-dips older cows in which the udder is large and
containing 1 per cent available chlorine. pendulous. Chilling must be avoided, and also
In rotary parlours with automatic cluster chapped teats (the latter should be left dry after
removal equipment and only 1 operator, milking). Even the smallest injuries and sores
teat-dipping is often impracticable and on the teats should be carefully attended to,
teat-spraying (probably less effective) is the since the germs which gain entry to these so
only alternative. often gain entry to the udder later.
A 2nd recommendation is the wearing by the Routine use of the strip-cup is helpful. If
dairyman of smooth rubber gloves, which can flecks or clots are seen in the milk, segregate the
be dipped in disinfectant before the udder is cow(s) if practicable, and – in any case – milk
washed. They represent a partial solution to the after the others. When a strip-cup is used, care
problem created by the fact that hands cannot should be taken to see that neither the handle
be sterilised. nor the fingers become a source of infection to
Warm-water sprays may be used for udder- clean cows. Use the cup before the udder is
washing, and disposable paper towels for washed.
drying. The latter obviate cross-infections from
udder cloths. (See also SPONGES.) Dry-cow therapy It has been shown in large-
If warm-water sprays are not available, wash scale field experiments that the best time to treat
the udder (if very dirty) with plain warm water cows to eliminate infection from the udders is
first, then with an udder wash; numerous during the dry period. Particularly with staphy-
proprietary formulations are available, based on lococcal infection, there is a better chance of
benzalkonium, cetrimide, chorhexidine, solu- removing infections at this time than during
bilised iodine, etc. If none of these is available, a lactation, and better results are achieved when
1 per cent solution of cetrimide may be used. cows are treated in the subclinical phase of the
It is significant that in herds with a low inci- disease rather than during a clinical attack.
dence of mastitis, udder-washing is avoided in Treatment during the dry period not only
446 Mastitis in Ewes
eliminates most of the existing infection; it also subjected to non-specific resistance factors at
prevents most of the new infections from occur- 2 levels, either in the teat-canal or in the mam-
ring during the dry period, including ‘summer mary gland itself. The teat-canal acts as a
mastitis’. Another advantage is that there is no mechanical barrier, but in addition invading
problem of milk being contaminated with pathogens within the canal are subjected to
antibiotic(s), provided that a cow is dry for 6 the activity of antimicrobial fatty acids and
weeks or longer. It is advisable to treat all cows. cationic proteins. Pathogens breaching these
Preparations containing cloxacillin have proved barriers are then subjected to the defences of
very effective. Teat-dipping of dry cows is also the mammary gland itself. In the early stages
useful in preventing summer mastitis. of infection there is a considerable increase in
somatic cells in the milk, which is associated
Control measures summarised. with an increased resistance to infection.
During the early stages of the inflammatory
(1) Records Keep all details of cell-count reaction the invading pathogens are exposed to
figures on a monthly basis and use these to the action of neutrophils, locally produced
monitor the incidence of mastitis in the herd. humoral factors and proteins from the systemic
Record also details of milking-machine testing circulation which pass into the mammary
and maintenance. gland. These serum factors include the
immunoglobulins, complement units and other
(2) Milking machines Have machinery antimicrobial proteins.’ (Dr K. G. Hibbitt and
tested regularly and thoroughly at least once Dr A. W. Hill, IRAD, Compton.)
a year. At each milking check the vacuum
M pressures, pulsation rates, air bleeds and liners. Breeding for resistance to bovine
Remember that machines are used 730 times a mastitis may be possible in the future. (See
year and faulty machines can lead to a mastitis MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY SYSTEM.)
build-up.
Mastitis in Ewes
(3) Teat-dipping and hygiene Use an Common causes are Pasteurella haemolytica,
effective iodophor-plus-lanolin teat-dip on each which can produce a peracute mastitis with
quarter as the cluster is removed. Wear smooth gangrene, and Staphylococcus aureus. Once the
rubber gloves for preference; use the fore-milk ewes are separated from their lambs, dry-cow
cup before washing the udders with clean, intramammary preparations may be used as a
running water. Use clean paper towels – not a preventive measure. It is essential to use 1 tube
dirty cloth – to dry the udders. per teat.
occasionally muscle. A mastocytoma may be When large amounts have been eaten, the
malignant. It contains numerous MAST CELLS. symptoms include ataxia and abdominal pain;
In cattle this tumour is also regarded as death may occur in from 16 hours to 4 days.
potentially malignant. The plant should be eradicated from pastures
in the autumn when its striking pale purple
Maternal Antibodies crocus-like flowers can be easily seen. The bulbs
Their function in protecting the offspring from should be dug out or cut with a hoe.
infections encountered by the dam is referred
to under COLOSTRUM. The immunity so Meal-Feeding in Piggeries
produced is a temporary one, and wanes. The This can result in a very dusty atmosphere
timing of vaccinations to induce lasting immu- under some circumstances, causing coughing
nity is crucial (see DISTEMPER PREVENTION); and a feeling of tightness in the chest in people
for if carried out while the level of maternally working there, and sometimes to a false
derived antibody is significant, vaccination assumption that the pigs are coughing because
will fail. (See also MEASLES VACCINE; CANINE of enzootic pneumonia.
PARVOVIRUS.)
Measles
Mavis (see under MONKEYS; MEASLES VACCINE)
Medicines Act Veterinary Information Service
newsletter. Issued by the Veterinary Medicines ‘Measles’ in Beef
Directorate, Woodham Lane, New Haw, (see TAPEWORMS)
Addlestone KT15 3NB.
‘Measles’ in Pork M
Maxilla (see TAPEWORMS)
(see SKULL – General arrangement of the skull)
Measles Vaccine
MCG (mcg) An attenuated measles virus vaccine may be used
Microgram: 1 millionth of a gram. in the dog to give protection against distemper.
(See also under DISTEMPER.) Measles vaccine can
Meadow-Saffron Poisoning overcome low levels of maternally derived
The meadow saffron (the autumn crocus, antibodies and may be used from 5 weeks old.
Colchicum autumnale), a common inhabitant of
meadows, hedge bottoms, and woodland areas Meat
in England and Wales, is a cause of poisoning PORCINE STRESS SYNDROME; HORSE-MEAT;
(see
among horses and cattle. Pigs may sometimes DOGS' DIET, and below)
eat the bulbous root (corm) and suffer, but
sheep and goats are resistant. All parts of the Meat, Dark
plant are poisonous, both when green and Meat with limited fat cover and intramuscular
when dried in hay, but the toxicity varies at fat appears dark. This is seen particularly in bull
different times of the year. Cases of poisoning carcases, and horse meat is always dark in
are usually seen in the spring, when the leaves colour. Dark cutting beef is possibly the single
and seed-vessels are produced, and then again biggest cause of loss to beef processors. It is
in summer and autumn (from August to caused by a deficiency of glycogen in the mus-
October), when the flowers are formed. cles of an animal at slaughter which prevents the
The poison, (colchicine) is present in normal decrease in pH post-mortem. As a result
largest amounts in the seeds and corms; it is there is an increase in enzyme activity; this uses
cumulative in its action. up the oxygen which would normally convert
the dark myoglobin into pink oxymyoglobin
Signs When only small quantities have been and the meat appears dark. It also tends to be
taken there is loss of appetite, suppression of dry because of the higher water-binding capac-
rumination, profuse dribbling of saliva, and ity of muscle protein at a higher pH. The stores
diarrhoea. The excretion of colchicine by the of glycogen are depleted principally by muscular
kidneys causes irritation in the urinary bladder, exhaustion and stress, and these 2 factors must
and induces the animal to pass urine in small be avoided in the 48 hours before slaughter in
amounts almost as soon as it is formed. Blood order to minimise the risk of dark cutting beef.
may be present in both the urine and the milk (See also PORCINE STRESS SYNDROME.)
of dairy cows. Abortion is common in pregnant Long fasting times are associated with a
cows and heifers. reduction in carcase yield in pigs and an
448 Meat-Handlers' Occupational Hazards
increase in the incidence of dark, firm, dry etc. In 1982, new controls on the trade in meat
(DFD) meat. unfit for human consumption came into force.
If not sterilised, meat must be stained; likewise
Meat-Handlers' Occupational offal. Poultry meat is exempt. The colouring
Hazards agent used is black PN or brilliant black BN.
Many of the infectious diseases that affect
animals can be transmitted to abattoir workers Meatus
and may cause illness. They include infection Meatus is a term applied to any passage
by beta-haemolytic streptococci, which can or opening; e.g. the external auditory meatus
infect cattle, sheep, pigs and chickens. People is the passage from the surface to the drum
involved in the slaughter of these animals may of the ear.
be exposed to ringworm and impetigo, and
any cuts on their hands may become Mebendazole
infected. (See also under ZOONOSES; also under A broad-spectrum anthelmintic used in most
specific examples such as ORF; LOUPING-ILL; species. Proprietary preparations include
TUBERCULOSIS; ANTHRAX; RABIES.) Telmin (Janssen) and Chanazole (Chanelle).
Low serum magnesium levels can indicate which the central or 3rd is the largest, and the
impending outbreaks of hypomagnesaemia; inner (2nd) and outer (4th) are rudimentary. In
magnesium dietary supplements can avoid the the ox there are 2 large metacarpals fused
risk. In 1 case where cows were thought to together; the sheep is similar; the pig has 4
be dying from calving injuries, magnesium separate from each other; and the dog possesses
deficiency was the actual cause. 5 bones in this region.
Used prudently, metabolic profiles can be
used cost-effectively to identify deficiencies – or Metacercaria
excesses – of blood metabolites linked to actual The cyst (dormant) stage of flukes such as
or potential clinical problems, which can then Fasciola hepatica; when ingested by an animal,
be corrected or avoided. the life-cycle is resumed.
Legal standards In Britain, under the Sale Sediment in milk Milk containing sedi-
of Food and Drugs Act, milk containing less ment has been the subject of prosecutions
than 3 per cent of butterfat, or less than 8.5 per under the Food and Drugs Act 1955. Milk and
cent of non-fatty solids (i.e. proteins, sugar, and Dairy Regulations 1959 require that before
ash), is deemed to be not genuine (until or milking is begun, all dirt on or around the
unless the contrary is proved) by reason of flanks, tail, udder and teats of each cow shall
either the addition of water or the abstraction be removed, and that the udder and teats shall
of some of the fatty or non-fatty solids. (See be kept thoroughly clean during milking.
SOLIDS-NOT-FAT.) Additionally, milking must be carried out in a
good light (daylight or electric light); no dusty
The specific gravity of cow's milk varies material may be moved during or within half
between 1.028 and 1.032. The greater the an hour before milking.
fat content, the lower the specific gravity In order to minimise contamination of milk
because fat is lighter than water and solids, during milking, the cow's udder should be
bulk for bulk. sprayed or wiped with a disposable towel wrung
M out of water containing a disinfectant, and
The reaction of the milk of the herbivorous the hands of the milker should be thoroughly
animals is generally approximately neutral, washed before the milking of each cow (prefer-
while that of the carnivorous animals is acid. ably in water containing a disinfectant).
(See MASTITIS IN COWS for recommended
Bacteria Since 1982 the total bacterial count procedure.)
(TBC) has been applied once weekly to samples
of milk collected from each supplier. Average Lactic acid is produced by the action of
results over 1 month, using the Plate Count bacteria on lactose – the result being sour
Test, determined the payment for the milk. The milk – and is also present in sour cream and
‘cleanest’ grade, with an average number of yoghurt. (See also LACTIC ACID.)
micro-organisms of 20,000 or fewer per ml
attracted a price premium; milk with more than White blood cells in milk In the EU,
100,000 organisms per ml was subject to a milk may not be sold if it contains more than
deduction from the agreed price per ml. 400,000 cells per ml. Most milk marketing
Since 1996, the milk marketing organisation companies impose a penalty if bulk milk has a
Milk Marque has used the more sensitive cell count of 250,000 cells per ml or more;
some have more stringent limits. High levels of mammary gland, render the milk actually
white blood cells in milk are the result of sub- poisonous. (See BRACKEN POISONING.)
clinical mastitis due to (a) trauma, defective
milking machine or technique; (b) infection; Dioxins in milk Unacceptably high levels of
(c) both. (See MASTITIS IN COWS.) dioxin are occasionally found in milk.
The World Health Organisation has recom-
Antibiotics in milk It is important that mended a ‘tolerable daily intake’ for dioxins of
milk should not contain traces of antibiotics, 0.01 nanogrammes per kilogram of milk.
which are frequently used in treating mastitis.
Some people are allergic to antibiotics, and if Milk, Absence of
they drink milk containing them they may Absence of milk in the mammary glands
suffer severe effects, e.g. a troublesome rash and following parturition, is discussed under
a period off work. It has also been feared that AGALACTIA, and SOW'S MILK, ABSENCE OF.
the continual consumption of small quantities
of antibiotic may result in people becoming Milk Allergy in Cows
sensitised, later undergoing a severe reaction This may develop especially in the Channel
when given that antibiotic by their doctor. A Islands breeds, in cows which have become
3rd danger is the development of organisms sensitised to the alpha-casein in their own milk.
resistant to antibiotics, which could possibly If milking is delayed, they may develop clinical
give rise to illness not responding to antibiotic signs of a type 1 hypersensitivity, e.g. dyspnoea,
treatment. Antibiotic residues can also affect drooling of saliva, urticaria, and swollen eyelids,
the manufacturing processes of cheese and in an otherwise bright animal. The with-
yoghurt. drawal of milk results in an almost immediate M
All medicines containing antibiotics are remission of these symptoms.
labelled with a ‘withdrawal period’ which must Milk-Borne Disease
elapse after treatment is ended before the milk Various infections may be transmitted to people
can be used for human food. Unless otherwise through unpasteurised or defectively pasteurised
stated, the minimum standard withdrawal milk. (See BRUCELLOSIS; SALMONELLOSIS;
period for milk is 7 days. Q FEVER; TUBERCULOSIS.)
Over a period of 30 years, 77 per cent of
Chlorophenol taint Most strong-smelling 233 reported outbreaks of communicable
disinfectants, such as those based on phenol or disease attributed to milk and dairy products
cresol, can cause a taint in milk, even in very in England and Wales were associated with
low concentrations. unpasteurised milk.
The disinfectants do not have to come into After compulsory pasteurisation was intro-
direct physical contact with the milk, but can duced in Scotland, outbreaks of milk-borne
be absorbed from the atmosphere by any salmonellosis fell to 8, affecting 46 people as
exposed milk surface, particularly in the bulk compared with 14 outbreaks affecting 1090
tank. They should be stored well away from the people in the previous 3 years.
milking parlour or dairy. Campylobacter jejuni, present in unpas-
Similarly, neither creosote nor products teurised or incompletely unpasteurised milk,
containing phenols should be used where they has caused outbreaks of human enteritis.
may come into contact with teats and udders by Corynebacterium ulcerans was diagnosed as
indirect means, e.g. on woodwork of buildings, the cause of sore throat in a patient from a
or in the disinfection of cubicle beds, cowsheds, community that drank raw milk. The source of
loose-boxes, and collecting yards. this was a herd in which 8 cows were infected
with this organism; while a 9th cow was found
Plants affecting the milk A large number to be an intermittent excretor of it.
of plants affect milk or milk secretion in
animals eating them, and very often the real Goat's milk, if unpasteurised, may be a
cause of unusual tastes or odours in the milk is source of various infections transmissible
some common wild plant. Some plants give to people. (See BRUCELLOSIS; Q FEVER;
milk a characteristic taint or odour (such as TOXOPLASMOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS.)
garlics), and others alter its colour; some
decrease the total secretion and others lessen the Milk Development Council
fat content; a few alter the colour and character A government-backed body set up in 1995 to
of butter made from the milk; and one or two, fund, by means of a levy on milk, research and
whose poisonous principles are excreted by the development into milk and milk products.
458 Milk-Drop Syndrome
glue, etc. In the USA Narceus annularis is the Sarcoptes, with 1 species, S. scabiei, and
intermediate host of a large, ‘thorn-headed’ numerous varieties. These mites live in the skin
worm Macracanthohyncus ingens, which can of mammals.
cause diarrhoea (and sometimes dysentery) in
dogs. Hosts of the adult worm are raccoons, Cnemidocoptes, found in birds. They resem-
black bears, skunks, foxes, and moles. ble Sarcoptes. Cn. mutans causses scalyleg. Cn,
Gallinae is the depluming mite and Cn. pilae
Miniature Bull Terrier infests the cere of budgerigars
A small breed with similar characteristics to the
BULL TERRIER. Lens luxation may be found in Notoedres is a genus closely allied to Sarcoptes,
individual dogs. found on carnivores.
Chorioptes. × 70
Sarcoptes. × 70.
Molybdenum 463
Mitochondria
Small membrane-bound cytoplasmic structures
in cells; they are the main site of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) synthesis in the body (see
CELLS).
Mitosis
The usual process of cell reproduction. Mitosis
gives each of the new cells the same number of
chromosomes as are possessed by the dividing
cell, i.e. the diploid number. (Compare MEIOSIS.)
Mitral Valve
Mitral valve is the left atrioventricular valve of
the heart, which is so-called because of its sup-
posed likeness to a bishop's mitre. Disease of
the mitral valve is a common condition in the
dog. (See HEART DISEASES.)
Ml (ml)
Millilitre, equal to 1 cubic millimetre of fluid.
Mokola Virus
A rhabdovirus with some similatities to rabies
virus. It was first isolated from shrews in
Nigeria, and has caused the deaths of cats in
Zimbabwe, where rabies vaccine has been
Cheyletiella. found to be ineffective. Mokola virus has also
proved fatal in humans.
Mongooses
Mongooses are vectors of rabies in South Africa,
Central America, West Indies, and India.
Monilia
A group of yeast-like organisms.
Moniliasis
Moniliasis is a disease due to the yeast-like fun-
External features of the snail species Helix gus Candida albicans. In humans it follows, in
pomatia. some cases, the use of certain antibiotics.
The disease occurs in turkeys and fowls, and
when it occurs in excessive amounts – such as in in other domestic animals. It including dogs
the ‘teart soils’ of central Somerset, and of small and cattle must be borne in mind when using
areas of Gloucestershire and Warwickshire. Here antibiotics. A high temperature, loss of weight,
‘molybdenosis’ causes scouring in ruminants, and oedema of the lungs may result.
especially cattle. The scouring is worse from Nystatin has been used – successfully, it is
May until October when the grass contains claimed – in the treatment of turkeys with
most water-soluble molybdenum. Staring coats, moniliasis.
marked loss of condition and evil-smelling faeces
are observed in affected cattle. A daily dose of Monkeys
copper sulphate (2 g for adults and half this for Monkeys belong to the order Primata which
M young stock) obviates or remedies the trouble. includes about 200 species, ranging in size from
Molybdenosis may occur also as the result of the tree shrew, weighing about 100 g, to the
aerial contamination of pasture in the vicinity gorilla, weighing up to 275 kg.
of aluminium-alloy and other factories, and of Two sub-orders are recognised: New World
oil refineries. In an outbreak near the Esso monkeys (catarrhines); and Old World mon-
Refinery at Fawley, younger cattle showed a keys (platyrrhines), apes, and man.
marked stiffness of back and legs, with great
difficulty in getting to their feet and reluctance Monkeys, Anaesthetising
to move – in addition to diarrhoea. Ketamine is recommended.
If an animal is receiving extra molybdenum
in its diet, it is likely to need extra copper. Monkeys, Diseases of
Levels of molybdenum which interfere with These include:
copper metabolism also inhibit the synthesis of (1) Infection with herpes simian B virus.
Bl2, the cobalt-containing vitamin, by the This is easily transmitted to people bitten
rumen microflora. by monkeys (or perhaps to people merely han-
dling monkeys with B virus lesions); it is of
Monensin Sodium the greatest importance, as an encephalitis or
Monensin sodium is licensed in the UK as a encephalomyelitis is produced in man, with
growth promoter for cattle (see ADDITIVES) death as the usual outcome. This infection
and as a coccidiostat for poultry. It is produced should be suspected in monkeys showing vesi-
by fermentation of a strain of Streptomyces cles on the lips, tongue, inside of the cheeks, or
cinnamonensis. on the body. The vesicles burst and give rise
Monensin resulted in the death of 9 out of to ulcers and scab formation. Occasionally,
84 beef cattle which had received 12 times the affected monkeys have conjunctivitis and a
recommended dose. All the cattle lost their thick discharge from the nose.
appetite and had diarrhoea. Autopsy findings (2) Tuberculosis. This is generally the miliary
included multiple haemorrhages and oedema of form, due to the human type of tubercle bacil-
the right side of the heart. lus. Symptoms include: loss of weight, of
In another incident, 9 out of 40 calves died appetite, dullness; sometimes cough and rapid
following accidental overdosage with monensin. breathing. Monkeys may be tuberculin-tested
Monensin toxicity has also been recorded in by injecting mammalian tuberculin into an
horses, sheep, chickens and turkeys. eyelid. The result is noted by the presence or
Poisoning has been reported in dogs given a absence of swelling after 72 hours.
proprietary dog food contaminated with mon- (3) Pneumonia (unconnected with tubercu-
ensin still present in a storage bin not properly losis). A monkey that is coughing and sneezing
cleaned. (See also IONOPHORES.) can be assumed to be seriously ill. Death from
Monster (Teras) 465
consumption of toxic substances. Haemolytic attractive flowers and spread as a weed in some
disease, for example, is responsible for abnor- areas. Some varieties produce seeds containing
mal piglets. (See also under TERATOMA; BULL-DOG the hallucinogen, lysergic acid. The pink or red-
CALVES; GENETICS, HEREDITY AND BREEDING – dish flowered Ipomoea muelleri is said to have
Genetic defects). caused losses of up to 7000 sheep on some
sheep stations in Western Australia. There is a
‘Moon Blindness’ loss of condition, and after a time forced exer-
(see PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA) cise gives rise to a swaying, uncoordinated gait,
and knuckling of the hind-feet, with panting
Moraxella when the animal is driven a few yards.
Small rod-shaped bacteria found in pairs.
Outbreaks of conjunctivitis and keratitis are often Morphine
associated with M. Bovis (formerly Haemophilus Morphine is the chief alkaloid of opium.
bovis) infection. (See under EYE, DISEASES OF.) Widely used in human medicine, it is the stan-
dard against which other analgesics are mea-
Morbidity sured. In animals, it is used mainly for the relief
Morbidity is the condition of having a disease. of severe pain in dogs. In the horse and cat,
Proportional morbidity is the incidence of morphine may produce great excitement and is
disease in a flock or herd, e.g. ‘morbidity is contra-indicated.
60 per cent’ in a given group of animals with
reference to a particular disease. Mortar Eating
Mortar eating by cattle may be regarded as an
M Morbilliviruses indication of a mineral-deficient diet. The
These include the viruses of canine distemper, animals are probably seeking calcium and
rinderpest, peste de petits ruminants, and human magnesium.
measles. (See also SEAL.)
Morlam Mosquitoes
A strain of sheep bred at Beltsville, USA. The (see under FLIES)
best ewes have given 6 lambs in 2 years, lambs
being born in September, May and January – ‘Moss-Ill’
an 8-month breeding cycle. A colloquial name for hypocalcaemia (see under
MILK FEVER) in hill ewes. It is seen mainly in the
Morning Glory mature ewe, and during the weeks preceding
Plants of the Ipomoea spp. are common in and following lambing. It often follows within
most warm climates. They are grown for their 12 to 48 hours of a move to fresh pasture.
Mouth, Diseases of 467
Signs Stilted gait, abnormally high carriage of oedema of the brisket, and distressed breathing
the head, muscular tremors (particularly of the on light exertion. There may also be pulsation
lips in the early stages), recumbency, coma. of the jugular vein.
membrane of the whole of the cavity of the between markets or collecting centres. When
mouth, are not uncommon in young dogs. In pigs are moved to another farm, none may
addition to papillomas, fibromas, squamous be moved off those premises for 20 days
cell carcinomas and malignant melanomas may following. If pigs are fed waste food, they can
occur. (See also EPULIS, a non-malignant gum only be moved to other premises under the
tumour often difficult to remove.) same ownership, or to a slaughterhouse. A
In one series of cases, oral tumours were licence to move pigs is filled in by the owner
removed from 100 dogs by mandibulectomy or and a copy must be kept for inspection by a
maxillectomy. For basal cell carcinomas and local authority officer.
squamous cell carcinomas, these techniques
gave 1-year survival rates of 100 per cent and Movement of Sheep and Goats
84 per cent, respectively. However, the progno- Records must be kept of all sheep and goat
sis for sarcomas was not so good: the tumours movements to or from the premises on which
recurred in 32 per cent of cases and metastases they are kept; the destination of the animals
developed in 27 per cent of cases; the 1-year must be noted. Each flock or herd is allocated
survival rates for fibrosarcomas, osteosarcomas an identification number. In addition, all
and malignant melanomas were 50 per cent, sheep and goats born on a holding must
42 per cent and 0 per cent, respectively. be individually identified with an eartag or tat-
High-energy ionizing radiation gives good too within 1 year of birth, or before they are
penetration of bone, and may be used for moved, whichever is earlier. The Sheep and
tumours of the mouth which are not practica- Goats (Records, Identification and Movement)
ble to treat by surgical excision. Order 1996, as amended, gives details of the
M requirements.
Wounds and injuries In the majority of
cases, mouth wounds do not prove serious after Moxidectin
any foreign bodies have been removed, for the Moxidectin is effective both as an anthelmintic
whole cavity is so well supplied with blood ves- and against ectoparasites in sheep and cattle. It
sels that healing is always rapid. Haemorrhage can be administered orally, by injection, or as a
may be alarming at first, but, unless a larger ‘pour-on’.
artery has been severed, it soon ceases. Large
tears in the mucous membrane, or in the skin of MRD (Multifocal Retinal
the lips or cheeks, should be sutured. Antiseptic Detachment)
mouth washes should be applied afterwards. An inherited condition in some breeds of dogs
When the wounding has been severe, an animal that can cause serious eye problems. About
will often refuse to eat solid food, and may 4 per cent of golden retrievers examined under
require to be fed on liquids for a few days. a scheme run jointly by the British Veterinary
Plenty of water should always be provided Association, the Kennel Club and the
for drinking purposes. (See also under TONGUE; International Sheep Dog Society were found to
SALIVATION; TEETH.) be affected.
female mule mated to a stallion producing a include loss of appetite, depression, and greatly
colt foal with the characteristics of its sire, and enlarged and painful submaxillary lymph
which itself sired horse-like offspring. nodes.
In the context of sheep, ‘mule’ is a most
imprecise term; indeed, it is a colloquial expres- Munchkin
sion varying according to period, locality, and A dwarf breed of cat originating from the USA.
changes in breeding policy. Dwarfism has been bred into munchkins,
The following crosses have all been referred which have very short legs. They find it difficul
to as a ‘mule’: Border Leicester ram × Blackface to climb and jump, rendering them vulnerable
ewe; Border Leicester or Hexham/Leicester ram to attack by dogs and other cats.
× Swaledale or Swaledale/Blackface ewe;
Blueface Leicester ram × Swaledale or Blackface ‘Munga’
ewe (though this cross is now known as the The African name for the grain of the bulrush
North Country mule). millet, Pennisetum typhoides. The grain, when
Mule is also the term used for a cross parasiticised with ergot, has caused agalactia in
between a British finch (bullfinch, greenfinch sows without other symptoms. A heavy piglet
and goldfinch) and the domestic canary: e.g., a mortality resulted.
bullfinch-canary mule.
Murine Typhus
Mule's Operation A disease of rodents caused by a rickettsia,
This involves the removal of a fold of skin from which is transmissible to people, in whom it has
the crutch of Merino sheep and is carried out been known to cause death in some cases.
M by Australian shepherds for the control of
blowfly strike. Mulesing is a synonym. Murmur
A sound on auscultation indicating heart or
Multiple Suckling vascular problems (see HEART).
(see under NURSE COWS)
Murrain
Multiple Vaccines An obsolete name formerly applied to a num-
(see under VACCINATION) ber of diseases affecting domestic animals such
as anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, etc.
Mummification of Fetus
Mummification of the fetus sometimes occurs Murray Grey
after resorption of fluid from the placenta and An Australian beef breed, originating from a
fetus following the death of the latter. It is not roan Shorthorn cow and an Angus bull. A first
uncommon in dairy cattle. In sows, it has been consignment of 50 reached the UK in 1973.
reported following Aujeszky's disease and swine The breed is noted for its size, docility, and easy
erysipelas. In ewes, it may be associated with calving.
toxoplasmosis and enzootic abortion. A mum-
mified fetus, remaining in the uterus for longer Murray Valley Encephalitis
than the normal gestation period, will lower a Caused by a mosquito-borne flavivirus, this dis-
cow's productivity. (Cloprestonol can be used ease occurs in Australia and New Guinea. It
to abort the mummified fetus in many affects wild birds. In children it may cause fever,
instances.) Mummification may also occur in vomiting and encephalitis, sometimes with a
the bitch and cat. high mortality.
Mumps Muscle
Mumps is another name for parotiditis or Muscular tissue is divided into 3 great classes:
inflammation of the parotid glands at the base voluntary muscle, involuntary muscle and cardiac
of the ears and at the back of the angle of the muscle. Of these, the 1st only is consciously
lower jaw. (See PAROTIDITIS.) (i.e. voluntarily) controlled, the 2 latter work-
Antibodies against the human mumps virus ing automatically (involuntarily). Voluntary
have been detected in the blood serum of dogs. muscle is often called ‘striped’ or ‘striated’,
A survey revealed that 38 out of 209 appar- because under the microscope each muscle fibre
ently healthy country dogs in Pennsylvania, shows very distinct cross-striping, while invol-
USA, had at some time been exposed to human untary muscle does not, and is consequently
mumps infection. Mumps has also been con- often called ‘unstriped’, ‘non-striated’, or ‘plain’.
firmed, rarely, in dogs in the UK. Symptoms Cardiac muscle is striated in an imperfect
Muscle 471
manner, is not under the conscious control of Involuntary muscle forms the greater part of
the brain, and has a specialised arrangement of the walls of the hollow organs of the body, such
its fibres. as stomach, intestines, bladder, etc., and the
walls of the blood vessels, ducts from glands,
Structure of muscle Voluntary muscle the uterus and Fallopian tubes, the urethra,
forms the chief clothing of the skeleton, and is ureters, the iris and ciliary muscle of the eye,
the red flesh forming beef, mutton, pork, etc., the ‘dartos’ tunic of the scrotum, and is associ-
of the food animals. The voluntary muscles ated with the skin and hair follicles. The fibres
are arranged over the body, the majority of are smaller than those of voluntary muscle.
them being attached to some part of the bony Each is pointed at the ends, has usually 1 oval
or cartilaginous skeleton, and are called ‘skeletal nucleus in the centre, and a delicate sheath of
muscles’. The muscle is attached at each end sarcolemma enveloping it. The fibres are
by a tendon to part of the skeleton, which it grouped in bundles, much as are the striped
operates, in effect, as a system of levers. fibres, but they adhere to one another by a
Each muscle is enclosed in a sheath of fibrous cementing material, not by tendon bundles
tissue, known as the ‘fascia’ or ‘epimysium’, and found in voluntary muscle.
from this, partitions of fibrous tissue, known as Cardiac muscle is a specialised form of invol-
‘perimysium’, run into the substance of the untary muscle in which the fibres are provided
muscle, dividing it into small bundles of ‘fibres’. with numbers of projections, each of which is
A muscle fibre is about 0.05 mm (1/500th inch) united to a similar projection from an adjacent
thick, and of varying length. Each is enclosed in cell, so that the whole forms an intricate
an elastic sheath known as the sarcolemma. If network or mesh of fibres instead of an arrange-
the fibre is cut across and examined by the ment of bundles. Each fibre possesses a large M
microscope, it is seen to be further divided into nucleus which is more or less central in
‘fibrils’. Within the sarcolemma lie numerous position.
nuclei belonging to the muscle fibre, which was
originally developed from a single cell. To the Development of muscle All the muscles
sarcolemma, at either end, is attached a minute of the developing animal arise from the central
bundle of fibrous tissue fibres, which unite the layer (mesoblast) of the embryo, each fibre tak-
muscle fibre to its neighbour or to one of the ing origin from a single cell. Later on in life
connective tissue partitions in the muscle; by muscles have the power both of increasing in
means of these connections the fibre produces size – as the result of use, e.g. in racehorses and
its effect upon contracting. The sarcolemma is greyhounds and other animals that are trained
pierced by a nerve fibre, which breaks up upon to be fit – and of healing themselves after parts
the surface of the muscle fibre into a complicat- of them have been destroyed by injury or
ed ‘end-plate’, and by this means each muscle removed surgically. This occurs by development
fibre is brought under the guidance of the of cells called myoblasts in the same way as
central nervous system, and the discharge of muscle is formed in the growing embryo.
energy which produces muscular contraction is Unstriped muscle as well as striped muscle
controlled. can take part in this increase in size, as witness
Between the pillar-like muscle fibres run the development of the muscular wall of the
many capillary blood vessels. They are so placed uterus during pregnancy. In this case not only
that the contractions of the muscle fibres empty do the numbers of muscle fibres increase, but
them of blood, and thus the active muscle is each becomes 3 or 4 times its previous size. The
ensured of a continually changing blood supply. fully pregnant uterus increases its weight about
None of these capillaries, however, pierces 20 times what it is when empty, and in the
the sarcolemma surrounding the fibres, so that course of a month to 6 weeks after parturition
the blood does not come into direct contact decreases again in weight and size.
with the fibrils themselves. They are nourished
by the lymph which exudes from the capillaries Action of muscle A nerve impulse origi-
and bathes the outside of the sarcolemma, nates in some part of the brain or spinal cord,
passing into the fibrils by a process of osmosis. either as the result of volition or as a reflex,
The lymph circulation is also automatically and passes down the fibres of the motor nerve
varied, as required, by the muscular contrac- to the muscle, where a series of complex chem-
tions. Between the muscle fibres, and enveloped ical reactions occur. The source of energy
in a sheath of connective tissue, lie here for muscular contraction is adenosine triphos-
and there special structures known as ‘muscle phate (ATP). When this is split into adenosine
spindles’. diphosphate (ADP) and phosphoric acid,
472 Muscles
energy becomes available. For subsequent All superfluous fat is removed from the body;
resynthesis of ATP from ADP, creatine phos- the volume of the muscles is increased, and
phate (CP) is converted to creatine plus phos- their elasticity, tone, responsiveness to stimuli,
phoric acid – oxygen from the bloodstream power of contraction, and blood supply are
being required. (These are but 2 of many com- heightened; the respiratory system is made to
plex reactions, involving several enzymes.) (See accommodate itself to the oxygenation of vast-
also LACTIC ACID.) ly greater amounts of blood in a shorter space of
During strenuous exercise, more oxygen may time than normally; the heart muscle – the
be needed than is readily available, leading to main pump of the circulation – hypertrophies,
the so-called ‘oxygen debt’, which results in and the walls of the smaller arteries – the
panting. This ‘oxygen debt’ can be partly offset secondary pumps of the circulatory system – are
as the muscle makes use of another chemical keyed up to the highest state of responsiveness
reaction, involving the conversion of glycogen to local requirements. In the production of all
to lactic acid. this lies the art of the trainer.
Fatigue The accumulation of this acid in the Equine and canine athletes The speed
muscles causes the stiffness of fatigue, which and stamina of the thoroughbred and the grey-
has been defined as ‘a decrease in capacity for hound are due to the fact that both animal
work caused by work itself ’. In large quantities, species can increase, during exercise, their
lactic acid in the muscles can lead to CRAMP. packed cell volumes to between 60 and 70 per
After exercise, lactic acid is either eliminated cent. Together with large increases in the heart's
as carbon dioxide and water, or converted in the output, the result is much larger increases in
M liver back to glycogen. effective blood flow to the muscles than occurs
The importance of a sufficient period of rest in humans. In the fit thoroughbred, resting
for animals which have been called upon for heart rates of 25 to 30 beats per minute can
great exertion, such as in hunting or racing, is be increased to between 240 and 250; and in
obvious. the greyhound, heart rates below 100 can be
Muscle tonus is the state of partial contrac- increased to 300 beats per minute. Both species
tion of a muscle by virtue of which it is ready also have large hearts for their bodyweight.
for work at all times. Tonus is specially evident Approximately 57 per cent of the greyhound's
in the plain muscle fibres present in the walls of liveweight is due to muscle, as compared with
the arteries, and it is owing to tonus that such 40 per cent for most other mammals.
striking and rapid changes in the amount of the
blood in a part can occur. If the inhibitory Muscles
fibres (called ‘vasodilators’) in the arteries are Muscles, which are collectively and popularly
activated, an immediate increase of blood takes known as the ‘flesh’ of an animal, comprise
place; while if the stimulating fibres (called the voluntary muscles, and amount to over
‘vasoconstrictors’) are acted upon, the muscle one-third the weight of the whole body in an
fibres in the walls contract, the calibre of the average animal of ordinary condition. The total
vessels is decreased, and the blood supply is number of voluntary muscles is over 700 in the
lessened. horse, and more than this in some of the other
domesticated animals, so that they cannot all be
Condition is that remarkable state into which described here. Each voluntary muscle is
horses and other animals can be brought by care named, its blood and nerve supplies are men-
in feeding, general management, and carefully tioned, and its shape, relations, and actions are
regulated work, which is the highest pitch of considered in works on comparative anatomy,
perfection to which muscles can attain. It is a to which reference must be made for further
potential quality not possessed by all animals, details.
and, even when attained, does not last for long Generally speaking, muscles which cause a
periods. In the process of training it is possible joint to bend are called ‘flexors’; those which
by excessive enthusiasm to produce a condition straighten a bent joint are ‘extensors’; one
of ‘staleness’, in which speed or staying-power which carries a limb further away from the mid-
diminishes, but recovery from which follows a dle line of the body than previously is an
period of rest. Condition consists in a gradual ‘abductor’; one which has the opposite action is
education of the muscles of the skeleton, of the an ‘adductor’; and one which causes a segment
heart and respiratory organs particularly, as well of a limb to revolve is a ‘rotator’, or ‘supinator’,
as of the body generally, so that they will sustain or a ‘pronator’, according to its position. A
fatigue with greater and greater facility. sphincter is usually involuntary, but a few are
Muscles, Diseases of 473
voluntary; they cause a contraction of the ring- tissue which contracts or shortens. The condi-
like opening which they circumscribe. Many tion has been reported in the dog.
muscles have an insertion distant from their
fleshy part (called the ‘fleshy belly’) by means of Nutritional muscular dystrophy This is
a tendon which is composed of fibrous tissue most common in beef cattle, but is occasional-
strands. ly seen in dairy cattle also. In calves and lambs
it is often called ‘white muscle disease’.
Muscles, Diseases of Muscular dystrophy also occurs in foals and
pigs. It may prove fatal.
Atrophy, or wasting, of muscles may occur as
the result of inaction, diminished blood supply, Cause Animal feeds deficient in selenium (a
or nerve injuries, as well as from malnutrition. trace element) or vitamin E, between which
there is a complex relationship. Crops grown on
Inflammation of muscle, or myositis, may selenium-deficient land may give rise to nutri-
arise as the result of injury through kicks, tional muscular dystrophy unless concentrates
blows, falls, etc. It also frequently arises as the are fed as well or unless the diet is supplement-
result of a sprain or strain in the limbs. ed with vitamin E. This vitamin is sometimes
Occasionally it may be associated with partial adversely affected by the use of propionic acid
or complete rupture. as a preservative in the storage of moist barley.
A vitamin E deficiency may also be brought
Signs The part affected usually becomes about by giving cod-liver oil in conjunction
swollen and is painful on manipulation. The with rations low in vitamin E, such as dried
muscles affected are held relaxed, and if in a skim milk powder, for research has shown that M
limb, the foot is rested. When handled, they the inclusion of cod-liver oil in the diet leads to
contract and become hard to the touch, and a striking increase in the animals' requirements
upon occasion they may crackle or be oedema- of vitamin E. The disease may also be associat-
tous. When resulting from external injury there ed with poor-quality food, such as the mainly
is usually some sign of this on the covering skin, turnip and oat straw diet fed to pregnant cows
but when due to strain no external lesions may during the winter in Scotland. Deterioration of
be seen. Occasionally, after injury, an abscess food in storage, and especially of those contain-
may develop in the affected muscle, but much ing unsaturated fatty acids, may be associated
more frequently there is HAEMATOMA. with the condition.
High rates of application of fertilisers con-
Atrophic myositis This has been described taining sulphates may inhibit absorption of
in the dog. The cause is unknown, but possibly selenium from the soil by plants, which in turn
damage to the 5th nerve due to over-extension can lead to a deficiency in grazing animals.
of the temporo-mandibular joint. Lucerne, clover, and beans all contain an
unidentified antagonist to vitamin E: another
Signs Inability to eat solid food or to lap, atro- point to bear in mind when considering
phy of the jaw muscles, very little voluntary supplementing the diet.
movement of the jaws, and resistance to any
attempt to force the jaws apart. With careful Signs Muscular dystrophy takes 3 forms, as far
nursing, recovery takes place naturally in a high as symptoms are concerned. The most dramat-
proportion of cases after 3 to 6 months. (See also ic form occurs when the heart muscle is
‘STIFF-LIMBED LAMBS’.) involved – causing a heart attack which is usu-
ally followed by death within minutes or hours.
Eosinophilic myositis A disease of dogs, When the muscles of the back and legs are
especially Alsatians, in which there is hardening affected, the animal prefers to remain lying
of the muscles of mastication and of the tem- down, rises with difficulty, and walks slowly
poral muscles. The dog assumes a foxy appear- and stiffly. The 3rd form is seen when the chest
ance. The nictitating membrane is in evidence. muscles are affected. Exaggerated compen-
There may be tonsillitis. The cause is unknown; satory movements are then made by unaffected
the outlook grave. Diagnosis may be confirmed muscles in order to maintain breathing.
by blood smear. The more severely affected cattle may pass
dark reddish-brown urine, resulting from the
Ischaemic contracture A disease of muscles presence in it of myoglobin. This symptom
due to failure of their arterial supply. There is accounts for another name for the condition –
necrosis and the muscle is replaced by fibrous ‘paralytic myoglobinuria’.
474 Muscular Dystrophy
and causes decreased hatchability. M. iowae suspected. However, when analysed most sus-
infection is usually detectable only in flocks pect rations are found to contain fungal toxins
that have been freed from the other mycoplas- in amounts too small for chemical detection.
mas. Eradication is difficult but not impossible. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that occa-
M. synoviae affects chickens and turkeys, caus- sional outbreaks of aflatoxicosis, ergotism, and
ing tenosynovitis. It may be treated by high zearalenone (F2) intoxication do occur in the
doses of tetracyclines. The method of spread is UK.
unclear; even biting insects have been suggested In one outbreak, 2 cows became dull and
as possible vectors. feverish, with bleeding from mouth and eyelids,
In goats M. mycoides causes contagious and died within 48 hours. Other cows became
caprine pleuropneumonia, as well as septi- ill, some with diarrhoea. About 60 members of
caemia and mastitis. this Friesian herd had bleeding eczema-like
M. bovis, first isolated in the USA in 1962, lesions of both black and white skin of udder
has caused severe respiratory disease in the UK. and abdomen. A 3rd cow died later and 2 had
It also causes mastitis. to be slaughtered. The final tentative diagnosis
M. canadense was first reported in the UK was fungal poisoning, after examination of
in 1978, and causes abortion in cattle; and mouldy barley (containing many potentially
M. californicum causes mastitis. poisonous fungi) which formed 87 per cent of
In many parts of the world, even where a supplementary concentrate ration. Similar
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia has been haemorrhages and deaths from this cause have
eradicated, mycoplasmal diseases are of consid- been reported in the USA.
erable economic importance. They include
M mastitis, arthritis, bone disease, and keratitis. In Mydriasis
cattle, M. bovigenitalium is a cause of abortion An excessive dilation of the pupil of the eye.
and mastitis. Drugs which are given when dilation is
M. hyosynoviae has caused lameness in required for diagnostic purposes are called
pigs. The pigs frequently adopted adopt a ‘mydriatics’. (See also ATROPINE.)
‘dog-sitting’ posture; and develop areas of
hyperaemia on the hams. Myelin
Mycoplasmas are also important as contami- Myelin is the white fat-like substance forming a
nants of cell cultures used for vaccine produc- sheath round myelinated nerve fibres.
tion. (See also under KENNEL COUGH.)
Myelitis
Mycoplasmosis Myelitis is a condition in which destructive
A mycoplasma infection. (See MYCOPLASMA; changes occur in the spinal cord. It usually
CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEUROPNEUMONIA; follows upon viral infections. Paralysis of a
VULVO-VAGINITIS; ENZOOTIC PNEUMONIA OF muscle or of groups of muscles may occur; there
PIGS; SINUSITIS; INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS OF may be twitchings or spasms of muscles; the
POULTRY; MASTITIS.) penis may hang from the prepuce, the bladder
and rectum become unable to retain their
Mycosis, Mycotic Infections contents, and finally a form of paraplegia often
Mycosis, mycotic infections are diseases due to occurs. The paralysis may gradually pass for-
the growth of fungi in the body. Among the wards; the sensation is lost in the skin of the
commonest are ringworm, sporotrichosis, loins, then of the back, and later the fore-legs
aspergillosis. Mycotic mastitis is important in become unable to support the weight of the
dairy cattle and 26 or more species of fungi are body. Occasionally the condition disappears
involved. (See also RHINOSPORIDIOSIS; FUNGAL spontaneously, but the majority of cases end
DISEASES; SPORIDESMIN.) fatally. (See also OSTEOMYELITIS.)
Mycotoxicosis Myelocyte
Poisoning by toxins produced by fungi. (For A bone-marrow cell, from which white cells
examples of such toxins, see ERGOT OF RYE; (basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils) of the
AFLATOXINS; OCHRATOXIN A; ZEARALENONE; blood are produced. They are found in the
SPORIDESMIN; T2 TOXIN; FUSARIUM; PENI- blood in certain forms of leukaemia.
TREMA; and under FESCUE, RYEGRASS.)
When, in farm animals, a change of feed Myelography
leads to depressed output, or to symptoms of Radiography of the spinal cord, using a contrast
illness, poisoning by fungal toxins may be medium. (See SPINAL CORD, DISEASES OF.)
Myotonia 477
M
N
soft pad behind them. Where actual penetra-
tion has occurred, the nail should be cut short
and an antiseptic dressing applied. It is custom-
ary for owners of sporting and other dogs to
have the dew claws removed during puppyhood
to avoid future trouble of this nature.
Amputation of dew claws can be carried out in
Nagana the adult under anaesthesia.
Nagana is an unscientific but convenient name
for trypanosomiasis transmitted by tsetse flies Onychomycosis, or a fungal infection of
(Glossina spp.) in Africa. The trypanosomes the claws, is a not uncommon condition in cats,
involved are Trypanosoma vivax, T. uniforme, and is of public-health importance as a reservoir
T. congolense, T. brucei, T. simiae, and T. suis. of ringworm transmissible to children. (See
(See TRYPANOSOMES.) The symptoms of nagana RINGWORM.)
include anaemia, intermittent fever, and (except
in pigs, in which the disease may be very acute)
a slow, progressive emaciation. In both horses
Nairobi Sheep Disease
Nairobi sheep disease is an acute infectious
and dogs the eyes may be affected, as shown by
fever of sheep and goats, caused by a bun-
corneal opacity. Horses often have oedema
yavirus, and occurring in eastern and southern
affecting the limbs and abdomen. Cattle may
Africa. The virus is transmitted by the tick
abort.
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus.
The drug quinapyramine is used (among
others) in treatment.
The kudu, hyena, and bush-buck, as well Signs Imported sheep usually show an acute
as other wild animals, act as reservoirs of the febrile disturbance within 5 or 6 days after
infection. being infected by the ticks. This lasts for up to
9 days and then a fall in temperature occurs and
Nail Binding other clinical symptoms appear. Death may
(see INJURIES FROM SHOEING) take place a day or two later, or a further rise in
temperature may be shown, death or recovery
Nails (Claws) following. There is rapidity and difficulty in
A claw contains a matrix with blood vessels, breathing, a mucopurulent nasal discharge and
nerves, etc., from which it grows and is nour- green watery diarrhoea, which may contain
ished. Lying within the matrix is the bone of mucus or blood. The genital organs of ewes are
the terminal phalanx of the digit, which gives swollen and congested, and abortion may occur
the nail its characteristic form in the different in pregnant ewes.
animals. When not in use in the carnivora, nails
are retracted by ligaments in an upwards direc- Immunity In the great majority of cases,
tion; this is more marked in cats, where the nail recovery confers a strong and lasting immunity.
may almost disappear, than in dogs. This is also possessed by sheep in areas where
the infection is endemic.
Nails, Diseases of
The nails of cats and dogs sometimes become Nanogram (ng)
torn or broken through fighting or accidents. A unit of weight equivalent to 1000 micrograms
Sometimes only the tip is injured, and the µ 1000 micrograms equal 1 milligram (mg).
matrix higher up is undamaged; in such cases a
fine pellicle of horn covers the tip until such Nanometre (nm)
time as the horn has grown down from above, A unit of linear measurement used in e.g. virolo-
and the whole nail is not shed. In other cases gy. One nm equals one millionth of a millimetre.
infection occurs, causing great tenderness of the
part. Naphthalene Poisoning
Naphthalene poisoning might arise from the
Ingrowing nails occur upon the ‘dew ingestion of moth-balls. In the dog, it has been
claws’, on the insides of the paws of dogs. These shown experimentally to give rise to haemolyt-
more or less rudimentary digits do not touch ic anaemia. (In children, poisoning from moth-
the ground, and are consequently not subjected balls gives rise to ‘port-wine coloured’ urine.)
to wear from friction. The nails grow, and Another symptom is cataract. Chlorinated
owing to their curve eventually penetrate the naphthalenes have been identified as one cause
480 Narcolepsy
of HYPERKERATOSIS in cattle; and tear stains must not be bred from. Under DEFRA propos-
may be a symptom of this type of poisoning. als in 2003, farmers with confirmed scrapie
cases on their farms will have their flocks geno-
Narcolepsy typed so that the more susceptible sheep can
Narcolepsy is a sudden collapse into deep sleep. be identified and removed, or the whole flock
It has been recorded in dogs, and may be part- disposed of.
ly genetic in origin. A case was recorded in the
UK in a 3-year-old Corgi which sometimes National Office of Animal
collapsed when taken for his first walk of the Health (NOAH)
day, or offered food. Often yawning and a Founded in 1986, to represent those UK com-
vacant expression would precede a sudden drop panies which manufacture animal-health prod-
from a standing position to a sitting one or a ucts licensed under the Medicines Act. Address:
lying one. No excitement, salivation, or convul- 3 Crossfield Chambers, Gladbeck Way, Enfield,
sions were seen, and at other times the dog was Middlesex EN2 7HF. Publications include: The
active and mentally alert; he was easily aroused Safe Storage & Handling of Animal Medicines;
after he had collapsed. Electro-encephalograms Poisoning in Veterinary Practice.
supported the diagnosis. The condition has also
been recorded in daschunds, dobermanns, National Pet Register
labradors and poodles. This provides a service for reuniting lost pets
with their owners, and also for third-party
Nares liability. Address: Heydon, Royston, Herts.
Nares is the Latin word for the nostrils. SG8 8PN.
Some authors have referred to increased vascu- vasodilator isoxuprine or a formulation of war-
larisation of the navicular bone; others suggest farin may be added to the feed of horses; the
that ischaemia may be responsible, leading to dosage of warfarin requires great care – with
pain and, if at least 2 of the distal arteries are overdosage there is a danger of haemorrhage.
occluded, to chronic lameness. In horses lame Warfarin treatment has been reported effective
as a result of navicular disease, occlusion of the in about 75 per cent of cases of navicular disease.
main artery and progressive arterial thrombosis Before the advent of drug therapy it was cus-
are frequent, with a resulting area of ischaemic tomary to perform the operation of neurecto-
necrosis and cavitation of the navicular bone. my, which consists of a section of the plantar or
Another view is that the disease is not caused median nerve of the limb. In a favourable case,
primarily by ischaemia and subsequent necro- following operation, the horse becomes appar-
sis, but is a consequence of bone remodelling ently sound, although the diseased condition is
due to altered pressure from the deep flexor ten- still at work in the bone. No pain is felt, and the
don and increased load on the caudal part of horse is fit for light work at slow paces. The feet
the foot – the condition not being irreversible require constant attention to ensure that no
unless secondary lesions such as adhesions stones, nails, etc. lodge in the hoof, for even
and bony spurs have developed. Special shoeing when these inflict serious damage the horse still
to alter the load on the navicular bone is goes sound, not feeling the pain.
recommended.
Navy Beans
Signs Navicular disease usually develops so Navy beans may cause death if fed raw. (See
slowly that the owner has considerable difficul- LEGUME POISONING.)
ty in remembering exactly when the first
symptoms were noticed. In fact, little or no Near East Encephalitis
importance may be attached to the almost char- An alphavirus infection of horses and donkeys;
acteristic ‘pointing’ of one or both fore-feet, less frequently of cattle and sheep.
because ‘he has always done that’. ‘Pointing’ Convulsions/paralysis may follow fever and
consists of resting the affected foot (or feet) by precede death. (See EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS;
placing it a short distance in advance of BORNA DISEASE.)
the other when standing in harness or in the
stable. When both feet are affected, each is Neck N
alternately pointed. Later, the horse may go In animals, the neck is that part of the body
lame or be tender on his feet at times, but with connecting the head with the trunk. It contains
a rest he generally becomes sound again. As the the trachea, oesophagus, blood vessels, the
disease advances, he may either start off in the spinal cord and cervical vertebrae. Both the
mornings stiff and become better with exercise mouse and giraffe have 7 cervical vertebrae, as
as he warms to his work, or may become lame do most mammals.
as the day goes on. Sooner or later, however, The weight of the head is supported by the
there comes a time when he will go permanent- powerful ligamentum nuchae, which takes the
ly ‘pottery’, or ‘groggy’. The length of the stride strain off the muscles, thereby avoiding fatigue.
decreases and there is difficulty in advancing In the horse the ligament extends from the
the feet, so it looks as if the shoulder is the seat spines of the withers to the posterior of the
of the lesion. When made to turn, the horse occipital bone of the SKULL.
pivots round on the fore-feet instead of lifting
them, and when made to back, drags the toes. Necrobacillosis
If the shoe of such a horse is examined it is Damage of an organ, or tissue, caused by
usually found to be more worn at the toes than Fusobacterium necrophorum. The necrotic area
at the heels. In fact a ‘groggy’ horse may wear has a characteristic rotting odour.
his shoes quite thin at the toes before the heels
show much sign of wear at all. In the final Necropsy
stages the horse becomes distinctly lame and Examination of a dead body (see AUTOPSY).
unfit for work. When observed in the stable he
is noticed to be continually shifting from one Necrosis
foot on to the other, and the resting foot is Death of cells or of a limited portion of tissue.
placed well out in front.
Necrosis (Bacillary) or
Treatment must aim at the relief of pain and Necrobacillosis
improvement of the local blood circulation. The (see CALF DIPHTHERIA)
482 Necrotic Enteritis
Signs Infected animals may develop ataxia, a nervous system and other parts of the body. The
fleeting paralysis, and nystagmus. Meningitis basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron,
appears in some cases. The parasite may also be a cell with at least 1 projection. Bipolar neurons
found in aborted ovine fetuses. have 1 long projection, the axon, and 1 short
branching projection, the dendrite. A typical
Neoteny neuron (multipolar) has several dendrites but
The retention of juvenile activities and appear- usually only 1 axon (nerve fibre).
ance into adulthood. It is the basis of populari- Dendrites conduct nerve impulses towards
ty of some breeds of dog that remain as playful the nerve cell; axons conduct away from it.
as puppies throughout their life. The extreme A synapse is a point or area where 1 neuron
example is an amphibian, the axolotl or is able to make contact with another; the
Mexican walking fish, which rarely matures to contact being between the axon of 1 neuron
the adult stage. and a dendrite of another neuron, or between
the axon of 1 neuron and the cell of another
Nephrectomy neuron. Any neuron may connect with axons or
Nephrectomy is the name given to the opera- dendrites of several other neurons.
tion by which one of the kidneys is removed. Nerve fibres may be myelinated (enclosed in
(See KIDNEY, DISEASES OF.) a sheath) or unmyelinated (see MYELIN). Some
nerve fibres (axons) convey impulses to brain or
Nephritis spinal cord from skin or sense organ, and are
Inflammation of the kidneys (see KIDNEY, termed sensory or afferent. Their impulses are
DISEASES OF; LEPTOSPIROSIS). passed, through connecting links or interneu-
rons, to motor or efferent nerves from brain or
Nephrolithiasis spinal cord (but see spinal reflex under SPINAL
The presence of a stone (calculus) in the pelvis CORD – Functions).
of the kidney.
Nerve impulses are dependent upon the
Nephron permeability of cell membranes. There is a
The structural unit of the kidney (see KIDNEYS). potential difference of about 70 to 80 millivolts
between the inside and the outside of an axon –
Nephroptosis the inside being the negative. This is owing to N
‘Floating kidney’ – abnormal positioning of the the fact that in a resting state the cell membrane
kidney (see KIDNEY, DISEASES OF). is permeable to K(+) and Cl(–) ions, but not to
Na(+) ions. Stimulation of the nerve results in
Nephrosis the membrane becoming permeable to the
This is a disease of the kidneys, involving dam- sodium ions, which flow in causing the inside
age to the tubules. It leads to albuminuria and of the axon to carry a positive electrical charge
often to oedema. (See also KIDNEY, DISEASES OF.) instead of a negative one. A so-called depolari-
sation wave is set up, ‘self-perpetuating’, along
Nephrosis, Infectious Avian 1 neuron after another. A single nerve fibre can
A disease of chickens. (See
GUMBORO DISEASE; send about 1000 separate impulses per second.
INFECTIOUS BURSAL DISEASE.) ACETYLCHOLINE is released by somatic (mus-
cle) nerve fibres at synapses between neurons
Nephrotic Syndrome on either side of ganglia, and also at the junc-
(see NEPHROSIS) tion of motor nerve endings and voluntary
(striated) muscle. Acetylcholine is released also
Nephrotomy at synapses by parasympathetic nerve fibres.
Surgical incision into a kidney. NORADRENALIN is released at synapses of sym-
pathetic nerve fibres, and at their junction with
Nerve Block smooth (unstriated) involuntary muscle fibres.
Anaesthesia of a nerve or nerves supplying part
of the body to assist diagnosis or treatment. Nerves, Injuries to
Often used in diagnosing the cause of lameness Continued or repeated severe pressure upon a
in the horse. nerve trunk may be sufficient to damage it and
result in paralysis; severe bruising in which a
Nerves nerve is driven against a bone with considerable
The nerves are fibre-like tissues that convey force may produce paralysis or inflammation of
impulses (‘messages’) between the central the nerve; a nerve may be severed along with
484 Nervous System
Nettle-Rash
(see URTICARIA)
Neurectomy
Neurectomy is an operation in which part of a
nerve is excised. The operation is sometimes
performed to give relief from incurable lame-
ness in the horse, but only a few months’ work
may be gained.
Neurilemma
Neurilemma is the thin membranous covering
of nerve fibres.
Neuritis
Inflammation affecting nerves or their sheaths.
It is often accompanied by pain (neuralgia),
sometimes by spastic paralysis. Causes include
viral infections, allergies, malnutrition, and
A typical neuron: A – dentrites, B – nerve cell body,
poisoning, as well as physical injuries. (See C – nucleus, and D – axon. (After Francis,
NEUROMA; NERVES, INJURIES TO; and under Introduction to Human Anatomy, courtesy of C. V.
IMMUNISATION.) Mosby Co.)
Nicking 485
injury, such as a bite, and, growing along them, pale, misshapen and/or soft-shelled eggs.
eventually reaches the spinal cord and brain. According to the virus strain, infected birds
Other neurotropic viruses are those of louping- develop respiratory or nervous signs; it is rare to
ill in sheep, and Borna disease in horses and find both together. Severe breathing difficulties
cattle. develop in birds affected with the respiratory
strain. In the nervous form, torticollis, paralysis
Neutering of the wings or legs and impaction of the intes-
(see CASTRATION and SPAYING; also VASECTOMY) tine are features. In mild cases, the main clini-
cal sign may be diarrhoea, usually black.
Neutrons Mortality varies. Egg production may recover,
Elementary particles with approximately the but not to its former level.
same mass as a proton. The latter has been
defined as a stable, positively charged elemen- Control Live and inactivated vaccines are
tary particle found in atomic nuclei in numbers used. Vaccination regimes can vary according
equal to its atomic number. to local circumstances and must be established
on the basis of veterinary advice; the manufac-
Neutropenia turer may need to be consulted. Live vaccines
A reduced number of neutrophil granular include the Hitchner B1; they are administered
leukocytes in the blood. in the drinking water, by beak-dipping, by eye-
(In human medicine, most cases are attrib- dropper or by aerosol spray. The manufacturer’s
uted to the direct toxic effect of certain antibi- directions must be strictly followed in each
otics, e.g. penicillin and the cephalosporins, or case. The inactivated vaccine is used for sec-
to immune-mediated mechanisms. With this ondary vaccination after primary immunisation
type of blood dyscrasia patients are at serious with live vaccine. It is administered intramus-
risk of an overwhelming infection.) cularly into the thigh muscle or subcutaneously
into the back of the neck.
Neutrophil It should always be assumed that, in the
A type of white blood cell which can migrate vicinity of an outbreak, every flock to be vacci-
into the tissues and engulf bacteria, etc. (See nated is incubating the disease. The incubation
under BLOOD; ABSCESS.) period is around 21 days and it takes 10 to
14 days to build up an immunity. N
New Forest Disease (Infectious
Bovine Keratitis) Newfoundland
A painful eye condition which can lead to A large breed of dog developed in Canada to
blindness if neglected. (See EYE, DISEASES OF.) rescue people from rivers and the sea; it is a
powerful swimmer. It is long-haired and usually
New Forest Fly black or brown. Hip dysplasia, aortic stenosis,
A blood-sucking fly, found in many parts of ununited anconeal process and osteochondritis
Britain. Hippobosca equina attacks horses and may be inherited.
cattle. It deposits larvae (not eggs) in the soil.
When disturbed, it makes a characteristic side- ‘Newmarket Cough’
ways movement. (See FLIES.) (see EQUINE INFLUENZA; COUGH)
any tendon or muscle in the tail of a horse’. The (See GARDEN NIGHTSHADE POISONING; BITTER-
practice is illegal. SWEET; and ATROPINE POISONING).
Nose and Nasal Passages, fracture of a horn core in cattle and sheep, the
Diseases of blood entering the nose from the sinuses of the
skull; in horses it may be seen in GUTTURAL
Catarrh Inflammation of the nostrils is called POUCH DISEASE; and see ‘BLEEDER HORSES‘.
RHINITIS, and may accompany ordinary When the haemorrhage is only slight, little
catarrhal inflammation of the nasal passages more than keeping the animal quiet, and apply-
such as occurs in cases of distemper in the dog, ing douches of cold water to the bridge of
of other febrile illnesses. The symptoms often the nose, will be required. A thin trickle of
resemble those of a human ‘cold in the head’, blood coming from 1 nostril only can be disre-
with a discharge from the nostrils which is at garded, as it will generally cease of its own
first clear and colourless, later becoming thick accord. When the bleeding is very profuse, and
and yellowish-green. Horses and cattle often there may be danger of collapse, more drastic
snort and shake their heads; dogs sneeze. measures are needed. Where only 1 nostril is
Conjunctivitis may accompany the nasal affected it should be plugged with swabs of
catarrh. cotton-wool enclosed in gauze, and so arranged
In horses, the presence of ulcers in the that some of the gauze is left outside the nostril
mucous membrane with a punched-out appear- to allow of removal some hours afterwards.
ance may indicate GLANDERS. For a specific In horses, care must be taken not to confuse
condition in the pig, see ATROPHIC RHINITIS. nose bleeding with pulmonary bleeding. Severe
Parasites, such as larvae of the sheep-nostril bleeding from both nostrils requires veteri-
fly, Linguatula, or leeches in dog or cat, may nary intervention; both nostrils may need
cause a discharge from one or both nostrils. to be plugged after first having performed a
A discharge from 1 nostril only may in the tracheotomy.
dog, for example, indicate the presence of a
FOREIGN BODY such as a grass awn; or there Tumours include polyps, especially in the cat;
may be a fungal infection (e.g. ASPERGILLOSIS) and adenocarcinoma in dogs and other animals.
which may follow local injury or tumour for- Among other conditions in which the nose or
mation. Another possible cause is an abscess the nasal passages are affected may be mentioned:
at the root of a tooth, with pus collecting in fungal infections, TUMOURS, mucosal disease,
the maxillary sinus and escaping through the malignant catarrh, GLANDERS, URTICARIA,
nasomaxillary opening. PURPURA HAEMORRHAGICA, STRANGLES, and N
INFLUENZA. (See also INFECTIOUS NASAL GRANU-
Treatment Nasal catarrh should be consid- LOMATA IN CATTLE; RHINOSPORIDIOSIS;
ered contagious. The animal should be isolated RHINOTRACHEITIS, INFECTIOUS BOVINE.)
accordingly, and attention paid to comfort,
ventilation, and suitability of food, as discussed Nosocomial
under NURSING OF SICK ANIMALS. Symptoms of Hospital-acquired. Human nosocomial infec-
other diseases must be looked for, especially tions, usually associated with medical or surgical
when the temperature is high, and a profession- interventions, affect about 5 to 6 per cent of
al diagnosis should be obtained. The nostrils hospital patients, i.e. about 2 million people in
should be kept moist and pliable by rubbing the USA alone, resulting in some 6 million
small quantities of Vaseline around their rims excess hospital bed-days. About 1 per cent of the
daily, after sponging away discharges. victims die.
Diseased conditions of the turbinated bones
or of the molar teeth call for surgical measures Nostril
for their correction; parasites in the nasal cavi- (see NOSE)
ties must be expelled (see MITES); and if other
foreign bodies are present they must be Nostril Flies (Oestridae)
removed. Nostril flies (oestridae) are members of the class
of 2-winged flies, whose larvae are parasitic in
Haemorrhage from the nostrils may be due the nasal cavities, and in the air sinuses of the
to injuries which cause tearing or laceration of skull, of sheep. (See under FLIES.)
the mucous membrane; it may occur during
violent exertion, such as racing or hunting with Notifiable Diseases
horses not in maximum condition; it may be Notifiable diseases are those which, when they
associated with ulceration, congestion, tumour occur upon farm premises, must be notified to
formation, or other diseased condition of the the Divisional Veterinary Office of the State
nasal mucous membrane; it may be due to Veterinary Service of the Department of the
490 Notoedric Mange
very widely used in the control of post- home for nursing. There is likely to be less stress
operative pain, arthritis, joint pain, and inflam- for your pet when it is not sent or kept away
matory oedema; also as anti-inflammatory from its familiar surroundings.
agents where pain may not be an issue and A dog or cat which is ill, or recovering from
steroids are best avoided. Flunixin, paraceta- an operation or accident, tends to seek solitude
mol, phenylbutazone, ketoprofen, and aspirin and require peace. Continual fussing and inter-
are examples of NSAIDs. They may be admin- ference, however well-meant, are to be avoided.
istered orally or by injection according to type (This is something which has to be impressed
and formulation. There are restrictions on the on children.)
use of most NSAIDs in horses competing Fresh air, warmth, and an absence of bright
under Jockey Club, etc., rules. lights and noise (such as those emanating from a
TV set) are desirable. A patient with eye inflam-
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance mation, tetanus, or some other nervous system
(NMR) disorder needs protection from bright light.
Also known as magnetic resonance imaging In many cases, it is helpful to put down old
(MRI), this is a hazard-free, non-invasive tech- newspaper, which can be burnt after use. If a
nique for generating images of internal sections dog cannot go outside, a box of earth or ashes,
of the body. The system works by utilising the or the material sold for cat trays, may be useful
differing absorption of radio waves by atoms in too. An extra sanitary tray will be needed for an
the body when exposed to a magnetic field. The ill cat under these circumstances.
amount of absorption is measured and the data Constipation may be a problem. A little of
used to generate a computer image. the oil from a tin of sardines may be taken
voluntarily. (Remember that a cat straining
Nuclear Medicine ineffectually over a litter tray may be trying to
Involves the use of radio-isotopes for diagnosis pass urine and not faeces.)
and therapy. (See RADIO-ISOTOPES.) Temperature-taking often forms a part of
animal nursing. Buy a clinical thermometer
Nuclear Weapons with a stout, stubby end, and lubricate the
(see under RADIOACTIVE FALL-OUT) latter before passing it into the rectum.
Cooking oil will serve for this purpose.
Nucleic Acids An improvised jacket, with holes for the N
(see DNA and RIBONUCLEIC ACID.) front legs, is useful in cases of bronchitis or
pneumonia.
Nuclein Never omit to wipe away the discharges from
Nuclein is a protein substance containing phos- the eyes and nose of an ill animal.
phorus derived from the nuclei of cells. It is sometimes difficult to keep an ill dog or
cat clean. Any hair or fur which becomes soiled
Nucleotides should be cut away, and the part washed.
(see RADIO-ISOTOPES)
Feeding
Nucleus Prescription diets are specially formulated for
The central body in a cell which controls its use in assisting the treatment of specific canine
activities. (See CELLS.) and feline disorders. They are available in
canned and dry form, as prescribed by veteri-
Nursing of Sick Animals nary surgeons; see DIET AND DIETETICS. Human
The advent of qualified professional VETERINARY invalid foods (e.g. Complan) are often useful.
NURSES has been of great benefit to practising Do not force solid foods on a sick animal
veterinary surgeons, especially those engaged in which, if suffering from a digestive upset, is
small-animal practice, and to their patients; and usually better off without solid food for a day
has facilitated measures for intensive care. or two. (See also under VOMITING.) Variety is
important in feeding the sick.
Nursing of small animals at home If During convalescence the animal may be
your dog or cat has an infectious disease, nurs- tempted to eat by offering small quantities of
ing will have to be undertaken at home, since warmed proprietary food or meat jelly, minced
veterinary hospitals usually cannot accept such liver or rabbit, or sardine.
cases owing to the risk to other patients.
In other cases, after initial veterinary treat- Nursing of horses The affected horse
ment, it is often preferable to have the animal at should be removed from its stall in the stable
492 Nutrition, Faulty
Obesity
Obesity is an important condition in the dog
and cat, and may arise from overfeeding, an
unsuitable diet, or from a hormone imbalance.
Oak Poisoning Obesity is often associated with, and may pre-
Both the acorns and the leaves of the oak dispose to, heart disease, arthritis, and some
(Quercus spp.) may be dangerous when eaten by skin and respiratory disorders, as well as intol-
stock, but the leaves are usually harmless unless erance of heat. Old dogs need less carbohydrate
eaten in large quantities. It is when there is a and more protein in the diet. Overfeeding a
scarcity of food in pastures towards the end of pet can actually constitute an offence under
very dry summers that symptoms of poisoning the Protection of Animals Act 1911 by causing
occur. The animals most affected are young unnecessary suffering.
store cattle.
In a Northumberland outbreak, however, Obstetrics
in a herd of 40 Galloways, 6 cows died and (see PARTURITION, DRUG-INDUCED; CALVING)
4 aborted. A taste for oak buds was acquired
early in the year when trees were felled and keep Occiput
was scarce. Felling went on until September, Occiput is the uppermost posterior part of the
when symptoms (fever and scouring with head where it meets the neck. The occipital
blood-stained faeces) were first shown after one bone lies in the part of the skull which forms
cow had aborted and died. the occiput, and can be felt as a hard bony plate
Horses have been poisoned through eating in most animals. Some of the neck muscles
either oak leaves or acorns. are attached to the occipital bone, and the pow-
It is well known that both pigs and sheep can erful ligamentum nuchae, which is the main
eat acorns in small quantities without ill-effects. supporting structure of the head and neck, is
inserted into the prominence that can be felt
Signs Ruminants that have eaten many acorns between the ears.
become dull, cease feeding, lie groaning, and
appear to be in considerable pain. At first, there
is severe constipation accompanied by strain- Occupational Hazards
ing and colicky pains, cessation of rumination, (see SHEPHERDS; ORF; PIGS, TRANSMISSIBLE
DISEASES OF; MEAT-HANDLERS; ZOONOSES
weakness of the pulse, and a temperature below
IN UK VETERINARIANS; NITROGEN DIOXIDE;
normal. Later, small amounts of inky-black fae-
SPOROTRICHOSIS; SALMONELLOSIS; BUBONIC
ces are passed, and a blood-stained diarrhoea sets
PLAGUE)
in. Great prostration is seen, and the animals die
in from 3 to 7 days when large amounts have
been eaten. In chronic cases there is always great Ochratoxin A
loss of flesh, and death does not take place Ochratoxin A is a fungal toxin sometimes
till weeks or months after the beginning of the found in stored feeds and originating from
symptoms. Penicillium viridicatum, for example. Poisoning
Horses may not show signs of pain. The in pigs may result in thirst, enlarged kidneys,
poisoned animal becomes weak and dull, has a and polyuria. (See MYCOTOXICOSIS.)
subnormal temperature, may discharge food
and saliva from its nostrils, show head-pressing, Odontoma
have mouth ulcers, have reddish-brown urine, Odontoma is a tumour arising in tissues which
ataxia and convulsions. normally produce teeth. They are encountered
Autopsy findings include a uraemic smell in horses and cattle in association with the
from the carcase, oedema and haemorrhages, roots (usually) of teeth, where either they may
and kidney lesions. appear as rounded or irregular masses attached
to an otherwise normal tooth (sometimes mak-
Treatment Cattle should be given long hay. ing extraction extremely difficult), or they may
The animals should be made comfortable, with occur as large, irregular, solid masses replacing
plenty of bedding provided. During convales- the greater part of a normal tooth and causing
cence, the animals require liberal feeding to a swelling on the side of the jaw. They are
make up the loss of flesh they have sustained. usually extremely dense and difficult to cut.
494 Oedema
O
OESTRUS
Periodicity of First occurrence
Animal Time of year oestrus Duration after parturition
Mare Feb. to July 21 days 2 to 8 days 3 to 12 days; service
(14 to 28 days on 9th day often
or more) successful
Cow All year; most in- 20 days 4 to 24 hours 30 to 60 days*
tense midsummer (16 to 24 days
or more)
Ewe End of Aug. till Jan., 16 to 17 days 1 to 2 days †
depending on breed (10 to 21 days)
and district
Sow Oct. to Nov. and 21 days 1 to 3 days 8 weeks after farrow-
Apr. to June (15 to 30 days) ing, or 1 week after
weaning of litter
Bitch Usually Dec. to Feb., Once only during 9 to 18 days ‡
and in spring each period
Cat Jan. onwards for 7 to 14 days
8 to 10 months (if
unmated) oestrus may
recur every 2 or
3 weeks
*In the cow that is suckling a calf it is seldom that oestrus occurs until after weaning, when its appearance is somewhat vari-
able, but often on 3rd to 12th day.
†With the exception of ewes of the Dorset Horn breed, which comes into season twice a year, and can rear two crops of lambs
per year, sheep only show season in the autumn. It depends upon the breed as to how soon the rams may be put out with the
flock. Generally speaking, the more low-lying the district and the milder the climate the earlier the ewes come into season; thus
Suffolks are served from August till the end of September, and lamb from January till March. Mountain breeds are served from
November till January, and lamb in April, May, and June.
‡The bitch usually comes in season twice a year, but great variation takes places with the smaller toy breeds. Bitches of the
Basenji breed (and a few individuals of other breeds) have only one heat period per year.
496 Oestrus (Estrus)
Oestrus in the cow. Mounting activity over 24 hours. Composition of 2880 cow-days. (36 adult
Holsten cattle.) (With acknowledgements to Dr J. Frank Hurnik, University of Guelph, Canada, and to
Dr D. B. Harker.)
and bleats. Oestrus occurs every 19 to 21 days behaves like the cow – mounting or being
during the autumn, and lasts 12 to 48 hours. mounted. The vulva is usually distinctly swollen,
and there is sometimes a blood-stained dis-
Sow The sow becomes torpid and lazy, and charge. Oestrus in the sow lasts up to 60 hours
when asked to move often grunts in a peculiar and ovulation begins at 34 to 50 hours after its
whining manner. If housed with others she onset, the process taking up to 5 hours. The sow
Oestrus (Estrus), Suppression of 497
will accept service between 15 and 35 hours after Part of the problem is that while ‘bulling’ lasts
the onset of oestrus, with the optimum at 25 to 12 hours on average, it may last only 1 hour;
35 hours. and as to the timing, 50 per cent of the displays
occur at night. Moreover some cows may stand
Bitch She wanders away from home unless only once in 20 minutes; others will stand only
confined, and the odour of her blood-stained for favourites; and some aggressive cows mount
vaginal discharge attracts male followers. As other cattle at a crowded trough in order to
bleeding from the vulva is slight in some bitch- induce them to move aside to create a space.
es, especially at their 1st oestrus, owners should Sometimes a cow is seen to mount another
watch for swelling of the vulva. During the 7 to from the front. This is valuable evidence of
9 days of pro-oestrus, the bitch will flirt with oestrus, but it is important to remember that it
a dog but not accept him. Usually it is only is the riding cow which is bulling, not the one
during the last week of heat that the bitch will underneath.
accept the dog, usually between the 10th and The importance of pinpointing heat dates can-
12th days. not be overemphasised. Only by record-keeping O
is it possible to identify animals that are not
Cat The signs may suggest pain and/or a strong coming in heat at the normal time, in addition to
desire to have her back and flanks rubbed or those which are cycling (coming in heat) irregu-
scratched. She will roll over and over on carpet larly. Delay in seeking veterinary advice may lead
or floor, rub herself against furniture, etc., and to delay in conception.
utter little pleased mews. As an aid to herd management, a VASEC-
The 1st oestrus may be expected between the TOMISED bull may be used, or a heat-detection
ages of 6 and 8 months: however, it may occur as device may be placed on a cow’s back, liberating
early as 31⁄2 months, or occasionally be delayed a dye when she is mounted. Applying paint to
until the queen is about a year old. the tail which is rubbed off by mounting is also
useful.
Oestrus (Estrus), Detection of,
in Cows Oestrus (Estrus), Suppression of
Especially in winter, detection of oestrus is not as Bitches and cats may be prevented from coming
easy as might be thought. Studies in the USA sug- ‘on heat’ by oral dosing with the synthetic
gest that where cows are watched 4-hourly round equivalent of the naturally occurring hormone,
the clock, the efficiency of heat-detection should progesterone; MEGESTROL ACETATE (Ovarid) is
be around 95 per cent, but in a herd where cows an example. Synthetic progestogens are also
are seen only twice a day, the percentage is likely used to lessen aggressive behaviour in dogs and
to drop to around 74 per cent. spraying in cats.
Other studies suggest that those figures may Some progestogens can cause pathological
be over-optimistic, however; in Britain, the rate changes in the uterus, particularly if used for pro-
may be as low as 55 per cent on some farms. longed periods. They may induce abnormal levels
The main sign of oestrus in a heifer or cow is of growth hormone, suppress cortisol levels, and
standing still to be ridden by others (‘bulling’). possibly increase the risk of mammary tumours.
498 Offal
Offal Oils
The practice of incorporating offal – animal Oils are divided into fixed oils, which are of
organs – in cattle feeds was banned in 1988 the nature of liquid fats, and are derived by
because of the risk of transmitting BOVINE expression from nuts, seeds, etc.; and volatile or
SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY. essential oils, which are obtained by distillation.
Examples are the oils of aniseed, cajaput, euca-
Offals Middlings lyptus, peppermint, and turpentine. (See also
A high-protein feed supplement for cattle (see PARAFFIN.)
WEATINGS).
Oilseed Rape
Office International Des Horses grazing in fields adjacent to this crop are
Epizooties (OIE) at risk of developing respiratory disease.
Office International Des Epizooties (OIE) was
set up in 1924 following the realisation that joint Oldenburg
action between countries was necessary to con- A breed of sheep native to the Hamburg Marshes,
trol contagious animal diseases. It determines the Germany. Fleece weights up to 6.35 kg (14 lb)
animal health standards for international trade, and high lambing percentages are claimed.
advises the veterinary services in member coun-
tries, and aims to work towards the eradication Olfactory
of the most dangerous animal and zoonotic dis- Relating to the sense of smell.
eases. The membership comprises 144 countries
and international organisations such as the UN’s Olfactory Nerve (Nerve of
Food and Agriculture Organisation and the Smell)
World Health Organisation. Olfactory nerve (nerve of smell) is the 1st of the
cranial nerves.
Oie
(see OFFICE INTERNATIONAL DES EPIZOOTIES) Oliguria
A diminution in the amount of URINE excreted.
Old English Sheepdog Olive Pomace
Its very shaggy, grey and white coat is the distin-
A by-product of the olive-oil industry that has
guishing feature of this large dog. Wobbler syn-
been used to replace wheat bran in cattle diets
O drome (cervical spondylolithesis) and cataract
and barley in sheep diets. Pre-treatment with
may be inherited. Hip dysplasia, deafness and
sodium hydroxide helps to delignify the product
osteochondritis dessicans may also be found in
and improve palatability.
the breed.
Ollulanus
Oilfield Hazards, Poisoning (see CATS, WORMS IN)
In the USA about 500 cases of suspected poi-
soning by oilfield wastes are investigated each Omasum (‘Many-Plies’)
year at the Oklahoma animal disease diagnostic Omasum (‘many-plies’) is the name given to
laboratory. the 3rd stomach of ruminants. It is situated on
Hazards arise from the ingestion by cattle of the right side of the abdomen at a higher level
petroleum hydrocarbons, salt water, heavy met- than the 4th stomach and between this latter
als, chemicals stored on site, and rubbish such and the 2nd stomach, with both of which it
as discarded soda bags. A quantity of lead-based communicates. From its inner surface project
pipe-jointing material is used, and also chemicals large numbers of leaves or folia, each of which
to treat the mud which lubricates the drilling bit. possesses roughened surfaces. In the centre of
each folium is a band of muscle-fibres which
Signs of poisoning include weight loss and produces a rasping movement of the leaf when
unthriftiness. A differential diagnosis has to take it contracts. One leaf rubs against those on
into account the possibility of internal parasites, either side of it, and large particles of food
faulty nutrition or other causes of debility; but material are ground down between the rough
standard analytical methods make it relatively surfaces, preparatory to further digestion in the
easy to detect the ingested poisons. succeeding parts of the alimentary canal.
The presence of petroleum in lung tissue and Studies at the ARC’s National Institute for
in rumen contents is frequently confirmed. Liver Research in Dairying have shown ‘massive
and kidney lesions may be found. exchanges of water and solutes in the omasum
Oocyte 499
of the steer. The organ appears to be the main The determination of the protein encoded
site of magnesium absorption, and it is proba- by the ras oncogene has helped to explain how
bly here that the cause of clinical hypomagne- genes of this kind cause cancer.
saemia should be sought’. The ras protein is part of the system on the cell
surface that transmits signals from growth factors
Omentum in the interior of the cell. In its mutated, onco-
Omentum is a fold of peritoneum which passes genetically coded form, the signal is locked in the
from the stomach to some other organ. There ‘on’ position, so causing unrestrained growth.
are several such folds, but the most important
is that which passes to the terminal part of the Oncogenic
large colon and the beginning of the small Giving rise to tumour formation.
colon, and which is called the great omentum.
This does not run direct to the colon from the Oncology
stomach, but forms a loose sac occupying the The study of tumours.
spaces between other organs in the abdomen.
In health, there is always a considerable amount Oncornaviruses
of fat deposited in the folds of the great omen- Oncornaviruses are those which give rise to
tum, and this, in the ox, sheep, and pig, forms tumours, e.g. the feline leukaemia virus; the
part of the suet of commerce. Rous sarcoma virus. (See CANCER; RETROVIRUS.)
In the dog, the great omentum lies between
the abdominal organs and the lower abdominal Ondiri Disease
wall, and acts as a kind of protective bed which An infection of cattle and sheep by Cytoecetes
supports the intestines, etc. ondiri; signs are fever and small haemorrhages of
the mucous membranes (see BOVINE INFECTIOUS
Omphalitis PETECHIAL FEVER).
‘Navel-ill’.
Onion Poisoning
Omphalitis of Birds The toxic effects of onions have been seen in
Infection of the yolk sack, by bacteria found in cattle, sheep, horses and dogs.
the alimentary canal and on the skin of the hen, The toxic principle is a pungent volatile oil,
or in the nostril of hatchery workers. It can cause n-propyl disulphide. This gives rise to Heinz
high mortality of embryos and chicks. The bac- bodies, and red blood cells which contain them
teria may be relatively non-pathogenic elsewhere are removed by the reticulo-endothelial system; O
than in the yolk where, having a rich medium in giving rise to anaemia.
which to grow, they cause serious disease. This
can take the form of ‘mushy chick disease’ in Signs Inappetence, tachycardia, staggering, jaun-
birds under 10 days old, or true omphalitis. dice, haemoglobinuria, collapse, and sometimes
Sending birds out from a hatchery before the death.
navels have completely closed is also a risk.
‘Ontario Encephalitis’
Omphalophlebitis A disease of piglets, as young as 4 to 7 days, end-
Omphalophlebitis means inflammation of the ing in a fatal encephalitis and caused by a virus.
umbilical vein. It occurs in young animals and is (See ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, VIRAL, OF PIGS.)
commonly present in the early stages of ‘navel-ill’.
Onychetomy
Omsk Fever De-clawing.
The cause of this is related to the RUSSIAN
SPRING-SUMMER VIRUS, but is more serious in Onychia
its effects and is spread by the tick Dermacentor Onychia is an inflammation affecting the nails
pictus. or claws of animals. (See NAILS, DISEASES OF.)
Onchocerciasis Onychomycosis
Infestation with worms belonging to the class Infection of the claw with a fungus. In cats,
Onchocerca. (See ROUNDWORMS.) Microsporum canis infection is not uncommon.
(See RINGWORM.)
Oncogene
A gene associated with tumour formation. (See Oocyte
CANCER.) An immature ovum.
500 Oophorectomy
parasitic worm larvae. (See PADDOCKS; also ALCO- a kneeling position. In severe cases the horn
HOL POISONING.) separates from the sensitive structures below,
large quantities of foul-smelling thick pus are
Orchitis produced, and the hoof may be shed. The space
Inflammation of the TESTICLE. between the claws, and the parts around the
front and sides of the coronets, are the com-
Oregon Muscle Disease monest situations of the lesions.
A condition in turkeys and chickens in which Less commonly the external genitals of both
the inner breast (deep pectoral) muscles become male and female are affected. (See also PENIS AND
necrotic and greenish. The cause is possibly an PREPUCE – Balanoposthitis.)
inherited abnormality affecting the blood vessels. After 550 apparently healthy 5-month-old
lambs had been transported over a period of
Orf 23 hours, a severe outbreak developed and
A disease of sheep, cattle, and goats which has a 10 per cent of the lambs died. The outbreak
very wide distribution and many names. Among was attributed to spread of the virus from an
its numerous designations are the following: affected animal in the confined space inside the
‘ulcerative stomatitis’, ‘contagious pustular der- truck.
matitis’; ‘contagious ecthyma’; ‘necrobacillosis of
sheep’. Treatment As soon as a case of orf appears
Orf is enzootic in the Border counties of among a flock of sheep, it should be isolated at
England and Scotland, but outbreaks may arise once. Isolated sheep that are already affected
in any county in Britain, as well as in Germany, usually do best when they can be shut up
France, Austria, the USA, and other sheep indoors, given hand-feeding, and provided with
countries. clean dry litter. A dressing is applied over the
The disease attacks sheep of all ages, sexes, and raw ulcerated area and around its margin.
breeds, and kept under all conditions of manage- Crystal violet is very suitable as a dressing, and
ment. It frequently attacks lambs just before or antibiotics are useful in treatment. Cryosurgery
after weaning, or after docking or castration, and may be helpful.
from them it may spread to the teats of the ewes. On farms previously heavily infected, and
In other cases it is common among gimmers where orf was very common on the feet, pass-
until they are 1 year old. ing the whole of the sheep through a foot-bath
at 3-weekly intervals has resulted in a complete
Causes Essentially, a parapoxvirus; but secon- disappearance of the disease. (See FOOT-BATHS O
darily Fusiformis necrophorus (Fusobacterium). FOR SHEEP.)
The virus is needed to produce pox-like lesions Orf is well recognised as an occupational
first, which the necrosis organism then invades. hazard of shepherds.
Signs In the milder form of the disease, vesicles, Control A modified live vaccine is available; it
followed by ulcers, appear on the lips – especially is applied by scarifications. The resulting scabs
at the corners of the mouth. Sometimes healing can be a source of infection when they detach.
takes place uneventfully; in other cases verrucose
masses form and persist. The animal loses weight. Orf in the dog Outbreaks of orf in hounds
In the severe form the inside of the mouth and sheepdogs are not unknown. They are
becomes involved in most cases, and in addition characterised by circular areas of acute inflam-
other parts of the body such as the vulva and the mation, with a moist appearance, ulceration
skin of the face, legs, tail, etc. A greyish-black and scab formation.
crust often appears which, if removed, leaves a
raw, angry-looking surface. Public health In one 5-year period there were
Sheep with lesions on the head frequently rub 344 laboratory reports of patients with orf
their muzzles on their fore-feet, or scratch at lesions in Britain. Contact with live sheep or
their heads with their hind-feet. In this way the lambs was reported 142 times. In 49 cases the
feet and legs often become affected. Abscesses people affected were abattoir workers, butchers,
may form in the region of the coronet. The or domestic meat-handlers. The possible source
sheep becomes extremely lame, so much so that in 36 patients (including 13 milkers) was con-
it is frequently unable to put the affected leg to tact with cows or calves. Sixteen patients were
the ground, and hobbles about on 3 legs. If both farmers; 7 were veterinary surgeons or veterinary
fore-feet are affected – which is commonly the students. (Communicable Disease Surveillance
case – the animal may be observed feeding from Centre.)
502 Organelles
Severe mouth lesions have been successfully The secretions of the uterine cervix of the
treated by DIATHERMY and CRYOSURGERY. cow during oestrus also contain cationic pro-
teins which possess antibacterial activity against
Organelles staphylococci. In the laboratory these proteins
Specialised structures within a CELL. were shown also to inhibit growth of Brucella
abortus.
Organic Diseases The anionic proteins from the cervical
Organic diseases, as distinct from ‘functional mucus, however, showed no inhibitory action
diseases’, are those in which some actual alter- on the bacteria. This difference ‘suggested that
ation in structure takes place, as the direct result the killing of the bacteria was preceded by an
of which faulty action of the organ or tissue electrovalent binding of the positively charged
concerned follows. cationic protein on to the negatively charged
surface of the bacteria’, and this has proved to
Organochlorine Poisoning be the case.
(see CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS) Antibacterial cationic proteins have also been
isolated from cells normally present in cow’s
Organophosphorus Poisoning milk, and research has shown that synthesis of
This may arise from contamination of crops, these proteins can be stimulated. Induction of a
or other food material, with organophosphorus mild sterile mastitis by the injection of E. coli
insecticides such as dimethoate, schradan, endotoxin through the teat-canal led to increased
parathion or dimefox, or by skin contact or numbers of neutrophils in the milk from which
inhalation. was extracted cationic proteins with a higher
Signs are varied but include salivation, mus- antibacterial activity.
cle tremors, slow heartbeat, constricted pupils,
swaying gait, and recumbency. Ornamental Fish
For a case of laryngeal paralysis arising from Ornamental fish are widely kept in the UK. The
organophosphorus poisoning of racehorses, see species vary considerably and, therefore, so do
under LARYNX, DISEASES OF. their environmental requirements. A general rule
is that when changing water, not all the old water
Treatment Atropine sulphate given intra- should be removed; about a third should be
venously or intramuscularly, and repeated in left (unless advised otherwise in certain circum-
30 minutes. Barbiturates may be needed to stances, such as where a disease is present). There
O control excitement. Oxygen for distressed is evidence that fish may secrete, in the mucous
breathing, and gastric lavage are recommended covering their skin, substances with antibiotic
in the human subject. In the latter, PAM has activity. Beneficial bacteria will also have become
been recommended as an antidote to parathion established in the water and enough should be
and other insecticides in this group – in left to re-establish numbers in the tank.
conjunction with atropine. Stress is a factor in most diseases of fish.
Protective clothing must be worn when Imported fish can undergo considerable stress
dipping sheep in organophosphorus dips; only during catching and transport before reaching
properly trained operatives may use sheep dips the hobbyist. Ulceration of the skin is not
(see DIPS AND DIPPING). uncommon in goldfish and koi; the bacteria
responsible vary. As with farmed fish, protozoal
Orifices, Immunity at infestations by Ichthyophthirius (white spot),
Defence mechanisms, directed against the inva- Trichonodina, Costia, Chilodonella, Scyphidia,
sion of pathogenic bacteria, exist in the natural etc, can occur. Gill flukes may also present a
orifices of the body. For example, research at problem: Sapreolegnia is usually a complicating
IRAD, Compton, led to the isolation of a num- infection.
ber of cationic proteins from the keratin of the When fish are kept in ponds, great care
teat-canal’s lining, and these have been shown must be taken to prevent spindrift from garden
to inhibit the growth of mastitis strains of chemicals contaminating the water.
staphylococci and streptococci. These proteins,
which are soluble in distilled water and carry Ornithosis
a positive electrical charge, were shown to The name formerly given to Chlamydophila
inhibit the growth of 2 strains of Staphylococcus psittaci infection in birds other than those of the
aureus and 1 strain of Streptococcus agalactiae. parrot family. C. psittaci infections in all birds are
The proteins in very low concentration caused now designated as psittacosis. (See CHLAMYDIA
a 50 per cent mortality in test bacterial cultures. AND CHLAMYDOPHILA.)
Osteomalacia 503
Two chicken skeletons at the Regional Poultry Research Laboratory at East Lansing, Michigan. One (left)
is the skeleton of a 216-day-old normal White Leghorn cockerel. The other is the skeleton of a 202-day-
old White Leghorn cockerel affected with osteopetrosis, a disease that causes an enlargement and
hardening of the bones. (With acknowledgements to USDA, photograph by Madeleine Osborne.)
‘Oulou Fato’ 505
Otodectes
Mites which cause ear mange in dogs and cats.
(See MITES.)
Otorrhoea
Otorrhoea means a discharge from the ear.
(See EAR, DISEASES OF.)
Otterhound
Darting sites suggested for ostriches. A large dog with pendulous ears and a long, oily
coat. It is liable to an inherited disorder of the
An adult male may be up to 2.75 m (9 ft) blood platelets.
tall, and weigh 135 kg (300 lb). Ostriches can
be dangerous and have been known to disem- ‘Oulou Fato’
bowel people when angry. That is why 2 areas A form of rabies occurring among dogs in
of the drawing have been shaded – to indicate parts of Africa, and probably Asia also. People
sites for the administration of IMMOBILON by are rarely bitten, epidemics are uncommon;
means of a PROJECTILE SYRINGE. infected dogs may show either no symptoms,
Ostriches cannot fly, but they can run or transient symptoms followed by recovery.
extremely fast. Repeated attacks prove fatal, however.
506 Ovarid
Ovine Encephalomyelitis
(see LOUPING-ILL)
Ovum Oxytocin
Ovum is an egg cell. (See EMBRYOLOGY; OVARY; A hormone, secreted by the posterior pituitary
TRANSPLANTATION.) gland, and also by the corpus luteum, which
actuates the ‘milk let-down’ mechanism; and
Oxfendazole also stimulates contraction of the muscles of the
An anthelmintic of the benzimidazole group. uterus in late pregnancy.
Oxygen Oxyuris
(see OZONE; AIR; RESPIRATION) Oxyuris is another name for the thread worm,
Cylinders of oxygen are essential items of equip- which possesses a long finely-tapered tail. (See
ment for anaesthesia. They are fitted with a pres- ROUNDWORMS.)
sure gauge and a reducing valve. A flowmeter
is incorporated in the anaesthetic circuit. (See Ozaena
ANAESTHESIA.)
Ozaena is a chronic inflammatory disease of the
Oxygen is used in the treatment of animals nasal passages. (See NOSE, DISEASES OF.)
rescued from burning buildings and suffering
from the effects of smoke inhalation.
Ozone
Hyperbaric oxygen is that used at high The chemically highly reactive allotropic form
pressures (e.g. 3 atmospheres) for the treatment of oxygen, (O3). As a constituent of the upper
of carbon monoxide poisoning; and it has also atmosphere it forms a layer which protects
been used for gas gangrene in a dog. people from excessive exposure to ultraviolet
radiation from the sun. Ozone may be the main
Oxygen embolism is a potential danger constituent of smog.
when hydrogen peroxide is syringed into a deep It has been described as the most hazardous
wound. of all the gaseous air pollutants because of its
long-term association in laboratory animals
Oxygen Debt with emphysema, lung cancer, accelerated age-
(see MUSCLE – Action of muscles) ing, increased neonatal deaths, decreased litter
size, teratogenesis, and jaw anomalies. In ani-
Oxytetracycline mals exposed to ozone the mortality from lung
An antibiotic. (See TETRACYCLINES.) infections is increased.
O
P
(predators) may cry out when suffering pain.
Species which are, or were, normally hunted
may not do so because it would reveal that they
are injured or hiding. Thus, because an animal
does not cry out, or show signs of restlessness, it
should not be assumed that it is free from pain.
The clinical signs of pain can differ from species
Pacemaker to species. Pain can be a cause of aggressiveness.
An electronic device implanted under the skin The effect of pain can last longer than the pain
of the chest which stimulates the heartbeat. itself: it has been shown that as long as a month
Pacemakers have been successfully implanted after foot pain has been corrected in cattle, cows
into dogs which show an impaired conduction still behave as if in pain, as the animal’s body
of the impulse that regulates the heartbeat, so has not returned to normal. In sheep, this can
that a lack of coordination between the beating last even longer. As a result, bodily condition
of the atria and that of the ventricles occurs. and milk production may not return to normal
Following repeated episodes of loss of con- until some time after the animal has made an
sciousness, which heart medication failed to apparent recovery.
obviate, a 2-year-old dachshund in Switzerland
had a pacemaker electrode inserted into the
right ventricle of its heart via the jugular vein.
Paint
(seeHOUSE DECORATING, POISONING; LEAD
The batteries were inserted between abdominal
POISONING, CAGE AND AVIARY BIRDS,
muscles. Local irritation from the battery
DISEASES OF)
implant was stated to be slight. Two years later
the heart had given no further trouble.
A pacemaker was inserted in a pregnant mare Palatability
at the Royal Veterinary College. The mare (see under DIET AND DIETETICS)
foaled normally and she and the foal fared well.
Palate
Pacheco’s Disease Palate is the partition between the cavity of the
Pacheco’s disease is caused by a herpesvirus mouth below, and that of the nose above. It
which is present in South American psittacines consists of the hard palate and the soft palate.
(parrots, parakeets). In the wild it does not appear The hard palate is formed by the bony floor of
to cause any harm. In aviaries, however, sudden the nasal cavity covered with dense mucous
onset of disease and death may occur, with up to membrane, which is crossed by transverse
100 per cent mortality. The birds become weak ridges in all the domesticated animals. These
and have diarrhoea. Post-mortem examination ridges assist the tongue to carry the food back
shows necrosis of the liver and spleen. to the throat. The hard palate stretches back a
little beyond the last molar teeth in animals,
Pachymeningitis and ends by becoming continuous with the soft
Inflammation of the dura mater of the brain palate. This latter is formed by muscles covered
and spinal cord. (See MENINGITIS.) with mucous membrane, and in the horse acts
as a sort of curtain between the cavity of the
Pacinian Corpuscles mouth and that of the pharynx. Material
(see under TOUCH, SKIN) brought up from the stomach must pass out by
way of the nostrils. In racehorses, distressed
Packed Cell Volume breathing may arise as the result of inflamma-
(see under BLOOD – Composition) tion or partial paralysis of the soft palate, which
may be linked with paresis or paralysis of the
Paddocks vocal cords. Partial resection of the soft palate
These often become reservoirs of parasitic has been carried out as treatment for this latter
worm larvae – a point for animal-owners condition. (See GUTTURAL POUCH DISEASE.)
to bear in mind. Paddocks need ‘resting’ for Prolonged soft palate is a recognised inherited
12 months, or grazing by a different species of abnormality of the short-nosed breeds of dogs,
animal, periodically. e.g. boxers, bulldogs, Pekingese, pugs, cocker
spaniels. It makes breathing difficult at times,
Pain with snoring or even loss of consciousness result-
(For relief of pain, see ANALGESICS; ANAESTHE- ing. An operation to correct the condition is
SIA.) Animals which are natural hunters often very successful.
510 Pale Soft Exudative Muscle (PSE)
Severe injury to the hard palate is not degenerative pancreatic atrophy, and chronic
uncommonly seen in cats which have fallen pancreatitis. Signs include a ravenous appetite,
from a height, and suturing may be required. loss of weight, fatty faeces, and a dry scurfy
coat. Treatment includes supplementation of
Pale Soft Exudative Muscle the diet with pancreatin as oral powder or
(PSE) granules. Cimetidine may be used in addition
(see PORCINE STRESS SYNDROME) in severe cases.
merely weakened, without being lost the fetlock remain flexed and the front of the
completely, the word ‘paresis’ is often used. foot comes to the ground.
Various terms are used to indicate paralysis When there is severe injury to the side of the
distributed in different ways. (See HEMIPLEGIA; thigh from a fall, kick, or other similar cause,
PARAPLEGIA; QUADRIPLEGIA.) paralysis of the external popliteal nerve (common
Paralysis should be regarded as a symptom peroneal) may occur, resulting in an inability to
rather than as a disease by itself. extend the foot or flex the hock. When the horse
is made to walk, the limb is drawn out backwards
Varieties into a position resembling that seen in disloca-
Cerebral paralysis: conditions resulting from tion of the stifle, but the fetlock is flexed instead
brain lesions, such as encephalitis, tumour of being fully extended. The limb is then carried
formation, fracture of the skull with depression a short distance forward and the foot comes to
of a portion of bone, haemorrhage, etc., are rest upon the ground on its anterior face instead
accompanied by severe general or local of on the sole. In ‘crural paralysis’ (paralysis of
paralysis, either of the whole body (when death the femoral nerve) the quadriceps muscles above
usually follows very rapidly), or of one side the stifle, which normally extend that joint, are
(hemiplegia). paralysed. When weight is put upon the limb the
Paralysed limbs when examined are found to stifle sinks to the level of the hock or below it,
be flaccid, with the muscles totally relaxed, and all joints are flexed, and there is a peculiar drop
passive movements are not resisted. Sensations of the hindquarter on the same side. (See also
of pain may be felt, however, and an indication PARAPLEGIA.)
that sensation is not destroyed is shown by
raising the head, or struggling with the Paralysis in the dog (see also DISTEMPER;
sound limbs when a pinprick is made in a BOTULISM; THROMBOSIS; SPINE, DISEASES OF;
paralysed part. TICK PARALYSIS; LEAD POISONING; RABIES;
In cases of cerebral haemorrhage, the seizure RACOONS; ORGANOPHOSPHORUS POISONING)
is sudden; in encephalitis there is usually
some co-existing disease, such as influenza or Aid A wheeled trolley which supports the
distemper, and the brain symptoms develop as hindquarters can be an alternative to euthanasia
a complication – or the encephalitis may be the for some paraplegic dogs.
result of a primary viral infection, such as
equine encephalitis or rabies. With fracture Paralytic Myoglobinuria
and depression there is an immediate loss of (see MUSCLES, DISEASES OF – Nutritional
power, just as when an animal is stunned. muscular dystrophy)
P Spinal paralysis or paraplegia is most often
due to fracture of, or severe injury to, the Paraminobenzoic Acid
vertebrae. (See PARAPLEGIA.) A growth factor produced in bacteria which is
In complete paralysis death usually takes blocked by certain antibacterials, such as
place within 12 to 48 hours after the injury. (See sulphonamides.
SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND
INJURIES OF; and, for horses, under COMENY’S Paramphistomiasis
INFECTIOUS PARALYSIS OF HORSES and EQUINE A disease caused by RUMEN FLUKES of the genus
VIRAL RHINO PNEUMONITIS.) Paramphistomum.
Peripheral paralysis: there is usually some
injury to a nerve trunk, or lesion of the Paramyxoviruses
nerve-endings in the muscle fibres. (See An important group of disease-causing viruses.
SUPRASCAPULAR PARALYSIS; RADIAL PARALYSIS.) Parainfluenzavirus, morbillivirus and pneu-
Brachial paralysis results from road accidents, movirus are the 3 genera of paramyxovirus. (See
collisions, or stake wounds. Gluteal paralysis is Paramyxovirus parainfluenza 3 virus in the
very uncommon: wasting of the muscles of one table under EQUINE RESPIRATORY VIRUSES.) Two
hindquarter and a tendency to carry the limb paramyxoviruses infecting dogs are the canine
out to one side occur. ‘Paralysis of the sciatic distemper virus (a mobillivirus), and canine
nerve’ causes a loss of power in all the muscles parainfluenza virus/SV5. (See also PIGEONS and
of the thigh except those situated above and to NEWCASTLE DISEASE.)
the front of the stifle joint, i.e. the quadratus
group. The limb hangs loosely and the animal Paraphimosis
jerks it forward when attempting to walk; A constriction preventing the penis from being
although the stifle is advanced, the hock and withdrawn into the prepuce. This is not
Paraquat 513
Adult worms in the air passages of a calf’s lungs. In a heavily infected animal several thousand
lungworms may be present.
514 Parasites and Immunity
The patience and perseverance of both Spread of the worm larvae is assisted by their
owner and clinic staff were rewarded, for when rocket-like propulsion by the fungus Pilobolus,
seen again 6 and then 18 months later, the dog which is found in faecal deposits on pasture.
was well and fully active again. The worm larvae are projected along with
the fungal spores, often between 10.00 and
Parasites and Immunity mid-day.
Parasite antigens are a potent stimulus for
antiparasite antibodies of the IgE class (see Signs The characteristic husky cough is a
IMMUNOGLOBULINS), and parasite infection symptom in the milder cases, but in acute cases
can potentiate a pre-existing IgE response to an may be absent, with the main symptom being
unrelated antigen. dyspnoea (laboured breathing). In calves, death
Examples of the effect of parasitism on the may occur from actual suffocation due to
immune response are given under CANCER and masses of worms obstructing the air passages,
ALLERGY. or it may result from general debility or
pneumonia. In adult cattle pneumonia
Parasitic Bronchitis develops, with Actinomyces pyogenes acting as a
This occurs in cattle, sheep and goats; on secondary invader. Oedema of the lungs may
account of the husky cough produced, the occur, and cause death.
disease is commonly called ‘husk’ or ‘hoose’
in the UK. Prevention and treatment Live oral
Although of greater economic importance in vaccines are available. A number of
calves, nevertheless the cost of an outbreak in a ANTHELMINTICS, including albendazole, iver-
dairy herd may be very high – not so much as mectin and fenbendazole, may be used to treat
a result of deaths (which do occur in adult infected cattle. Some anthelmintics are available
cattle) but on account of reduced milk yields in bolus form. If the animal is exposed to
and the need for extra feed. Marshy land and infection while the anthelmintic bolus is active,
mild, wet weather both favour the parasites, as the animal will develop immunity without
does overstocking. showing signs of the disease (see under WORMS,
FARM TREATMENT AGAINST).
Cause In cattle the lungworm Dictyocaulus
viviparus is the important species (see ROUND- Parasitic Disease, Nature of
WORMS; also illustration, page 513). Parasitic Parasitic diseases are caused by organisms that
bronchitis normally affects cattle in their first live within an animal (endoparasites) or on its
grazing season. Affected animals experience a surface (ectoparasites). Endoparasites include
P drop in the saturation level of oxygen in worms and flukes; ectoparasites include fleas,
their blood to 70 per cent even before clinical mites and ticks. Disease is seldom caused by
signs become apparent. In clinical cases the one or a few parasitic organisms, but as a
percentage may be reduced to 30. rule depends on mass infestations. There are
Workers at Glasgow University defined exceptions to this, however, as a single Ascaris
infection with the parasite into 5 phases: pene- may obstruct the bile-duct with fatal results.
tration, pre-patent, patent, post-patent, and Parasites, with few exceptions, do not spend all
reinfection. In all but the first phase, oedema their lives in the animal body, but always need
and emphysema are found . to spend a certain proportion of their life-cycle
outside the host. They may cause damage to the
host in the following ways:
(1) By abstraction of nourishment properly
belonging to the host, e.g. many of the
intestinal worms;
(2) By mechanical obstruction of passages or
compression of organs, e.g. gapes (in chickens)
and hydatid;
(3) By feeding on the tissues of the host,
e.g. blood-sucking worms or flies;
(4) By production of toxins with varying
effects;
In a case of parasitic bronchitis, the neck is held
(5) By actual traumatic damage, e.g. by
extended and there may be continual coughing piercing and destroying skin (ticks, mites,
and/or distressed breathing. flies, etc.), by depositing eggs in the tissues
Parasitism 515
SOME OF THE EFFECTS OF PARATHYROID HORMONE AND CALCITONIN, THE 2 MAJOR HORMONES CONTROLLING THE
REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM
Parathyroid hormone Calcitonin
Mode of Separates fast and slow components Uncertain
action Increases cell membrane permeability
Activates adenyl cyclase enzyme
systems
Effect on Increases P excretion by decreasing Increases Ca, P, Na, and K
kidney tubular reabsorption excretion
Decreases Ca excretion by increasing Decreases Mg excretion
tubular reabsorption
Increases Na excretion by decreasing
tubular reabsorption
Effect on Increases Ca, P and Mg absorption ? Decreases P absorption
intestine Decreases volume and acidity
of gastric juice
Parenteral Partridges
Administration of a medicinal substance other (see GAME BIRDS, MORTALITY)
than via the digestive system, e.g. by injection.
Parturient Paresis
Paresis (see MILK FEVER and ‘DOWNER COW’ SYNDROME)
A state of slight or temporary PARALYSIS, also
called ‘fleeting paralysis’. (See MILK FEVER; Parturition
MUSCLES, DISEASES OF – Nutritional muscular Parturition is the expulsion of the fetus (and its
dystrophy; LEAD POISONING; GUTTURAL membranes) from the uterus through the
POUCH DISEASE.) maternal passages by natural forces, and in such
a state of development that, in domesticated
Parietal animals at least, though not in the marsupials,
Parietal is the term applied to anything pertain- the fetus is capable of independent life. The
ing to the wall of a cavity, e.g. parietal pleura, process is called ‘foaling’ in the mare, ‘calving’
the part of the pleural membrane which lines in the cow, ‘lambing’ in the ewe, ‘kidding’ in
the wall of chest. the goat, ‘farrowing’ in the sow, and ‘whelping’
in the bitch. It is more likely to proceed suc-
Paronychia cessfully without than with human interference
Paronychia is inflammation near to the nail. in the great majority of cases. (See CALVING,
(See RINGWORM.) DIFFICULT for information on traction.)
so till the next takes place. After a variable the smaller animals, especially in the sow, bitch,
time – from about 1/2 to 3 hours – the ‘water- and cat, the young are frequently born in their
bag’ appears at the vulva. It is tense and hard membranes, and these are licked away and
during a pain, but becomes slack and flaccid in cleared from the young by the dam, the umbil-
the intervals. It is found to be empty at first, but ical cord being broken or bitten through in the
the fore-feet of the young animal can be felt process.
in it later. At this time the cervix is fully
(4) Expulsion of the membranes stage,
dilated, and the 3rd stage follows without any
or the ‘delivery of the afterbirth’, may occur
appreciable break in the sequence of events.
with, immediately following, or not for some
(3) Expulsion of the fetus stage In this considerable time after, the production of the
stage the severity of the pains is greatest, and the young in an animal.
auxiliary muscles of the abdomen assist in the Very soon after the young animal is born
contractions. The animal may remain standing, the uterus contracts and becomes smaller – a
may lie down in the recumbent position, or may process known as ‘involution’ – so that its
alternately lie and stand. The back is arched, the capacity is decreased. The attachment between
chest expanded, and the muscles of the the membranes and the mucosa of the uterus is
abdomen become board-hard with each labour loosened and the placenta is separated from
pain. The animal may groan, or squeal or even the uterus. These contractions also serve to
scream with each effort. Frequently the rectum push out the membranes through the wide
forcibly discharges its contents and the urinary open cervix.
bladder does likewise. At each contraction the With the mare, owing to the diffuse and not
‘water-bag’ protrudes farther and farther from very intimate adherence between the uterine
the vulva until it finally ruptures in its most mucous membrane and the placental mem-
dependant part. There is a rush of fluid from the brane, the separation and the discharge of
uterus to the outside and the animal has a peri- the envelopes are soon accomplished. In fact, if
od of ease. Then fore-feet, and the muzzle lying these are retained for more than a very few
behind and over them, appear at the vulva, hours (4 or 6 or so), serious results are probable,
forming a kind of cone which dilates the softer but retention of the membranes is rare in the
tissues of the genital canal. In the larger animals healthy mare.
the feet come first, but in the carnivora, where In the cow, the attachment is limited to the
the head is large, the head precedes the fore-feet, surfaces of the cotyledons and is very close,
which are tucked against the young animal’s and where the shrinkage in the uterine wall (i.e.
chest and sides. When the head has cleared the involution) does not tend greatly to upset the
vulva there is usually another pause, which intimacy of the adhesion, the calf is not born in
allows the tissues to become accustomed to the its membranes, and retention of these is more P
great distension, and prepares them for the still common. They are generally discharged within
greater distension and strain that is soon to fol- a few hours of the birth of the calf, but the time
low. The thorax and shoulders are now in the varies.
pelvis of the dam, and are driven slowly through Animals which produce more than 1 young
it by the most powerful and painful of the con- at a time generally discharge the membranes of
tractions that occur during the process. As this each at the same time as or soon after it is born,
part of the fetus reaches the outlet of the pelvis with the exception of the last of the litter, whose
there is generally a more energetic and painful membranes are occasionally retained in the
effort than all the others – which pushes the extremity of 1 horn of the uterus.
fetal trunk to the outside. This culminating In animals that are really uniparous (i.e.
effort may cause the bitch or cat to cry out. produce only 1 fetus at a birth but which have
Sometimes the foal’s umbilical cord does not been modified by breeding so that they often
rupture, in which case the mare will usually produce 2 or more young, such as the sheep
gnaw through it, and so liberate the foal. It and goat) the membranes of the 1st twin come
sometimes happens that a foal is born com- away with the 2nd, and those of the 2nd are
pletely enveloped in its membranes; in such expelled after it has been born.
instances, unless assistance is at hand to free the Early discharge of the membranes is desir-
foal, it will be rapidly suffocated. able, because as long as they remain in position
In cows the umbilical cord is much shorter they are likely sources of infection to the uterus,
and it ruptures before the hind legs of the calf and they prevent that organ from returning to
have passed to the outside. Owing to the cotyle- normal. After they have been evacuated the
donary attachment of the placenta the mem- involution of the uterus becomes more and
branes are seldom born along with the calf. In more complete, until in a few days it has
520 Parturition
shrunk to less than half its former size. It never all efforts at correction prove futile, a veterinary
decreases to its original virgin size. surgeon should be called in.
The mare should have been housed in the Upon comparatively rare occasions none
‘foaling-box’ for a month or so previously, of the foremost positions of the body can be
so that she shall feel quite at home (see felt, but the 2 hind-feet or legs (distinguishable
PREGNANCY AND GESTATION – Care of the dam by the difference between knees and hocks),
during pregnancy), and the ventilation, and perhaps the tail of the young animal, are
warmth, bedding, cleanliness, etc., should be as discovered. This is a posterior presentation, and
near an approach to the ideal as circumstances as the head is the last part of the fetus that will
will allow. If possible, the cow should calve in a be born, respiration cannot begin until birth is
separate loose-box. Ewes lamb out in the open complete, and the risk of suffocation is great.
and do quite well, but if the weather is cold or Accordingly, it is necessary to attempt to hurry
stormy, or if the ground is very wet, it is better the whole process and a veterinary surgeon
to provide a ‘lambing-pen’, especially with should be called.
Lowland breeds which have not the same
hardiness as the mountain varieties. Sows Attention to offspring As soon as the
should on all occasions have a pen to them- young animal is born and free from the
selves, for if other pigs are present the little maternal passages, it is absolutely essential to
pigs will most probably be eaten as soon as ascertain that the fetal membranes are not
they are born. obstructing its mouth or nostrils. It generally
When the birth process has begun, the atten- gives 1 or 2 spasmodic gasps or struggles,
dant may need to soothe and quieten the dam and then begins to breathe. Each respiration
if she becomes very excited, but beyond this the is shallow and weak at first, but in a very
prospective mother should be left alone for few minutes the breathing settles down to the
some time. If all is going well, the ‘water-bag’ normal.
will soon appear and later burst. No hard-and-
fast rule can be laid down, but if the fore-legs Suspended animation Occasionally, foals
and nose of the fetus do not appear within 10 and calves are born in a state of suspended
to 20 minutes in the mare, and in double that animation, and ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION will be
period in the cow, a simple examination should needed.
be made by the attendant to ensure that the
presentation is a normal one. After washing The umbilical cord This is best not inter-
hands and arms in mild antiseptic, such as fered with. In the foal, early severance of the
Dettol or Cetrimide solutions, and thoroughly cord can lead to the loss of 1000 to 1500 ml of
P lubricating them with a vaginal lubricant, placental fetal blood, whereas under ‘natural’
the hand should be gently inserted into the conditions the amount concerned is probably
posterior genital passage to explore by touch well under 200 ml. The well-being of the
whatever presents itself. The 2 fore-feet should animal is better served when it is allowed to
be distinguishable in that part of the passage retain the blood, as would usually be the case
that lies lowermost when the dam is standing. under natural conditions. The umbilical cord
Above them and slightly behind, the nose and has a point at which it will rupture normally,
mouth should be felt. These structures are often generally by movement of the mare, after a
covered with fetal membrane, but in a normal period during which mother and foal rest. Since
case can be located. In such cases as this, noth- haemorrhage from either end of the severed
ing further need be done in the meantime; the cord is then extremely rare, the cord should
dam will probably produce her young quite require no human attention after a normal
normally, and any attempts at assistance will birth. The natural sealing of the umbilical
only irritate and perhaps exhaust her. cord provides an effective barrier against both
It may happen, however, that 1 or both of bleeding and infection.
the fore-legs or the nose cannot at first be The Animal Health Trust’s Equine Research
found. On introducing the arms still further Centre has commented: ‘It is difficult to imag-
these parts can sometimes be discovered, and, ine a worse procedure than leaving a substantial
by gentle pulling or readjustment, can be “meaty” mass of umbilical cord at the navel as
brought into the normal position. Before the happens so commonly after cutting the cord
process of parturition has advanced very far, with scissors. This provides an ideal medium for
abnormal positions of the fetus can be compar- the passage of micro-organisms whose entrance
atively easily corrected, and serious trouble to the abdominal portions of the umbilical vein
from subsequent jamming may be avoided. If and arteries are not hindered in any way by the
Parturition 521
9. ‘Upside-down’ anterior presentation. Occasionally delivery may be effected without adjustment, but
assistance is always necessary. Removal of 1 or both fore-limbs, with or without head and neck, often
essential.
10. Ventral transverse presentation. This and No. 11 are the 2 worst positions in which foal can lie. Each
case must be treated differently. Fore- or hind-limbs may be pushed back or brought forwards according
as they lie back in the passage or advanced. Removal of the foal in portions, a limb at a time, is often
necessary.
P 11. Dorsal transverse presentation. Foal usually requires to be disected and each half removed sepa-
rately.
12. ‘Upside down posterior presentation’. Delivery may be possible as soon as limbs have been adjust-
ed, or amputation or version may be carried out.
“sterile” piece of tape so frequently used to endeavours to reach the teat. The first milk con-
“tie off ” the stump. Almost as undesirable tains a natural laxative, and it is essential that
a procedure is the application of strong the newly born should obtain some of this as
antiseptics (notably iodine), destructive as they soon as possible. Colostrum – the first milk –
are to tissue with which they come in contact.’ promotes a secretion from the intestinal glands
and stimulates peristalsis, so that the debris and
Other advice If a young mare, for instance, black, gummy, faecal material (called ‘meconi-
does not at once begin to dry and cleanse her um’) that has been lying in the bowels of the
foal, a little salt rubbed over its coat may induce foal is evacuated and the way prepared for the
her to do so. Should the mother refuse to per- digestion of food. When a dam dies before the
form this office, the offspring must be dried foal obtains any colostrum, it is necessary to
with a towel, cloth, wisp of hay, etc., so far as is supply colostrum provided by another animal
possible. or a substitute such as melted butter and milk.
Suckling The first suck is of great importance. Attention to the dam Where parturition
Within about half an hour the young of the has been easy and normal, the dam rapidly
domesticated animals are usually able to stand recovers from her trying experience, and may be
on their feet – although they are shaky at first – up on to her feet within a few minutes of the
and as soon as they master this feat they make discharge of the fetus. It is usually better to
Pasteurellosis in Cats 523
allow her to remain lying as long as she wishes in good general condition, for much of the
while attention is being paid to her offspring. It subsequent quality of the offspring depends
is good practice to offer a drink of warm barley- upon the start in life that it receives through
water or thin oatmeal gruel containing a table- its mother’s milk, and if she herself is in poor
spoonful of common table-salt, as soon after the condition her milk will be inferior.
act as convenient. Her system has undergone a
considerable shock, and has lost quantities of Parturition, Drug-Induced
fluid which should be replaced. The larger ani- Prostaglandins are frequently used to induce
mals may require a rug if the weather is at all parturition in pigs, and sometimes in other live-
cold. After 3 to 6 hours or thereabouts, a pailful stock, so that it occurs at a planned date. It is a
of bran mash and a little hay should be given. technique also used in some cases of debility of
When the dam is very exhausted by her the dam in late pregnancy, where there is some
labour it is necessary to administer stimulants. abnormality associated with the pregnancy, to
If the birth of the young was difficult, and avoid dystokia in the cross-breeding of dairy
when the passages have been exposed to consid- cows for beef production.
erable strain by assisted labour, hot (but not
scalding) fomentations may be applied to the Parvovirus
external genital organs. Afterwards the parts This has been associated with infertility in the
must be covered with a warm and dry blanket, sow, and is a cause of mummified fetuses and
to prevent any chilling. The loose-box must be small litter size. (See VIRUSES – Classification
warm yet well ventilated, and the dam should table; CANINE PARVOVIRUS (CPV); and FELINE
be encouraged to rest as much as possible. INFECTIOUS ENTERITIS.)
The cat harbours P. multocida as one of its infection lived on farms. Other Pasteurella
bacterial flora. species that affect animals rarely occur in man.
In the UK during one 10-year period there
Pasteurellosis in Cattle were reports of 3699 cases of human pasteurel-
This includes HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA of losis. Eighty-six per cent of these were skin
cattle and buffaloes in the tropics; ‘SHIPPING infections; two-thirds due to dog bites; a
FEVER’ (‘Transit fever’) of the American feedlots quarter due to cat bites. In a small proportion
and elsewhere; and other pneumonias occurring of cases meningitis and septicaemia were
in Europe. complicating factors.
In calves, Pasteurella haemolytica serotype A1
may be the primary pathogen. Serotype A2 and P. Pasteurellosis in Pigs
multocida may also be isolated. Both bacteria are Bronchial pneumonia, sometimes with pleuritis
normal inhabitants of the upper resiratory tract. and pericarditis, is the commonest symptom;
Under stress, or infection by viruses, the bacteria P. multocida is the usual cause but clinical
multiply rapidly, causing disease. Symptoms pasteurellosis may be a complication of
include a nasal discharge, a respiratory rate of 60 mycoplasmal pneumonia.
to 100 per minute, and a temperature of up to
41.6°C (107°F). Signs There is fever, and the animals maybe
(See CALF PNEUMONIA for viruses which may seen struggling for breath, with frothing in the
be involved, and for synergism between mouth. Death may follow.
Pasteurella and Mycoplasma.)
The pneumonia is fibrinous in type, and this Treatment and control Antibiotics should
is seen also in older cattle – P haemolytica or P. be given; antiserum is effective if the causal
multocida often being found in large numbers. bacteria is known. Vaccination with a com-
bined A. pyogenes, P. haemolytica, P. multocida
Pasteurellosis in Ducks and staphylococcus vaccine (Pastacidin;
Caused by Pasteurella anatipestifer, this is a Hoechst) is used for control where there is a
disease of considerable economic importance in known risk of pasteurellosis.
ducklings, with a mortality sometimes as high
as 70 per cent. Less acutely infected birds may Pasteurellosis in Sheep
shake their heads or draw their heads close to Pasteurellosis in sheep is caused occasionally by
their bodies. Sulfadimidine has been used in Pasteurella multicocida but far more commonly
treatment. See also FOWL CHOLERA. by P. haemolytica, and subclinical infection may
develop into pneumonia if parainfluenza III
P Pasteurellosis in Man virus is present too.
Pasteurella multocida is a commensal organism P. haemolytica biotype A causes enzootic pneu-
in the mouth and naso-pharynx of many ani- monia; while biotype T is mainly associated with
mals. In humans, superficial infections of the septicaemia. Both may be isolated from cases of
skin and mucous membranes, such as corneal, arthritis. P. haemolytica also causes mastitis in
oral or leg ulcers and infections of compound ewes, and meningitis – especially in lambs.
fractures, conjunctivitis or sinusitis and Young sheep are liable to die from the acute
panophthalmitis may result from animal bites septicaemic form, while older ones show a
or scratches. In these infections P. multocida is slower type of the disease, in which the
likely to have been acquired when saliva from pneumonic lesions predominate.
the animal contacted injured tissue. Pasteurella
organisms may also invade the body via the Signs The acute cases are ushered in by high
respiratory system or, less commonly, via the temperature, great dullness and nervous depres-
alimentary tract and skin lesions. The most sion, difficult respirations, muscular tremors,
commonly seen internal infections of P. multo- followed by rapid collapse and death within
cida are associated with chronic obstructive 3 days.
lung disease. A 3rd category of infection is In the less acute cases, similar but slightly
suggested: septicaemia and bacteraemia in milder symptoms occur. These are accompa-
patients with chronic disease, especially chronic nied by a discharge from the eyes and nose, loss
liver disease. P. multocida may result from of appetite and absence of rumination, with
handling raw poultry carcases. Small domestic signs of pneumonia or pleurisy.
pets may be carriers of P. multocida. Internal
infections may derive from farm animals; in Diagnosis The acute form may be confused
one study, 27 of 37 patients with internal with anthrax or braxy.
Pasture, Contamination of 525
Immunisation Vaccines containing several ‘In both instances the aftermath pastures had
strains of P. haemolytica are available; also not been grazed since the previous autumn, and
a combined clostridial and pasteurella vaccine. the interval between entry to the aftermath
A serum has also been prepared. (See also and clinical or other evidence of infection
PNEUMONIA IN SHEEP.) precluded the possibility of the calves being
responsible for cycling of the infection.’
Pasteurisation of Milk Such findings suggested the existence of a
reservoir of infective larvae in the soil persisting
High temperature pasteurisation from previous grazing seasons. ‘Preliminary
consists of heating the milk for 10 to 20 min- observations on core samples of soil from per-
utes at a temperature of 75°C (167°F). This is manent cattle pastures in the Glasgow area
sufficient to render harmless the germs of revealed that Ostertagia 3rd-stage larvae were
enteric and scarlet fever and diphtheria, and regularly present, and lungworm 3rd-stage
also bacteria which give rise to summer diar- larvae occasionally present,’ over a 12-month
rhoea in children. It also affords a considerable period from August to July.
measure of protection against tuberculosis. Research in the USA showed that if
Ostertagia eggs are buried to a depth of 12.5 cm
Low temperature pasteurisation under pasture, or beneath 15 cm of soil in the
consists of maintaining the milk for at least half laboratory, 3rd-stage larvae develop and migrate
an hour at a temperature between 63° and vertically through the soil. However, the good
65°C (145° and 150°F). This has the effect of husbandry rule of keeping young stock off
considerably reducing the number of bacteria pasture previously grazed in the same season by
contained in the milk and greatly delaying adult stock is, obviously, still worth applying as
souring and similar changes. This procedure is a means of avoiding even worse outbreaks.
sufficient for the sale of milk as ‘pasteurised
milk’ in England. (See also ULTRA HIGH Pasture, Contamination of
TEMPERATURE TREATMENT OF MILK.) This may occur in the vicinity of smelting
works (see under FACTORY CHIMNEYS), or as the
Unpasteurised milk (see MILK-BORNE result of droplets of chemical sprays being
DISEASE) carried by the wind to adjoining fields. (For a
list of chemical sprays, see under WEEDKILLERS
Pasture, ‘Clean’ and INSECTICIDES.) Contamination may also
Pasture that has not been grazed by the same occur as the result of atomic fall-out. (See
species for some time. The actual period varies RADIOACTIVE FALL-OUT.) Bacterial contamina-
with the parasites involved, climate and other tion can result from organsims that are able to P
factors. Criteria for clean pasture vary with the exist for long periods outside the animal body.
time of year. In spring, it is pasture not grazed Examples are bovine tuberculosis (at least 4
by the same species in the previous grazing months), Johne’s disease (at least a year),
season – that is, a new ley, an area grazed by anthrax (at least 30 years) and clostridial spores.
another species or used for conservation. In the Resting pasture for 3 weeks provides a measure
summer, clean pasture is defined as an area not of control of foot-rot, the organism responsible
grazed by that species the same year up to being unable to survive for more than a fort-
mid-June, for sheep, and mid-July for cattle. night. For contamination by worm larvae,
However, pasture rarely becomes completely see PARASITIC BRONCHITIS; GASTROENTERITIS;
free from parasites. PASTURE, ‘CLEAN’. For contamination by
Professor James Armour and colleagues at the organic irrigation see under SLURRY. (See also BASIC
University of Glasgow veterinary school found SLAG; FERTILISERS).
clinical parasitic bronchitis (‘husk’), due to the The average cow defecates about 12 times
lungworm Dictyocaulus viviparus, and gastroen- daily and each pat weighs about 2.5 kg
teritis due to Osertagia ostertagi, in young cattle (51⁄2 lb); in a 180-day grazing season, she will
grazing aftermath pasture in late summer. Calves put about 5 tons of faeces (containing about
on pasture lightly infested with Ostertagia ‘were 680 kg (1500 lb) dry matter) on to the pasture.
effectively treated with an anthelmintic and (See DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT.) (For contami-
transferred to a silage aftermath in late July. A nation by slurry applications, see SLURRY and
marked increase in 3rd-stage larvae numbers on ‘MILKSPOT LIVER’; also SOIL-CONTAMINATED
the aftermath occurred within the first week, HERBAGE.)
and clinical signs of type I ostertagiasis were Contamination of pasture may occur during
observed 4 weeks later. flooding and, in a sense, when ticks are left
526 Pasture Management
behind by a batch of cattle infected with piro- more productive and nutritious state, while at
plasms; the ticks then infect other cattle put on the same time not competing with the sheep for
to that land (see RED-WATER FEVER). the more valuable plant species. (Hill Farm
Research Organisation.)
Pasture Management Other aspects of pasture management are
Pasture management is of the greatest impor- referred to under the following: PASTURE,
tance in relation to diseases such as BLOAT, CONTAMINATION OF; BRACKEN POISONING;
HYPOMAG-NESAEMIA, PARASITIC GASTROEN- RAGWORT POISONING; DIGITALIS POISONING;
TERITIS and PARASITIC BRONCHITIS. (See also WORMS, FARM TREATMENT AGAINST;
under DEEP-ROOTING PLANTS, TOPPING, and EXPOSURE; STRESS; ‘POACHING’; BEEF CATTLE
WILTING.) Controlled grazing is effected by HUSBANDRY IN BRITAIN; SHEEP BREEDING AND
means of an electric fence. (See STRIP-GRAZING MANAGEMENT; SILAGE; FOG FEVER; HAY;
and PADDOCKS.) STOCKING RATES; TOPPING OF PASTURES.
It is important that heavy application of
nitrogenous and potash fertilisers to grassland Grass varieties Plant breeding for improved
should be made at the right time, or animals pastures is in its infancy as compared with that
grazing there will be exposed to a greatly for the agronomically less complex arable crops.
increased risk of hypomagnesaemia. (See also Yield (whether annual or seasonal) is only
HOOF-PRINTS.) 1 of 4 criteria useful in judging a new variety
The sudden (and harmful) change of diet of herbage. Its persistency, palatability and
which may occur when stock are turned out in nutritive value are important criteria, too; a
the spring, or brought off pasture into yards for high-yielding variety may be contraindicated if
the winter, are discussed below. animals lose weight on it, as they do with 1
In spring, it is a mistake to turn calves variety of Phalaris. The effect which the system
straight out on to grass. This means a sudden of grassland management has, and how varieties
change from protein-poor food to the rich will stand up to a given system, must also be
protein of the early bite, and the resulting effect considered. For example, with regular defolia-
upon the rumen will set them back. It is wise to tion, perennial rye grass yields more than Italian
get them out before there is much grass for rye grass; whereas with infrequent cutting,
a few hours each day; let them have hay and Italian rye grass yields more.
shelter at night to protect them from sudden For systems of farming at high production,
changes of weather. Hypomagnesaemia, too, is consideration should be given to a species like
far less likely under these circumstances. tall fescue, whose biological potential is known
Before yarding cattle in the autumn, it is wise to be very high, and whose reaction to intensive
P to make a gradual change from sugar-poor systems of defoliation is favourable.
autumn pasture to things like roots, and to
accustom them to concentrates. Otherwise Horses Pasture grasses and herbs recom-
digestive upsets are very likely to occur. mended by the Animal Health Trust for horses
It should be borne in mind that are classified as under:
Trichostrongylus axei is a parasite common to Desirable species
cattle, sheep, goats, and horses, and grazing one Perennial Rye grasses, Sceempter, Melle, Petra,
species of animal after another in a field could Midas S.23 and S.321, Timothy S.50 and S.48,
give rise to a very heavy contamination with Cocksfoot S.143, Crested Dogstail, Wild
this one parasite. White Clover, Dandelion, Ribgrass, Chicory,
Prompt removal of faeces from pasture has Yarrow, Burnet, Sainfoin.
been found effective in reducing the worm Probably useful (turf species which are also
burden, and practicable where acreage is small, palatable)
labour cheap, or racehorses are concerned. Tall Fescue Alta, Canadian Creeping Red
Fescue, Smooth Stalked Meadow Grass, Rough
Use of goats in sheep grazing systems. Stalked Meadow Grass.
Goats prefer to graze plant species not readily Best excluded
eaten by sheep; also, given the choice, goats will Perennial Rye grass S.24, Creeping Red Fescue,
discriminate against plant species such as clover Brown Top, Meadow Foxtail, Red Clover.
which are important and beneficial in sheep
production systems. The introduction of goats Patella
can benefit the sheep stock by helping to Patella is the bone that lies at the front of the
prevent the degeneration of the improved areas ‘stifle joint’, and is called the ‘knee-cap’. It lies
and by keeping the indigenous vegetation in a in the tendon of the large extensor muscles of
Pemphigus 527
membrane lining the mouth, and the junction ‘The long-established benzyl penicillin has
with the lips, giving rise to ulcers. Sometimes the following shortcomings: (1) It is unstable
the pads of the feet are affected. P. erythematosis in acids, and therefore cannot be given orally.
is characterised by crusty lesions on and around This consideration, however, is of little impor-
the nose, and elsewhere on the face. tance in the veterinary field. (2) Organisms
In P. vegetans, alopecia and pruritus follow which produce penicillinase, and these are not
pustules which ulcerate on the body and uncommon, are resistant to benzyl penicillin.
extremities. (3) It is active against only a narrow range of
Treatment is with corticosteroids; cytotoxic organisms. Semi-synthetic penicillins were
drugs are also used. The prognosis in severe developed to overcome these drawbacks.
cases is not good. Firstly, Phenethicillin potassium was developed
as a penicillin stable in acids and which is
-Penia an improvement on the older acid-stable
A suffix meaning too few, less than normal. (See penicillin Phenoxymethylpenicillin, because
LEUKOPENIA for an example.) after oral administration it gives twice as high
a level in the blood. It is slightly resistant
Penicillin to penicillinase and is used in the veterinary
The first of the antibiotics, discovered by Sir field mainly in the treatment of mastitis involv-
Alexander Fleming in 1929. Benzyl penicillin ing susceptible strains of streptococci and
(penicillin G) was the original preparation to be staphylococci. Secondly, Methicillin; the main
introduced for clinical use and remains widely feature of methicillin is that it is resistant to
effective against Gram-positive bacteria. It is penicillinase; it can, however, be given only
the sodium or potassium salt of the antimicro- parenterally. Methicillin should never be used
bial acids produced when the moulds in the treatment of infections caused by organ-
Penicillium notatum or Chrysogenum (or related isms susceptible to benzyl penicillin, since it
species) are grown under suitable conditions. is much less potent and may give rise to
Purified penicillin salts occur as a white strains of organisms which show a penicillin
crystalline powder, readily soluble in water. resistance which is not due to the production
Following injection into the animal body, of penicillinase. Moreover, methicillin actually
penicillin is rapidly absorbed and diffused in stimulates the production of penicillinase.
the bloodstream throughout the body, being Thirdly, Cloxacillin; this penicillin is resistant
excreted by the kidneys. It is non-poisonous to penicillinase, is stable in acids, but
even in large doses (although allergic reactions induces the production of penicillinase.
are not uncommon) and is effective against: Fourthly, Ampicillin: this is a most important
P Staphylococci, causing local pyogenic inflam- introduction, because it is a penicillin
mation as primary or secondary infections. active against both Gram-positive and
Haemolytic streptococci, usually causing Gram-negative organisms. It is useful
localised infections either primary or secondary. particularly in the treatment of tetracycline-
Streptococcus equi, causing strangles in horses. resistant coliforms, strains of Proteus and
S. agalactiae, causing mastitis in cattle. Pseudomonas, Salmonellae, Shigellae, and
Bacillus anthracis, causing anthrax. Pasteurellae. It is not resistant to penicillinase,
Clostridium chauvoei, causing blackleg in and is acid stable.
cattle. ‘Benethamine penicillin is a long-acting
Corynebacterium renale, causing pyelonephritis preparation, given by intramuscular injection
in cattle. as an insoluble suspension from which benzyl
Erysipelotrix rhusiopathiae, causing swine penicillin is slowly released. Benzathine peni-
erysipelas. cillin has the same properties as benethamine
Actinomyces bovis, causing actinomycoses. penicillin, but is acid stable and can therefore
Leptospira canicola, causing leptospirosis in be given by mouth to dogs and cats.
dogs. ‘While these long-acting preparations of
Penicillin is of value in the treatment of penicillin eliminate the necessity for frequent
wounds and for the prevention of sepsis in administration, they do, however, present the
surgery. risk of inducing resistant strains because they
It is of great importance that penicillin must by their nature provide a lower level of
should be used in full doses; otherwise there is penicillin in the tissues for a long period after
a risk of strains of bacteria resistant to penicillin their administration has terminated. This
being developed. The dosage for systemic feature should be borne in mind when using
administration is 10 mg/kg bodyweight. them.’ (Professor F. Alexander.)
Penis and Prepuce, Abnormalities and Lesions 529
Genitalia of the bull: 1, muscles which controls penis; 2, vesicles which store semen; 3, bladder; 4, penis;
5, sheath which covers penis; 6, testicle; 7, epididymis.
530 Penitrem A
Necrosis of the prepuce has been recorded in only the penis, prepuce and vulva but also
pigs kept in poor hygienic conditions. There is the face, feet and legs; this has to be differenti-
no indication that the condition causes pain or ated from ORF. It occurs in Europe and
distress. South Africa. In lambs mortality may be up to
30 per cent.
Phimosis A narrowing of the orifice of the
prepuce, preventing normal protrusion of the Tumours of the penis include WARTS (papillo-
penis. Congenital phimosis is occasionally seen mas) and also, in dogs, infective granulomas.
in dogs, cats, and horses. It can be corrected (See VENEREAL TUMOURS.)
surgically.
Traumatic lesions include injury to the
Paraphimosis A condition in which the penis from a kick by the cow or mare at service,
penis cannot be retracted into the prepuce. This or when a bull proves too heavy for a heifer.
is not uncommon in the dog, and is potentially There is usually an accompanying haematoma.
serious unless quickly relieved, owing to Trauma may also result in adhesions at the sig-
interference with the circulation. As a first-aid moid flexure. In dogs a fracture of the os penis
measure, swabbing the penis with ice-cold may occur as the result of being hit by a car.
water may prove helpful.
Spiral deviation of the penis occurs in
Prolapse of the penis due to paralysis is bulls. Service is prevented. (In the USA devia-
seen in bulls which have rabies, and also as a tion of the penis is sometimes deliberately
chronic condition in Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) produced surgically in teaser bulls.)
and occasionally in breeds of UK origin.
Penitrem A
Horses Prolapse of the penis may follow A mycotoxin. It was isolated from mouldy
use of acepromazine (to effect relaxation of cream cheese from a refrigerator given to a dog
the retractor muscles so that swabbing can be which became very ill with ataxia, muscular
undertaken for contagious equine metritis). In tremors, and opisthotonos. The mould was
6 cases involving protrusion, oedema, and identified as Penicillium crustosum.
paresis of the penis, 4 of the horses had received
acepromazine with etorphine hydrochloride, Pentastomiasis
and 2 had received the former drug along with Infection with the nymphs of the pentastomid
others. Armillifer armillatus, the adults of which infest
After such drugs have been used, it is impor- snakes in Africa and Asia.
P tant to check that retraction of the penis is The disease has been recognised in man, dog
taking place as the effects of medication wear and cat.
off. If not, treatment should be started without
delay. Signs Abdominal or thoracic oedema.
Infection occurs through drinking water
Priapism A persistent erection of the penis contaminated by the eggs, or eating a snake.
unassociated with sexual stimulation. (See also
PRIAPISM.) Diagnosis In human medicine this is based
on the radiographic appearance of calcified
Balanitis Inflammation of the glans penis – the nymphs.
cap-shaped spongy tissue at the end of the penis,
normally covered by the foreskin. Pentobarbitone Sodium
(Pentobarbital)
Posthitis Inflammation of the prepuce. (Sodium ethyl/methylbutyl barbiturate). A
white crystalline powder, soluble in water, and
Balanoposthitis A viral infection affecting used for its narcotic and anaesthetic effects.
both the penis and the prepuce. One example is First used as a general anaesthetic in veteri-
an enzootic form, called ‘pizzle rot’ or ‘sheath nary surgery in America in 1931. A proprietary
rot’, of sheep (especially merinos) in Australia. name is Nembutal.
Corynebacterium renale is the primary cause. Pentobarbitone has been used to produce
A herpesvirus also causes balanoposthitis in anaesthesia in all the domestic animals includ-
cattle and sheep. ing the fowl, but it is not recommended for
An infectious balanoposthitis (also known as horses, calves, or sheep. For anaesthesia in the
‘ulcerative dermatosis’) of sheep may affect not dog and cat, however, pentobarbitone is very
Periodic Ophthalmia 531
extensively employed, and is usually given by over a stated period with given rations. (See also
the intravenous route – a method which per- PROGENY TESTING.)
mits of varying depths of anaesthesia being
obtained and the avoidance of overdosage. The Peri-
drug may also be given by intra-peritoneal Peri- is a prefix meaning round, or about.
injection or by mouth; narcosis being then Examples: PERICARDIUM; perianal abscess.
slower in onset (8 to 20 minutes), and occa-
sionally preceded by some degree of excitement, Pericarditis
while the dose has to be an estimate calculated Inflammation of the pericardium. Traumatic
on the basis of bodyweight. pericarditis is common in cattle as a result of
Deep anaesthesia with pentobarbitone may swallowing pieces of wire, nails, etc. (See also
last for an hour, being followed by 2 to 7 hours HEART DISEASES.)
of narcosis. (See ANAESTHESIA, GENERAL;
EUTHANASIA.) Pericardium
Pericardium is the smooth lubricating mem-
Pepsin brane which surrounds the heart. (See also HEART
Pepsin is an enzyme found in the gastric juice DISEASES.)
which digests proteins.
Perineum
Peptides Perineum is the region lying between the anus
Peptides are composed of 2 or more amino and the genital organs in the male, and lying
acids, and represent an intermediate stage in the between the anus and the mammary region in
digestion of protein. the female of the horse, ox, sheep, goat, and pig.
In bitches and cats the female genital organs lie
Polypeptides are proteins composed of lower than in other animals, and in them the
several amino-acids linked by the peptide perineum lies between the anus and the vulva.
grouping CH– CO–NH–CH. Rupture of the perineum sometimes occurs in
the cow at calving, when the fetus over-distends
Synthetic polypeptides have potential the vulva. Suturing, under local anaesthesia, is
uses as vaccines, e.g. against foot-and-mouth usually required.
disease.
Periodic Ophthalmia
Peptococcus Indolicus Specific ophthalmia, or ‘moon blindness’, is a
A Gram-positive bacterium which is sometimes condition of the eyes of horses, due to inflam-
a complicating factor in CASEOUS LYMPHADENI- mation of the uveal tract (especially of the iris P
TIS of sheep and summer mastitis in cattle (see and ciliary body) which is characterised by a
MASTITIS IN COWS, ‘SUMMER MASTITIS’). tendency to recur.
that time drugs to relieve pain are indicated. It pervious urachus this closure does not take
is sometimes called Von Perthe’s disease. place, and there is a continual dribble from
the region of the umbilicus. The fluid tends to
Pervious Urachus blister the skin of the surrounding area, and
Pervious Urachus is a failure on the part of the causes considerable discomfort, besides being
umbilicus to close at or before birth. In the con- very unsightly. Surgical treatment is necessary.
dition, which is also popularly called ‘leaky
navel’, there is a continual dribbling of urine Pessaries
and serum from the navel. Pessaries, or vaginal suppositories, are a means
Before birth the urinary bladder is in direct of administering drugs into the uterus. The
communication with the fluid in the allantoic medicaments are formulated in a base, tradi-
sac, and the fetal urine which is formed escapes tionally of cocoa butter or gelatine, so that they
into this sac, thus preventing over-distension may gradually liquefy and liberate their active
of the bladder. Immediately before the substances. In some instances pessaries are
young animal is born, this communication is made with dry powders of the active ingredients
narrowed down to only a very small passage, filled into gelatine capsules.
and at birth either it is already closed, or it has
practically ceased to function as a means of Peste Des Petits Ruminants
escape for the urine. With the tying of the (PPR)
umbilical cord – or with the shrinkage that A highly contagious disease of sheep and
follows exposure of this structure to the goats; similar to rinderpest, it causes high
air – the urachus, which hitherto has connected mortality. The cause is a paromyxovirus. It is a
the bladder with the outside of the animal’s NOTIFIABLE DISEASEthroughout the EU.
body, becomes quite impervious in the normal
animal, and the urine now escapes by the Signs A foul oculo-nasal discharge, diarrhoea,
urethra or natural passage to the outside. In severe stomatitis and bronchopneumonia.
Pet food being prepared at the Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition, research facility for a major pet-
foods manufacturer. Products are developed and tested to ensure that dogs and cats obtain complete
and balanced nutrition from these foods.
534 Pestivirus
Phlebitis Phosphorescence
Inflammation of a vein. Most cases seen in Phosphorescence of meat is a luminous condi-
animals arise following intravenous injections tion due to the organism Photobacterium
or catheters, or inflammation of the umbilical phosphorescens. The meat is apparently
vein (omphalophlebitis). unchanged during the daytime, but in the dark
it glows with a yellowish light. Fish, especially
Phocine Distemper herring, show this condition normally, but
This is the name given to distemper in mem- sausages, pork and occasionally beef may also
bers of the family Phocidae – mainly seals. The exhibit the phenomenon.
538 Phosphorus
Phthiriasis Pica
Infestation with lice of the genus Phthirus. Depraved appetite. It is often the result of a
deficiency in the diet such as lack of fibre
Phycomycosis or salt, or inadequate trace elements such as
A group of fungal infections by species of phosphorus or copper. (For causes, see under
Absidia, Mucor, Rhizopus, etc., which affects the APPETITE.)
Pig Management and Disease 539
and quality of building materials can be as will usually be kept clean, and the dung
important as the design of the building. placed in the lighter and lower strawed area.
Abrasive concrete can lead to injuries Suitable-sized groups are of 25 to 30 weaners
and abscesses, resulting in lameness. (See and a lean-to yard will be as cheap a method of
CONCRETE.) housing as any, particularly with ad lib feeding
Straw bedding is the ideal from a health from large hoppers.
angle. It can keep the pigs warmer, improve For the farmer who cannot use straw or other
liveweight gains, obviate boredom (a possible bedding, there are a number of designs of
cause of tail-biting), and reduce stress. (See kennel-type pens with covered or uncovered
BEDDING AND BEDDING MATERIALS.) yards where the muck can be readily cleared
Recommended temperatures for pigs are away, with tractor or squeegee, or with a hose
given under HOUSING OF ANIMALS. With to wash it down a drain. An essential of this
controlled-environment buildings, precautions system is to have pigs in small and separated
must be taken against the effects of power-cuts: groups perhaps no more than 20 to a pen.
it is useful to have a tractor-pto generator After the conditioning period, the usual
for such emergencies. These may arise during practice is to finish the pigs under more inten-
both winter and summer, and be due not to a sive conditions. This often involves keeping
power-cut but to fuses blowing in the building pigs in litter-less pens, and there is little doubt
itself. In one case, fuses blew during a thunder- that this is the type of environment that can be
storm, and fail-safe ventilators failed to conducive to tail-biting and cannibalism.
operate, with the result that 500 pigs inside
that building died of heat-stroke. (DEFRA Ventilation – at pig level – becomes all the
veterinary investigation service report.) more important in such circumstances. Railed
As pigs are particularly susceptible to the or Weldmesh pen fronts or sides are often pre-
effects of water deprivation, precautions must ferred as they allow a much better circulation of
be taken to ensure that water pipes do not air in a low-roofed building in particular. Their
freeze, and that the levers of automatic drinkers advantages do not stop there. Many farmers
are not too stiff for piglets to manage. (See under find that it is difficult to get the younger pig
WATER AND WATERING OF ANIMALS for other dunging in the passage rather than in the pen: a
dangers). sure help is a gate of Weldmesh or of bars, as a
Feeding stalls prevent greedy and aggressive new group will appear to follow the habits of its
sows from obtaining more than their fair share older companions on the other side of the gate.
of feed, leaving others undernourished. It is good practice to have separate sections or
However, confinement of sows in stalls (other units which can be cleaned and disinfected
P than for feeding only) deprives the animals of between batches.
any opportunity for the slightest exercise, and The age for weaning piglets is usually 5 to 7
they are unable to move away to escape weeks. Where for any reason the sow is not
any cold draughts. Stress results (see THIN SOW wanted for breeding again immediately, the
SYNDROME). period of suckling may be extended by an
Stress (which reduces bodily resistance to additional week or two. In countries with a
infection) may also occur at times when pigs are severe winter climate, where only spring litters
moved from one building to another, or when are satisfactory and where consequently only
litters are first mixed. Accordingly, the use of 1 litter per year is bred, the last course is that
farrowing-to-finish pens has been advocated. normally followed. (For early weaning, see under
However, relatively few fatteners breed their WEANING.)
own pigs. Bought-in pigs are best kept away It is not normally advisable to put pigs into
from other stock on the farm for 3 or 4 weeks. the finishing house until they are at least 32 kg
Young pigs are said to do better at this period in weight, and most feeders continue the
if they are kept as far away from their dung weaner-pool system until this weight is reached.
as possible, and this is one reason why
slatted floors and floor feeding rarely work at Feeding Many unsatisfactory results are
this stage. directly attributable to badly balanced rations.
A popular way of achieving good accommo- (See CONCENTRATES.)
dation at this time is to provide a simple The growing pig needs a diet that provides
covered straw yard allowing about 3 m2 the amino acids required to build body
(10 sq ft) per pig of total area preferably with proteins as well as vitamins. These (particularly
part of the area ‘kennelled’ to give a warm A, D and E) are best added as a special
sleeping area. If the latter is raised and dark it preparation according to the manufacturers’
Pigeons 541
Ornithosis occurs in young racing pigeons, the Unweaned piglets eat a significant amount of
symptoms including diarrhoea, conjunctivitis, their dam’s dung, and if the sow’s diet is
and nasal discharge. (See CHLAMYDIA.) supplemented with 2000 mg iron per kg dry
Pigeon pox is associated with vesicles matter, it is possible to prevent piglet anaemia;
around the beak and eyes, and with hard the dung will then contain enough iron to
growths – which, if on the feet, may cause protect the piglets.
lameness. Supplements of calcium carbonate fed to
‘Canker’ may give rise to a 70 per cent mor- fattening pigs from weaning onwards can cause
tality; it is caused by Trichomonas gallinae which iron deficiency, shown by reduction in blood
affects the liver and alimentary canal. haemoglobin concentrations and rates of
Salmonellosis is often fatal in recently liveweight gain. This effect is especially marked
hatched birds, and in adults may cause in litters with low weaning weights, probably
diarrhoea, distressed breathing, swollen joints, because their reserves of iron are generally
lameness, dropped wing, and loss of weight. lower. Iron injections or dosing at weaning will
Parasitic worms, especially capillaria, may overcome these harmful effects.
cause huddling, loss of weight and anaemia. A secondary anaemia, due to blood-sucking
Pigeons imported into the UK must be lice, must be borne in mind.
vaccinated against paramyxoviruses within 24
hours of their arrival. Four weeks later they Piglet Mortality
must receive a 2nd dose of vaccine, and remain Causes include Aujeszky’s disease, ‘baby pig’
in quarantine for a further week. disease, piglet anaemia, haemolytic disease,
leptospiral jaundice, E. coli infections, strepto-
Piglet Anaemia coccal meningitis, swine erysipelas, swine fever,
A common cause of pre-weaning losses among trembling, enzootic pneumonia, Glasser’s
housed pigs. disease, Talfan disease, atrophic rhinitis, and
transmissible gastro-enteritis (TGE); also
Cause The disease is associated with a defi- overlying by the sow. (See also under ILEUM
ciency of iron, and is aggravated by cold and for another form of enteritis and BOWEL, OEDEMA OF
damp. (A deficiency of copper and cobalt may THE; DYSENTERY; GASTRIC ULCERS; MUCORMY-
sometimes also occur.) COSIS; LISTERIOSIS; HEART DISEASES – Pericarditis;
DERMATOSIS VEGETANS; SPLAYLEG, CONGENI-
Signs Dullness, a pale whitish skin, scouring, TAL.) Chlamydia psittaci is another cause of
and sometimes exaggerated heartbeats. piglet mortality. A list of diseases which affects
pigs usually after weaning is given under PIGS,
P Treatment Turn sow and litter out to grass. DISEASES OF.
Give an iron and copper preparation sold for
the purpose. Pigmentation, Loss of
This mostly affects Siamese cats. Eyelids,
Prevention If outdoor rearing is not desired, foot-pads, etc., are altered, with resultant exclu-
give a suitable iron preparation (with cobalt and sion from cat shows. The causes are various,
copper, preferably) at 7 days of age. (A solution including hereditable factors.
made by dissolving 25 g (2oz) of commercial
iron pyro-phosphate in 500 ml (1 pint) of water PIGS, transmissible diseases of
is effective; a quarter of a teaspoonful being Occupational hazards of people handling pigs
given daily for 4 or 5 days.) Place a fresh turf in include: erysipeloid (the human form of swine
the farrowing house. Acute iron poisoning, erysipelas infection); PORCINE STREPTOCOCCAL
often leading to death within 24 hours, some- MENINGITIS; SWINE VESICULAR DISEASE, which
times follows the injection or oral dosing of has been transmitted to laboratory workers, but
normally used iron preparations. To prevent there appear to be few, if any, reports of farm
this it is advisable to wait until the piglets are workers becoming ill; and LEPTOSPIROSIS IN PIGS.
a week old, when this danger is reduced; it is
also wise to ensure that gilts’ rations contain Pigs
adequate vitamin E. As seen by research workers, pigs are the fastest
The intramuscular injections of iron dextran growing of the domestic animals, prone to heart
to prevent piglet anaemia are sometimes troubles and disease of the arteries, and greatly
followed by ham abscesses – the result of affected in body by mental stress.
broken-off needles or failure to clean the Domesticated pigs are believed to be the
skin adequately before making the injection. descendants of the native European wild pig
Pigs, Diseases of 543
(Sus scrofa), with probably an admixture of The Vietnamese pot-bellied pig and the
the blood of the closely related Asiatic species kuni-kuni are popular as pets, and have been
(S. vitatus). imported for that purpose. They are subject to
During the 18th and early 19th centuries the Movement and Sale of Pigs Order 1975.
there were introduced into Britain considerable
numbers of pigs belonging to a markedly Leading hybrids include the Camborough
different type, which originated at a very early female and the Cotswold.
date in China and Southwest Asia. This type,
variously known as the Siamese or Chinese, and Breeding (see GENETICS – Heritability of
given the specific designation of S. indicus; certain traits).
was of smaller size than the native stock; and Boars may be used for breeding at from 7 to 9
was short-legged and round-bodied, with a months according to size and development.
short dished snout and a coat of soft hair. Its Oestrus occurs, in females that are in good
most marked economic characteristics were thriving condition, at all seasons of the year,
early maturity and a tendency towards rapid except when the animal is pregnant or nursing.
fattening. At the same time it was both less The period of gestation is about 16 weeks;
hardy and less prolific than the native type. The the time allowed for nursing varies from 7 to 12
Chinese type was not long preserved in a pure weeks, and oestrus generally recurs within 10
state in Britain, but was widely employed for days, and very commonly on the 3rd or 4th day,
crossing with the native sorts, and it seems after the litter is weaned. The whole breeding
certain that all of our modern breeds have been cycle is thus completed in 24 to 28 weeks, and
influenced to a greater or lesser extent by the it is possible to arrange for sows to produce
infusion of this Eastern blood. The influence 2 litters a year regularly throughout their breed-
is most clearly to be seen in the smaller and ear- ing life. Some pig farmers, by means of early
lier maturing breeds such as the Middle White weaning, managed to obtain 3 litters in little
and the Berkshire, while it is least apparent in over a year; but early weaning, and so-called
breeds such as the Tamworth and Wessex. ‘piglet batteries’, are sometimes accompanied by
unacceptable losses. The normal breeding life is
British breeds of pigs include 10 main 5 or 6 years, but exceptionally good breeders are
breeds: sometimes kept much longer, and 12 years or
more is not unknown.
White breeds
Large White Pigs, Diseases of
Middle White (see AGALACTIA; ANAEMIA; ANTHRAX;
Welsh AUJESZKY’S DISEASE; CLOSTRIDIAL ENTERITIS; P
British Landrace ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, VIRAL, OF PIGS; ENZOOT-
IC PNEUMONIA OF PIGS; EPERYTHROZOON
Black and black-and-white breeds PARVUM; GASTRIC ULCERS; HAEMOLYTIC
Large Black DISEASE (see under HAEMOLYTIC; PARVUM;
Wessex Saddleback HEAT-STROKE; LEPTOSPIROSIS; LISTERIOSIS;
Gloucester Old Spots MANGE; MASTITIS; MENINGOENCEPHALITIS;
Berkshire ‘MULBERRY HEART’; NECROTIC ENTERITIS;
Red BOWEL, OEDEMA OF THE; PERICARDITIS; POST-
Tamworth PARTURIENT FEVER OF SOWS, PYELONEPHRITIS;
RHEUMATISM; RHINITIS, ATROPHIC; SALMONEL-
Most favoured crosses LOSIS; SWINE DYSENTERY; SWINE ERYSIPELAS;
Large White × Landrace; Large White or SWINE FEVER; SWINE FEVER, AFRICAN;
Landrace × LA/LW; Duroc × LW/LA. SWINE INFLUENZA; TAIL-BITING; TALFAN
DISEASE; TESCHEN DISEASE; TOXOPLASMOSIS;
Chinese Meishan pigs can rear an average TRANSMISSIBLE GASTRO-ENTERITIS; TRICHI-
of 14 to 16 piglets, compared with 10 to 12 NOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS. See also BACK MUSCLE
from Western breeds. Meishans reach sexual NECROSIS; ‘BLUE-EAR’ DISEASE; FOOT-ROT;
maturity when 3 months old. GLASSER’S DISEASE; ‘GREASY PIG DISEASE’; HAEM-
ORRHAGIC GASTROENTERITIS; LOUPING-ILL;
Foreign breeds Pigs imported into the UK OESOPHAGOSTOMIASIS; PITYRIASIS; PNEUMO-
for commercial use and breeding trials, crossing NIA; PORCINE INTESTINAL ADENOMATOSIS;
purposes, etc., include Duroc, Hampshire, PORCINE STREPTOCOCCAL MENINGITIS;
Lacombe, Piétrain, Poland, and China. PORCINE ULCERATIVE SPIROCHAETOSIS; SWINE
544 Pigs, names given according to age, sex, etc.
During the first day after calving the mem- Plant Juice
branes in an ordinary uncomplicated case are At grass-drying plants, when mechanically
fresh, slimy, and pinkish in colour. There is no de-watering forage before drying, a rich green
objectionable smell, and the cow is not juice is expressed. The juice represents a source
distressed. After the second day the external of protein concentrate comparable with fish
portions undergo decomposition; the colour meal in value.
becomes greyish; an offensive chocolate- From 6 tons of fresh material, such as lucerne
coloured discharge makes its appearance and or grass, 2.5 tons of this plant juice is squeezed
soils the hindquarters and tail of the cow. out. However, using plant juice presents some
She stands with her back arched, frequently problems, as it is very unstable, due to enzyme
switches her tail and paddles with the hind-feet. action. It must be heated to about 85°C
Masses of semi-dissolved membrane, looking (185°F) to stabilise the protein, and some
like pieces of wet cobweb, are passed out at chemical preservative is also added.
intervals, and can be found behind the cow The easiest way to use the juice is to include
along with quantities of greyish foul-smelling it in liquid pig feed.
discharge; the mucous membrane of the vagina
is inflamed, and the cow resents having her Plantar
hindquarters examined. At the back of the hind-limb.
It is certainly not advisable that a mass of
decomposing fleshy material should be allowed Plantar Cushion
to hang from a cow’s uterus for a longer time Plantar cushion is the dense fibro-fatty rubber-
than is absolutely necessary, but too hasty like structure which lies immediately above
attempts at removal may be followed by the frog in the foot of the horse, and is one
infertility or even death. of its most important anti-concussion or shock-
In modern practice, hormone injections have absorbing mechanisms. (See FOOT OF THE
largely displaced manual removal, with its HORSE.)
attendant risks. Manual removal consists of
introducing the hand and arm, protected in Plasma
sterile disposable plastic sleeve-length gloves; Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood.
if these are not available, the hand and arm
must be cleansed as far as possible by thorough Plasma Cells
washing in an antiseptic solution, and a subse- Larger than lymphocytes, with dark-staining
quent rinsing in strong salt and water. The granules in the nucleus, plasma cells are
membranes should not be removed until they found in the lymph nodes, and are concerned
can be displaced without difficulty, and without with antibody production. (See diagram under P
distress to the cow. Each cotyledon is grasped as LYMPHOCYTE.)
it is reached, and the adherent membrane is
peeled off from its surface with the fingers and Plasma Substitutes
thumb. At the same time gentle traction should (see DEXTRAN; GELATIN, SUCCINYLATED)
be exerted upon the protruded membranes
from the outside. Plasmids
After removal it may be advisable to douche Plasmids are genetic structures which many
out the uterus with a suitable antiseptic solu- species of bacteria possess in addition to their
tion, and to give prophylactic antibiotics (see chromosomes, and which, like the chromo-
UTERUS, DISEASES OF – The cow). somes, determine the inheritance of various
In the sow and bitch the membranes that are properties. Since plasmids are not essential to
liable to be retained are those belonging to cell growth, the cell may gain or lose them
the fetus that is born last, which occupied the without lethal effect. Some plasmids can unite
extremity of one or other of the horns of with chromosomes: these are called episomes.
the uterus, but the condition is rare in each All episomes are plasmids but not all plasmids
of these animals. are episomes.
It is most advisable that owners of animals Plasmids have been defined as ‘circular
which have retained their afterbirth after lengths of DNA which behave as viruses with a
parturition should seek veterinary advice. restricted range of host bacteria, and which are
replicated in step with the organism’. (See also
Plague GENETIC ENGINEERING.)
(see CATTLE PLAGUE; AVIAN INFLUENZA (FOWL Infectious (self-transmissible) plasmids are
PLAGUE); BUBONIC PLAGUE) found in Gram-negative rods. In addition to
548 Plasmodium Gallinaceum
is often accompanied by some amount of lung itself. Interstitial pneumonia affects the
pleurisy, which is largely responsible for the fibrous supporting tissue of the lung rather than
painfulness which accompanies pneumonia. (See the parenchyma though consolidation of the
also CONTAGIOUS BOVINE PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.) latter can then occur. (See also LUNGS, DISEASES
OF for lesions.)
Plexus Pneumonia, which can be acute or chronic,
Plexus is a network of nerves or vessels, e.g. may – as mentioned above – also be classified
the brachial and sacral plexuses of nerves and according to causes, e.g. viral, mycoplasmal,
the choroid plexus of veins within the brain. bacterial, mycotic, parasitic and non-infective. It
must be borne in mind, however, that infections
Plumbism may be mixed and changing. (See RESPIRATORY
Plumbism is another name for chronic lead DISEASE IN PIGS for an explanatory diagram.)
poisoning. (See LEAD POISONING.) Pneumonia may arise from a primary viral
infection, with complications caused by
PML secondary bacterial invaders, as in canine
Pharmacy and merchants’ list: a category of distemper. Some viruses and bacteria depend
veterinary medicines which may be sold to the upon each other, as explained under SYNER-
public only through pharmacies; and to farmers GISM. The infection may be a very mixed
or others ‘maintaining animals in the course one, e.g. in ENZOOTIC PNEUMONIA OF PIGS.
of their business’ through pharmacies or Bacterial pneumonia may be acute, e.g. KLEB-
agricultural merchants. Horse and pony SIELLA infection, or of a chronic suppurative
owners may obtain PML horse wormers type, e.g. TUBERCULOSIS.
from pharmacies, agricultural merchants or The main effect of pneumonia, whether
registered saddlers. through the presence of exudate in the bronchi-
oles and alveoli, or destruction of areas of lung
PMS by abscess formation or consolidation or
Pregnant mare’s serum, a source of hepatisation, is that the normal exchange of
gonadotrophin. carbon dioxide for oxygen is impaired and
impeded. The animal has to struggle for breath
PMWS to obtain sufficient oxygen.
(see POST-WEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING
SYNDROME) Signs With less oxygen available to the red
blood cells (and hence to the organs and tissues)
Pneumocystis Pneumonia at the normal respiratory rate, the animal
Pneumocystis pneumonia, one of the most accordingly needs to breathe faster. This P
serious diseases of human AIDS patients, has increased respiratory rate (tachypnoea) is there-
been found in dogs, cats, rodents, and primates. fore a main symptom. The breathing may also
become laboured and painful (dyspnoea). Fever
Pneumogastric nerve is usually present, with accompanying dullness
Another name for VAGUS NERVE. and loss of appetite (but see under CALF PNEU-
MONIA for an exception to this). There is often
Pneumomycosis a cough, though this is not an invariable or
A fungal infection of the lungs. attention-catching symptom.
Many cases of poisoning result from the care- intended for human use, e.g. paracetamol,
less use of sheep-dips, paints, weed-killers and caffeine.
insecticides, which, in powder, paste, or solu-
tion, are left about in places to which animals Dogs and cats may also be poisoned by
have access. Cattle are notoriously inquisitive, gaining access to unsecured medicines (pills,
and will lick at anything they find, sometimes tablets, etc.) intended for human use. For home
with fatal consequences. and garden hazards to pet animals (including
It is perhaps not widely enough realised that cage birds), see under CARBON MONOXIDE;
cattle seem to like the taste of lead paint – 1 ‘FRYING PAN’ DEATHS; ANTIFREEZE; CREOSOTE;
heifer helped herself to a whole pint of it – and LEAD POISONING; METALDEHYDE; BHC POISON-
that very small quantities spattered on the ING; BENZOIC ACID POISONING; WARFARIN;
ground can kill several beasts. Even the contents DDT; HOUSE PLANTS; HOUSE DECORATING. If
of old, discarded paint tins can be lethal. In one one considers dogs out for walks, one should
instance, children found such tins and scraped add DIELDRIN; PARAQUAT; FARM CHEMICALS.
out the residue on to pasture, killing 5 year- As regards dog and cat foods, poisoning has
lings. In another instance, cattle licked out old resulted from biscuit meal made from corn
paint tins on a rubbish dump in a pit to which dressed with dieldrin, from stored food conta-
they found their way. A recently painted fence minated by rats’ urine containing warfarin,
is also a danger. from aflatoxins, and from horse-meat contain-
Thirsty cattle will drink almost anything: ing barbiturates or choral hydrate. In the cat,
diesel oil and a copper-containing spray liquid food containing benzoic acid as a preservative
have each caused death in these circumstances. has caused poisoning.
Salt poisoning is certainly no myth, and pigs
should never be kept short of drinking water. Fodder poisoning Excess of fodder beet
Some insecticides, such as TEPP and may cause scouring in both pigs and cattle, and
Parathion, are totally unsuitable for use on the after-effects may be serious. In sows just
livestock. Fatal poisoning of a herd of cattle farrowed, the milk supply may almost disap-
sprayed with TEPP has been reported from pear. Beet tops have caused the deaths of cattle
Texas. A farmer in Ireland used aldrin as an when given unwilted, and even when wilted
orf-dressing, and killed 105 out of 107 lambs. they should be strictly rationed. Kale and rape
Fatal poisoning of cattle has also occurred poisoning can occur in cattle and sheep; these
through the application to their backs of a must be used sparingly and not constitute an
carbolic-acid-arsenic preparation against flies. animal’s sole diet, and hay in particular is nec-
(See also HERBICIDES; WEEDKILLERS.) essary in addition. Deaths have occurred in
P Near factories and chemical works, grass, horses and cattle restricted to rye-grass pasture.
etc., may become impregnated with fluorine Sheep have been fatally poisoned by feeding
compounds, copper, lead or other metals, and them surplus pig-meal containing a copper
lead to chronic poisoning of any animals supplement; a heifer likewise. Pigs have been
grazing nearby. The same thing applies in poisoned by giving them medicated meal
orchards after spraying of fruit-trees. Pasture intended for poultry and containing nitro-
may be contaminated by spray-drift or dusting phenide against coccidiosis. Which all goes to
operations, particularly from the air, and the show that medicated feeds are by no means
chemicals used may cause poisoning. This always interchangeable between different
applies also to other treated green crops which species of livestock, since there are genetic
animals may eat. DDT and BHC and other differences between them as regards
insecticides (used in home and garden) of susceptibility to poisoning, depending in part
the CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON group upon possession or absence of some enzyme
may poison birds, cats and dogs. (See also which can readily detoxify the poison. (See
ORGANOPHOSPHORUS POISONING; FARM GROUNDNUT MEAL.)
CHEMICALS; FLUOROSIS.) The use of surplus seed corn for pig-feeding
The use of pitch (the poisonous ingredient of has led to fatal poisoning – the mercury dress-
clay-pigeons) or coal tar on the walls and floors ing having been overlooked! (See DIELDRIN for
of piggeries is a cause of poisoning. Some wood poisoning from seed dressings, and FLOOR
preservatives cause hyperkeratosis. SWEEPINGS; also MONENSIN SODIUM.)
Poisoning may result from indiscretion on Hay contaminated with foxgloves or ragwort
the part of owners or attendants in the use of is a source of fatal poisoning. Silage contami-
patent or other animal medicines, or from the nated with ragwort has similarly caused death.
administration to animals of tablets, etc. Silage contaminated with hexoestrol has caused
Poisoning 553
abortion. (See under HORMONES IN MEAT soon after feeding; when put out to pasture for
PRODUCTION.) the first time in the season after dipping; or
when a change of food has recently taken place.
Poisonous plants growing in pastures, in Newly purchased animal feeds may be followed
swampy or marshy places, in the bottoms of by an outbreak of illness, and such results point
hedges, on waste land and in shrubberies and to the inclusion of some harmful substance.
gardens, are other very common sources of poi- Fungal poisoning may occur as a result of
soning. In the early spring, when grass is scarce, mouldy barley, etc.
and when herbivorous animals are let out for the
first time after wintering indoors, the tender suc- First-aid In suggesting simple first-aid
culent growths attract them, often with serious measures, it should be emphasised that they
consequences. Similar results may be seen dur- necessarily differ from – and are likely to be
ing a very dry summer when grass is parched. less effective than – those the veterinary
Ragwort and bracken are the most common surgeon will take. It should be realised, too,
causes of plant poisoning in cattle; in sheep, that against some poisons there are no effective
bracken can cause night blindness and neoplasia antidotes.
as well as true poisoning. (See BRACKEN.) Where it is suspected that poisoning has
Clippings from shrubs, especially from yew, arisen from use of some proprietary product,
rhododendrons, aconite, boxwood, lupins, take the container (or the label from it) to your
laurel, laburnum, etc., should never be thrown veterinarian (or write down the name of the
‘over the hedge’, because in some of these the manufacturer and product) so that he or she
toxic substances are most active when the clip- may ascertain the chemical ingredients and, if
pings have begun to wither, and animals are necessary, consult the manufacturer as to the
very prone to eat them in this condition. It is a recommended antidote.
safe rule to regard all garden trimmings as If it is suspected that poisoning may have
unsafe for animals, with the exception of resulted from a skin dressing, wash this off
vegetables, such as cabbages and turnips. (See with warm soapy water to prevent further
under ACONITE; BITTERSWEET; FOXGLOVE; HEM- absorption. (See CARBOLIC ACID POISONING.)
LOCK; LABURNUM; POTATO; RAGWORT; WATER Where a poison is believed to have been
DROPWORT; YEW; LOCOWEED, etc.) taken by mouth, give an emetic. However,
emetics should be avoided if strong acids or
Signs The symptoms of each of the more alkalis are involved.
common poisonous agents are given under Emetics which may be safely used are: for
their respective headings. pigs, a dessertspoonful of mustard in a cupful of
It must be emphasised that the symptoms of water; for dogs, a strong salt solution (ordinary P
some illnesses are the same as those of some household salt), or a crystal of washing soda;
poisons, and vice versa. For example, not for cats, the latter.
only vomiting and diarrhoea but also cramp, To hinder absorption in the horse, ox, or
fever, rapid breathing, convulsions, hysteria, sheep, strong black tea or coffee which has
jaundice, salivation, blindness, and deafness been boiled may be given. These, all of which
are common to both. A professional diagnosis contain tannic acid or tannates, are useful
is therefore important. against vegetable poisons.
Irritant poisons produce acute abdominal To counteract the effects of irritants, use
pain, vomiting (when possible), purging, demulcents (olive oil, milk, milk and eggs, or
rapidly developing general collapse, and often liquid paraffin). Yellow phosphorus is an excep-
unconsciousness, perhaps preceded by tion to this rule; oily substances favour its
convulsions. absorption and must be avoided; copper
Narcotics produce excitement at first, sulphate should be given instead. Against
unsteady movements, interference with sight; narcotics, stimulants are needed, e.g. strong
and later, stupor and unconsciousness appear; coffee or black tea, given by the mouth as a
coma, with or without spasmodic or convulsive first-aid measure.
movements, supervenes, and death occurs in
many cases. Advice on poisons In the UK, veterinary
Narcotic irritants produce symptoms of surgeons may obtain information and advice
irritation in the first place, and later, delirium, concerning poisonous compounds, and their
convulsions, and coma. antidotes, if any, from the National Poisons
As a general rule poisoning should be sus- Information Service, Avonley Road, London
pected when an animal becomes suddenly ill, SE14 5ER.
554 Poisoning by Salmonella
Polyphagia Ponds
Excessive ingestion of food. While it is a Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from marl
common attribute of animals, it can in ponds on a farm where the dairy herd had a
companion animals lead to obesity, and mask reduced milk yield, fever and dysentery.
metabolic disease. Fencing off the ponds to prevent access by the
cattle stopped the outbreak immediately. (See
Polyploidy also LEECHES, ALGAE POISONING, COCCIDIOSIS,
The presence of multiples of the haploid JOHNE’S DISEASE, BOTULISM.)
number of chromosomes greater than the
diploid number, e.g. triploidy, tetraploidy. Ponies
(see under HORSES, FEEDING OF) P
Polyradiculoneuritis, Idiopathic
A disease of dogs, and occasionally cats, Pons (Pons Varolii)
affecting nerves. Pons (Pons Varolii) is the so-called ‘bridge of
the brain’. It is situated at the base of the brain
Signs Weakness of the hind-legs, followed by in front of the medulla, and behind the cerebral
paralysis of them within a few days. The peduncles, and appears as a bulbous swelling
fore-legs then become involved. Hyperaesthesia not unlike a small curved artichoke. It is
of all legs occurs. Body temperature remains mainly composed of strands of fibres which link
normal. up different parts of the brain.
Muscle wasting occurs. Recovery is gradual.
In one case a puppy was able to walk again Poodle
after 4 weeks; but complete recovery took over A breed of dog originating in Germany (in spite
6 months. of being known as a French poodle) where
it was used as a gun dog for retrieving game,
Polysaccharides especially that which had fallen in water. The
(see SUGAR) characteristic clip of its curly black coat was
designed to streamline the dog as it swam. The
Polytocous topknot of the head and the tip of the tail were
Producing several offspring at birth, i.e. a litter. to show the hunter the position of the dog
in the water; the hair left round the leg joints
Polyuria was to protect them against underwater objects
Polyuria is a condition in which a much greater they might strike. There are 3 types: standard,
amount of urine is passed than is usual. miniature and toy. The standard was the
556 Popliteal
original and is less liable to defects than the a serious economic problem for pig farmers. The
others. Toy and miniature poodles are prone to signs include poor growth and chronic diarrhoea
Perthe’s disease, patent ductus arteriosus and or acute haemorrhagic diarrhoea, sometimes
progressive retinal atrophy. Distichiasis may with perforation of the intestine, and death.
be inherited. Cleft palate is found in toys. Growing and finishing pigs are usually affected,
Miniature poodles are prone to epilepsy, although it can occur in adult pigs. Many cases
epiphyseal dysplasia, patellar luxation and may not be noticed, and failure to make satis-
glaucoma. factory weight gains may be the only indication
of the disease. The cause is the bacterium
Popliteal Lawsonia intracellularis.
Popliteal refers to a region that lies behind the Salinomycin or zinc bacitracin in the feed
stifle joint, and to the vessels, lymph glands, have been reported to improve weight gain and
nerves, etc., lying in this region. It is protected general condition.
laterally by the biceps femoris, posteriorly by (See also Proliferative haemorrhagic enteropa-
the semitendinosus and the gastrocnemius, thy under HAEMORRHAGIC GASTROENTERITIS
and internally by the gracilis and semitendi- OF PIGS.)
nosus tendon; consequently it is seldom that its
vessels or nerves are injured. Porcine Parvovirus
This can be a cause of fetal death and mummi-
Porcine Coronavirus Infection fication, if infection occurs during the first half
This has become enzootic in the UK and of the gestation period. An inactivated vaccine
in some other EU countries. The virus has a is available.
close antigenic relationship with transmissible
gastroenteritis virus and is a cause of a Porcine Reproductive
non-severe pneumonia. Respiratory Disease (PRRS)
(see ‘BLUE-EAR’ DISEASE OF PIGS)
Porcine Cytomegalovirus
(PCMV) Porcine Respiratory
Porcine cytomegalovirus (PCMV) is a name Coronavirus Infection (PRCV)
for inclusion-body rhinitis virus, which can (see under RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN PIGS)
produce rhinitis and pneumonia in pigs.
Porcine Streptococcal
Porcine Dermatosis and Meningitis
Nephropathy Syndrome (PDNS) This was first recognised in fattening pigs in
P A condition of young pigs (10 to 16 weeks) in the UK in 1975 (though in unweaned pigs
which red-brown circular lesions and haemor- in 1954).
rhages appear under the skin of the ears, face, Streptococcus suis type I causes meningitis as a
flanks and limbs. Often only a few animals complication of septicaemia in the unweaned
are affected but many of those die, sometimes piglet. Symptoms include fever, loss of appetite,
suddenly after lesions develop. The lesions may a tendency for the piglets to bury themselves
be caused by an antigen-antibody reaction; in the litter, stiffness, and an unsteady gait. The
porcine intestinal circovirus type 2 has been ears may be drawn back and held close to
isolated from cases. The condition was first the side of the head. An inability to rise and
identified in Chile in 1976 and in England paddling movements of the hind-legs precede
in 1987. death in many instances. Some pigs recover;
others die from septicaemia associated with
Porcine Encephalomyelitis arthritis or pneumonia.
Also called TALFAN DISEASE and TESCHEN Streptococcus suis type II affected pigs mainly
DISEASE. in the age bracket 4 to 8 weeks, but pigs up to
16 weeks can be involved.
Porcine Enterovirus England/72 The death of a large pig in excellent condi-
Porcine Enterovirus England/72 is the cause of tion is often the first sign of the disease. If
SWINE VESICULAR DISEASE. symptoms are observed, they are similar to
those already described for the unweaned
Porcine Intestinal pig. In untreated cases the illness is usually brief
Adenomatosis (PIA) and fatal.
Porcine Intestinal Adenomatosis (PIA) is the This streptococcal meningitis is ‘primarily
most common form of proliferative enteropathy, associated with the mixing and moving of
Portal Vein 557
young weaned pigs’, and may affect from less spirochaetes has led to foot-rot, schirrhous
than 1 per cent to over 50 per cent of pigs, cord, and ulceration of the skin.
depending on management factors, etc. Poor
ventilation favours a higher incidence, which Porcupine Quills
is seen more in imperfectly managed In some areas of the USA and Canada, dogs
controlled-environment buildings than in old require treatment as a result of rash encounters
or converted fattening houses. with porcupines. The North American porcu-
pine uses its tail as a means of defence, leaving
Control measures So far vaccination has not behind numerous quills; while if the dog
been very successful. Accordingly, control attempts to bite a porcupine, the result may be
measures can be aimed at either eradicating the a mouthful of quills, which stick in the tongue
infection on the farm or, if this is considered and cheeks.
impracticable, minimising losses. If weaners are In the UK, free-living porcupines (Asiatic
being bought from different suppliers, it may and African species) in both Devon and
be possible to discover which is the source of Staffordshire are, like mink and coypu,
infection. On some farms, buildings could be escapers, and have bred since gaining their
emptied, disinfected, and restocked – avoiding freedom.
buying from anyone known or suspected of Removal of quills must be a very painful
having the disease on the premises. If carrier process, for they are barbed. American veteri-
sows can be identified, they should be culled. nary authorities nevertheless recommend that
Penicillin or broad spectrum antibiotics may the owner should, if the dog will allow it,
be used for treatment. remove quills as soon as possible as a first-aid
measure, especially from the tongue and over
Public health People working with pigs the chest and abdomen, as deep penetration
should be warned of the risk to them, even may occur with possible fatal injury involving
though it is a small one. internal organs. Quill removal should be
Streptococcus suis type II was isolated from a completed under a general anaesthetic by a
case of meningitis in an abattoir worker by the veterinary surgeon.
public health laboratory, Cambridge. Seven of If there is delay, some quills will have disap-
10 cases of streptococcal meningitis occurring peared from sight and, as they are not revealed
in the Netherlands were associated with infec- by X-rays, no veterinary surgeon could
tion with the porcine streptococcus group R. guarantee 100 per cent removal. Some quills
The other 3 isolates were similar but lacked may work themselves out through the skin in
the R antigen. All streptococci fell into the bac- due course. One dog died after penetration of
terial species provisionally named S. subacidus. the pericardium by quills. P
Nine of the 10 patients had contact with pigs,
while the other person liked to eat raw meat. Porker
One of the affected people died of the disease. In Britain, porkers weigh 40 to 67 kg (90 to
190 lb) (liveweight). Baconers are 101 kg
Porcine Stress Syndrome (PSS) (220 lb). ‘Heavy hog’ weight is 102 kg (225 lb)
A group of symptoms, due to a single gene, and above.
occurring in some breeds of pigs, notably
Dutch Piétrain, Belgian Landrace, German Porphyria
Landrace, and French Piétrain. Under stress, A condition in which porphyrins accumulate in
death from heart failure may occur suddenly. the tissues or are excreted in the urine. The
The syndrome is associated with pale watery clinical signs vary in different species but
meat (pale soft exudative muscle (PSE)). The include discoloration of bone, teeth and urine,
anaesthetic halothane can be used for on-farm and photosensitivity. The condition may be
testing of pigs to discover whether they are inherited or acquired. (See BONE, DISEASES
susceptible. A selective breeding programme OF, and HEXACHLOROBENZENE; also under
has eliminated this gene from some strains ALUMINIUM TOXICITY with reference to the rat.)
of pig.
Portal Vein
Porcine Ulcerative Portal vein carries to the liver the blood that has
Spirochaetosis been circulating in many of the abdominal
An infection believed to be present in the UK, organs. It is unique among the large veins of the
and reported also in the USA, Australia, and body in that on entering the liver it breaks up
New Zealand. Experimentally, injection of the into a capillary network, instead of passing its
558 Portosystemic Shunt
blood into one of the larger veins to be carried Signs These are sudden in onset and include
back to the heart. It is formed by the confluence red-coloured urine, loss of appetite, and
of the anterior and posterior mesenteric with weakness. Faeces are firm. Breathing may
the splenic vein in the horse, and by the union be laboured. Death may occur within a
of the gastric and mesenteric radicles in the few days.
ox; from a point behind the pancreas and below
the vena cava, it runs forwards, downwards, and Treatment A suitable phosphate preparation
a little to the right, to reach the porta of intravenously, or bone-meal by mouth. Blood
the liver. Here it divides and subdivides in the transfusion may be indicated in severe cases.
manner usual with an artery. (See LIVER for (See also under KALE.)
further course, and DIGESTION.)
The blood that is carried to the liver by the Potash Fertilisers
portal vein is that which has been circulating in Potash fertilisers are best not applied to
the stomach, nearly the whole of the intestines, pasture land in the spring shortly before
the pancreas, and the spleen. grazing, owing to the increased risk of
HYPOMAGNESAEMIA.
Portosystemic Shunt
An abnormality of the blood circulation Potassium (K)
system, resulting in blood from the heart Potassium (K) is a metal which, on account of
bypassing the liver and entering the general its great affinity for other substances, is not
circulation. The condition has been seen in found in a pure state in nature.
cats, dogs, and a foal. Potassium is a mineral element essential
for the body. It helps to control the osmotic
Posological pressure of the fluid within cells. Its content in
Relating to dosage. body fluids is controlled by the kidneys. (See also
under ALDOSTERONE, and PURGATION.)
Posthitis Potassium salts are used in human and
(see PENIS AND PREPUCE) animal medicine, but as their action depends
in general not upon the metallic radicle, but
Post-Mortem Examination upon the particular acid with which each is
(see under AUTOPSY) combined, their uses vary greatly and are
described elsewhere. Thus, for the action and
Post-Partum uses of potassium iodide, see IODIDES.
Following parturition. All salts of potassium are supposed to have a
P depressing action on the nervous system and
Post-Parturient Fever of Sows on the heart, but in ordinary doses this effect is
Post-parturient fever of sows occurs, as a rule, so slight as to be of no practical importance.
2 or 3 days after a normal farrowing. The The corresponding sodium salts can be used if
animal goes off her food, is slightly feverish, preferred. For intravenous injections, however,
and apt to resent suckling by her piglets. The potassium salts must not be used as they are
udder is hard, the hardness beginning at liable to be rapidly fatal; sodium salts must be
the rear and extending forward. A watery used instead.
or white discharge from the vagina is not Potassium chloride, given intravenously, has
invariably present. The uterus may not be caused accidental deaths (when mistakenly used
involved at all. Treatment by antibiotics is instead of sodium chloride).
successful if begun early. (See also UTERUS,
DISEASES OF.) Potassium deficiency This was diagnosed
in 6 cats at the College of Veterinary Medicine,
Post-Parturient Colorado. They all showed an acute onset
Haemoglobinuria of weakness, loss of weight, a reluctance to
This disease is seen in high-yielding dairy cows walk, a stiff stilted gait. Their necks were bent
in North America, 2 to 4 weeks after calving. downwards, and palpation was painful.
A deficiency of phosphorus in the diet and/or
consumption of rations containing cruciferous Treatment Lactated Ringer’s solution
plants or beet products are among the causes. supplemented with potassium chloride by
Mortality may reach 50 per cent. In intravenous or subcutaneous injection; with
New Zealand it is associated with copper further K supplementation by palatable elixirs.
deficiency, and mortality is low. All recovered.
Poultry and Poultry Keeping 559
Honegger, Shaver 288, Sykes 3, SW20, will always be encouraged to scratch for grain
Thornber 606, Sterling White Link. buried in the litter. (See also NIGHT LIGHTING.)
Large-scale production Information will Litter The floor should be covered to a depth
be found under CONTROLLED-ENVIRONMENT of 30 cm (1 foot) or more with clean dry litter,
HOUSING; HOUSING OF ANIMALS; BROILERS; such as straw. (See DEEP LITTER.)
INTENSIVE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; BATTERY
SYSTEM; NIGHT LIGHTING; CANNIBALISM; DEEP Perches These should measure 5 cm2 (2 in by
LITTER, EGG YIELD. 2 in) and have the edges on the upper surface
smoothed off. They should be all on one level
Hen yards are nowadays preferred to large about 75 cm (2 ft 6 in) from the floor, and
pens for birds kept intensively, and are often made to drop into sockets. About 15 or 20 cm
adapted from old bullock yards. Protection (6 or 8 in) below the perches should be placed
from cold winds and rain is necessary. The high a removable dropping board. This keeps the
cost of straw is sometimes a disadvantage. floor clean and prevents upward draughts. They
must be cleaned regularly, and lightly sprinkled
Free range The keeping of poultry in open with sand or peat moss litter.
fields, where they can move freely and supple-
ment their rations by foraging is once again Nests are best placed on the same sides as
popular. Cabins, to which the hens have free the windows, so that the light does not shine
access, are provided for shelter. ‘Free range’ eggs directly into them.
attract a premium price. Houses should be regularly cleaned and
sprayed with disinfectant from time to time.
Housing Competitive broiler and egg
production has led to the use of specially Runs Fresh clean ground is very necessary. If
constructed, controlled-environment buildings birds remain too long in one place the ground
in which temperature, ventilation, etc., are becomes foul, and the egg-yield and the birds’
maintained at optimum levels. The main health soon suffer. Where space permits (as on
features are described under CONTROLLED farms) the birds may be kept on free range in
ENVIRONMENT HOUSING and HOUSING OF portable houses. When the ground round the
ANIMALS. house becomes dirty, the house may be
What follows relates to non-intensive removed to another place. In this way the fowls
housing where high capital expenditure is not always have clean land.
possible or desirable.
P Hatching and rearing The time to begin
Height A very high house is apt to be cold and hatching depends on the breed, the strain,
draughty, while a very low one is difficult to and the poultry-keeper’s requirements. Quick-
ventilate and troublesome to clean. From 200 maturing breeds, such as Leghorn, Ancona, and
to 215 cm (6 ft 6 in to 7 ft) at the highest point good laying strains of White Wyandottes,
to 175 to 195 cm (4 ft 6 in or 5 ft) at the Rhode Island Reds, and Light Sussex, will,
lowest should be allowed. if properly fed and managed, lay at 5 or
51⁄2 months, so that if pullets are wanted to lay
Ventilation There must be good top ventila- in October, chickens should be hatched in
tion. The amount to be given depends a good March or April. It is generally considered that
deal upon the situation and exposure. Houses birds hatched early in the year have more
of the open-fronted type may prove to be too natural vitality and mature more rapidly than
draughty for exposed wind-swept districts. For those hatched later. Against this must be the
such places a pitched roof is rather to be fact that in very cold weather and in exposed
preferred to a lean-to. Dampness in a house districts the percentage of fertility may be low
may be due to faulty ventilation. in the first 2 months of the year, and there
may be heavy mortality in the rearing of the
Light The maximum amount of light and chickens unless adequate protection can be
sunshine should be aimed at. Fowls will not given. June or even July chicks may be brought
shelter during the day in a dark house. on to lay if they are well fed. As soon as the days
Additional windows should be placed a few begin to get short, these late-hatched chicks
centimetres/inches above the level of the floor, should be fed by lamplight, otherwise they are
if possible at the east and west sides. This means not getting sufficient food to make their full
that the floor will always be light, and the birds growth. Where only a few chickens are to be
Poultry and Poultry Keeping 561
raised, or where very special eggs are to be set, Dirt, dampness, and overcrowding are the
the hen is to be preferred to the incubator. chickens’ worst enemies. Coops and brooders
should be moved constantly, so that the chick-
Silkies make excellent sitters and mothers. ens have fresh clean ground to run on. After the
They are small eaters, their eggs are of fair size, birds have been removed from the rearing
they lay a small batch, and then go broody ground, the land should be dressed with burnt
almost irrespective of the season. A silkie hen lime at the rate of 2030 kg (40 cwt) to the acre.
can cover from 6 to 8 ordinary eggs. The cockerels should be separated from the pul-
lets as soon as it is possible to differentiate
Brooders Bottled gas is much used nowadays them. The pullets need plenty of space both in
for heating brooders, and has advantages over their houses and in their runs. It is best to get
paraffin burners. Infra-red heating, especially them into their winter quarters by August or
the dull-emitter kind, is popular where reliable September and not move them again, as
electricity supplies are available, and enables the changes of all kinds are apt to check laying. As
chicks to be readily observed. a preventive of soft-shelled eggs, 2 per cent
steamed bone-flour or bone-meal may be added
Rearing houses These should be well venti- to the mash. Pullets should begin to lay in
lated but free from floor draughts, well lit by October or November if hatched in good time.
windows, and spacious enough. Allow 15 cm2 Trap-nesting should be adopted wherever it
(6 sq in) per chick up to a month old. is possible, as it is important to find out the
winter records of the pullets. A good winter
Drinking water (see under CHICKS) must be record (for 4 months) is from 30 to 40 eggs, but
constantly available. birds of good strain, properly managed and
fed, will produce up to 70 or 80 eggs. A good
Trough space About 2 metres (6 ft) of trough flock average for the year is 180, but there are,
space per 100 chicks should be provided until of course, instances of birds producing up to
the birds are 3 weeks old; 3 m (10 ft) per 100 300 eggs in their first year.
chicks at from 3 to 6 weeks old; 3.5 m (12 ft)
at from 6 to 12 weeks old; 5 m (16 ft) at from Feeding Where fowls have access to good
12 to 16 weeks old, and 6 m (20 ft) thereafter. grass runs, and especially where these contain a
fair proportion of clover, they can themselves
Bought-in stock If buyers insist on correct any faults in a badly balanced ration,
‘Accredited’ stock, they can be almost certain but birds on earth runs, or kept purely on the
of avoiding trouble from pullorum disease intensive system, are entirely at the mercy of
(bacillary white diarrhoea) and from fowl the poultry-keepers, and their diet must be P
typhoid. carefully considered. An excess or deficiency of
When chicks are bought as day-olds, any one substance in the ration may cause
mortality should not exceed 3 per cent by the derangement of the digestive system of the
third week. Losses exceeding 5 per cent indicate bird, and so may affect egg-production. Birds,
the need for an investigation; and several especially those kept in confinement, often
dead chicks should be sent to a laboratory for suffer from a deficiency of some sort. Modern
a post-mortem examination. carefully formulated proprietary foods have
been developed to obviate all known
Chick feeding There is no longer support for deficiencies in housed birds.
the old idea that chicks must not be fed for the The amount which a fowl will eat must
first 48 hours. It is better to feed day-olds on depend on the breed, the condition of the bird,
arrival (otherwise they pick at their bedding) and whether she is laying or not, and the conditions
to allow them ample cold water. Feeding appli- under which she is kept. The bird’s appetite
ances must be of a good design and not placed in is the best guide, but a rough rule is to allow
a dark spot where chicks may fail to find them. about 60 g (2 oz) of grain and 60 to 70 g (2 to
Proprietary crumbs, or mash or meal, may 21⁄2 oz) of mash per bird per day. For a grain
be fed. Limestone grit and oyster shell should food, a mixture of 2 parts oats and 1 part
not be given with these. (See under GRIT FOR cracked maize may be recommended. The grain
POULTRY.) Day-olds do not need this unless should be lightly buried in the litter, so that
they are to be fed on grain or to be put on grass the birds have to work for it. The mash may be
when very young. Grain should not be fed ad fed either wet once a day, or dry in hoppers, so
lib, but rather as a twice-daily scratch feed, until that the fowls can help themselves. (See under
chicks are a month old. RATIONS.)
562 Poultry, Diseases of
from the Netherlands indicates that it can be, affect much of the body; the horse becomes
and that cat-to-human infection may also debilitated and young ones may die.
occur.
Cat-pox appears to be patchy in its Swine-pox is usually mild. Lice may possibly
geographical distribution, and not common. spread the infection. (Cowpox may also appear
Lesions in the cat vary from no more than a in pigs.)
scabby condition along the back, in mild cases,
to small red glistening areas of skin covered by Monkey-pox (see under MONKEYS)
scabs. White pus may be present. The paws
become ulcerated in some cases; also lips and Pox in birds (see FOWL POX; PIGEON POX)
eyelids.
PPR
Buffalo-pox is a mild disease but one of (see PESTE DES PETITS RUMINANTS)
economic importance. Similar to cowpox, it is
caused by an orthopox virus distinct from Precardial (Precordial Region)
vaccinia virus. (The latter can also cause pox in Precardial (Precordial Region) is the region of
buffaloes.) the chest cavity that lies in front of the heart.
PERIODS OF GESTATION
Average period
except after repeated breeding, and in from 4 to which supports it from the roof of the
6 weeks the dam has returned to normal to all abdomen, increases in length and strength to
intents and purposes, always excepting the flow allow the uterus to move further and further
of milk in the mammary glands. In most uni- forward and downward in each animal, so that
parous animals – producing 1 young at a time – eventually it may occupy the greater part of the
the horn of the uterus which becomes pregnant abdominal cavity. At the same time there is a
greatly enlarges and becomes straightened out so very great increase in the muscular coat of the
as to be practically continuous with the body of uterus.
the uterus, and the non-pregnant horn appears
as a small appendage projecting from its side; in Duration of pregnancy This varies
the multiparous animals, however, both horns greatly in different species and to some extent
usually carry a share of the number of the young, in different individuals. Male fetuses are
and both are consequently nearly alike in size. carried longer than females. Debility, weakness,
As the organ gradually increases in size to or illness in the dam shortens the duration of
accommodate its contents, the broad ligament, pregnancy. (See table.)
Pregnancy and Gestation 565
A prolonged gestation period in ewes its line tends to become flat or even concave in
has been reported on occasion. In an incident the thoracic and lumbar region; the muscles of
in western Scotland, gestation periods extended the quarters appear to fall in, making the
up to 8 months; unless relieved of their fetuses haunches and the root of the tail appear more
surgically, the ewes usually died. Long hairy prominent; and the pelvis tilts into a more
coats, skeletal deformities, and extensive lique- vertical position.
faction of the central nervous system were char- Enlargement of the mammary glands: this
acteristic of the fetuses. The cause is unknown, commences very soon in pregnancy in those
but could be a toxic plant. animals which are bearing young for the first
A similar syndrome occurs in southwest time. The glands become larger, and firmer, and
Africa, associated with feeding on the shrub more prominent.
Salsola tuberculata var. tomentosa; and in the Increase in weight: this is of course, a sine
USA prolonged pregnancy in ewes has been qua non of normal pregnancy in a healthy, well-
linked to the plant Veratum californicum. nourished animal. (See PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.)
Signs of pregnancy When well advanced, Care of the dam during pregnancy In
the typical signs of pregnancy are sufficiently all species of animals, exercise (or work) is
known to the majority of livestock owners, and essential if the vigour of the dam is to be
require no mention here; but in the earlier retained, and if her circulatory, digestive, mus-
stages they are not always so clear, and for the cular, and nervous systems are to be maintained
first few weeks in the larger animal it is often in a fit state for the strains they will have to
difficult to diagnose pregnancy by clinical signs. withstand at parturition. Food is of great
The chief changes and differences to be looked importance: no sudden changes in the ration
for are as follows: should be made. It is better to give an extra feed
Cessation of oestrus: in the majority of cases, each day rather then unduly to increase the
but not in all animals, the female exhibits no quantities given at each feed. This avoids exces-
desire for the male after conception occurs. sive distension of stomach and intestines which
There are many instances, however, when ser- may lead to nausea and indigestion.
vice is allowed until late on in pregnancy, and
there may be all the usual signs of oestrus Mares should be treated as usual until the time
evident on each occasion. In such cases abor- that the abdomen begins to increase in size.
tion of the fetus may occur, or no harm may During the last month an extra feed per day
result. When the bull refuses to serve a cow should be given, and if clover (or, better,
which is apparently in season it may be taken as lucerne) hay is available it should be given in
a strong sign that she is pregnant. preference to other kinds of hay. Lucerne, being P
Alteration in temperament: vicious, trouble- rich in lime and magnesium salts, provides a
some, or easily excited mares generally become plentiful supply of these for the mare’s milk, as
very much more tractable and quiet after con- well as for the developing foal. During this last
ception, whereas if they are served and do not month it is well to allow the mare to sleep in the
conceive they are frequently more intractable foaling-box, so that she may become accus-
than previously. The same signs are sometimes tomed to it, and settle better. The box should
seen in the cow. have previously been thoroughly cleaned out,
Fattening tendency: in the sheep and the cow its walls scrubbed with boiling water containing
particularly, condition markedly improves dur- a suitable disinfectant, especially where joint-ill
ing the first few weeks of pregnancy, but during exists upon a farm. Where the climate is mild,
the latter stages when the abdomen has mares may, with great advantage, be allowed to
increased in size the opposite effect is seen in all foal out of doors. The foal is often born during
animals. the night.
Easily induced fatigue: in the later stages, Food given should be gently laxative; for this
pregnant animals almost always show an purpose the addition of pulped roots, carrots,
increased desire to rest as much as possible. bran, or treacle to the food is good. (For further
Enlargement of the abdomen: this occurs in information see under PARTURITION.)
every direction, and is a most important sign of
pregnancy; it occurs at about the same rate as Cows are usually allowed to calve in a loose-
the rate of development of the young, which is box. (See under STEAMING-UP.)
greatest towards the end of the period. The
abdomen descends or ‘drops’; the flanks become Ewes may be either kept out on the hill, or
hollow; the spine appears more prominent, and brought down to lower land, and housed in a
566 Pregnancy Complications
lambing-pen during the last week or so of preg- technique, which requires special equipment, is
nancy, but otherwise little special attention is applicable to most species.
necessary. Chasing by dogs, crowding through
gateways, and all other forms of rough treat- Bitch Pregnancy cannot be diagnosed in the
ment are to be avoided. Care is needed when early stages. From 24 to 32 days is the best time
catching. Heavy in-lamb ewes should not be for abdominal palpation; after 35 days preg-
turned up to have their feet dressed. nancy may be difficult to recognise by this
means, though occasionally posterior fetuses
Sows greatly benefit from having access to an can be felt at 45 to 55 days (when the fetal
old pasture or paddock, where they will not be skeleton can be palpated). Auscultation of fetal
disturbed by other animals, and where they hearts in the final week of pregnancy will
may take as much exercise as they desire. But differentiate pregnancy from pyometra and
at night they should have a clean, warm, dry show that the fetuses are alive. Pregnancy has to
bed to sleep on. Pregnant sows are best fed be differentiated also from pseudo-pregnancy,
individually or in twos: otherwise some sows ascites, adiposity, and diabetes mellitus.
get more than their fair share, while others suf- Eighty-two bitches were examined for preg-
fer from under-feeding. Wet, cold floors and nancy using several different techniques.
cold, draughty premises predispose to mastitis Abdominal palpation 26 to 35 days after mat-
and agalactia. ing was 82 per cent accurate in detecting bitch-
es that would whelp, and 73 per cent accurate
Bitches must be given regular exercise, and in identifying those that would not do so. A-
after the first month extra meals of protein-rich mode ultrasound was best used 32 to 62 days
food, including a little liver once a week. An after mating, and was 90 per cent and 83 per
improvised whelping box is useful. (See also cent accurate in diagnosing pregnancy and
SUPERFETATION; BREEDING OF DOGS; PARTURI- non-pregnancy respectively. The better of the
TION; PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.) 2 ultrasound instruments used was 85 and 100
per cent accurate in detecting pregnancy in the
Pregnancy Complications periods 36 to 42 days and 43 days to term
In the mare these include twin foals (see ABOR- respectively. It was completely accurate in
TION) and PREPUBIC TENDON RUPTURE. (See detecting bitches which were not pregnant.
also PREGNANCY ECTOPIC; MUMMIFICATION OF
FETUS; SUPERFETATION.) Mares An ultrasonic scanner is often used for
pregnancy diagnosis in mares. It is possible to
Pregnancy Diagnosis detect the presence of a developing fetus with
P As well as traditional techniques such as rectal great accuracy as early as 14 days after concep-
or abdominal palpation, confirmatory tests for tion, and this technique is particularly useful in
pregnancy are widely used. There are 2 types: the diagnosis of twin pregnancies.
those relying on the detection of hormones in
blood, urine or milk; and those depending Pregnancy, Ectopic
on visualisation of the fetus by ultrasound The presence of a fetus (or more than one)
scanning instruments. inside the abdomen but outside the uterus.
Many cases occur as the result of trauma, e.g. in
Farm animals In cattle, rectal palpation is a dog or cat struck by a car. The uterus is torn
widely used. It may be carried out 5 or 6 weeks and the fetus becomes dislodged and undergoes
after insemination in cows and by 5 weeks in mummification. The latter also occurs when a
the heifer. Among more sophisticated tests is fertilised egg has ‘gone the wrong way’; i.e.
that for PROGESTERONE, based on a radioim- instead of taking the normal route down the
muno-assay technique for the detection of prog- Fallopian tube to the corresponding horn of the
esterone in a sample of milk. The milk sample is uterus, it develops outside the uterus.
taken 24 days after the last insemination.
A test based on the measurement of oestrone Pregnancy Examination
sulphate in milk uses a milk sample taken Pregnancy examination of cattle, when carried
15 weeks or more after insemination. out by means of rectal palpation, requires
An enzyme method of milk pregnancy expert knowledge not only of anatomy but also
testing, using do-it-youself kits, is available; the of physiology and pathology. It is not always a
test takes about 45 minutes. simple matter and an accurate diagnosis is not
Real-time ultrasonic scanning is widely achieved every time. The dangers of attempts
used for the early detection of pregnancy. The by herdsmen and other untrained people to
Premunition 567
carry out such an examination include: rupture in store condition for the first 3 months of
of the heart of the embryo calf; perforation of pregnancy.
the rectum; and abortion due to malhandling
of the ovaries. In the mare, rectal palpation is a Treatment Ewes should be dosed at once with
common method of pregnancy diagnosis. (See glycerine 150 ml (2 tablespoonfuls) in water; or
also PREGNANCY AND GESTATION – Signs of glucose, 60 g in 300 ml (2 oz in 1⁄2 pint) warm
pregnancy; PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.) water; or, preferably, glucose solution may be
given intravenously. A number of ready made-
Pregnancy, False up proprietary products, most based on the glu-
(see PSEUDO-PREGNANCY and ‘CLOUDBURST’) cose precursor propylene glycol, are available.
(See ACETONAEMIA.)
Pregnancy, Termination of
Termination of pregnancy following misal- Pregnant Mare’s Serum
liance of a bitch may be achieved with oestradi- (see PMSG under CONTROLLED BREEDING –
ol benzoate, used with 4 to 7 days of mating. In Synchronisation in ewes; HORMONES).
cattle, termination using prostaglandins may be
undertaken up to 150 days gestation. Abortion Premature Birth
also occurs from a variety of causes. (See (see ABORTION and PARTURITION, and the table
RESORPTION; MUMMIFICATION OF FETUS; PAR- under PREGNANCY)
TURITION, DRUG-INDUCED; CLOPROSTENOL.)
Premedication
Pregnancy Toxaemia in Ewes Use of a drug or drugs before administration of
An acute metabolic disorder occurring during a general anaesthetic. An analgesic will relieve
the last few weeks of pregnancy; perhaps more pain in an animal awaiting surgery, and a
accurately, a number of disorders – one of tranquilliser will relieve anxiety and facilitate
which may be acetonaemia. handling. Both effects may be obtained by the
same drug. (See ANALGESICS; TRANQUILLISERS.)
Causes In the more typical outbreaks, ewes are
generally in good bodily condition, are carrying Premilking
twins or triplets in utero, or have a particularly (see under PREPARTUM MILKING)
large single lamb. They are on good rich graz-
ing, seldom getting much exercise. Bad weather, Premunition
e.g. a fall of snow, has often occurred previous Premunition is a term used in relation to the
to the outbreak. It has been claimed that the type of resistance shown by animals against
disease can be produced experimentally by a severe illness caused by infection. Animals P
short period of starvation during advanced which are premunised are infected with a
pregnancy, and that ewes which become fat micro-organism but are not affected by it.
during the first 3 months of pregnancy are The term has often been used in veterinary
especially susceptible. medicine in relation to trypanosomiasis. Cattle
which are premunised will not succumb to try-
Signs The first symptoms are incoordination panomiasis although infected by trypanosomes.
of movement, the animal lagging behind others There are 2 types of premunition recognised:
when driven, stepping high, and often stagger- (1) natural premunition, which occurs inside or
ing and falling. In another hour or 2 the ewe in close proximity to a fly-belt, where trypamo-
lies down and can only be induced to rise with miasis is endemic; and (2) artificial premuni-
difficulty. She stands swaying and will fall or lie tion, which results from the administration of a
down again almost immediately. In general substerilising dose of a trypanocidal drug.
appearance she is dull, hangs her head, her eyes Unfortunately, it seems very probable that, at
appear to be staring – owing to widely dilated least in the majority of cases, natural premuni-
pupils – and breathing is laboured or ster- tion only gives protection against 1 local strain
torous. Fluid may be copiously discharged from of trypanosomes, and cattle which are thus pre-
the nostrils. Acetonaemia may be present, giv- munised against a local strain may succumb
ing rise to the characteristic odour from breath when exposed to infection with a different
and urine. A comatose condition develops. strain of the same species; if, for instance, they
Death occurs within 1 to 6 days. are moved out of one fly-belt to another. The
occurrence of intercurrent diseases of other
Prevention It has been recommended that varieties may also lead to a breakdown in pre-
after the pre-tupping flush, ewes should be kept munition. Similarly, artificial premunition can
568 Prepartum Milking
Probiotics Size
Large
Medium
21
34
38
60
Preparations containing live micro-organisms Small 1 2
such as lactobacilli and yeasts; yoghurt is an Quiet 54 96
Temperament
example. They are used in some animal-feed Nervous 2 4
supplements to act as growth-promoters. Satisfactory 55 98
Probiotics are believed to act by preventing Ease of Milking Hard — —
Too easy 1 2
colonisation of the gut by pathogenic organisms.
Progesterone
A sex hormone from the corpus luteum and (in
the pregnant animal) the placenta which pre-
pares the reproductive tract for pregnancy. It
inhibits follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
and action of oxytocin. (See under ENDOCRINE
GLANDS.)
Progestogens
These drugs are used in CONTROLLED BREED-
The progeny group illustrated in the diagram
ING and have a progesterone-like action. A
would have very high rear udders, legs about mid-
way between very straight and very sickle, and progestogen is administered over a period of
would be rather sharper, cleaner cut animals than time so that the established oestrous cycle is
average, though not excessively so. (MMB.) arrested at the point at which all corpora lutea
have regressed. The removal of the progestogen
Linear assessment This is widely used in the then allows the continuance of reproductive
USA and Canada, and in the UK. It does away activity. Examples of progestogens are:
with the idea of scoring against an ideal, makes Their use can sometimes lead to diabetes in
no attempt to define good or bad, but simply dogs and cats.
describes where, between the biological
extremes for agreed traits, an individual animal Proglottis
comes. A segment, of an adult tapeworm, capable of
The linear system identifies the point reproduction.
between the extremes at which an animal is felt
to come by describing it numerically in the Progressive Retinal
range 1 to 9. Since the total number of single Atrophy (PRA)
biological traits is very large, the most impor- Degenerative diseases of the eye leading com-
tant ones have to be selected to keep the total a monly to night blindness and ultimately total
manageable one. loss of vision. In the UK there is a joint scheme
P operated by the British Vet-erinary Association
and the Kennel Club to reduce the incidence of
Name Product, or other name
Altrenogest Regumate this disease in any breed of dog; certificates are
Delmadinone Tardak issued to dog-owners. (See EYE, DISEASES OF.)
Megestrol acetate Ovarid
The disease also occurs in some breeds of cats.
Medroxyproges- MAP (Methyl acetoxy The genetic defect responsible for causing the
terone acetate progesterone),
Perlutex. Promone, disease in Irish setters has been identified by US
Veramix and UK researchers, and could provide a means
Fluorogestone (Flugestone) Cronogest
acetate for eliminating the condition from the breed.
Norgestomet in Crestar
Projectile Syringe
NB. The list is not comprehensive Fired from a cross-bow, gun or blowpipe, this
instrument is useful for immobilising and/or
anaesthetising wild animals. The use of dart
A common set of 16 traits was agreed fol- guns is, in the UK, restricted under section 5 of
lowing discussions with the British Friesian the Firearms Act 1968.
Cattle Society and the Associated AI Centres. Blowpipes and dart guns are short range – up
The traits are: stature, chest width, body depth, to 36 m (40 yards) only. They use a compressed
angularity, rump angle, rump width, rear legs air discharge system to shoot a small hypoder-
(side view), rear legs (rear view), foot angle, fore mic syringe loaded with the appropriate drug.
udder attachment, rear udder attachment, They facilitate the treatment of dangerous or
udder support, udder depth, teat placement unapproachable animals with safety. They are
(rear view), teat placement (side view), teat often used to administer antibiotics, vaccines,
length. and so are not purely for anaesthetics.
Prostaglandins 571
A code of practice relating to the use of been amended subsequently. The Acts make it
prostaglandins in cattle and pigs has been an offence to carry out an act, or to do some-
agreed by the RCVS and the BVA. Care must thing, that results in a domestic or captive ani-
be taken when handling prostaglandin products mal suffering unecessarily. either by deliberate
to avoid skin contact and self-injection. cruelty or neglect.
Asthmatics and women of child-bearing age are
particularly at risk. Protection of Animals
Prostaglandins can cause local ischaemia at (Anaesthetics) Act 1964
the intramuscular injection site, followed by (see under ANAESTHESIA)
diffuse swelling and emphysema.
In one case, sloughing of skin and muscle Protein Calories
occurred, and Clostridium chauvoei was isolated A measure of the nutritional value of a food,
from the exudate. The mare became recum- not of a requirement by the animal.
bent, and euthanasia was decided upon.
(See CONTROLLED BREEDING; PYOMETRA; Protein Concentrates
RETAINED PLACENTA. See also UTERUS, DISEASES Products specifically designed for further mix-
OF – Chronic metritis.) ing with planned proportions of cereals and
other feeding-stuffs, either on the farm or by a
Prostate Gland feed-stuff compounder.
Prostate gland is one of the accessory sexual
glands that lies at the neck of the bladder in the Protein Equivalent
male animal, and partly surrounds the urethra at This provides the measure of the value of a feed-
that point. Hyperplasia is an enlargement of the ing-stuff, taking into account the protein con-
prostate and is seen in older animals. When tent plus the non-protein nitrogen content,
greatly enlarged, not only does it interfere with capable of being converted into protein by the
urination, but it may also obstruct the passage of animal’s digestive system. It is expressed as a per-
faeces. Affected animals will show constipation, centage. For example, the protein equivalent of
and eventually tenesmus with the production of linseed cake is 25 per cent; i.e. 100 kg of the cake
ribbon-like faeces. The condition can cause per- is equivalent to 25 kg of protein and potential
ineal hernia. Oestrogens are used in treatment protein. The protein equivalent of grass silage is
but castration may have to be carried out. about 2 per cent; that of kale, 1.3 per cent.
Apart from this gradually occurring hyperpla-
sia of the gland in dogs over 5 years old, enlarge- Protein, Hydrolised
ment may be due to an acute infection, when A mixture of amino acids and simple polypep-
P evidence of pain (with arched back and a stiff- tides prepared by enzyme digestion of whole
legged gait) may be added to the symptoms. muscle. A valuable source of protein used in
Cancer of the prostate is not rare in the dog; cases of shock, malnutrition, convalescence,
cysts sometimes occur. (See also BRUCELLOSIS.) fevers, chronic nephritis, etc. It may be given by
mouth or injection.
Prostatitis
Inflammation of the prostate ocurring as a Protein Shock
result of infection ascending the urethra. A reaction following parenteral administration
Affected animals are anorexic, show malaise and of a protein. (See ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK.)
may vomit. There is severe abdomnal pain with
arching of the back. Urination will be difficult Proteins
and painful. Antibiotics, oestrogens, smooth Proteins are complex chemical compounds con-
muscle relaxants and castration have been used taining nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
in treatment, but in chronic cases the prognosis found in every body tissue and living cell.
for improvement is not good. Proteins are formed from (and convertible to)
amino acids. (See DIET.)
Prosthesis
An artificial replacement of a part of the body. Proteoglycans
Proteins which are combined with a carbohy-
Protection of Animals Act 1911. drate.
(Protection of Animals
[Scotland] Act 1912) Protetamphos
These are the Acts under which actions for cru- A compound used as a sheep dip, and also for
elty to animals are taken in Britain. Both have fly strike and control of keds, ticks and lice.
Pruritus, Pyrexia, Haemorrhagic Syndrome 573
Proventriculus. Its position in the digestive tract of the fowl is indicated (5). Other numbers indicate beak
and tongue (1 and 2); oesophagus (3); crop (4); gizzard (6); duodenum (7); small intestine (8); large intes-
tine (9); cloaca (10); caeca (11); liver (12); gall bladder (13); pancreas (14). (Reproduced with permission
from the UFAW Handbook on Care and Management of Farm Animals, Churchill Livingstone.)
574 Prussic Acid
outcome is often fatal. It has also been reported In another reported series, a total of 81 per
in cattle fed on citrus pulp which was mouldy cent of pseudo-pregnancies responded to treat-
and contained citrinin. ment with bromocriptine, and 80 per cent of
the behavioural or psychological problems were
Prussic Acid resolved.
(see HYDROCYANIC ACID) (See REPRODUCTION; BREEDING; ‘CLOUD-
BURST’.)
Psammoma
Psammoma is a small hard tumour of the brain. Pseudo-Rabies
A name occasionally used for AUJESZKY’S
Pseudo-Cowpox DISEASE.
Caused by a parapox virus, this infection is
characterised by inflammation of the teats of Pseudo-Tuberculosis
cows, and of the hands of milkers. (see YERSINIOSIS; CASEOUS LYMPHADENITIS)
Pseudomonas Psittacines
A genus of bacteria. P. pyocyanea is a motile, Parrots, parrakeets, cockatiels, budgerigars and
Gram-negative rod, 1.5 to 3 µ long. It flourish- other members of the order Psittaciformes.
es in suppurating wounds, and has been found
in cases of otitis in the dog. It has also been Psittacosis (‘Parrot Fever’)
reported as causing outbreaks of disease in A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE in the UK. It causes
turkey poults and other birds as well as in sheep. severe respiratory illness in man and birds of the
Chronic mastitis, with diarrhoea and wasting parrot family (psittacines), including budgeri-
resembling Johne’s disease, has been caused in gars and cockatiels. It is caused by Chlamydia
cows by P. aeruginosa. This organism, often psittaci. (See CHLAMYDIA; ORNITHOSIS.)
found in non-mains water supplies, is thought
likely to be increasingly involved in mastitis in Psoas
cattle. It appears to have an increased incidence Psoas is the name of 2 muscles, psoas major and
during August, September and October. (See psoas minor, which lie along the roof of the
WOUNDS; also MELIOIDOSIS.) abdomen immediately beneath the last 2 or 3
thoracic and the whole of the lumbar vertebrae,
Pseudo-Pregnancy and stretch into the pelvis. The psoas minor is
Pseudo-pregnancy is a condition commonly inserted in the psoas tuberele of the ilium, and
seen in the bitch, but probably occurring in all the psoas major runs to the inner or lesser
P breeding female animals to a lesser degree. In it trochanter of the femur in common with the
the physical signs of pregnancy are exhibited in iliacus muscle. The action of these muscles is to
the absence of fetus or fetuses. The abdomen bend the pelvis on the rest of the trunk, or if
increases in size, the uterus becomes swollen those of one side of the body are acting alone,
and turgid, its walls are thickened, and in to bend the posterior part of the trunk towards
extreme cases mammary development may that side. The act of crouching preparatory to
occur and milk may be secreted. The bitch may kicking is accomplished by these muscles and
actually make a bed. others, and they are largely concerned in the
In time, since no fetuses are present, the movements of galloping. Disease or injury, such
organs and tissues return to their normal state as a severe sprain, is shown by a difficulty in
without the occurrence of parturition; heat walking both forwards and backwards, by a
returns, and successful breeding may occur crouching appearance of the back, and by
subsequently. extreme difficulty in rising from the ground.
The condition has been described as an
intensification and prolongation of metoestrus. Psoriasis
The essential feature is persistence of the cor- Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease
pora lutea in the ovaries. with scurf formation.
The condition can – where necessary –
be treated by injection of the appropriate Psoroptic Mange
hormone. A type of mange caused by various species of
In a review of 442 cases of pseudo- Psoroptes mites. It can affect most animals, and
pregnancy in a total of 142 bitches, 19 had only causes sheep scab, ear mange in horses and
1 pseudo-pregnancy, 31 had 2, 54 had 3, and widespread skin lesions in cattle. (See under
39 had 4 or more pseudo-pregnancies. MANGE.)
Pulpy Kidney Disease 575
Prevention It is recommended that immuni- Roughly speaking, the smaller the animal, the
ty be maintained by autumn vaccination, with faster the pulse. The same principle applies to
a second dose of vaccine in the spring, prefer- animals of one species but of different sizes or
ably about 10 days before lambing – unless the of different breeds: e.g. the pulse of the Shire
ewes are to be moved to a better pasture prior stallion is usually about 35 per minute, while
to lambing, when the second dose should be that of the Shetland pony is 45 or more. These
given before the move is made. These 2 doses facts must be taken into account when count-
should protect the ewe through the spring ing the pulse of any given animal. (See also under
months and allow her to pass to the lamb via HEART.)
the colostrum sufficient antibodies to protect it
for the first 8 to 12 weeks of life. That tempo- Pupil
rary immunity in the lamb should be converted (see EYE)
to an active one by the use of vaccine.
Puppies, Newborn, Infection in
Pulse (see FADING; TOXOCARA)
The forcing of blood from the heart into the
arteries of the systemic circulation causes a pul- Purgation
sation (regular expansion and relaxation) in Evacuation of the bowel following administra-
them. The beating of the heart drives blood out tion of a cathartic medicine. It must be applied,
from the left ventricle into an already full aorta, if at all, with moderation. Excessive purgation
in which it is imprisoned by the closing of the involves dangers which include potassium
aortic semilunar valves. To accommodate this depletion.
extra blood the aorta dilates, and the blood
already in it moves onwards throughout the Purgatives
vessel, and through the larger branches arising This is the age of LAXATIVES rather than purga-
from it. The wave of dilatation also travels tives. The old drastic purgatives are obsolete;
along the course taken by the blood, and is they tended to make the patient’s condition
therefore distributed along all the larger arterial worse.
trunks. If the fingers are placed over any of
these latter, which lie near the surface, a period- Purpura Haemorrhagica
ic thrill or ‘pulse’ can be felt, occurring at a reg- Purpura haemorrhagica often occurs in a horse
ular frequency according to the species; in the recovering from a respiratory infection such as
horse, it is about 35 to 45 times per minute. influenza or strangles; Streptococcus equi is fre-
The pulse-rate varies according to the state of quently involved. The disease is characterised
P the animal’s health, being faster in fevers, and by oedema of the head and also of the lower
slower and weaker in debilitating non-febrile dis- parts of the body. There may be kidney lesions.
eases; according to the age of the animal (faster
in the very young and very old); according to the Signs appear suddenly; often overnight.
climate; according to bodily condition; and Swellings, very often the same on each side of
under other circumstances. During and immedi- the body, are found on the limbs, the breast, the
ately after exercise it is greatly increased, but in eyelids, and almost always about the muzzle
health it subsides rapidly subsequently. During and nostrils. These swellings may be diffuse
sleep and unconsciousness it is slower. from the first, or they may begin as isolated cir-
The normal pulse-rates of the domesticated cumscribed flat prominences which coalesce in
animals at rest are as follows: the course of a day or more; when pressed with
Per minute the point of the thumb, a little pit remains
Horse 36 to 42 afterwards for some moments. Petechial haem-
Ox 45 to 50 orrhages are present in the nostrils (from which
Sheep
Pig } 70 to 80 a bloodstained discharge is often seen) and on
any mucous membrane.
Dog 90 to 100
Cat 110 to 120
The horse is dull, loses its appetite, moves
stiffly and with difficulty, and if the swellings of
and of certain other animals as follows: the nostril are large, shows rapid and laboured
Per minute
Elephant 25 to 28
breathing. Swollen lips may prevent a horse
Camel 28 to 32 from feeding or drinking; swollen eyelids may
Buffalo 40 to 45 hinder or prevent vision; and a swollen sheath
Reindeer 60 to 65 in the male may make the act of micturition
Mouse 130 to 150 difficult. The temperature usually remains
Pyogenic 577
Pyelitis Pyoderma
Pyelitis means a condition of pus-formation in A pustular condition of the skin. In dogs aller-
the kidney which produces pus in the urine. It gic skin disease is regarded as predisposing to
is due to inflammation of the part called the infection by staphylococci.
‘pelvis of the kidney’, which is connected with
the ureter. The condition is commonest among Pyogenic
cows after calving, when infection has reached Pyogenic is a term applied to those bacteria
the bladder, invaded the ureters, and has arrived which cause the formation of pus, and so lead
at the pelvis of the kidney. to the production of abscesses.
578 Pyometra
Pyosalpinx Pyrexia
Distension of a Fallopian tube with pus. (see FEVER)
Pyothorax Pyridine
The presence of pus within the chest. It may be Pyridine is an alkaloidal substance derived from
a sequel to pneumonia, or to a penetrating coal-tar, tobacco, etc. It is added to methylated
wound of the chest, perhaps a bite. This is a spirit in order to render this unpleasant to
fairly common condition in the cat, which is drink.
likely to rest on its brisket, be disinclined to
move, and to have laboured breathing. Cyanosis Pyridoxine
may be present. Tenderness of the chest is Vitamin B6.
another symptom. The temperature may be
37°C (98.6°F). In many cases the condition Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
develops very rapidly in the cat, death occurring These cause poisoning in animals which have
before treatment has been obtained. Treatment eaten ragwort. (See RAGWORT POISONING.)
involves aspiration of the pus, and the introduc-
tion of an antibiotic. In cats, however, the Pyruvic Acid
mortality despite treatment may be 50 per cent. An organic acid which is an
intermediate product in carbohydrate and pro-
Pyramidal Disease tein metabolism. Excessive quantities accumu-
An exostosis affecting the pyramidal process late in the bloodstream in cases of vitamin Bl
(extensor process) of the 3rd phalanx of the deficiency.
horse’s foot. It is usually found in association
P with low ringbone. (See RING-BONES.) Pyuria
Pus in the urine produced by suppuration in
Pyrenean Mountain Dog some part of the urinary tract. (See URINE.)
One of the largest breeds of dog, powerfully
built with a thick, usually white, coat.
Q
Q fever in snakes Many snakes imported
into the USA are infested with ticks, which
transmitted Q fever to dockside workers
handling a shipment of Ball pythons.
in treatment. Effective control of other diseases as an allergic dermatitis, and is similar to ‘sweet
will help to reduce the severity of quail itch’. (See under FLIES.)
disease.
Quey
Quarantine A heifer.
The imposition of measures for preventing the
spread of infectious disease by which an animal Quidding (Cudding)
or animals, which have come from potentially Quidding (cudding) is the name given to that
infected countries or areas, are kept separate condition in horses, depending upon injuries to
from indigenous animals until their disease-free the mouth or diseases of the teeth, in which
status is confirmed (or otherwise). food is taken into the mouth, chewed repeated-
The regulations dealing with quarantine of ly, and then expelled on to the floor of the stall
animals are altered from time to time, and so or into the manger. It may result from the teeth
information on the matter is best obtained being too sharp, irregular in height, uneven in
direct from the government department that alignment, or from permanent teeth pushing
deals with livestock in a particular country. the temporaries out from the gums; it may also
The length of quarantine depends on the dis- arise when the gums, cheeks, or tongue have
ease whose entry is being prevented. For rabies been injured or are diseased. Paralysis of the
it is 6 months (except in the case of dogs and throat, or some other condition which causes
cats from specified countries, for which new inability to swallow, can cause quidding. (See
regulations apply); for foot-and-mouth and MOUTH, DISEASES OF; TEETH, DISEASES OF.)
Newcastle disease it is 30 to 35 days. It is a sen-
sible precaution that new stock introduced to
farms, zoos, etc. should be kept separate until it Quinine
is certain that they have not brought in new dis- Quinine is an alkaloid obtained from the bark
eases or virulent strains, even if this is not of various species of cinchona trees in South
required by law. America. The bark contains 4 alkaloids, of
(See RABIES; IMPORTING/EXPORTING ANIMALS; which quinine is the most active and impor-
NOTIFIABLE DISEASES; PET TRAVEL SCHEME;
tant, the others being quinidine, cinchonine,
PIGEONS.)
and cinchonidine.
Quinine is usually used in the form of one of
its salts, i.e. sulphate, hydrochloride, or hydro-
Quarter Horse bromate of qui-nine.
(see AMERICAN QUARTER HORSE)
Queen Quittor
A female cat. Quittor is a condition of the ‘lateral’ cartilages
of the horse’s foot, in which suppuration occurs,
Queensland Itch with pus escaping from an opening in the region
This is caused by sensitisation to bites of the of the coronet. This, and the bulbs of the heels,
midge Culicoides robertsi. The lesions resemble are swollen and painful. The cause is an injury
those of mange or eczema, and are seen usually to the cartilage or to infection, or both. There is
along the animal’s back. Antihistamines are usually some degree of lameness. Antibiotics are
useful in treatment. The condition is regarded used in treatment.
R
California, and the Dutch rabbit. (See also PETS,
CHILDREN‘S AND EXOTIC.)
from home. It may wander for long distances. a great loss of condition. Exhaustion soon fol-
In its travels it bites and snaps at objects which lows and paralysis sets in. Death occurs within
it encounters, real or imaginary, animate or 2 to 6 days or more after the commencement of
inanimate. Some rabid dogs bite several people. the condition.
The tone of voice is altered. Rabies may be mistaken for hypomagne-
The face has a vacant stare, the eyes are fixed saemia, milk fever, botulism, anaplasmosis,
and expressionless, and the pupils are dilated. listeriosis, lead poisoning, choking, etc.
This stage lasts from 2 to 4 days, unless the dog’s In Central and South America, cattle are
strength gives out sooner, and the next stage infected with rabies by vampire bats, and may
appears. show long streaks of blood on their shoulders,
(3) Paralysis. The characteristics of the last necks and backs.
stage in the train of symptoms of rabies are
those of paralysis, especially of the lower jaw Sheep, goats and swine The sheep and the
and the hindquarters. The dog begins to stagger goat are affected in a manner similar to cattle, but
in its gait, and finally falls. It may manage to the stage of excitement is shorter or absent, and
regain its feet when stimulated, but soon falls the dumb paralytic stage is more often noticed.
again. The lower jaw drops, the tongue lolls out Pigs become excitable; they may squeal and show
of the mouth, and there is great salivation. The muscular spasms before paralysis ensues.
muscles of the throat and larynx are soon
involved in the progressive paralysis. Horse The furious form is common but the
The dumb form of rabies consists of this par- animal may appear calm between bouts of
alytic stage – the stage of excitation having been aggressiveness. Dumb forms also occur and
omitted. The dumb form is the more common may be mistaken for colic, paresis or encephali-
in the dog: barking ceases – hence the name. tis from other causes. Signs may include a facial
Vomiting may suggest merely a digestive upset. twitch, biting of woodwork or self-mutilation,
Protrusion of the nictitating membrane partly head-tossing, frequent whinnying, abnormal
across the eye, together with a dropped jaw, i.e. posture, apparent lameness, ataxia, paralysis of
partly opened mouth which can be closed by hindquarters. The horse may continue to eat
gently raising the lower jaw by means of a stick, and drink until shortly before death. The tone
are highly suggestive of rabies. of voice may be altered.
In parts of Africa and Asia, the classical form
of rabies in dogs (described above) is replaced Diagnosis The routine examination for Negri
by a form called (in Africa) ‘OULOU FATO’. bodies has now in most countries been super-
seded by the fluorescent antibody test, with
Cat In this animal the furious form is more confirmation by mouse inoculation if necessary.
common than in the dog. The aggressive stage is (If a dog which bit someone is still alive after
most marked, the cat attacking other animals 10 days, it cannot be assumed that the dog is
and man with great vigour, and attempting to not rabid.)
injure their faces with teeth or claws. Sometimes
the rabid cat will at first show extra affection. Differentiation between laboratory and R
The course of the disease is usually shorter than street rabies virus, between rabies vaccine virus
in the dog. and street virus, and between rabies virus and
It is worth mentioning that occasionally dogs rabies-like viruses (e.g. Mokola, Lagos bat, and
and cats die from rabies without any observed Duvenhage viruses) is possible by laboratory
symptoms. They may be found dead or dying. tests based on differentiation of monoclonal
It is not unknown for a cat to be found lying in antibodies.
a field or garden unable to walk but still able to
bite. Prevention Prevention of the disease in man
and animals stems from the research of Louis
Cattle These animals are usually affected Pasteur in the 1880s. He discovered the process
through having been bitten by a rabid fox or of attenuation, by which the virulence of a
dog. The stage of excitement is short and the micro-organism is reduced but not its ability
dumb stage most evident. Affected cattle to produce antibodies against disease. Pasteur
behave in an unusual manner; they may stamp achieved this by infecting rabbits with rabies
or bellow, salivate from the mouth, break loose, from a dog. Although this was fatal to the
and may do much damage. Rumination and rabbits, dogs survived infection with the rabbit
milk production cease, muscular quiverings are virus. Tissue from the spinal cord of an infect-
seen, sexual excitement is noticed, and there is ed rabbit was then used to prepare a vaccine.
584 Rabies
His triumph came in 1885 when the vaccine 1969 a dog released from quarantine 10 days ear-
saved the lives of 2 badly bitten boys. lier showed symptoms of rabies and bit 2 people
In the intervening years many modifications at Camberley, Surrey; a 2nd case occurred in
have been made, and new techniques developed, 1970. In 1965 there was a case in a recently
to make rabies vaccines which would be safe and imported leopard in quarantine at Edinburgh
free from dangerous side-effects, and so could be Zoo. In Britain, in 1969, the danger of allowing
used to immunise people and animals against the importation of rabies-susceptible exotic ani-
rabies (‘pre-exposure’ – vaccination), as well as mals, for sale as pets or for research, was official-
provide ‘post-exposure’ treatment of those bitten ly recognised, and the quarantine regulations
by rabid animals. amended to include monkeys, mongooses, etc.
The table shows examples of vaccines pre- Following strong pressure to replace quaran-
pared from tissue culture cells. The last one, tine for pet dogs with a vaccination/identifica-
the Merieux, was developed by the Merieux tion policy, a government committee was set up
Institute of France using a technique pioneered in 1997 to examine the issue. The committee
at the Wistar Institute of Philadelphia. Only recommended that a strict scheme of medical
1 ml doses are required, and 2 injections (apart examination, rabies vaccination and veterinary
from any booster doses). (See also VERO CELLS.) certification should replace the compulsory
In the UK, 2 vaccines approved for use in quarantine regulations for dogs and cats. The
dogs and cats: Rabisin rabies vaccine (Merial) recommendation was accepted and an arrange-
containing inactivated GS-57 Wistar virus ment introduced in 2000 under which dogs and
strain; and Nobivac Rabies (Intervet) prepared cats may travel to and from the UK and specified
from virus grown on cell-line tissue culture. countries without quarantine under the PET
Mass vaccination of dogs is carried out in TRAVEL SCHEME. (See also IMPORTING/EXPORTING
many countries as a control measure; and in ANIMALS.)
Central and South America, cattle on ranches
are vaccinated against vampire-bat-transmitted Other points to note: (1) the saliva is some-
rabies. In France and other countries of times infective before symptoms of rabies appear
Europe, hundreds of thousands of cattle are – a hazard for a person licked; (2) farmers have
vaccinated against rabies (often a combined died through mistaking rabies for ‘choking’ and,
rabies/foot-and-mouth disease inoculation). with abraded fingers, examining their cow’s
It must be remembered, however, that no vac- mouths; (3) non-typical cases of rabies are not
cines are 100 per cent effective, that certificates uncommon; (4) a dog may bite a small child or
of vaccination can be forged, and that conse- household pet and promptly run away – rabies
quently it is still essential to control the import not being suspected, though running away is in
of animals, whether vaccinated or not, and to itself a canine symptom; (5) the virus may be pre-
enforce quarantine measures where appropriate. sent in semen, as well as in milk, tears, faeces, and
urine; and (6) subclinical rabies, and a ‘carrier’
Control of rabies in Britain From 1902 state, have long been recognised in Africa (see
until 1918, no cases occurred in the British Isles; ‘OULOU FATO’) and in Asia.
R but in that year infected dogs were smuggled
from the Continent, and the disease obtained Vaccination of foxes has been an outstand-
a fresh hold for a period of little more than ing success in controlling the disease in Western
3 years. Britain had been free since then, but in Europe. Currently Britain, Andorra, Ireland,
Inactivated:
Fixed Hamster kidney Cats, dogs, cattle
and other animals
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, animal (e.g. have been on an oil rig) are permit-
Greece, Spain and Portugal are all rabies-free. ted to be landed in Britain. A similar relaxation
There are still black spots in Germany, while applies to animals belonging to the police,
there are enzootic areas in Poland and Turkey. Customs & Excise and H.M. Forces, if the ani-
The oral vaccine is genetically engineered on mal has been abroad but under the constant con-
vaccinia virus so that the antigen to rabies is trol of a trained handler while outside Britain.
absorbed from the intestine. The vaccine is put (See also PET TRAVEL SCHEME (PETS).)
into fish-flavoured capsules scattered from heli-
copters. In the areas so treated, up to 93 per cent Rabies-Related Viruses
of foxes, stoats, weasels, polecats and badgers These include Duvenhage virus, the cause in
caught and bloodsampled have been found to fruit-eating bats of a disease very similar to
have taken up the vaccine. rabies; the Mokola virus, which has been isolat-
ed from shrews, and causes nervous symptoms
Rabies (Control) Order 1974 in man; the Lagos bat virus; the Nigerian horse
This gives powers to deal with an outbreak of virus and Lyssa virus.
rabies outside quarantine premises. In a declared
infected area, an order may be made for the Raccoons
destruction of foxes and other wild mammals, Raccoons are, in Canada and the USA, among
and for access to land for this purpose. Fences or the wildlife creatures which sometimes transmit
other types of barrier may be erected to restrict rabies.
movement of animals into or out of an area A dog bitten by a (non-rabid) raccoon may
while such destruction is in progress. become paralysed in all 4 limbs (quadriplegia).
Orders may be made for compulsory vacci-
nation, confinement, and control of domestic Racehorses
animals, including strays. Anyone knowing or Every year between 1400 and 1600 thorough-
suspecting that an animal has rabies must noti- bred mares go to stud in the UK. About 67 per
fy that suspicion to the police. Deaths of ani- cent of them foal successfully, and for every 1000
mals in an infected area must also be notified, mares covered, 270 or so of the resulting progeny
and the authorities can take over ownership of finally appear on the racecourse. Temperament,
carcases and determine the means of their dis- unsoundness, or sale abroad account for the
posal. This is because it is essential to confirm non-appearance of more in the UK.
a diagnosis of rabies, so that precautions can An epidemiological study of wastage among
be taken concerning in-contact animals and racehorses has been conducted among 6 stables,
human beings. The order can override a dog- 5 of which were in Newmarket. The basis of the
owner’s reluctance or refusal to part with the survey was the inability of horses to take part in
body of a dead pet or working dog. cantering exercise as a result of injury or disease.
The greatest number of days lost to training was
The Rabies (Importation of Mammals) caused by lameness (67.5 per cent) and respira-
Order 1974 prohibits the landing of suscepti- tory problems (20.5 per cent). Conditions of the
ble mammals in Britain unless from Ireland, Isle foot (19 per cent), muscle (18 per cent), carpus R
of Man, or the Channel Islands. Any animal (14 per cent), fetlock joints (14 per cent),
brought in from elsewhere has to undergo a peri- tendons (10 per cent) and sore shins (9 per cent)
od of quarantine. Imported animals are vacci- were the major reasons for training days being
nated while in quarantine as a precaution against lost in 198 cases in which a positive diagnosis of
a quarantined animal developing the disease. the site of lameness was made.
Those animals not a threat to human health
(ruminants, pigs and horses) do not go into Pulmonary haemorrhage In horses
quarantine for rabies but may be quarantined for which show blood at their nostrils after exercise
other diseases. Control under the Order is exer- such as racing, the blood does not come from
cised on the transport of imported susceptible the nasal cavity but from the lungs. Endoscopic
animals within Britain. examination showed an incidence of 42 per
If an animal is landed at a port or airport not cent in a group of horses with only 15 per cent
authorised to receive such animals, that consti- showing blood at the nostrils. Affected horses
tutes an illegal landing even if the circumstances might appear distressed, with dilated pupils.
are outside anyone’s control (e.g. if an airport is Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage
fogbound). was observed in 23 of 49 endoscopic examina-
Under a 1984 amendment order, animals tions after high-speed training, in 9 of 37 exam-
which have not been in contact with another inations after cantering, and in 1 of 17 after
586 Rachitis
walking or trotting; it was not possible to pre- limb can be advanced forwards to a considerable
dict its occurrence. Mucoid or mucopurulent extent.
exudate was observed in 60 of 118 examinations
and the amount increased after exercise. Treatment The majority of such cases as these
Pulmonary haemorrhage was diagnosed by will recover in a few weeks. Patience on the part
endoscopic examination in 255 2-year-old quar- of the owner is essential.
terhorses after racing. Only 9 (3.5 per cent) of
the animals had visible epistaxis. Radiation, Exposure to
Fatal pulmonary haemorrhage occurred in a The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear power-station dis-
racehorse which panicked as the aircraft in which aster in the former USSR led to controls being
it was travelling landed. imposed on the movement and slaughter of
(See HORSES, BREEDS OF; HORSES; EXERCISING sheep in parts of Scotland, Cumbria, and Wales,
HORSES; etc.) after between 1000 and 4000 Becquerels/kg of
caesium-137 had been detected in lambs.
Rachitis Similar controls were applied in other countries
(see RICKETS) affected by the fallout. The ban temporarily
affected about 2 million sheep and lambs in
Radial Paralysis (‘Dropped some 500 flocks.
Elbow’) The Atomic Energy Authority stated that
Radial paralysis (‘dropped elbow’) is common- 10,000 Bq/kg represents a health risk.
est in horses and dogs, though it may be seen in However, the contamination figures exceed-
any animal. ed, in 9 cases, the internationally recommended
action levels for radiocaesium of 1000 Bq/kg.
Causes Probably the majority of cases are due The highest figure was 4000.
to a fracture of the 1st rib on the same side of ‘Although the physical half-life of radiocae-
the body, the broken ends of the rib lacerating sium is 30 years, its biological half-life is much
the nerve-fibres as they pass the rib, or pressing shorter. In an adult animal, the half-life is esti-
against them. In other cases the origin of the mated at between 30 and 100 days, but for lamb
paralysis seems to be situated in the end-plates it would be between 25 and 50 days.’ (MAFF)
of the nerve-fibres where they are distributed to (See also RADIOACTIVE IODINE; RADIOACTIVE
the muscles, and in some cases a neuritis involv- STRONTIUM.)
ing the radial nerve, or a tumour pressing upon
it at some part of its course, is responsible for Annual human exposure Of the average
producing the condition. UK citizen’s annual exposure to radioactive dis-
charges, only 0.1 per cent comes from the nuclear
Signs In a typical case the horse stands with the power industry, according to the Radiological
elbow dropped lower than normally, and with Protection Board.
the knee, elbow, and fetlock joints flexed. Little For radiation exposure associated with veteri-
or no pain is felt, unless there is a fractured rib, nary practice, see RADIOISOTOPES and X-RAYS.
R or some inflammatory condition which has Carbon-14 is among internal sources of nat-
caused the paralysis. The limb is held in the ural radiation, and is present in the human
position assumed at the commencement of a body to the extent of about 2000 Bq.
stride, but the animal is incapable of advancing
it far in front of the sound limb. No weight is Radiation, Protection against
borne upon the leg, the muscles are flaccid and Regulations governing the use of X-ray equip-
soft, and if the horse is made to move forward ment, and the precautions to be taken by those
either it does so by hopping off and on to the handling it, are very strict. Details are given
sound fore-limb, or it may fall forwards. If the in the Health and Safety at Work Act. (See under
hand be forcibly pressed against the knee, so X-RAYS.)
that the limb is restored to its natural upright A concise guide to the Health and Safety at
position, the horse is able to bear weight upon it Work Act 1974 can be obtained from HSE
and may lift the other limb from the ground, Books, PO Box 1999, Sudbury, Suffolk COI0
but as soon as the pressure is released, the joints 6FS.
fall forward again. Sometimes the toe is rested
upon the ground, but at other times the horse Radiation Sickness
stands with the wall of the foot in contact with Dogs exposed to radiation following a nuclear
the ground. In cases that are not so severe, the explosion will vomit as a result of gastroenteri-
flat of the foot may rest on the ground, and the tis, become dull and lose their appetite. This
Radio ‘Pills’ (Telemetering Capsules) 587
may return after a day or two, but leucopenia strontium may give rise to illness in cattle.
develops, and may be followed by haemorrhage Digestive organs may be damaged, changes in
or septicaemia. the blood occur, and deaths follow within a
month or so, after a period of dullness and
Radioactive Caesium scouring. (See RADIOACTIVE STRONTIUM.)
High levels of caesium 137 were found in areas
of Wales and Scotland following the nuclear Radioactive Strontium
power-station explosion at Chernobyl in 1986. Whereas the half-life of radioactive iodine is a
Certain flocks of sheep were affected by the matter of days, that of strontium is 30 years.
fall-out and the meat declared unfit for human Following the grazing of contaminated pasture
consumption for some time. or the eating of other contaminated feed,
radioactive strontium is excreted in the milk,
Antidote A ferric-cyano-ferrate (AFCF), in the but much of it enters the bones and is liable to
form of a dark blue powder, can bind radiocae- set up cancer many years afterwards.
sium both in vitro and in the gastrointestinal tract The UK average ratio of strontium-90 to
of animals very effectively, preventing the isotope calcium in milk was 2.8 picocuries per gram of
from being absorbed and secreted into the milk calcium in 1975, compared with 3.3 picocuries
or transferred to the meat of cows, etc. The addi- per gram in the previous year; this result is
tion of only 3 g AFCF per day to the diet of about one-tenth of the maximum reached in
lactating cows reduced the radiocaesium content 1964. The average concentration of caesium-
of their milk by between 80 and 90 per cent, and 137 (7 picocuries/litre) was about four-fifths of
of their meat by 78 per cent. the value in 1974 and less than one-twentieth
The radiocaesium content of the meat from of the 1964 maximum. (AFRC.)
sheep fed 1 g AFCF per day or of calves or pigs
fed 2 g AFCF per day was reduced by approxi- Radio-Frequency Treatment
mately 90 per cent. The compound was given (see under CANCER – Treatment)
official clearance as a feed additive against radio-
caesium in Germany.
Radiography
Radioactive Discharges (see under X-RAYS)
Of the average UK citizen’s annual exposure, only
0.1 per cent comes from the nuclear power indus- Radioimmune Assay
try, according to the Radiological Protection A method of measuring antigen or antibody
Board. concentration by means of radioactively labelled
Around 90 per cent comes from natural reagents (see RADIOISOTOPES).
sources, principally radon gas released from
building materials. Radioisotopes
For radiation associated with veterinary practice, A radioisotope is a form of an element that
see RADIOISOTOPES and X-RAYS. undergoes decay while emitting radiation.
Artificial radioisotopes (radiopharmaceuticals) R
Radioactive Fall-Out are widely used in diagnosis and in human
Radioactive fall-out, following the explosion of medicine. Nuclear medicine involves the use
nuclear bombs, etc., or accidents at atomic plant, of unsealed radioisotopes for diagnosis and
may be dangerous to farm livestock on account therapy. For example, in bone scanning, the
of the radioactive iodine and strontium released. most commonly used radiopharmaceutical is
After an accident at Windscale, radioactive methylene diphosphonate, labelled with
iodine alone contaminated pasture in the area. Technetium 99 mm (Tc-99). With a half-life of
(See also RADIATION, EXPOSURE TO; RADIATION only 6 hours, high doses can be given for a low
SICKNESS; RADIOACTIVE IODINE.) radiation burden, permitting high resolution
pictures to be obtained.
Radioactive Iodine
Cattle grazing pasture contaminated by fall-out Radio ‘Pills’ (Telemetering
pick up 10 times as much radioactive iodine as Capsules)
do people in the same locality, according to Radio ‘pills’ (telemetering capsules) have been
American reports. Much is excreted in the milk, developed for research purposes. A radio trans-
and much concentrated in the thyroid glands. mitter, the size of an ordinary drug capsule,
Feeding-stuffs or pasture contaminated by can give information concerning pressure,
fall-out containing radioactive iodine and temperature or pH within an organ.
588 Radius
Brewer’s grains plus minerals 7 kg (15 lb) August, grazing aftermath (or green fodder dur-
ing a drought), the cows receive concentrates for
with every 1.8 kg (4 lb) hammer-milled maize each 4.5 litres (1 gallon) over the first 4.5 litres
fed in parlour for every additional 4.5 litres (1 gallon). In September, with young aftermath
(1 gallon). or maiden seeds, there is a hay ration of 3 kg
(7 lb) (or 13 kg (28 lb) kale) plus concentrates
Summer rationing Grass is the standard sum- for yields over 9 litres (2 gallons) per day.
mer food for cattle. On a good, well-managed More sophisticated calculations for feed
pasture – where over-stocking is avoided – young, requirements are based on the metabolisable
leafy grass will supply enough protein for high energy requirements of specific herds or even ani-
yielders, but they will require additional carbohy- mals. Calculations take into account the amount
drate. This may be supplied in the form of cere- of energy required for maintaining condition; the
als, e.g. 1.8 kg (4 lb) for each 4.5 litres (1 gallon) quantity of milk produced; and the stage of preg-
of milk over about 20 litres (4H gallons) nancy. For growing cattle, rations are calculated
produced per day. based on the maintenance requirement plus the
It has been recommended that in April, cows daily liveweight gain.
grazing young, leafy grass 10 to 15 cm (4 to
6 inches) high for 4 hours daily, should receive
Beef cattle (see table re suckler cows, and under BEEF)
3 kg (7 lb) hay and cereals (plus a mineral
mixture) at the rate of 1.8 kg (4 lb) for each
4.5 litres (1 gallon) over 13.5 litres (3 gallons). Calves (see CALF-REARING)
In May, with unrestricted grazing of grass 20 or
25 cm (8 or 10 inches) long at the pre-flowering Pigs
stage, the hay is discontinued; the cereal ration Creep feed Per cent
remaining as before. In June and July, with grass Barley meal 40
at the flowering stage, the cows receive balanced Flaked maize 30
concentrates for yields over 11 litres (21⁄2 White fish-meal 15
gallons) (June), then over 9 litres (2 gallons). In Wheatings 15
Mid-pregnancy to
calving
grazing grazing grazing grazing
Rectum 591
In the mild type the urine is not usually B. divergens. Cornish cattle brought to a farm in
highly coloured; there is only slight dullness Sussex set up a focus of infection because infect-
and loss of appetite. The animals are ill for a ed ticks became established in the new habitat.
week or 10 days, and the only marked sequel is And Simmental, Charolais and other European
anaemia. breeds are imported into Britain with no
There are irregular forms of red-water met screening for blood parasites.
with at times, in which the general symptoms are
similar to these seen in the typical acute attack, Red Worms
but the urine does not become discoloured. The common name for strongyles. These can
Many of these cases end fatally. cause severe anaemia, unthriftiness, and debility.
(See under FOALS, DISEASES OF; also under EQUINE
Treatment Imidocarb (Imizol). For use under VERMINOUS ARTERITIS; HORSES, WORMS IN.)
prescription only. A single dose of 1 ml per Benzimidazoles, ivermectins and thiabendazole
100 kg bodyweight for treatment, or 2.5 ml per are useful drugs for the removal of red worms.
100 kg bodyweight for prevention; the dose (See also ROUNDWORMS.)
must be given subcutaneously. Cattle must not
be slaughtered for human consumption for Reduplication
90 days after administration, and milk from Reduplication is a term applied to a duplication
treated animals must be withheld for 21 days. of the normal heart-sounds as heard by auscul-
Veterinary surgeons who prescribe Imizol are tation. There are heard a 1st and a 2nd sound
advised that: in a normal heartbeat, and in the above condi-
1. Full records of product administration to tion one or both of these may be doubled. It is
identifiable animals must be maintained, and found in certain diseases of the heart, such as
that it is the duty of the farmer to keep a care- obstruction of the valve between the auricle and
ful record of all administration of the product, ventricle on the left side of the organ (the mitral
as required by the Animals and Fresh Meat valve).
(Examination for Residues) Regulations 1988.
2. The local DVM must be notified of the Reflex Action
address of the farm where treatment is to take Reflex action is one of the simplest forms
place. of activity of the nervous system. For the
3. Farmers should be informed that they must mechanism, see NERVES.
notify the local DVM when treated animals go Superficial reflexes are well instanced in the
for slaughter for human consumption or when sudden shivering movement that is seen when
milk from treated animals is intended for human a fly or other insect settles upon the skin of a
consumption. horse, particularly in the region of the back of
Any suspected adverse reactions, including the shoulder.
evidence of lack of efficacy, should be reported Visceral reflexes are those connected with
to the Veterinary Medicines Directorate, New various organs, such as the narrowing of the
Haw, Weybridge, Surrey, immediately. pupil when the eye is exposed to a bright light.
R Ticks should be removed, either by hand- (See SPINAL CORD.)
picking or by spraying with a suitable parasiticide.
(See TICKS, CONTROL OF.) Regional Anaesthesia
The few piroplasms taken into the blood- This consists in the anaesthetisation of a region
stream, when young cattle are bitten by infected of the body by means of a local anaesthetic solu-
ticks, tend not to multiply but to give rise to tion injected either into the connective tissue sur-
a useful degree of immunity. This may wane if rounding a sensory nerve trunk or into the spinal
the piroplasms die, so that the animal becomes canal. (See EPIDURAL ANAESTHESIA, ANALGESICS.)
susceptible again. Immunity may likewise break The most common example of perineurial
down if the animal becomes ill from some other injection is plantar block in the horse.
cause.
Register of Veterinary
Control Measures involve tick control, and Surgeons
not mixing cattle from red-water areas with The Register of Veterinary Surgeons lists veteri-
susceptible cattle. Even then there are risks. nary surgeons who can practise in the UK. It
Twenty deaths occurred when local cattle may be consulted in some public libraries or is
were placed on sea marsh land in Lincolnshire obtainable from the Royal College of Veterinary
that had previously been used for fattening Surgeons, Belgravia House, 62–64 Horseferry
imported Irish steers which were carriers of Road, London SW1P 2AF.
Reproduction 595
Rehydration Reproduction
The restoration of the correct levels of water
and electrolytes in animals suffering from Ovulation At OVULATION the Graafian folli-
DEHYDRATION. cle bursts, and the ovum is expelled by the rush
of the escaping fluid. The cavity of the Graafian
Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) follicle becomes filled with special cells to form
Both in northern Europe and North America the corpus luteum, and the ovum begins its
these animals are of economic importance. career as an absolute entity. In normal circum-
Parasites include WARBLES. Subcutaneous injec- stances the fimbriated and dilated funnel-
tions of ivermectin are recommended for shaped end of the Fallopian tube, or oviduct, is
prevention of infestation and treatment. applied to the point at which a follicle will
burst, so that upon escape of its ovum this
Relapse latter may be caught and retained. The dilated
A relapse occasionally occurs when antibiotic end of the oviduct is usually known as the
or sulfa drug treatment of an infectious disease vestibule, and it is in this part that the sperm
is stopped – the infection having been sup- usually meets the ovum and fertilises it. (See also
under OVARIES.)
pressed but the animal’s powers of resistance
not having been stimulated to establish a suffi-
cient degree of immunity. Some forms of lame- Coitus The act of copulation. As mentioned
ness are particularly liable to relapses, especially under OESTRUS, service by the male is only
those associated with sprains of tendons or allowed during the period of oestrus by the
ligaments. females of the majority of species of higher
animals. At other times there is little or no
desire exhibited by the male, and all attentions
Relative Breeding Value are resented by the female. Artificial methods of
(see PROGENY TESTING) domestication have to some extent modified
the frequency and duration of oestrus, so that
‘Remote Injection’ Method the domestic animals sheltered under the pro-
(see PROJECTILE SYRINGE) tection of man breed more frequently than do
the majority of wild animals of similar species.
Renal During a single ejaculation of an adult vigor-
Relating to the kidney. ous stallion about 80,000,000 sperms are
released. As soon as the sperms are free in the
Renin uterus or vagina, they travel towards wherever
An enzyme, secreted by the kidneys, which may the ovum is situated. This they accomplish
control the secretion of the hormone aldosterone partly by a kind of wriggling movement of their
by the adrenal glands. tail, which drives them onwards always in the
same direction. They are attracted to the ovum
by ‘chemotaxis’.
Reovirus R
The name derives from the words ‘respiratory Fertilisation Somewhere in the oviduct, gen-
enteric orphan virus’. Reoviruses have double- erally in its vestibule but not necessarily so, the
stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA), and will repli- spermatozoa arrive in the region of the waiting
cate and produce changes in cells of cattle, pigs, ovum. More than one sperm may penetrate the
dogs, cats, rabbits, monkeys, and man. Reovirus wall of the ovum, but except in rare instances
in poultry is often seen as tenosynovitis. The (giving rise to PRIMARY MOSAICISM) only one
tendon sheaths, synovial membrane and the sperm fertilises the ovum.
myocardium are all affected. Vaccination is possi- The sperm, having penetrated the ovum,
ble but attention to hygiene is also essential for loses its tail, which is no longer required, and lies
effective control. Only flocks known to be free within the protoplasm of the ovum. The nucle-
from the infection should be selected for produc- us of the ovum and that of the head of the sperm
ing hatching eggs. (See also CALF PNEUMONIA.) now fuse, each contributing half the number of
chromosomes that are to be found present in
Repair nearly all the cells of the future young animal.
Repair of tissue after injury is described under The fused body is known as the segmentation
WOUNDS; for the repair of special tissues, see nucleus, and from it, when it begins to divide,
under BONE, MUSCLE, NERVE, etc. (See also HOOF all the body cells of the embryo are formed. The
REPAIR WITH PLASTICS.) process of the formation of the young embryo is
596 Reproductive Organs
considered under EMBRYOLOGY. (See also TESTI- Inspiration is due to muscular effort which
CLE; OVARIES; OESTRUS; BREEDING OF ANIMALS; enlarges the chest in all 3 dimensions, so that
PREGNANCY; PARTURITION; PARTHENOGENESIS. the lungs have to expand in order to fill up the
vacuum that would otherwise be left; and since,
Reproductive Organs although the lungs are not fixed to the chest
(see diagrams under UTERUS and PENIS) wall, surface tension between the pleura lining
the chest and the pleura covering the lungs, has
Reptiles much the same effect.
A class of animal which includes tortoises, In most vertebrates, except birds, the lungs
lizards and snakes. They tend to favour warm are not normally attached to the walls of the
places when they are ill. Reptile housing should chest, but are rather suspended in them from
be heated at all times, but a range of heat their ‘roots’, so that there is no direct pull upon
should be available in different areas, within the the lungs when the chest cavity increases in size.
normal limits for the species, so that they can The vertical diameter of the chest is increased
choose which suits them best. Under no cir- during inspiration through the downward tilt-
cumstances must they be allowed to come into ing of the sternum. This movement is best seen
direct contact with the heat source. Many in the dog when it is out of breath; at other
species require ultraviolet light, otherwise bone times, and in other animals, it is so slight that
rarefaction (weakening) may occur; expert it escapes detection. The transverse dimension
advice must be sought before buying such a pet. of the chest increases when any 1 of the ribs
(See also PETS.) behind the first 2 or 3 are forcibly pulled for-
ward by muscular action. Each rib only moves
Resection a small amount, but the mass effect of the series
Resection is an operation in which a part of is considerable. The muscles which bring about
some organ is removed – as, for example, the these changes in ordinary inspiration are the
resection of a piece of dead bone, or resection of diaphragm, the intercostal muscles which are
a part of the intestine which is diseased; resec- situated in two layers between each rib and its
tion of a rib in thoracotomy; aural resection two neighbours, and possibly the levators of the
done to overcome chronic disease of a dog’s ear. ribs, and the serratus muscles.
When the chest expands, the lungs expand
Resistance Transferability too; but initially the quantity of air within them
(see under PLASMIDS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE) remains the same. Accordingly, the pressure falls,
leading to an inflow of air.
Resistant Strains
This phrase is commonly used of bacteria which Inspired air Expired air
are not sensitive to antibiotics, or of insects
which are not killed by an insecticide. Per cent Per cent
Nitrogen 79.04 79.04
R Resorption Oxygen 20.93 16.02
Mummification. Resorption of the fetus occurs, Carbon dioxide 0.03 4.38
e.g. in heifers receiving a high calcium and low
phosphorus diet. In sows, mummification can Expiration is in ordinary circumstances
be a feature of Aujeszky’s disease, ‘blue-ear’ dis- merely an elastic recoil, the diaphragm moving
ease (PRRS), and both African and classical forward and the ribs settling back into their
swine fever. With the banning of sow stalls and original positions, partly through muscular
the need to find alternatives, it has been report- action, and partly through the elasticity of their
ed that the level of mummification tends to cartilages. It occupies a slightly longer period of
be higher in dry sows kept in straw yards. The time than does inspiration.
reason is not clear, but bullying has been
suggested as a cause. (See MUMMIFICATION.) Nervous control Respiration is usually
an automatic act under the control of the
Respiration respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata.
(see also NOSE AND NASAL PASSAGES; LUNGS) Although the respiratory centre is itself capa-
ble of carrying on respiration, it is in its turn
Mechanism of respiration For the struc- liable to be controlled by the higher conscious
ture of the respiratory apparatus see NOSE AND centres. This is seen particularly well in human
NASAL PASSAGES; LUNGS, etc. beings, where it is possible to ‘hold the breath’,
Respiratory Disease in Pigs 597
or inhibit respiration for considerable periods soft palate up into the nose in order to expel
(when diving underwater, for example). some source of irritation from the nasal cham-
bers. It is particularly well exhibited by the dog.
Rate of respiration The speed of the respi- Yawning is a deep slow inspiration followed
ration varies with many internal and external by a short expiration, the air being taken in
factors. It is faster during fevers, after violent by the open mouth as well as by the nose.
exercise, or even after mild exercise (though it Hiccough is due to a sudden spasmodic con-
soon returns to normal upon cessation); during traction of the diaphragm, along with a sudden
powerful emotions, such as fear, anger, sexual closing of the larynx, producing a sound not
excitement, etc.; during very cold or very hot unlike a very loud heartbeat. Hyperpnoea is a
weather; when the body condition is very fat, term applied to the slightly increased frequency
or when radiation is obstructed, through too and depth of respiration occurring during gentle
thick a covering of wool, fur, etc., or too much exercise, or from some mild stimulus to the
clothing. (See also ANAEMIA.) respiratory centre. Dyspnoea means that there is
It is slower than normal during resting, either distinct distress in breathing, due to a more
when merely lying or when sleeping; and in cases powerful stimulus to the respiratory centre, and
of unconsciousness. is usually characterised by convulsive move-
The normal rates in adult domesticated ments of the chest and diaphragm. It is fre-
animals are as follows: quently the forerunner of asphyxia. Apnoea is
In each case, the larger the particular animal, seen when there is a hyperoxygenation of the tis-
the slower it breathes, other things being equal. sues, and consequently no further immediate
For instance, a Shetland pony respires about demands for oxygen. It consists of a complete
12 times per minute, while a shire stallion cessation of the respiratory movements without
respires only 8 times; also, the young of any the exhibition of any distress. It is artificially
species breathe faster than do adults; and produced in human beings when a diver takes
females breathe faster than males – especially 10 or 12 deep breaths before entering the water,
during pregnancy. where he must hold his breath. It is not com-
When this air is taken into the lungs its monly seen in the domestic animals, but the seal
composition is altered, so that upon leaving the and other diving animals have developed the
lungs its CO2 content is about 4 per cent greater power of inducing apnoea to a marked extent.
and its oxygen content about 4 per cent less. (See also under ASTHMA; LARYNGEAL PARALYSIS;
VOICE; TACHYPNOEA.)
Quantity of air The lungs do not by any
means completely empty themselves at each Respiratory Difficulty, Failure
expiration and refill at each inspiration. What is BREATHLESSNESS; ANAEMIA; OEDEMA;
(see under
left after maximum expiration is called the ASPHYXIA; BRONCHITIS; PNEUMONIA; FOG
residual volume. The volume of air exchanged FEVER; ANAESTHETICS.) Many poisons bring
during normal breathing (i.e. passing in and about respiratory failure, e.g. chloroform,
out of the nose) is the tidal volume – about hydrocyanic acid, paraquat.
5 litres in the horse. The volume of air in the R
airways leading to the alveoli of the lungs is Respiratory Disease in Pigs
the anatomical dead space. Air available for Pigs are susceptible to a number of respiratory
the supply of oxygen in the lungs is the tidal problems; the most common being the following
volume minus the anatomical dead space. (see also under main dictionary entries).
Cattle A cattle CRUSH; either of a commercial Pigs The adult pig is proverbially a difficult
pattern or one constructed of timber by farm animal to handle and restrain, especially when
labour, is useful; a gate may be hinged to a wall the handling involves pain or discomfort, but
and closed so as to act as a crush for inocula- piglets are easily held by the hind-legs with the
tions, etc. (See also VETERINARY FACILITIES ON hands, while the knees grip the dependent
THE FARM.) head. With large sows and boars it is wise to
A halter is also useful in cattle, as in horses. remember that they are apt to be vicious with
In the case of comparatively quiet cattle, milk strangers, and to use a shield of wood or a hur-
cows, etc., it will generally suffice if an assistant dle to prevent a rush by the angry animal.
takes the animal by the nose. The thumb and A method of securing a large pig is to drive it
middle finger of one hand are inserted into into a corner and pen it there with a door, gate,
the respective nostrils, and the nasal septum is or heavy hurdle carried by 2 helpers, and held
pinched between them. It is important that the so that the pig has no room to turn while a
stockman’s fingers do not block up the airway. noose is dropped over its head and pulled tight
The other hand may be placed under the round its jaws, and another is secured to a
jaw. In this position the majority of adult quiet hind-leg above the hock. The ends of these
cattle can be easily held. For bulls and those ropes are then passed round a post or a rail in
cattle that are more difficult to control it is the fence and pulled tight when the pig is
usual to use a pair of bull-holders (‘bull-dogs’; released from its corner.
‘bull-tongs’); or if the animal is already rung
(with a copper or aluminium ring), to attach a Dogs and cats These animals are usually
rope or bull-leader to the ring in the nose. For more easily restrained than some of the larger
drenching purposes it is necessary to keep the animals because of their intimate association
head and neck in as straight a line as possible with man, but there are certain animals that
to obviate the risk of choking. If an assistant present difficulty when angry or excited. A kind
is needed he should stand on the opposite side word and a caress will often be necessary to
of the beast and take the horns in his hands gain the animal’s confidence before attempting
so that he may tilt the head upwards and at to examine it, and, wherever possible, severe
the same time keep the head and neck straight methods of restraint should be avoided except
out. A pair of bull-holders may be inserted as a last resort. The human voice often exercis-
into the nostrils, and have a rope attached to es a degree of control over an excitable animal,
them which is passed over a beam and the head and there are certain people who appear to pos-
pulled up. sess the faculty of immediately gaining almost
For lifting a hind-leg, a pole, broom handle, any dog’s confidence and of being able to do
etc., may be placed in front of that hock and anything with it.
behind and above the other. Two helpers take However, it is always wise in any case of
hold of ends of the pole and pull the leg upwards doubt to take no risks. The safest way of deal-
and backwards, at the same time steadying the ing with a dog is to muzzle it first. A tape muz-
animal’s balance by leaning against its thighs with zle may be applied; this is simply a piece of tape
their shoulders. For the fore-feet it is usual to pass or a bandage about 118 cm (3 ft) long whose R
a rope around the cannon or above the heels and middle is wound round the dog’s nose, the ends
over the back to the opposite side, where it is being crossed under the jaw and tied round the
held by an assistant. (See also TRANQUILLISERS.) neck or on to the collar. With bulldogs, and
those with a short face and a pug nose, it is
Sheep For most purposes the sheep may be better to tie the tape round the jaws, finishing
turned up into a position in which it sits upon with the end above the nose, tying them togeth-
its rump, by placing the left hand round under er there, and then passing the ends back to the
the neck from the near side, and the right hand collar.
over the back to seize the wool of the abdomen, Cats can be rolled in a sack or towel. With
lifting the animal’s fore-end off the ground and cats it is important to prevent them from using
twisting its hind-legs from under it. In this their claws, which inflict injuries more often
position its feet may be dressed, its fleece may than do the teeth. (See also under TRANQUILLISERS;
be examined, etc. It is not advisable to turn ANAESTHETICS.)
in-lamb ews, due to the possibility of harming
them or the fetus; they may be held against Resuscitation
a wall or fence by an assistant while their A basic method of pulmonary resuscitation with
feet, etc., are being dressed. Sheep stocks are expired air, using a device portable and simple
sometimes used, or modern shearing tables. enough for emergency use by herdsmen and
600 Retention of Afterbirth
shepherds, is in use on farms. The device con- virus infects a cell, it is uncoated; the viral RNA
sists of a mouthpiece, non-return valve, flange, is transcribed into DNA and this DNA inte-
and mouth tube. (See ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION; grates into one of the cell’s chromosomes. This
RESPIRATORY STIMULANTS; ACUPUNCTURE.) property could be used to produce disease-resis-
tant transgenic animals. Certain viral groups
Retention of Afterbirth appear to need the presence of a receptor on
(see PLACENTA – Retained) the cell membrane in order to gain access into
the cell. Retroviruses are enveloped viruses and
Reticulocytes carry a glycoprotein on their surface; a specific
The penultimate stage in the formation of red interaction with this glycoprotein and the
blood cells. Reticulocytes are numerous in the cellular receptor is a prerequisite for infection.
blood only in anaemic conditions and indicate Immunodeficiency viruses of humans, cats,
an effort of the blood-forming tissues to restore cattle and primates are retroviruses.
the red blood cell count to normal levels. (See table under VIRUSES; also GENETIC ENGI-
NEERING.)
Reticulo-Endothelial System
This consists of macrophages, special cells present Rhabdomyolosis
in the liver, spleen, lymph nodes and bone Rhabdomyolosis, also called azoturia, is a break-
marrow. The system has a number of functions ing down of skeletal muscle in consequence of
including the regulation of immune responses (see which the urine contains myoglobin. (See EQUINE
under ANTIBODY). It also removes disintegrating MYOGLOBINURIA.)
red cells from the blood.
Rhabdovirus
Reticulum A group of bullet-shaped viruses which includes
The 2nd stomach of ruminants. the rabies virus and that of vesicular stomatitis.
Several rhabdoviruses are associated with disease
Retina conditions in fish.
The innermost layer of the eye; it includes the
light-sensitive rods and cones which transmit
impulses to the optic nerve. Detachment of,
Rhea
Ostrich-like flightless bird, native to South
or haemorrhage into, the retina is a cause of
America. Smaller than ostrich, about 120 cm
sudden blindness in dogs. It is often due to
(4 ft) tall, and has 3 toes.
hypertension, the long-term effects of which
may be hypertrophy of the left ventricle of
the heart and kidney failure. (See EYE and EYE, Rheumatism
DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.) A general term indicating a painful condition
of muscles, tendons, joints, bones, or nerves; it
Retinoblastoma is generally less common in animals than in
A type of tumour which occurs on the RETINA. humans.
R Rheumatism is seen in dogs, pigs, and horses
Retro- most commonly, but it can affect all of the
Retro- is a prefix signifying behind or turned domesticated animals. Young animals are most
backwards. often attacked by the acute type, especially
young pigs and puppies, and adults by the
Retropharyngeal Abscess muscular form and by chronic or particular
Retropharyngeal abscess is the name given to an rheumatism.
abscess occurring at the back of the throat in For the muscular type see under MUSCLES,
the region behind the pharynx. Such abscesses DISEASES OF.
generally make swallowing difficult or impossi-
ble until they burst, which they frequently do Treatment There is no absolute specific,
into the cavity of the pharynx, whence the pus although certain drugs have enjoyed a great repu-
is swallowed. (See STRANGLES.) tation in the alleviation of this disease, especially
salicylates. Phenylbutazone has been used with
Retrovirus reported success. (See also CORTISONE.)
A member of the Retroviridiae, the family of
viruses which includes the lentiviruses and Rheumatoid Arthritis
the oncornaviruses. Retroviruses are naturally This may occur in the dog from the age of
occurring gene transfer organisms. When the about 2 years upwards, and in cats.
Rhinotracheitis, Infectious Bovine (IBR) 601
Signs are at first vague; the dog appears Causes Bordetella bronchiseptica, Pasteurella
depressed, often with a poor appetite and some multocida and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as
degree of fever, but with no lameness. This inclusion-body rhinitis virus, may all be involved
appears later, sometimes involving several joints at some stage. Respiratory disease in the pig is a
simultaneously, sometimes affecting one limb changing, developing process with many agents
and then shifting to another. There may be and factors involved; rhinitis and pneumonia
crepitus when the limb is moved. often occur together.
From other sources it is known that B. bron-
Diagnosis depends for confirmation upon chiseptica secretes a substance which inhibits the
radiography and on laboratory tests. deposition or transfer of calcium salts in the
(See also AUTO-IMMUNE DISEASE.) infected tissues. Accordingly the bones may fail
to ossify properly or may become weak and
Rhinitis liable to distortion.
Inflammation of the NOSE. The disease in a severe form may occur
only when there is a double infection with
Rhinitis, Atrophic B. bronchiseptica and P. multocida.
This has been defined as the product of a severe
persistent inflammatory reaction in the nasal Signs The acute form is to be found in piglets
mucosa of a growing, and therefore very young, 2 or 3 weeks old, when there is no deformity of
pig, and as such is non-specific with regard to the snout to be seen and not always an overflow
aetiology. of tears. Sneezing is perhaps the most common
The generally accepted view is that in the symptom. The eyelids may be puffy, and some-
first 2 or 3 months of life, the rapidly growing times the piglet has a copious discharge from
nasal structures are extremely liable to attack by its nose and breathes through its mouth. The
infectious agents – but quite often, recovery disease can be so mild that symptoms pass
from these is complete. In herds with severe unnoticed, or so severe that death occurs with-
disease, however, the condition may progress to in a week. In some outbreaks the mortality is
give rise to the marked displacement or atrophy 10 per cent or more, and survivors suffer a
of the turbinate bones and also to an associated growth check from the disease which continues
pneumonia. in the subacute form.
Rhinopneumonitis
(see EQUINE VIRAL RHINOPNEUMONITIS)
Rhinosporidiosis
A chronic disease of the nasal mucous mem-
brane, and associated with polyp formation
leading to difficulty in breathing, caused by a
fungus Rhinosporidia seberi. The disease occurs
in cattle and horses, in the USA, South
America, Australia, and India.
Rhinotracheitis, Infectious
Distortion of the pig’s snout as a result of atroph- Bovine (IBR)
ic rhinitis. (With acknowledgements to Professor A disease of cattle recognised in the USA in
R. H. C. Penny and the Royal Veterinary College.) 1951.
602 Rhinovirus
Cause The bovine herpesvirus 1, which can 300 lambs were found weak and salivating;
produce disease of the respiratory, reproductive, 2 were attempting to vomit; 6 were recumbent;
nervous and digestive systems. and 3 dead.
Weak tea may be helpful in countering the
Signs In America the disease is usually severe in effects; the tannin acts as an antidote.
feedlot cattle, but mild in dairy/range cattle. In
Britain outbreaks of severe IBR occurred in Rhonchi (Dry Sounds)
1978–9, causing heavy losses on some farms, Rhonchi (dry sounds) sometimes referred to
with reduced milk yield, loss of appetite, fever as ‘dry rales’; continuous sounds heard during
(up to 42°C (108°F)), laboured breathing, a dis- breathing by auscultation of the chest, when
charge from eyes and nose, and sometimes there is some obstruction of the bronchi. (See also
drooling of saliva. Reproductive disorders such RALES.)
as vulvo-vaginitis and orchitis have also occurred
in Britain. In America abortion has followed Rhoncus
natural infection or vaccination against IBR. An abnormal sound detectable by means of a
IBR is sometimes associated with a fatal stethoscope and indicating chronic inflammation
pneumonia. The disease may closely resemble of a bronchial tube.
mucosal disease, with which at one time it was
thought to be possibly identical, and also malig- Riboflavin
nant catarrh. (see under VITAMIN)
At least one strain of the virus is neurotropic
and has caused encephalitis in calves in Australia Ribonucleic Acid
and elsewhere. A substance related to DNA, RNA includes
the sugar ribose combined with nucleic acid. It
Control Live vaccines are available; depending appears to be concerned with protein synthesis
on the product, they are given by intranasal within the cell. (See CELLS.) In some experiments
application or by intramuscular injection. it has been shown that RNA from malignant cells
will cause normal cells in vitro to show character-
Rhinovirus istics of malignancy; and the converse is possible.
This genus of viruses have RNA as their nucleic (See VIRUSES; CANCER; GENETIC ENGINEERING.)
acid and include equine rhinovirus. They can
cause upper respiratory tract infections. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are granules containing RNA. (See
Rhodesian Ridgeback CELLS.)
A very large, tan or redcoated dog with the
unique characteristic of a strip of hair running Ribs
from tail to nose along the back opposite to Ribs are the long bones which together form the
the normal lie of the rest of the coat. This may cage of the thorax. Their numbers vary in the
account for the breed being prone to sebaceous different animals, according to how many tho-
R cysts in that region and to dermoid sinus. racic or dorsal vertebrae are present, as follows:
Wobbler syndrome (cervical spondylothesis) is horse, 18 pairs; ox, 13 pairs; pig, 14 or 15 pairs;
inheritable; achalasia may also develop. dog, 13 pairs. In any of these animals an extra
rib (often called a ‘floating rib’ because it pos-
Rhodococcus sesses little or no cartilage to unite it to the
(see CORYNEBACTERIUM) costal arch) may be present on one or both sides
of the body. The first 8 of these in the horse and
Rhododendron Poisoning ox, the first 7 in the pig, and the first 9 in the
Rhododendron poisoning is not common. dog, have cartilages which are united to the
There are about 20 varieties which have been sternum, and are called sternal ribs, while those
recorded as causing poisoning in sheep, cattle, further back in the series in each case have
goats, and even man. The shrubs contain a gly- cartilages which do not reach the sternum, but
coside called andromedotoxin, which is the only form an arch by overlapping each other, and are
poison capable of making ruminants vomit. known as asternal ribs. (See STERNUM.)
Poisoning may occur when sheep are brought Each rib possesses a ‘head’, by which it is
in to graze former amenity land on an estate. In joined to the anterior part of the vertebra to
one outbreak, lambs were turned into a crop of which it corresponds in number, and to the
rape bordered by rhododendrons, before having posterior part of that immediately in front, and
had time to adjust to the new diet. Fifty out of this is succeeded by a ‘neck’; a short distance
Rift Valley Fever (Enzootic Hepatitis) 603
further down the shaft is a ‘tubercle’, which They are distinguished from chlamydia and
articulates with the transverse process of the other bacteria by being found in the cytoplasm
vertebra to which it corresponds. The rest of the of arthropods such as ticks, lice, mites and
rib is composed of a long, curved, flat shaft, fleas. (For rickettsial infections in cattle, see TICK-
whose curve varies according to the position of BORNE FEVER; Q FEVER. For tropical diseases
the rib in the chest, being greatest about the caused by rickettsiae, see BOVINE PETECHIAL
middle of the series, and also according to the FEVER; HEARTWATER; see also ROCKY MOUNTAIN
animal to which it belongs. Posterior to each FEVER.)
runs the intercostal nerve and blood vessels
which are situated in a little groove along the Rickettsial Pox
borders of each rib. In life the ribs are attached A mild form of mite typhus transmitted to
to each other by the intercostal muscles to form people by the mouse mite Allodermanyosus
the continuous wall of the chest. (See BONES.) sanguineus, and caused by Rickettsia akari.
Rinderpest. This buffalo is showing what is usually the first symptom of the disease – a discharge
from the eyes. (Unations.)
spread to Mediterranean and Middle East The 1977–8 outbreaks in Egypt involved
countries unprepared for it. Rift Valley fever is over 200,000 human cases, with nearly 600
a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE throughout the EU. deaths, and about 800 cases of eye disease and
encephalitis, respectively.
Cause A bunyavirus, transmitted by mosqui-
toes. The virus causes necrosis of liver cells; also Rig, Ridgling (Cryptorchid)
abortion. A male animal in which one or both testes
do not descend into the scrotum from the
Signs The disease is seen at its most acute in abdomen at the usual time. (See also under
R young lambs, which die within a few hours. CRYPTORCHID; MONORCHID; GELDING.)
Fever, vomiting, ataxia, and death within a day
or two may occur in older lambs, calves, and Rigor Mortis
occasionally adult sheep. Mild or subclinical Temporary stiffening of the muscles several
infections also occur in adult animals. Abortion hours after death (e.g. 4 to 8 hours in the pig
accounts for much economic loss; also a carcase). It is associated with the breakdown in
temporary halt in lactation. the muscles of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
which also occurs when muscles contract during
Prevention A live vaccine made from the life.
attenuated Smithburn strain of the virus was
WHO approved in 1983. Rigors
Shivering fits. When prolonged, rigors may be
Public health The human illness is like an the warning sign of the approach of some disease
acute attack of influenza, and sometimes there is or fever.
also an encephalitis lasting 5 to 15 days, which
may prove fatal. Jaundice may occur in another Rima
fatal form of the disease. Impairment of vision Rima is a term meaning a crack or fissure,
may be permanent as a result of inflammation applied to any narrow natural opening, e.g. rima
of the retina. glottidis, the space between the vocal cords.
Ring-Bones 605
Rinderpest (Cattle Plague) and gives off a watery discharge which then
Rinderpest (cattle plague) is an acute, specific, becomes mucoid. The mouth is found to be
inoculable, and febrile disease of cattle, charac- pasty and inflamed.
terised by an ulcerative inflammation of mucous Ulcers occur in front of the incisor teeth, on
membranes, especially those of the alimentary the gums, inside the cheeks, on the borders of
tract. It is caused by a paramyxovirus. It is a the tongue, and in front of the dental pad. The
NOTIFIABLE DISEASE throughout the EU. epithelium comes off in bran-like scales, leaving
This disease ravaged Europe intermittently a ragged surface. This feature of the ulcers is
for 15 centuries. In France, a very severe out- important as one of the distinguishing characters
break resulted in the government establishing from the ulcers found in foot-and-mouth disease.
the first veterinary college at Alfort in the late Constipation gives place to diarrhoea of a
18th century. Following the Great Exhibition of fetid nature, and much straining takes place.
1851, the UK adopted a free trade policy and The diarrhoea is followed by dysentery. The
rinderpest entered the country with cattle from anus becomes dilated and the mucous mem-
the Baltic states. This prompted the British gov- brane of the rectum is exposed, appearing dark,
ernment to set up the Cattle Plague Department or purple. The affected animal becomes very
of the Privy Council, which was the forerunner weak and emaciated.
of the State Veterinary Service. The last case in In milking-cows the milk falls off. Pregnant
Britain was in 1877. cows usually abort at the height of the disease.
One of the most serious threats to world food- The lungs are affected only in chronic cases, as
supplies, cattle plague – like foot-and-mouth a rule.
disease – is caused by a virus, but one far more
deadly. Indeed, when cattle plague strikes a herd, Course and duration The disease is usually
9 out of 10 animals may die – a catastrophe acute, lasting 4 to 10 days. Outbreaks of a more
which is not infrequently followed by famine – chronic type do occur in some countries: these
and the total loss of food and draught animals produce a greater number of recoveries. In new
(cattle and buffaloes) from this cause is immense. outbreaks of cattle plague, death may claim up to
A global rinderpest eradication programme 90 per cent of the victims, while at other times
was set up by the FAO in the 1990s with the the death-rate may be as low as 20 per cent.
aim of eradicating the disease by 2010. By
2003, the only remaining focuses of infection Prevention Several vaccines are available.
were in Somalia and northern Kenya, and the In continents other than Asia and Africa, quar-
goal was in sight. However, constant vigilance is antine measures are relied upon to exclude the
needed to ensure that the infection does not disease from countries. In the event of an out-
spread to other countries. break, immediate slaughter of all infected or in-
contact cattle, sheep, goats, or other ruminants
Susceptibility Cattle are by far the most sus- must be carried out, and all movement of stock
ceptible animals. Eland and bush pig are known prohibited in a given area.
to contract rinderpest, and ailing wild game may
carry infection to healthy cattle. Sheep and goats Duration of immunity Cattle were immu- R
occasionally become infected; and the disease nised with a single dose of a rinderpest cell cul-
may exist subclinically in sheep and goats for a ture vaccine and maintained in a rinderpest-free
time, with consequent risk of an outbreak among environment for 6 to 11 years. They were then
unvaccinated cattle. challenged by either parenteral or intranasal
Most pigs show only a mild fever, with some inoculation of virulent virus or by contact expo-
depression and anorexia; they could, therefore, sure to reacting cattle. None of the vaccinates
act as a means of transfer of virus from conta- reacted clinically and a rinderpest viraemia was
minated meat to cattle. There is evidence that never detected.
Asiatic pigs are more susceptible than those of
European origin to infection with rinderpest Cross-immunity Infection of dogs with the
virus, and they have long been known to be rinderpest virus apparently confers immunity
affected naturally in Indo-China. Horses are against distemper.
immune.
Ring-Bones
Incubation period 3 to 9 days. A term used for any bony exostosis affecting
the interphalangeal joints of the horse’s foot,
Signs include fever, dullness, and loss of or indeed any bony enlargement in the same
appetite. Soon the nasal mucosa becomes red region: (1) high ring-bone, where the pastern
606 Ring Vaccination
joint (i.e. between the long and short pastern than good results when blistering is carried out.
bones) is the seat of the disease; (2) low ring- Corticosteroids may be used.
bone, where the deposit occurs round the cof-
fin-joint, between the short pastern bone and Ring Vaccination
the coffin-bone; and (3) false ring-bone, where A disease-control process by which susceptible
the enlargement occurs upon the shaft of one animals in a prescribed area surrounding an
of the bones and does not involve the edges of outbreak are vaccinated. It is used, for example,
a joint surface (though it may do so later). From in the control of foot-and-mouth disease where
the point of view of etymology it would appear there is no slaughter and eradication policy.
that the term ‘ring-bone’ should be restricted to Vaccination is begun at the perimeter of the
conditions in which a partial or complete ring areas, progressing inwards towards the centre.
of bone is formed round one or other of the For success, diagnosis, typing of virus and the
joints, and that all other bony enlargements vaccination itself must all be speedy.
affecting the surface of the shaft of the bones,
but not involving the edges of the joint sur- Ringer’s Solution
faces, should be called exostoses. Difficulty Ringer’s solution consists of sodium chloride,
arises, however, when examining a horse’s foot, 9 grams; calcium chloride, 0.25 g; potassium
in determining exactly whether the joint chloride, 0.42 g per litre.
surfaces are affected, or are likely to become
affected, in any particular given case. ‘Ringwomb’
This is the colloquial name for a condition
Causes Injury, inflammation of the periosteum which sometimes complicates lambing, and is
or of the bone – sometimes following infection, due to failure of the cervix to dilate. Usually, the
possibly a vitamin D deficiency. os uteri will admit 1 or 2 fingers, which can feel
what seems like a firm ring.
Signs In the early stages nothing more than a The shepherd may recognise the condition
fleeting lameness is seen. Eventually the horse on seeing a small portion of fetal membrane
will go lame all day if it is worked, or becomes protruding from the vulva. The ewe remains in
too lame to take out of the stable. After a time good health (but does not lamb) until death and
one or other of the joints becomes enlarged, decomposition of the fetus occur.
and the cause of the lameness becomes obvious. Manual dilation of the cervix is practised by
It is only in the case of high ring-bones (around some veterinary surgeons. Should this prove
the pastern joint) that the exostosis can be felt; impossible, Caesarean operation is the only
when the lower (coffin) joint is affected there is alternative. (See UTERUS and PARTURITION.)
at first no outward visible or palpable sign; but
after a time the hoof alters in shape, becomes Ringworm
distinctly bulged or ‘buttressed’ at the coronet. A contagious skin disease caused by the growth of
This latter effect is due to the fact that in low certain fungi, which live either upon the surface
ring-bone the extensor or pyramidal process of of the skin or in the hairs of the areas affected.
R the coffin-bone is usually involved, and the Ringworm may affect any of the domesticated
deposit of bone upon it pushes the coronet, and animals, but it is probably commonest in young
the wall which grows from it, in an outward store cattle when they are enclosed in buildings
direction (‘pyramidal disease’). At times the during winter, and in pet cats and kittens. Dogs
alteration in the outline of the hoof is not by and horses are also frequently affected, but the
any means regular; it may be bulged at any disease is not often seen in the sheep and pig in
point from one heel to the other, denoting a the UK.
deposit of bone wherever there is a bulge. Ringworm and favus in the domesticated ani-
In ‘true ring-bone’ the joint that is affected mals are caused by parasitic fungi which belong
almost always ends by becoming stiff (ankylosed), to the family Gymnoascidae.
owing to fusion between its complementary
bones and obliteration of the joint having Lesions generally Ringworm appears in the
occurred. In this state the horse may become form of patches of dry, raised, crusty skin, from
fairly sound, because the pain occasioned by the surface of which the hairs have fallen and
movement at the joint has disappeared, but the upon the surface of which there are scales or
gait will always be stiff. scabs. The patches are often more or less circular,
but in bad cases large irregular areas may be
Treatment Prolonged rest in a loose-box or, produced, which result from the coalescence
preferably, at grass is indicated. More harm of adjacent areas. Favus is a type of ringworm
Ringworm 607
Ringworm.
crust with little depressions (honeycomb) scat- Ringworm due to M. canis Bodin is of public-
tered through it. The skin in such cases is often health importance. It is often overlooked by
very much thickened. owners, but children are readily affected.
Cats, especially Persians and other longhairs,
Hedgehogs Caused by T. erinacei, this infec- may be ‘carriers’ of ringworm fungus. In a survey
tion may cause lesions on the face of dogs where involving 200 selected cats seen at a veterinary
the skin has been damaged by the hedgehog’s clinic, none of them showed any sign of ring-
spines. worm. Fur samples taken with a brush showed
that 39 per cent of the 200 were carrying spores
of ringworm fungi. (In 72 samples the spores
Cats Ringworm is of 3 kinds: due to were those of M. canis.) A survey in England of
Trichophyton, Microsporum and Achorion, the fur samples taken at 4 cat shows revealed that,
latter producing favus. When due to the first overall, 35 per cent of longhairs were carrying
two of these, the symptoms and lesions are M. canis spores.
similar to those seen in other animals. (See Decontamination of households is impor-
ONYCHOMYCOSIS.)
tant for human health after ringworm has been
Cats become infected from mice with mouse diagnosed. Hypochlorite, benzalkonium chlo-
favus (A. quickeanum or A. arlongi), although it ride, and glutaraldehyde-based compounds are
may also be due to A. schoenleinii – the favus of recommended.
man. The lesions are chiefly confined to the
fore-paws and the head and the neck, though Favus in the fowl, due to T. gallinae, affects
they may spread to other parts of the body. the comb, wattles, and other parts of the fowl’s
Itchiness is usually absent. The areas affected head.
vary in size from that of a pin’s head up to a If the condition spreads down to feathered
5p piece or so, and are not always regular in parts, the feathers become dry, brittle, and break
outline. The skin is thickened and the edges are off at the surface of the skin, leaving large bare
raised. When newly formed, the covering crust areas. There is always a most disagreeable odour
is yellow and soft to the touch, but when old from fowl favus.
it is grey and powdery. The characteristic cup-
shaped depressions are seen in most cases, but Treatment Oral administration of griseoful-
when affecting the claws they may be absent. vin is by far the simplest method. Cattle and
Ringworm in the cat: whitish, scaly lesion can be seen to the right of the ear, above the white fur.
Rodent Ulcer 609
Rodents Rostral
Rats and mice are important from a veterinary Towards the nose or front end of the body.
point of view on account of the diseases which
they may transmit to domestic animals. For Rostral teeth are the incisors and canines.
examples, see AUJESZKY’S DISEASE; SALMONEL-
LOSIS; LEPTOSPIROSIS; RINGWORM; FOOT-AND- Rotavirus
MOUTH DISEASE. In countries where the disease So-called because of its resemblance to a wheel.
is present, rodents may transmit RABIES. Responsible for causing diarrhoea in the young
of many species – children, foals, calves and
Zoonoses Members of the family Muridae piglets. It has been shown that, in piglets, only
(Old World rats and mice) can infect man with the pig and calf rotaviruses cause diarrhoea,
plague, tularaemia, listeriosis, pseudotuberculo- although the human and foal rotaviruses can
sis, erysipelas, leptospirosis, brucellosis, melioi- replicate in the pig.
dosis, murine typhus, Q fever, scrub typhus and Research at the Moredun Institute led to a
other rickettsioses, histoplasmosis, lymphocytic method of diagnosis based on the direct detec-
choriomeningitis, Lassa fever, rabies and other tion of the viral nucleic acid, which comprises
viral infections, Asian schistosomiasis, Chagas 11 molecules of double-stranded DNA. This
disease, rat-bite fever, and HANTAvirus. method is ‘rapid and as sensitive as ELISA’.
The worm larvae are passed in the horse’s unthriftiness may result from heavy infections,
faeces; swallowed by maggots, and continue which may also lead to partial blockage of the
through the pupal and adult stages of the stable- intestine.
fly or house-fly; finally the larvae become locat- The larvae, which migrate to the lungs after
ed in the fly’s proboscis. When the fly settles near hatching in the stomach, are capable of causing a
a horse’s mouth, the larvae enter it, and reach the catarrhal bronchitis or broncho-pneumonia; and
R stomach. However, if the horse has a wound, possibly some damage to the liver also, during
some of the larvae will be attracted to that, and their migration through that organ.
give rise to the cutaneous or orbital form of Strongyloides westeri is another worm found
habronemiasis, ‘summer sores’ or ‘bursati’. in the duodenum, and a cause of diarrhoea in
Habronemiasis is common in the tropics and foals. This and other worms of this genus may
subtropics, but has also been seen in the UK. also cause broncho-pneumonia.
Hard nodules or granulomas may form on the
skin or at the inner canthus of the eye. 3. Caecum and colon Strongylus. Three
D. megastoma forms nodules, in which it lives, species are important.
in the stomach. Habronema worms may pene-
trate the gastric mucosa and become embedded
causing gastritis, thirst, colic and pica.
Trichostrongylus axei, seldom more than 8 mm
long, also causes gastritis. This worm also
inhabits the duodenum.
causing a winter outbreak of gastroenteritis. Cooperia species are important. They are usu-
Calves should therefore be dosed in September ally present in association with other species of
and moved to ‘clean’ pasture. worms, e.g. Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus. They
Also known as the small brown stomach seldom cause anaemia, but are responsible
worm, Ostertagia cause severe irritation of the for weight loss and scouring. Trichostrongylus
mucous membrane by the formation of nodules. worms are very small (only 2 to 7 mm long)
Infested animals may lose weight, scour, and and inhabit the abomasum and duodenum.
become anaemic. Bunestomum (hookworms) live in the small
intestine. The larvae may either enter their
2. Small intestine Ascaris vitulorum. This host via the mouth or penetrate the skin. They
large round worm of cattle is generally of little suck blood and accordingly cause anaemia
importance, but it may be a frequent and fatal and sometimes oedema under the throat. (See
parasite of calves in certain localities. HOOKWORMS.)
Nematodirus. This is a common tri- Oesophagostomum. This is a genus of
chostrongyle genus found in large numbers in strongyle worms related to the horse forms, and
the small intestine of sheep. It is a very slender found in ruminants and pigs. They are about
form under 2.5 cm long. In recent years nema- 2.5 cm long. They are the cause of nodular
todirus infestation has caused severe losses. disease of the intestine (‘pimply gut’). If present
The infestation is a ‘lamb-to-lamb’ one, and in small numbers, the only result is to render
can be avoided – where practicable – by confin- the intestine unfit for sausage skins. If in large
ing lambs to pasture which carried no lambs in numbers, the symptoms are anaemia, emacia-
the previous 2 seasons. Nematodirus species tion, diarrhoea, and oedema. The disease in this
found in Britain are N. filicollis, N. helvetianus, case often has a fatal termination.
N. spathiges, and N. battus. N. helvetianus and Trichuris. This genus of whip-worm occurs in
N. battus are parasites of calves. (See PASTURE, the caecum of various animals, but is usually of
CONTAMINATION OF.) little importance. The worms have very slender
Life-cycle of the large roundworm of the horse, Parascaris equorum. (Reproduced with permission from
H. T. B. Hall, Diseases and Parasites of Livestock in the Tropics, Longman.)
Roundworms (Nematoda) 615
trachea and is swallowed. The larva which leaves long and the female a little larger. It is found as
the lung has grown to about 2.5 mm in length. In a rule in the kidney fat of pigs, but also occurs
the intestine it continues its development, taking in the liver and other locations in these animals
about 21⁄2 months to do so. and in ruminants. It is found in America and
In passing through the lungs a certain Australia, and is responsible for considerable
amount of bleeding is caused, and if the larvae damage. Its life-cycle is similar to that of the
are numerous, pneumonia results. During this hookworms. Thiabendazole, fenbendazole and
period the animal shows the symptoms known ivermerctin have proved effective in controlling
as ‘thumps’. If it survives the lung symptoms, it this parasite.
often fails to grow properly and remains small
and stunted. Dogs and cats
Macrocantorhynchus hirudinaceus is found in
the small intestine of pigs. It is a whitish worm, 1. Oesophagus Spirocerca lupi is found in
the male being 5 to 10 cm long, while the nodules in the oesophagus and, less frequently,
female is 20 to 35 cm long. The neck is the stomach of the dog, in all hot countries and
thin and the posterior region stout. The in Europe.
intermediate stages are found in beetles. It is a reddish worm. The male is 3 to 5 cm
The parasite may cause a catarrhal enteritis long. The intermediate hosts are various beetles
or even actual perforation with peritonitis. and cockroaches.
Trichuris suis, the pig whip-worm, causes The disease is often undiagnosed during
mainly subclinical disease in temperate life, but in countries where it is common the
climates, but in the tropics it may cause dysen- presence of the worm may be suspected from a
tery, anaemia, and even death. In the Americas frequent cough followed by repeated vomiting.
up to 85 per cent of pigs may be infested; in Death from exhaustion may result.
some areas of the UK, from 75 per cent. Damage to the carotid artery by S. lupi
Trichuris occurs in the caecum. worms (3 in each of 2 nodules attached to
Treatment in the pig includes oxibendazole, the oesophagus) led to the death in the UK of
fenbendzole and thiophanate. an Alsatian from internal haemorrhage. This
parasite appears also to be closely associated
3. Lungs In pigs 2 species are common, both with sarcoma of the oseophagus.
belonging to the genus Metastrongylus. The
male is about 2 cm and the female about 4 cm 2. Stomach A microscopic gastric nematode
long. Both species are common in Europe of cats, Ollulanus tricuspis, has been found
and America, and may occur in the same pig. in the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. The
They cause a verminous bronchitis and worm causes unthriftiness and vomiting in
sometimes pneumonia. Young animals are more kittens.
susceptible and may die from it. Both species
are carried by earthworms. 3. Small intestine
R 4. Muscles Trichinella spiralis. This is a small Ascarids include several species that occur in
worm found in the intestine. The female dogs and cats. In cats the species seem to be
produces living larvae (0.1 to 0.16 mm long) Ascaris tubaeforme and A. braziliense.
which migrate through the mucosa, reach the
bloodstream, and are carried to various muscles. Hookworms in dogs Two species of hook-
Here they pass into a cystic stage (the cyst being worm are found in dogs: Ancylostoma caninum
formed by the host), in which they remain until and Uncinaria stenocephala. The latter is found
they are swallowed by some flesh-eating host in Britain. These are smallish worms, about
or until they calcify and degenerate. In the 2.5 cm long, found in the small intestine.
intestine of the new host they reach sexual Eggs are passed to the exterior in the faeces
maturity and produce a new lot of larvae, which and hatch in the soil or water. After several
in turn migrate to the muscles. moults, the resulting larva becomes infective,
The normal hosts are carnivores (dogs and and is able to gain access to the host either
cats). Rodents may be infected, and rats can be in the food or by penetrating the unbroken
a source of infection to pigs. Man may be skin. It enters the bloodstream and is carried
infected from the pig. (See under TRICHINOSIS.) to the lungs. It then passes up the trachea
and is swallowed. It completes its develop-
5. Kidney Stephanurus dentatus is a thickish ment in the small intestine, where it becomes
worm of fair size, the male being nearly 3 cm mature.
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS) 617
4. Caecum The whip-worm Trichuris vulpis 8. Trachea Oslerus (Filaroides) osleri occurs in
occurs in the UK, and gives rise to the UK and gives rise to a sporadic but persis-
diarrhoea/dysentery, loss of condition and a tent cough, especially on exercise or if the dog
harsh, staring coat. is excited. Retching may be caused. Severe
infestation can give rise to emaciation despite a
5. Heart Dirofilaria. There are 2 species occur- fair appetite, laboured breathing, sleeping
ring in dogs and cats. D. immitis occurs in the standing, and death in young dogs. For control,
heart of the dog and occasionally the cat. thiabendazole has given promising results.
The female may reach a length of 30 cm, but Another tracheal worm, Capillaria aerophilia,
the male is little more than half this size. It is seldom gives rise to obvious symptoms.
found in Asia and, of recent years, in Britain.
The embryos are hatched in the body of the 9. Lungs A minute worm lives in the lungs of
female, and the young larvae, passed into cats in Britain and elsewhere in Europe and
the bloodstream, are sucked up by a mosquito America. It may cause a fatal form of parasitic
in which they develop. After a certain period pneumonia. The parasite (Aelurostrongylus
they escape from the fly, when it attacks abstrusus) is transmitted to cats by mice. In
another dog, and entering the blood are Africa, Bronchostrongylus subcrenatus is found.
carried to the heart, where they complete their Lung lesions found at the autopsy of 5 out of
development. a batch of 20 beagles were due to Filaroides
The worms interfere to a greater or lesser species, ‘probably F. milksi rather than F. hirthi’.
extent with the circulation. No symptoms may The lungs had the appearance of being
be shown; or the dog may suddenly die. Other peppered with black spots. Signs of larval
symptoms include anaemia, respiratory migration were seen microscopically in
troubles, ascites, etc. Various complications the liver, mesenteric lymph nodes, and
may be due to emboli, such as cough, gastrointestinal tract.
dyspnoea, etc. Diagnosis is by demonstration of
the microfilaria in the blood. Poultry Roundworms more commonly occur
Another heartworm of the dog is in free-range systems where it is also difficult to
Angiostrongylus vasorum, which has, as interme- ensure that all birds can be treated. There may
diate hosts, slugs and snails. This worm, which be no obvious clinical signs but breeding flocks
has caused an outbreak of infestation in kennels (chickens and turkeys) often show reduced
in Ireland, lives in the pulmonary artery and the hatchability.
right ventricle of the heart. Symptoms include
malaise, stiffness on running, and subcutaneous Public health aspects (see under TOXOCARA)
swellings (due to suppression of normal blood
clotting by the parasites). Some lung damage Rous Sarcoma of Chickens
may be caused; likewise anaemia. This is produced by a virus. (See under CANCER.)
(See also under HEARTWORMS.)
Royal Army Veterinary Corps
6. Kidney Dioctophyme renale. The kidney (RAVC) R
worm of dogs and wild carnivores is very large, It has a long and honourable history. An Army
reaching 1 m in length, and is a blood-red colour. Veterinary Service was established in 1796; this
It is found in Europe and the USA. It occurs in became the Army Veterinary Corps in 1906,
the pelvis of the kidney, and occasionally destroys the title of ‘Royal’ being bestowed in 1918.
the kidney tissue, to leave only the wall as a cyst A History of the RAVC 1796–1919 was
filled with a purulent fluid. The other kidney compiled by Major-General Sir Frederick
usually shows a compensatory hypertrophy. It is Smith KCMG, CB, a former Director-General,
occasionally found in the bladder. Infestation Army Veterinary Services, and published
follows the eating of raw fish. by Baillière, Tindall & Cox. A 2nd volume, by
The worm’s eggs are barrel-shaped and may Brigadier J. Clabby, was published in 1963
be seen in the urine, under the microscope. by J. A. Allen & Co.
thus perform the useful task of converting plant lips of the oesophageal groove and the muscles
protein into animal protein. This becomes in the vicinity close the terminal part of the
available to the cow when the protozoa are, in oesophagus, and there commences an antiperi-
their turn, destroyed further down the digestive staltic movement which conveys the ‘cud’
tract and themselves digested. upwards past the closed glottis, underneath the
A sample taken from the rumen, at the soft palate, and so into the mouth. Excess fluid
Hannah Research Institute, contained 100 is immediately squeezed from the mass and
million protozoa and 5 million bacteria (giving swallowed, and chewing movements commence
some idea of the proportion of the two). at once. Each bolus is chewed 30 to 60 times
Examples of protozoa included Entodiniomorph according to its consistency, size, and to the
species, which feed on plant material, bacteria, nature of its constituents; coarse straw or hay
and each other; and Holotrich species, which fodder requiring the longest time. The chewing
ferment soluble sugars from plants and feed occupies from 30 to 90 seconds, and then the
on bacteria. (See also under, DIET AND bolus is rolled up by the dorsum of the tongue
DIETETICS – Fibre; LACTIC ACID.) and again swallowed. In from 3 to 6 seconds
another bolus has reached the mouth, and so
Ruminal Tympany the process is continued.
(see BLOAT)
‘Run-back’
Rumination (‘Cudding’) This must be avoided by means of back fences.
Rumination (‘cudding’) is the process whereby (See under STRIP GRAZING.)
food taken into the stomachs of ruminants
is returned to the mouth, subjected to a Runch
second, more thorough chewing, and is again (see CHARLOCK POISONING)
swallowed.
The act occurs at intervals of from 6 to ‘Runners’
8 hours, and occupies a longer or shorter time This is an old, popular term for hounds unable
according to the nature of the food and to gallop properly. ‘Runners’ are usually recog-
the amount taken at the last meal. It usually nised as such when they return to hunt kennels
commences about half an hour after feeding at about 7 months old after being walked;
ceases, and probably continues until all the and they are then often culled from the pack.
coarser constituents have been re-chewed, or at Technically, the condition is known as osteo-
least until the animal is disturbed. This fact is of chondrosis of the spine. Symptoms include
considerable importance practically; cattle and poor muscular development in the spinal
sheep should be allowed at least 2 hours’ rest region, poor bodily condition, an unnatural
after feeding before they are subjected to any gait, and often inability to jump a fence
severe exertion. Disregard of this is a fruitful successfully negotiated by the rest of the pack.
contributory cause of stomach disorders in both Some curvature and rigidity of the spine may
cattle and sheep. (See also under RUMEN.) also be observed. It seems that this is, in part at
The act of regurgitation appears to be in least, an inherited defect of foxhounds. R
reality a complex one, but it may be briefly The term is also applied to young
summarised as follows: budgerigars affected by French moult.
(1) The tension of the oesophagus relaxes,
partly by dilatation, and partly through an Runt Pigs
inspiratory movement of the diaphragm (the Runt pigs can be reared in special nursing units
glottis being temporarily closed), which reduces designed for runts and excess piglets in a litter.
pressure in the thorax. Runt pigs and underweight babies have similar
(2) The rumen and the reticulum powerfully biochemical and physiological abnormalities.
contract and squeeze upon their contents.
(3) The abdominal muscles contract and Runting and Stunting
raise the intra-abdominal pressure. Syndrome
The direct result is that ingested foodstuffs A condition of economic importance in poultry
are forced from the area of high pressure (i.e. production. Clinical signs include pallor of
the rumen and reticulum) through the open the skin, decreased skeletal density, lameness,
oesophagus into an area of lower pressure (i.e. late development of plumage, distortion and
into the thoracic portion of the oesophagus). bending of quills or primary feathers and
When a small quantity, sufficient to form a orange-coloured mucus in the droppings, along
bolus or ‘cud’, has entered the oesophagus, the with particles of undigested food. The problem
620 Rupture
occurs sporadically and tends to last for abou a and transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus in
year on the farm before any improvement is Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic and
seen. Retroviruses, enteroviruses and other viral Slovakia.
agents, as well as anaerobic bacteria, have all
been suspected as the cause. Disappearance of Rye-Grass
the syndrome over much of the USA coincided Rye-grass poisoning has caused the death of cat-
with the use of reovirus vaccines. tle and horses restricted to grazing rye-grass pas-
ture (Lolium perenne). In New Zealand and
Rupture Australia, a fungus present on the rye-grass may
Rupture is a popular name for HERNIA. The cause facial eczema. A staggering gait – and
term is also applied to the tearing across of a convulsions – may occur in cattle and sheep on
muscle, tendon, ligament, artery, nerve, etc. rye-grass pasture giving rise to the colloquial
Rupture of the aorta is a cause of death in male name ‘rye-grass staggers’. In a UK outbreak in
turkeys at 5 to 22 weeks old. sheep, they had ‘a rocking-horse gait, and when
chased fell down and trembled violently’.
Russian Gad-Fly (Veterinary Investigation Service report.)
(Rhinoestrus purpureus.) This attacks horses in Fungal toxins are the cause of ‘rye-grass
Europe and North Africa. staggers’ in both the UK and New Zealand.
The rye grass is infected with a seed-borne
Russian Spring-Summer Virus enfophytic fungus, Acremonium lolii,
Russian spring-summer virus causes an containing the alkaloid loitrem B. (See also
encephalitis of man and goat, caused by a virus CEREBROCORTICAL NECROSIS.)
R
S
Sagittal
A structure or section running transversely
across the trunk or a limb.
Sainfoin
(Onobrychis sativa) A leguminous forage crop
which fixes its own nitrogen; it contains
Sabulous tannins, so its rumen protein degradability is
Gritty, sandy. low (this means that the protein is used more
efficiently); and it does not cause bloat.
Sacks Voluntary intake by animals is high – intakes
Sacks may be a means of passing infection from of sainfoin can be 25 per cent higher than that
one farm to another, for when empty they are of ryegrass. Furthermore, it is drought-resistant.
put to many uses. Poisoning has occurred Unfortunately, sainfoin does not grow as well
through contamination of feeding-stuffs by as bred strains of grasses, clovers and lucerne;
sacks previously used for sheep-dip. For these 30 per cent less yield than lucerne is quoted.
reasons, non-returnable paper sacks have
advantages over jute sacks. St John’s Wort
This plant, Hypericum perforatum, which may
Sacrum be present in hay, does not lose its poisonous
The part of the spinal column lying between character when dried. It causes LIGHT SENSITI-
the lumbar region and the tail. It consists SATION in cattle, sheep, and pigs, especially in
of 5 vertebrae in the horse and ox, 4 in the Australia.
sheep and pig, and 3 in the dog and cat, fused
together in each case. It is roughly triangular St Louis Encephalitis
in shape in all animals, and forms the roof Transmitted by mosquitoes, and caused by a
of the pelvic cavity, lying midway between the flavivirus, this disease occurs in North and
2 ‘points of the hip’ or ‘haunch bones’. South America, affecting wild birds, bats, hors-
es and man (in which it may cause encephalitis
Saddle-Sores and death in the elderly, although only fever in
Saddle-sores are formed through uneven pres- other people).
sure upon the back by some part of the saddle.
They may be found in the middle line, imme- Salicylic Acid and Salicylates
diately over the upper ends of the spinous Originally derived from the willow (genus
processes; they may occur on either side of Salix), salicylic acid and its salts have long been
the middle line where the fore-arch of the used in pain relief. ASPIRIN, which is acetylsali-
saddle-tree presses; or they may be found just cylic acid, largely replaced the other salicylates
behind the elbow, when they are caused by as pain relievers (see ANALGESICS), and has been
badly fastened girths, and are often called given in fevers. It must be used with extreme
‘girthgalls’. caution in cats, which metabolise aspirin very
The injuries consist of raw areas from which slowly. A standard 250 mg tablet given daily to
the hair has been rubbed or chafed off and, a cat may prove fatal in 12 days.
later, ulcers. Alternatively, patches of the skin,
varying in size from 2.5 cm in diameter to Salicylate poisoning has occurred in
almost 7 cm, may become hard and leathery, young animals following overdosage.
pus being formed underneath. These are known Symptoms include depression, loss of appetite
as ‘sitfasts’. and vomiting. Treatment involves the use of
an emetic or gastric lavage and respiratory
Treatment Attention must first of all be paid stimulants.
to the saddles. They should fit evenly all over
the back, and the stuffing or padding should be Saline
adequate to protect the skin from pressure by (see under NORMAL SALINE)
the rigid framework of the saddle-tree. The hol-
low of the arch of the saddle should never press Salinomycin
upon the middle line of the back, and the girth An IONOPHORE used as a coccidiostat in chick-
should never be fastened with the skin folded ens, and also (outside the UK) as a growth-
under it. Rest from work will be necessary. (See promoting feed additive for pigs. Its use had to
ULCER; WOUNDS.) be phased out within the EU by January 2006.
622 Salivary Glands
Signs The 2 infections are usually very similar usually severe, and the animal may pass blood
and can be distinguished only by laboratory and even shreds of mucous membrane from the
tests. In the acute form of the disease, the intestine. Death may occur within a week.
cow becomes dull, feverish, goes off her food, If treatment is delayed, mortality may rise to
and the milk yield suddenly drops. Scouring is 70 per cent or so; whereas early treatment can
624 Salmonellosis
bring the death rate down to 10 per cent. In piped drinking water for cattle, and not buying
animals which recover, scouring may persist for in through markets or dealers but rather from
a fortnight, and it may be several weeks before farms with a known health record. The earlier
the cow is fit again. housing of cattle in the autumn may help,
The subacute form in adult cattle runs a and it is important not to neglect liver-fluke
milder course and, indeed, the infection may infestation which can sometimes act as a ‘trig-
exist without any symptoms being shown. A ger’ to outbreaks of salmonellosis in which the
latent infection may become an overt one infection was hitherto latent.
following stress of any kind or when another
disease becomes superimposed – sometimes Treatment Drugs used include antibiotics,
masking the symptoms of salmonellosis itself. A potentiated sulfonamides and sulfadimidine.
liver-fluke infestation may be a precipitating A range of vaccines and antisera-vaccine com-
factor. bined preparations is available for prophylaxis
Salmonellosis may run through 8 calves out and therapy. They usually contain E. coli,
of a batch of 10, and kill 4 of them. Some calves Pasteurella and S. typhimurium and S. dublin
collapse and die without ever scouring; others strains.
become very emaciated as a result of persistent
scouring. Pneumonia, arthritis, and jaundice In sheep S. typhimurium has caused diarrhoea
may be among the complications; occasionally and abortion. S. agona has caused abortion,
the brain is involved, giving rise to nervous death of ewes from septicaemia, death of lambs
symptoms. within a week of birth, and sometimes diar-
S. typhimurium infection seldom persists rhoea. S. dublin is likewise a cause of abortion
from one season to another on any particular and diarrhoea.
farm because there are fewer ‘carrier’ animals One outbreak in an upland sheep flock was
than there are with S. dublin; it is often brought characterised by rapid spread and heavy mortali-
on to the farm by calves bought in from mar- ty in ewes and young lambs. Clinical signs
kets and suffering from the effects of stress, included diarrhoea and abortion. Abomasitis
rough travelling conditions, lack of food or a (inflammation of the abomasum) was the most
change of diet. The infection occurs in many striking and consistent post-mortem lesion.
species of animal including, as the name Vaccination was the only control method that
suggests, mice. was apparently successful. Infection also
S. dublin infection arises mostly from other occurred in the cattle, farm personnel, and a dog.
cattle. It can be spread from farm to farm via (See also ABORTION – Ewes.)
slurry and streams. Infection may enter even a
closed herd if it is grazing flooded pasture land. In pigs The term ‘salmonellosis’ is now usual-
Lack of shelter, overcrowding, dirty sur- ly reserved for a severe septicaemia. S. cholerae
roundings, and faulty feeding have all been suis causes this; symptoms include fever, hud-
implicated in outbreaks. In adult cattle, the dling together, purple discoloration of ears,
fortnight after calving is regarded as a danger unsteady gait, and sometimes scouring. The
period, especially where the calving has been a
difficult one.
S S. dublin can survive in slurry for at least
12 weeks.
It is also known that salmonella organisms
can survive for 6 months or so in dung and lit-
ter, and S. dublin can survive for up to 307
days, if not longer, on dung splashes on a wall,
so that thorough cleaning and disinfection of
buildings are necessary, and reliance must not
be placed on a simple ‘resting period’ between
batches of calves.
Salmonella organisms may be present in
domestic sewage, and river pollution from this
source has led to outbreaks of salmonellosis in
cattle.
Preventive measures include trying to keep
Seasonal incidence of salmonellosis. (With
rats and mice off cattle feed, avoiding pig and acknowledgements to the British Veterinary
poultry effluent for organic irrigation, having Journal.)
Salmonellosis 625
same organism may give rise to a chronic infec- development. Death can be expected between
tion with scouring. The organism can infect the ages of 10 days and 5 weeks.
man. It was found that survivors did not react to a
Infection with S. dublin sometimes occurs in blood test carried out with standard S. pullorum
pigs, and may give rise to dysentery. antigen, but reacted strongly to antigen pre-
More common is infection with S. typhimuri- pared from the variant strain. This probably
um. This causes fever, scouring, vomiting, and accounts for carrier birds having remained
unsteady gait – usually in younger pigs than the undetected in the past.
first-named organism. Sulfadimidine has proved During a 5-year period, birds in 144 flocks in
useful in treatment. Sweden were given cultures of caecal contents
as a means of controlling salmonella infection
In horses S. typhimurium has caused serious by the competitive exclusion technique. In all,
outbreaks of illness in young horses. Horses 2.86 million birds were treated and it was
may also be symptomless carriers of this concluded that this treatment was associated
infection. In 1976 an outbreak of S. newport with a reduction in salmonella infections. No
infection caused the death of many horses in adverse effects were reported.
the UK. (See also FOALS, DISEASES OF.) Outside Salmonellae will remain alive for periods of
the UK, S. abortus equi is a cause of abortion in up to 6 months or more in dung and litter.
mares. Therefore such material should be stacked so
Stress, associated with the hospitalisation of that heating occurs; no animals should have
horses, is said to have led to acute enteritis, access to the heap.
often from S. senftenberg. As mice may play a significant role in main-
taining S. enteriditis infection in flocks, rodent
In dogs Illness may be mild, with fever and control and disinfection of housing may be
malaise; or there may be severe gastroenteritis effective in dealing with the problem.
and death. Many salmonella serotypes infect A vaccine prepared from S. enteriditis phage
dogs. It is possible for a dog to become a symp- type 4 is available (Salenvac; Intervet).
tomless carrier of S. typhimurium and to infect
man. In ducks Salmonella species sometimes cause
Feeding raw offal to dogs had been suspected a high mortality in ducklings. Fatal cases of
as an important source of salmonellosis in human food poisoning have occurred as a result
Berlin. Accordingly, 408 samples of edible offal of infected ducks’ eggs.
(liver, lungs, heart, bovine rumen, and porcine
oesophagus) were examined bacteriologically. It In geese S. typhimuriam may be found in
was found that 231 samples (57 per cent) were goslings, affecting only the eye; the vitreous
infected with salmonella. S. typhimurium was body is totally destroyed.
the most prevalent of 24 serotypes.
Public health As already mentioned, salmo-
In cats Infection with S. enteritidis and nellosis is an important cause of food-poisoning
S. typhimurium may be set up following the in man, often leading to serious illness.
catching of infected rats and mice. For this Numerous instances linking food-processing
reason cats should not be allowed to lie on with outbreaks have been investigated. S. seften- S
uncovered food-stuffs. Cats may also become berg has been linked with isolates from human
infected through eating contaminated meat. beings and a poultry processing plant. S.
kiambu and S. enteritidis were isolated from
In poultry As a specific disease, salmonellosis frozen turkeys from the same batch which
is rare except in broilers, although it is involved caused 64 cases of illness in people. S. panama
in numerous other disease conditions. Over and S. brandenburg were similarly isolated from
50 members of the salmonella group have been abattoirs/processing plants and human beings.
isolated from poultry in the UK, and several S. agona is a public-health problem in the
have caused outbreaks of disease in broiler USA, the UK, the Netherlands, and Israel. In
plants. (See PULLORUM DISEASE; FOWL TYPHOID.) each country the original source of the infection
Arthritis, due to a variant strain of S. pullo- was Peruvian fish meal used in animal feeds. It
rum, gives rise to a mortality of 5 per cent or so, has been demonstrated that animal feeds can
as a rule, but in one outbreak 200 deaths play an important role in the transmission of
occurred in a 1000-bird unit. Apart from lame- salmonellosis to man.
ness and swelling of the foot and hock joints, Unpasteurised milk is another source of
symptoms include poor feathering and under- human salmonellosis. A 65-year-old woman was
626 Saloliths
infected in this way, and was ill with diarrhoea commonly provided. In some salt licks traces
and meningitis. After her death a brain abscess of iodine are incorporated, together with other
was found. Both the latter and meningitis trace elements such as copper, manganese,
are ‘rare complications of salmonellosis in cobalt, and magnesium. (See ‘LICKING
man’. Seventeen other people were ill with SYNDROME’.)
salmonellosis from drinking the unpasteurised
milk. Salt Poisoning
Viable salmonellae were found in the meat Salt poisoning has been reported in both
fraction of domestic refuse from 120 houses. pigs and poultry. It is essential that pigs are not
This source could provide a reservoir of infec- kept short of water, or given food that is too
tion accessible to wild animals. Tipping should salted.
be carefully controlled, and refuse covered An outbreak, reported from Scotland,
immediately. involved piglets aged 6 weeks brought indoors
The protective gloves, worn by a veterinary from field arks at weaning. A proprietary meal
surgeon while calving a cow, unfortunately was fed dry. The water bowls in the house were
burst. Within 48 hours numerous non-pruritic not very accessible, and some of the piglets were
papules had appeared over both arms, especial- not strong enough to depress the levers. Two
ly the upper arm, where the gown cuffs had days after being housed, 23 out of the 32 piglets
chafed the skin. The papules developed into were showing symptoms of salt poisoning, and
pustules which burst and resolved in approxi- some died.
mately 10 days without treatment. No other
symptoms were observed. Signs Often a number of pigs are found dead
A pustule was swabbed and a pure growth of without signs having been observed, the
Salmonella species was recovered. remainder being weak and very thirsty.
(See also under SAUSAGE.) Vomiting and diarrhoea may occur. (For other
signs, see under MENINGOENCEPHALITIS.)
Saloliths In poultry, adult birds show excessive thirst
These are CALCULI, found mainly in STENSON’S and diarrhoea, with sometimes cyanosis of the
DUCT of horses. wattles, somnolence, and sudden death. In
young birds gasping and ascites may occur.
Salpingitis
Salpingitis is inflammation in the Fallopian tubes Samoyed
or oviducts, sometimes the cause of sterility in A medium-sized breed of dog characterised by
cattle. (See INFERTILITY.) thick straight cream or white hair. Like the
chow-chow, they tend to be ‘one-person’ dogs.
Salt Haemophilia has been recorded; pulmonic
A chemical substance in which a metal is sub- stenosis may be inherited.
stituted for the hydrogen of an acid.
Sand
Sodium chloride (common salt) Horses on the seashore or along tidal mud flats
(NaCl) is an essential ingredient of body fluids. learn that the sand contains salt, and may lick
S Sodium depletion results, ultimately, in circula- up large quantities of it in their endeavour to
tory collapse. get the salt. The signs set up are chiefly those of
Salt is an appetiser, and commonly incorpo- COLIC with impaction.
rated in animal feeds in carefully measured Cattle feeding on the seashore take in quan-
proportions. Ruminants will avidly consume tities of sand, which in some cases may be so
salt; any excess is harmlessly excreted in the great as to hinder the movements of the rumen
urine and faeces. (where the sand always collects), and, by upset-
ting digestion, may cause unthriftiness and
Salt licks It has been suggested that a 500-kg even emaciation.
(10-cwt) cow needs 30 g (1 oz) of salt a day
for maintenance and a further 3.5 g (1⁄8 oz) Sand Tampan (Ornithodorus
for 4.5 litres (1 gallon) of milk produced. Savignyl)
Therefore, a 3200-litre (700-gallon) cow (see TICKS – Family Argasidae)
requires about 14 kg (30 lb) of salt yearly.
On some pastures, or under some systems of Sandcrack
management, cattle may not obtain sufficient Sandcrack is a pathological condition affecting
salt. To obviate this danger, salt licks are horses’ feet, in which a deep fissure or crack forms
Sarcoptes 627
Sarcolemma The membrane covering each Sarcoptic mange occurs in cattle, horses,
voluntary (striated) muscle fibre. sheep, pigs, and dogs – also in man, when it is
628 Sarcosporidia, Sarcosporidiosis
Sarcosporidia, Sarcosporidiosis
(see SARCOCYSTIS)
Sars
A form of AVIAN INFLUENZA that is transmissi-
ble to man, often with fatal results. Outbreaks
occured in several Far Eastern countries in
2004; many poultry flocks were destroyed in an
attempt to prevent the disease from spreading.
Fears that migrating wild fowl would carry the
SARS virus to Western Europe led ??? consider
preventive measures.
Sausage
Discarded portions of sausage, or sausage-skin, Schistosoma, o, µ, and egg.
can be a source of infection when fed, unboiled,
to pigs, etc. Foot-and-mouth disease has been
transmitted in this way. African swine fever and Autopsy Findings Liver necrosis, petechial
swine fever could similarly be spread by this haemorrhages, and sometimes degeneration of
means. (See SWILL.) the kidney tubules.
The incidence of salmonella-contamination
of pork and beef and pork sausages taken from Scabies
a large factory during the course of production A common name for sarcoptic mange. (See under
was 65 and 55 per cent respectively. The salmo- MANGE – Sarcoptic mange.)
nella serotypes isolated (in descending order
of incidence) included Salmonella derby, ‘Scad’
S. dublin, S. newport, S. stanley, S. typhimurium, A colloquial name for a transitory lameness, in
S. heidelberg, S. infantis and S. agona. sheep, which may follow frost. (See ‘SCALD’.)
Sawflies Scalds
Four-winged insects which have a saw-like (see BURNS)
ovipositor. The larvae can cause poisoning if
swallowed. ‘Scaly Leg’
(see MANGE – Mange in fowls)
Sawfly poisoning This affects both sheep
and goats. Scanner, Body
A device utilising computer tomography to
Cause The larvae of the birch sawfly (Arge produce an image of a section of the whole
pullata). body. (See X-RAYS.)
Scrapie.
Scur 631
Signs In many cases, especially when the ani- platelets or white cells. (For a description of
mal is in a weakened state, sudden death, pre- plasma, see BLOOD.) (See also ANTISERUM.)
ceded by a very high temperature, may be the
only sign of the presence of septicaemia. Serum Gonadotrophin
(see HORMONES)
Treatment Antibiotics and/or sulfonamides,
and antisera (where appropriate) are given. Serum Sickness
In human medicine this term is applied to the
Septum fever, glandular enlargements, oedema, and pain
A thin wall dividing 2 cavities or masses of tissue. in the joints, which may occur 8 to 12 days after
the injection of a ‘foreign’ serum. Immediate
Sequestrum reaction, denoting sensitisation by a previous
A fragment of bone which, in the process of injection of the same kind of serum, is regarded
necrosis, has been cast off from the living bone as anaphylactic shock. (See HYPERSENSITIVITY.)
and has died, but still remains in the tissues.
Serum Therapy
Sequelae (see ANTISERUM)
Symptoms or effects which may follow disease
or injury. Thus pneumonia may follow a simple Service Period
influenza, and chorea may follow distemper. This is usually taken to mean the interval
between giving birth and subsequent service
Seroconversion leading to conception. In cattle, an 85-day ser-
The appearance in the blood serum of antibod- vice period would appear to be the optimum
ies following vaccination (or natural exposure number of days between calving and successful
to some infective agent). service. If the trend of heat periods after calving
is detected at about 6 weeks, and checked again
Serous Membranes around 9 weeks, the herdsman can, with a fair
Serous membranes are smooth, glistening,
degree of accuracy, be on the look-out for bulling
transparent membranes that line certain of the
at or about the 12th week (or 84 to 85 days). In
large cavities of the body and cover the organs
practice, most farmers will serve at 9 weeks to try
that are contained in them. The chief serous
to maintain a 365-day calving interval. Very
membranes are: (1) the peritoneum, lining the
early service may produce prolonged infertility.
cavity of the abdomen; (2) the pleurae, one of
which lines each side of the chest and surrounds
the corresponding lung; (3) the pericardium, in
Setae
Stiff hairs. (See CATERPILLARS; SPIDERS.)
which the heart lies; (4) the tunica vaginalis,
one on each side, enclosing a testicle; and (5)
the mesentery supporting the small intestine.
Sewage Sludge
Sewage sludge is often contaminated by heavy
Serpulina metals (cadmium, copper, lead) and should not
A group of spirochaetes which includes be used for manuring pasture unless these have
Serpulina hyodysenteriae, the cause of swine been removed. The heavy metals are present as
S dysentery. (See SWINE DYSENTERY; TREPONEMA.) harmless sulphide complexes when first applied
to the soil: however, passage through earth-
Sertoli-Cell Tumour worms breaks down the complexes, which can
This may be associated in the dog with femini- then be absorbed by animals. The process
sation, urethral bleeding, and urinary obstruc- may take several years. Horses on pasture were
tion. (See also SPERMATIC CORD, TORSION OF.) fatally poisoned by cadmium, lead and copper
5 years after sewage sludge was applied. More
Sertoli Cells rarely, the eggs of Taenia sagniata which pass
Cells in the testicular tubules to which sper- through the filters in some sewage may be
matids become attached. Their function is present on pasture and lead to cysticercosis in
believed to be the nourishment of spermatids. cattle. (See also SALMONELLOSIS; SLURRY; COPPER
(See diagram under SPERMATOZOA.) POISONING in sheep.)
farms. The ewes are kept in groups of 50 to 70, severe for March and April in Scotland. So cold
lambing at the same time. not only increases the demand for energy, but
Housing permits greater attention to feeding may prevent that demand from being met.
and care at lambing, and leads to less culling Starvation exaggerates the effect of cold by
as the sheep are not subjected to the stress of reducing heat-production capability, so increas-
exposure to severe weather and finding their ing the risk of death from hypothermia.
own food. However, the risk of disease and It may be possible to breed for greater ablity
mismothering is higher. to survive under harsh conditions. Experiments
Portable feeding troughs and racks in sheep suggest that there are significant differences
houses can be used as partitions and leave an between breeds in their tolerance of body cool-
unobstructed floor so that pen sizes can be ing; and within breeds, some individual sheep
altered according to requirements. The 2 main have a cold-resistance several times greater than
types of feeder are a hay rack, with sloping sides that of other individuals. Preliminary trials have
so that seeds do not drop into the sheep’s eyes, indicated that this character is moderately well
with a concentrate trough below (preferred for inherited.
upland sheep); and a box type with a barrier in Lambs require between 180 and 210 ml of
front which prevents the ewes from wasting the colostrum per kg bodyweight during the first
forage. Troughs should allow a length per ewe 18 hours after birth, to provide sufficient fuel
of 23 to 25 cm (9 to 10 in) for hill breeds and for heat production; and immunoglobulins for
30 to 35 cm (12 to 14 in) for lowland breeds. A protection against infections.
supply of fresh (i.e. running) water must be Ewes which are well fed during late pregnan-
provided; sheep will not drink water that is cy produce more colostrum than their lambs
even slightly fouled, or warm. A raised trough need; those with singletons have enough for a
fed from a slow running tap, with drainage to 2nd lamb. By contrast, most underfed ewes do
the outside, is suitable. About 30 cm (12 in) of not produce enough colostrum.
trough per sheep should suffice for 40 sheep. Colostrum can be readily obtained by hand
Adequate ventilation is essential. Yorkshire milking and stored for subsequent use. Yields are
boarding to walls is suitable. If slatted flooring markedly increased when milking is preceded by
is used, care must be taken that updrafts do not an oxytocin injection.
chill sheep and, especially, lambs. The slats
must be laid parallel to the door openings. Life-saving techniques on the farm. The
following recommendations have been made by
Lamb survival Lambs have the highest post- the Moredun Institute, Edinburgh. Two danger
natal mortality of all the main farm species. periods should be recognised: (1) from birth to
This is partly because they are very susceptible 5 hours afterwards; and (2) 10 hours to 3 days
to hypothermia caused by exposure, or lack of after birth.
food. Problems arise when the environment is During the 1st period, moderate hypother-
colder than the critical temperature of the lamb mia (a body temperature of 37° to 39°C; 98.5°
in the first few hours after birth. This is 32°C to 102°F) usually responds to drying the lamb,
(89.5°F) for heavy lambs and 37°C (98.5°F) feeding it colostrum by stomach tube, and
for light lambs. As most lambs are born at moving it to shelter along with the ewe. Serious
S ambient temperatures well below this, they hypothermia (below 37°C; 98.5°F) requires in
have to increase their metabolic rate to main- addition that the lamb be warmed in air at
tain body temperature. Wind chill factor can 37°C (98.5°F) to 40°C (104°F) until its body
reduce the effective temperature considerably. A temperature has reached 37°C (98.5°F). When
wind speed of 20 km/h (12 mph) can have a removed from the Moredun-type bale-warmer
cooling effect of up to 20°C (68°F) or more if (heated by a domestic fan-heater), the lamb is
there is rain. Even when a lamb survives such then given colostrum and, if strong enough
conditions, it will have suffered a major drain to suck vigorously, can be reunited with the
on its bodily reserves, mainly in the form of fat. ewe. If not strong enough, the lamb must be
In bad conditions these may be used up in housed for a day or two in its own cardboard
between 5 and 17 hours. box in an intensive care unit. There colostrum
While a lamb will normally begin to replen- is given 3 times daily, and warmth provided by
ish its store of energy within an hour of birth by an overhead infra-red lamp.
sucking, work in Australia has shown that the During the 2nd danger period, when serious
urge to do so is reduced if its body temperature hypothermia is then usually due to depressed
falls below 37°C. In some breeds of sheep, such heat production as a result of starvation, and
temperatures occur in weather not unusually often complicated by low glucose levels in the
Sheep Breeding and Management 637
blood, treatment consists of drying the lamb, the trates (rather than high protein or high
injection of glucose, and warming – in that order. roughage rations) to obviate the hill ewe burn-
Further details of bale warmers, lamb warm- ing up her own tissues in order to keep warm
ing boxes, the Moredun lamb thermometer and alive during very cold weather. (See under
(which indicates by flashing, coloured lights ABORTION, FEED BLOCKS.)
whether a lamb has hypothermia, and if so how For other aspects of sheep husbandry, and
badly), and techniques can be obtained from related health and disease problems, see ABOR-
the Moredun Research Institute,Pentlands sci- TION; BARLEY POISONING; BRACKEN POISONING;
entific Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian ‘BROKEN MOUTH’; CASTRATION; CLOTHING OF
EH26 QPZ . ANIMALS; COBALT; COLOSTRUM; CONTROLLED
BREEDING; COPPER; COPPER POISONING; DIET
Worm control Most sheep at pasture are AND DIETETICS; DIPS AND DIPPING; DOCKING,
infected with roundworms. These, if numerous, DRENCHING; EXPOSURE; FEED BLOCKS; FLEECE,
can cause outbreaks of scouring and obvious FLUSHING OF EWES; GENETICS; HOUSING OF
unthriftiness. Subclinical infestations of the ANIMALS; INFECTION; INFERTILITY; ISOLATION;
stomach or intestine can reduce the weight gain LIGHTNING STRING; LUMPY WOOL; NOTIFIABLE
of growing lambs by 20 to 50 per cent. (See DISEASES; OESTRUS; PARASITES; PARTURITION,
WORMS, FARM TREATMENT AGAINST.) DRUG- INDUCED; PASTURE, CONTAMINATION
OF; PASTURE MANAGEMENT; POISONING; SEA-
Winter feeding Research has indicated the WEED; SHEARING; SHEEP, DISEASES OF; SHEEP-
wisdom of hand feeding with starchy concen- DOGS; SOIL-CONTAMINATED HERBAGE; STELL;
Male
Periods Female Remarks
Uncastrated Castrated
Birth to Tup lamb Hogg lamb Ewe lamb A sheep until weaning
weaning Ram lamb Gimmer lamb is a lamb
Pur lamb
Heeder
Weaning Hogg (also used Wether hogg Gimmer hogg Hogget wool is wool of
to shearing for the female) the first shearing
Hogget (also used Wedder hogg Ewe hogg
for the female)
Haggerel or He teg Sheeder ewe
hoggerel
Tup teg Ewe teg
Ram hogg
Tup hogg
First to Shearing, or Shearing wether Shearing ewe ‘Ewe’, if in-lamb or with
second shearling, or Shear hogg Shearling gimmer lamb; if not a ‘barren
shearing shear hogg Wether hogg Theave gimmer’; if not put
S
Diamond ram Wedder hogg Double-toothed ewe to a ram is a ‘yield
Dinmont ram tup Two-toothed Double-toothed gimmer’ (Scotland)
One-shear tup wether gimmer
Gimmer
Second to Two-shear ram Four-toothed Two-shear ewe A ewe which has ceased
third Two-shear tup wether to give milk is a ‘yeld
shearing Two-shear ewe’; taken from the
breeding flock she is
a ‘draft ewe’ or a
‘draft gimmer’
Third to Three-shear ram Six-toothed wether Three-shear ewe
fourth Three-shear tup Three-shear wether Winter ewe
shearing (Scotland)
Afterwards Aged tup or ram Full-mouthed, Ewe After fourth shearing
full-marked or Ewe ‘aged’ or ‘three-winter’
aged wether
or wedder
638 Sheep, Breeds of
seashore or in sandy and windy localities are out in the commercial breeding stock of major
sometimes afflicted with collections of fine sand suppliers.
in the sinuses. In sheep, and sometimes in the Swollen sinuses may also be seen in certain
horse, sheep-nostril fly larvae of the Oestrus paramyxovirus infections, from which infectious
family may be found in the sinuses, and are sinusitis must be differentiated.
generally associated with pus formation. In
dogs especially, but also in other animals, Sire Identification
tumour formation is often accompanied by the (see DNA – ‘Fingerprinting’)
presence of pus in the sinuses, and the condi-
tion may be complicated by a FUNGAL infec- Sitfasts
tion. In the dog, a foreign body such as a grass (see SADDLE-SORES)
seed may give rise to the discharge from one
nostril which is characteristic. Either cancer, or Skim Milk
a fungal infection which may follow, can lead to This is a valuable food, retaining, as it does, the
distortion of the dog’s or cat’s face. (See also solids-not-fat after most of the fat has been
MITES linguatula serrate LEECHES.) removed. These solids include the valuable
milk-protein, the sugar lactose, valuable miner-
Signs The most prominent sign of the pres- als, and vitamins of the B group. It is poor in
ence of any amount of pus in the sinuses is the fat-soluble vitamins A and D, and also
the usually slight, but continual, dribbling of in vitamin E; and if given along with cod-liver
discharge from one or both nostrils. This oil to beef stores, may lead to cod-liver oil
discharge is usually more marked when the poisoning or MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY.
animal lowers its head. Skim milk is a useful food for pigs, but is not
suitable on its own. It can be fed ad lib to suck-
Treatment This consists of opening, under ling pigs; weaners may receive 3 litres (5 pints)
anaesthesia, the diseased sinus by trephining the per day; fatteners from 14 weeks to slaughter,
bone over the surface, and irrigation and evacu- about 3.5 litres (6 pints).
ation of the cavity. When a tooth has been the Skim milk is, if from infected cattle, a source
primary cause of the condition it is extracted, of tuberculosis in pigs, and pasteurisation may
and its cavity temporarily plugged with gauze be desirable in many countries.
until healthy tissue fills up the space between For sows and piglets, skim milk should be
the tooth socket and the sinus. Parasitic inhab- fresh or completely sour; 0.1 per cent formalin
itants are removed, either by the injection of is sometimes added to skim milk for fattening
fluids that will kill them, or by picking each out pigs.
separately with forceps. Chloroforming the
animal will often kill such parasites. Skin
Skin, the protective covering of the body, is
Sinuses of the Skull, continuous at the natural openings with the
The sinuses of the skull, also called the mucous membranes. It consists of 2 main lay-
paranasal sinuses, are directly or indirectly con- ers, which differ in structure and origin.
nected with the nose. There are 4 pairs: (1)
maxillary; (2) frontal; (3) spheno-palatine, or The epidermis This is a cellular layer of S
sphenoid; and (4) ethmoidal. non-vascular, stratified epithelium of varying
thickness, covering the outer surface of the
Sinusitis body, which presents the openings of the cuta-
Inflammation of the sinuses. neous glands and of the hair follicles. In ani-
mals it is divisible into 2 layers, the outer, hard,
Sinusitis, Infectious dry stratum corneum, and the deeper, softer,
A disease of turkeys, poultry and pheasants moist stratum germinativum. The cells of the
caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum. The obvi- latter are pigmented, and by their growth com-
ous sign is a swelling of the sinuses below the pensate for the loss by exfoliation or shedding
eyes, but the disease will also be present in the of the surface cells from the stratum corneum,
lower respiratory tract. While local treatment which forms the scurfy deposit upon an
(e.g. draining the sinuses) is helpful, generally ungroomed horse. This inner layer consists of
administration of antibiotics is necessary. The the part of the skin which is living, and is
disease is egg-transmitted and may spread from formed by several layers of cells set upon the
egg to egg in the hatcher. Infected birds always corium and nourished by it. The cells continu-
remain carriers. Eradication has been carried ally multiply, and are slowly pushed upwards to
644 Skin
The nerve supply to the skin. (In Muller, Christensen and Evans, Anatomy of the Dog, courtesy of W. B.
Saunders Co.)
replace the constant wear and tear which occurs elastic fibres are mixed with them, and these
on the cells at the surface. There are no blood serve to give the skin its pliability, and at
vessels in the epidermis, but there is a ramifica- the same time keep it in place and stretched
tion of the surface sensory nerves which supply reasonably tightly.
the skin with its delicate sense of perception. A
blister is a collection of fluid separating the stra- Hair Practically the whole of the body of each
tum corneum from the stratum germinativum. domesticated animal is covered by hair, except
in the pig. Portions of the skin which appear to
The dermis (corium) consists of a network be bare are found on close inspection to be cov-
of fibrous tissue and elastic fibres. It is very ered with very fine hair of delicate texture. The
vascular, contains the hair follicles, the sudorif- hairs are constantly being shed and replaced by
erous (or sweat) glands, and the sebaceous others, while at certain periods of the year in
glands, as well as a certain amount of involun- the horse, and to a lesser extent in the other
tary muscle. The most superficial part is known animals, they are cast off in great numbers, and
as the corpus papillare, on account of the constitute the ‘shedding’ or ‘casting of the coat’.
S presence of numbers of tiny papillae, which This normally occurs twice a year – once in the
are received into corresponding depressions in autumn, when it is more marked, and again in
the epidermis. These papillae contain loops of the spring with the first warm weather of the
blood vessels, which nourish the epidermal year.
cells, and numerous sensory nerves, which act Hairs are of several kinds: in the first place
as tactile organs, affording sensations of touch, there are the ordinary hairs which, on account
pain, temperature, etc. of the small amount of pigment that each car-
The sweat glands are situated partly in the ries, give the coat its characteristic colour; and
deeper parts of the corium, known as the tuni- there are different kinds of special hairs. Among
ca propria, and partly below it in the layer of these ordinary hairs scattered over almost the
subcutaneous fibro-fatty tissue. In this deepest whole body are: tactile hairs of the lips, nostrils,
layer, which forms the bulk of the skin, or lying and eyes; cilia, or eyelashes, growing from the
in the deeper part of the corium, there are cer- free rim of the eyelids; tragi, in the external ear;
tain tactile bodies, known as Pacinian corpus- and vibrissae, round the nostrils. In addition to
cles. The fibrous tissue of the skin consists of the ordinary and tactile hairs, certain regions
interlacing bundles of white fibrous tissue carry specially long and coarse hairs, such as the
which form a dense felt-work. Here and there mane (juba), the forelock or foretop (cirrus
Skin, Diseases of 645
capitis), the tail, where the hairs (cirrus caudae) the whole length of each barb a series of small-
are very large and long, and the ‘feather’ of the er ‘barbules’ comes off not unlike the branches
fetlocks and cannons (cirrus pedis), which gave of a shrub. The adult or ‘contour feathers’ are
the name of this region (fetlock = feet-lock – a formed at the bottom of the same follicles that
lock of hair on the foot). lodged the down feathers, which by the growth
Each hair has a shaft, the part above the sur- of the adult feather become pushed out of
face, and a root, embedded in the hair follicle. place. At first they are nothing more than
Below this is a little fibrous papilla possessing enlarged down feathers, but soon one of the
blood vessels, which is capped by the expanded barbs grows enormously, and forms a main
end of the hair root, and known as the hair shaft or ‘rachis’ to which the other barbs are
bulb. The follicles are set somewhat obliquely attached on either side. From the sides of the
in the corium and at varying depths; the long barbs grow the barbules, just as in the down
tactile hairs reaching down to the underlying feathers; and these, in the case of the large wing
muscle. Most of the follicles have little bands of feathers (‘remiges’) and the tail feathers (‘retri-
plain muscle attached to one side, known as ces’), are connected by minute hooks so that the
the arrectores pilorum; these serve to erect the feather ‘vane’ has a more resistant surface for
hairs during anger, fear, or extreme cold, and flight than in the case of the breast feathers, for
also to express from the sebaceous gland a small instance. Moulting in birds occurs periodically,
portion of sebaceous secretion. when the bird casts off the old feathers and gets
a complete new set.
Glands of the skin are of 2 kinds: sweat
and sebaceous. The former are scattered over Functions of the skin The main use of the
the body in nearly all animals, being most skin is a protective one. It covers the underlying
numerous in the horse, and least in the dog muscles, protects them from injury, and by
(which is essentially a non-sweating animal), virtue of its padding of fat prevents them from
where the largest are found only on the pads of extremes of temperature. The hair, fur, wool, or
the feet. Each sweat or sudoriferous gland feathers assist this heat-regulating mechanism
consists of a long tube, usually greatly coiled in still further, and usually the growth of the coat
its inner part, which has a duct leading up to is determined by the temperature of the sur-
the surface of the skin. (See PERSPIRATION.) roundings. For example, when horses are kept
The sebaceous glands, except in certain out of doors during winter they grow long thick
places, open into the follicles of the hairs a coats, while when kept in warm stables and
little way below the surface. Each consists of covered with rugs they assume a close sleek
a little bunch of small sacs, within which fatty coat: and the same applies to other animals.
or oily material is produced. This secretion is Heat regulation is one of the most important
forced from the sacs by the contractions of the functions of the skin. When cold air, water, or
arrectores pilorum muscles, and during exercise other cooling substances come into contact
it also escapes on to the shafts of the hairs. Its with a large area of the skin, the numerous
function is to keep these pliable and lubricated blood vessels of the skin immediately contract,
and prevent them from becoming brittle reducing the amount of blood circulating in
through drying. A copious secretion from them, and therefore reducing the amount
the sebaceous glands results in a sleek shining which will be exposed to the cooling action S
coat, such as is associated with a well-fed and from outside. On the other hand, when the sur-
well-groomed horse. rounding medium is at a higher temperature
than the normal – i.e. when it is approaching
Appendages of the skin In addition to body heat, or rises above it – the blood vessels
hair, the skin possesses certain appendages, of the skin dilate, more blood is brought to the
which in reality are modified hair only. Thus, surface, and this stimulates sweating, or excre-
horns, hoofs, claws, nails, ergots, chestnuts, and tion; when the perspiration evaporates, espe-
other horny structures are closely packed epi- cially when the surrounding atmosphere is dry,
dermal cells which have undergone keratinisa- considerable cooling of the skin surface occurs.
tion or cornification. Spurs of poultry are horny (See TEMPERATURE; TROPICS; HYPOTHALAMUS.)
epidermal sheaths covering a centre of bony
outgrowth from the metatarsal in the case of Skin, Diseases of
poultry. Feathers are highly specialised scales. The majority of the commoner diseases of the
The down feathers of the chicken are simple, skin in animals are due either to parasitic
and consist of a brush of hair-like ‘barbs’ invasion, or to conditions of an allergic origin,
springing from a basal quill or ‘calamus’. From e.g. eczema. These are treated under separate
646 Skin Disorders in Cattle
headings – e.g. mange, of all varieties, is dealt acid-fast bacilli resembling Mycobacterium
with under MITES; ECZEMA; URTICARIA; RING- tuberculosis are present in them.
WORM; ACNE; see also TUMOURS; IMPETIGO;
POX; BRIDLE INJURIES; SPOROTRICHOSIS; Skull
SWINE ERYSIPELAS; LIGHT SENSITISATION; DER- The bony structure of the head. Excavated in it
MATOPHILUS; GRANULOMA; ABSCESS; HYPERK- there are large irregular spaces known as sinuses.
ERATOSIS; LUPUS; AUTO-IMMUNE DISEASE; (See SINUSES OF SKULL.)
CUTANEOUS ASTHENIA.
General arrangement of the skull The
Cats may suffer from cancer of the sweat glands. skull is divided into 2 parts: (1) the cranium;
and (2) the face. The former consists of the
Skin Disorders in Cattle posterior part, which encloses the brain.
These include squamous-cell carcinoma (which Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones
may also affect the eye), iodism, persistent developed from a structure which is partly car-
BVD infection, vitamin E deficiency, vitamin tilage and partly fibrous membrane. Centres of
A deficiency, papillomatosis, lice infestation, ossification appear in these during early life,
ringworm and the effect of a snake-bite. and soon after birth the greater part of each
bone has assumed its eventual outline, but is
Skin Grafting Transplantation separated from its neighbours by an intimately
The pedicle technique, in which the transplant dovetailed joint. These joints, none of which is
is attached at one end to adjacent skin, has been movable, allow growth until the animal is adult,
applied in cats and dogs. A broad flap of skin is when bony fusion usually occurs, and the joints
formed by incision to cover the denuded area, become obliterated. Many of these joints –
with a narrow strip to form the pedicle or ‘sutures’, as they are called – can be felt in the
bridge to carry the blood supply to the broad skull of a newly born animal, particularly over
flap or graft. The edges of the pedicle are the dome of the head in a foal or puppy, and for
sutured; the flap is sutured to adjacent skin. a time constitute especially vulnerable parts of
In horses, skin grafting has also been carried the skull.
out using free, whole-thickness grafts of skin The bones of the cranium – those which
taken from other sites in the same animal. Such enclose the brain and its membranes – are 10 in
grafts will give rise to normal hair growth. number: 4 single and 3 paired. They are occip-
In a cat a badly damaged tail was used as a ital, sphenoid, ethmoid, interparietal (single),
source of skin for a graft before tail amputation and parietals, frontals, and temporals (paired).
– extensive skin loss having resulted from a The occipital lies at the posterior lower aspect
fan-belt accident. of the skull, and forms the hinder wall of the
brain cavity. Through it passes the spinal cord,
Skin, Poisoning Through which emerges by the foramen magnum, and to
(see under POISONING; HYPERKERATOSIS) a roughened prominence above this foramen is
attached the very powerful ‘ligamentum
‘Skin Tuberculosis’ nuchae’, which supports the head. On either
This is characterised by the appearance of side of the foramen are the occipital condyles
S swellings, varying in size from that of a pea to which articulate with the atlas – the first of
that of a tangerine, on the limbs and occasion- the cervical vertebrae. The lower part of the
ally on the trunk of cattle. Lesions are often mul- occipital – the basilarpart – runs forward along
tiple and in the form of a chain, often along the the base of the brain to meet the body of the
lines of the lymphatic vessels. They are unsightly
but appear to cause the cow no discomfort and
their economic importance lies only in the fact
that they apparently sensitise the animal to mam-
malian and/or avian tuberculin, thus complicat-
ing the interpretation of the tuberculin test. This,
indeed, may give rise to anxiety on the part of the
owners of attested herds. A re-test after an inter-
val of 30 to 60 days will, however, in the absence
of tuberculosis, usually give a reaction justifying
retention of the animal within the herd.
Microscopically, the lesions of ‘skin tubercu-
losis’ closely resemble those of tuberculosis, and The dog’s skull, and teeth of the upper jaw.
Slings 647
sphenoid bone. The inner surface is adapted to down, it should be placed in slings, or given
the cerebellum – the most posterior upper part some form of support, such as a rope between
of the brain, while above the basilar portion lies the heel posts upon which the hindquarters
the medulla which is continued backwards into may bear, so that it may obtain the requisite
the spinal cord. It has the form of a body with rest.
2 pairs of wings and 1 pair of projections. It is On board ship, and for surgical or other rea-
supposed to resemble a bird with 2 pairs of sons, horses may be kept standing without
wings in flight trailing its legs behind it. The harm for considerable periods, but they should
body is continuous with the basilar part of be exercised for a short while 2 or 3 times daily,
the occipital, and helps to form the base of the in order that the muscles may be prevented
brain. from becoming stiff. Horses are liable to fall
while standing asleep, and may, in rare cases,
Skunks actually come to the ground through the relax-
Skunks and foxes are now the 2 most important ation of their extensor muscles; what happens
wildlife hosts of the rabies virus in the USA. more frequently is that they knuckle over on to
their fetlocks, recovering themselves almost at
Slag once, but not before a slight injury has been
(see BASIC SLAG) inflicted to the skin over the joint. The fall
always occurs in front, not behind, probably
Slatted Floors because of the extra weight carried by the
These were tried in England in the 19th centu- fore-legs.
ry and described in the RASE Journal of 1860,
and had been used for many years in Norway, ‘Sleeper’ Syndrome
before being re-introduced in Britain as a (Haemophilosis)
means of saving money on straw. The current This takes the form of a septicaemia, is caused
practice is sometimes to sprinkle sawdust on the by Haemophilus somnus, and occurs in cattle in
slats (of wood or concrete), but to use no straw. feedlots in the USA. The syndrome is associat-
The use of slatted floors can hardly be regarded ed with an encephalomyelitis; as well as brain
as anything but a retrograde step from the and spinal cord, many other tissues may be
animal husbandry point of view, however involved. It has also been seen in the UK.
attractive commercially. The animals obviously
cannot rest as comfortably as on straw, and if Sleeping Sickness
strict precautions are not taken (as in Norway) Human trypanosomiasis transmitted by tsetse
they may be subjected to severe draughts with flies and caused by Trypanosoma gambiense and
resultant ill-health and poor food conversion T. rhodesiensis. (See TRYPANOSOMES; TROPICS;
ratios. Teat and leg injuries, and injuries or FLIES.) Sleeping sickness caused by T. rhodesien-
abnormalities of the feet, may also develop in sis can also be transmitted from person to
animals on slats. (See also EPIPHYSITIS.) person.
The space between the slats is critical, and
there must be no sharp edges on the concrete. ‘Sleepy Foal Disease’
(See LAMENESS.) Infection with one of the Gram-negative
A slatted dunging area and a bedded area bacteria (see under FOALS, DISEASES OF). S
are satisfactory. (See also under SOW STALLS and
SLURRY.) Slings
A device whereby a large animal may be kept in
Slaughter the standing position for long periods without
(see under EUTHANASIA; STUNNING). Specified becoming completely exhausted. The apparatus
intervals between cessation of treatment of food consists essentially of a broad strong sheet
animals with certain drugs are required before which passes under the animal’s chest and
slaughter. (See IVERMECTIN.) abdomen, supported by a block-and-tackle or
other means to a beam overhead. Connected
Sleep (Horses) with this there are 2 strong straps, one passing
The rest obtained by horses sleeping in an erect round the front of the chest, and the other pass-
position is, actually, not sufficient for their ing round the buttocks. These latter serve to
needs. They require complete relaxation of their hold the sling in position, and prevent the
muscles, and this can only be furnished in the animals from struggling free. The whole is
recumbent position. When from fear, ankylosis adjustable so that it may fit animals of different
of vertebrae, or other cause a horse does not lie sizes. The sling is often made with a metal or
648 Slink Calves
wooden bar along each end of the sheet; these on the femur with each step; or it may be com-
bars serve to distribute the weight of the animal plete, when the patella becomes fixed above the
along the whole width of the sheet, and afford outer lip of the pulley-like trochlear surface,
a rigid means of attachment to the cross-beam causing all the joints of the affected leg to
of the slings, to which the chain or rope of the become straightened, and the limb to be held
block-and-tackle is attached. pointing behind. Dislocation of the patella is a
In addition to the above use, slings are one common condition in the dog.
of the means of lifting a horse that has either
fallen or lain down in a stable and is unable to ‘Slipped Tendon’
rise. The horse is placed so that the slings may A condition seen in chickens, turkey poults,
be pulled under it, or is rolled on to them, and ducklings, in which there is displacement
and after the chest and breeching straps of tendons and an inability of the leg to support
are arranged, the horse is lifted by the block- the bird’s weight. It is due to a manganese defi-
and-tackle high enough to be able to use its ciency, and may arise from feeding lime to
feet. It sometimes happens that if the horse has excess. The incidence is higher in bronze and
lain for a considerable time it refuses to support black turkeys and in dark-coloured chicken
its weight on its feet, but hangs ‘like a herring’ breeds, as extra manganese is necessary to
in the slings. In such cases it may be necessary synthesise the pigment melanin.
to startle the horse, when it will generally make
a lunge and ‘find its feet’. Slope Culture
Slings are employed in a variety of conditions, A method of growing micro-organisms on solid
e.g. fractures. media (e.g. agar) in tubes which are usually
When slings are applied to an animal, they arranged in racks at the correct angle for the
should not be fixed up so tightly that the agar to solidify on cooling.
animal is unable to walk a step or so in each
direction. They are only required as a means of Slough
support for the animal when it so desires, and Slough means a dead part separated by natural
not as a suspensory apparatus which is always in processes from the rest of the living body. The
use. The animal soon learns to lean on the slough may be only a small part, such as a piece
slings and rest its feet. The hand should be able of skin that has been burnt by heat or chemicals,
to be passed under the sling webbing when the or it may be a whole foot. (See GANGRENE.)
animal is standing immediately under the cen-
tre of the block-and-tackle, and neither the Slow-Milking Cows
chest strap nor the breeching should be buckled (see under MILKING MACHINES)
up tightly. It is generally necessary to secure the
head of the animal by a halter to restrict its Slow Reacting Substances (SRS)
movements, and to supply a suitable manger or Also called leukotrienes, they are substances
other receptacle from which it may feed easily. released in an anaphylactic reaction which
(See also ‘DOWNER COW’ SYNDROME for a induce prolonged smooth-muscle contraction.
means of lifting a cow.) The effect is seen in asthma.
every 3 or 4 weeks. Methane, hydrogen sul- that the male is attracted to the female during
phide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide may all be the season or oestrus of the latter; the odour at
given off as the result of bacterial action on this period is most persistent, and can be appre-
slurry, giving rise to a mixture both lethal and ciated at great distances. Females recognise their
explosive. offspring by their sense of smell, and dams
Cows, too, have been overcome by slurry gas. whose young have died can often be deceived
For methods of slurry disposal, see DAIRY and persuaded into accepting other young ani-
HERD MANAGEMENT. (See also under SALMONEL- mals by clothing these in the skins of the dead
LOSIS; PASTURE CONTAMINATION OF; ‘MILKSPOT ones. This fact is made use of in the case of ewes
LIVER’; SILAGE.) which have lost their lambs. (See JACOBSON’S
ORGAN; PHEROMONE.)
Smear Preparations
A film of blood, pus, etc., smeared on to a Smells as Evidence of Disease
slide, fixed – and if necessary stained – for In certain cases the presence of a smell connect-
microscopical examination. ed with an animal is almost a diagnostic feature
of disease. Thus in decay of the teeth or decom-
Smedi position of bone there is a characteristic smell
An acronym for stillbirth, mummification, which, when once it is appreciated, can never
embryonic death, infertility in pigs – a syn- be forgotten, although it is difficult to describe.
drome caused by infection with subgroups of The breath, urine, and the milk of a cow suf-
enteroviruses A, B, or C. fering from acetonaemia have a characteristic
sweetish sickly smell. Poisoning by certain
Smegma drugs, e.g. carbolic acid, can be diagnosed to
Sebum with a distinctive odour found in the some extent by the smell of the drug that is
region of the clitoris and penis. For a test using left in the mouth or on the skin. The urine of
smegma, see EQUINE CONTAGIOUS METRITIS. the horse has the smell of violets after the
administration of turpentine in large quantities.
Smell It has been suggested that dogs might be
Smell is detected by the dissolving of minute trained to recognise certain smells associated
particles of oderiferous substances, gaseous or with human diseases, and so aid diagnosis at an
solid, in the mucus lining the nose. This trig- early stage.
gers a response in the hair-like processes
attached to the nerve cells which is transmitted Smog
to the brain by the olfactory nerve. The sense This is the popular name for fog containing a
of smell is much more highly developed in dangerously high proportion of sulphur dioxide
dogs and cats than in humans. They have a for- and other harmful gases derived from coal fires
mation at the roof of the nasal passage (the and factory chimneys. (See also OZONE for a
subethmoidal shelf ) that extends the range and further description of smog.)
accuracy of smell detection. The act of ‘sniff-
ing’, familiar in the case of the dog especially, Smooth Collie
simply ensures that the particles are rapidly and This breed, originally a shepherding dog, can
forcibly drawn upwards into the nose. Smells inherit, like other collies, collie eye anomaly. S
may be air-borne or ground smells, those left on Central progressive retinal atrophy is a dominant
solid objects by an animal, person or object. trait.
The response to a smell can differ in different
animals: thus the smell of fish, blood, and offal Snails
has a remarkably stimulating effect upon the One or two species are of veterinary interest in
carnivorous animals, while grass, grain, and connection with LIVER-FLUKES and tapeworms.
vegetable substances stimulate the sense organs The giant African snail (Achatina fulica) is
of herbivorous creatures particularly. The odour commonly kept in UK schools to show to biol-
of flesh, blood, etc., is repulsive to the herbivo- ogy class pupils; however, it is a potential human
ra, and may cause great nervousness and fright. health risk. Third-stage larvae of Angiostrongylus
Most of the wild grass-eating animals have cantonensis, passed out in rats’ faeces, are infec-
remarkably well-developed powers of smell, and tive for mammals, and in the Far East have
are able to locate their enemies at great dis- caused meningitis in people; though the major-
tances – over 1 kilometre – but they also detect ity of cases have occurred through eating
ground smells which are important in marking uncooked snails. Snails are farmed for food in
out territory. It is through the sense of smell Britain, as well as in France and elsewhere.
650 Snakes
Hay, as well, is desirable. (See RATIONS FOR more efficiently, producing higher milk yields
LIVESTOCK – Winter rationing.) for a given quantity of feed. However, the argu-
The percentage of solids-not-fat is relatively ment that this increased efficiency was benefi-
high in October and November, after which cial did not prevail against UK and EU welfare
time it begins to decline and falls to a minimum concerns about its use. Although used in the
in February and March. It then starts an USA and elsewhere, there is a moratorium on
upward trend, reaches a high level in May, and the use of somatotrophin in the EU. (See
may drop again in July and August. SOMATOSTATIN; PITUITARY GLAND.)
Milk from cows of the Jersey and Guernsey
breeds is relatively high in solids-not-fat. British Sorbitol
Friesians, as a rule, give milk low in S-N-F. A sugar alcohol found in fruits and berries, it is
Inherited capacity is important. one of the intermediate products in the conver-
The percentage of solids-not-fat in milk varies sion of glucose to fructose. In severe diabetes
according to the stage in the lactation. It is high mellitus, it is deposited in the lens of the eye.
at the beginning, but falls rapidly to a low level
within 6 to 8 weeks after calving. Thereafter, it Sorbitol Dehydrogenase (SDA)
rises gradually if the cow is pregnant, while it A liver enzyme; raised levels indicate liver
tends to decline further if she is not again in calf. damage, particularly in horses. Also called
Towards the end of the lactation, when the cow L-iditoldehydrogenase.
is drying off, it may fall very low.
Sore Throat
Somatic Sore throat is a popular term for laryngitis or
Somatic means all the cells belonging to the pharyngitis, which is often present during
body except the germ cells in the gonads. catarrh, strangles, influenza, etc. (See THROAT –
Throat diseases.) A person with an infected
Somatic Nerves throat may pass the infection to the udders of
Sensory or motor nerves of the somatic division cows being milked, setting up mastitis.
of the central nervous system; they deal with
awareness of sensation and with voluntary Sores
control of muscles. (See CENTRAL NERVOUS (see ULCERS)
SYSTEM.)
Sorghum
Somatostatin Widely grown fodder and grain plant.
A peptide hormone, produced by the hypothal- Poisoning in horses has been recorded in horses
amus at the base of the brain, which acts as a grazing pasture containing Sorghum species.
brake on growth by regulating release of growth Hindquarter weakness and paralysis of the
hormone directly responsible for tissue growth. bladder may result.
Animals immunised against somatostatin are
not subject to this ‘braking’ effect, and it Sorrel Poisoning
has been suggested that this technique might (see DOCKS, POISONING BY; SOURSOB)
be more effective than conventional growth
S promoters used in meat production. ‘Sound’
A blunt metal rod, either curved or straight,
Somatotrophin which is used for passing along a natural chan-
A growth hormone, produced by the pituitary nel or duct of the body. They are generally used
gland, which stimulates growth of all body to discover whether there are any hard or solid
tissues, and influences mammary-gland devel- foreign bodies present.
opment. Like insulin, somatotrophin helps to
maintain correct glucose levels in the blood. Sounds
In the 1930s the National Institute for Sounds are made both normally and abnormal-
Research in Dairying found that the hormone ly by some of the organs of the body. For exam-
could increase the milk of dairy cows. In 1983 ple, during the normal heartbeat there can be
research was being directed towards production distinguished 2 definite sounds. The first of
of growth hormone by genetic engineering these, known as the ‘first heart sound’, is a long
techniques, with the aim of producing a com- booming noise, similar to the syllable lū b,
mercial product which could increase milk which is heard when the ventricles are contract-
yields. This research was successful and trials ing and the atrio-ventricular valves are closing,
showed that in cows, fodder was metabolised and which is produced by these processes. The
Sparganosis 653
‘second heart sound’ is a short, sharp, sudden may be significant in the frequent occurrence of
sound, similar to the syllable dûp, and is heard piglet scours at about 3 weeks of age.
at the end of the contracting period of the ven- Although inadequate in iron, sows’ milk
tricles, when the semilunar valves at the bases of appears otherwise to be an ideal feed for young
the pulmonary artery and the aorta are closing. pigs, allowing an efficiency of feed conversion on
Respiratory sounds are also present normally. a dry matter basis of some 300 g (0.8 lb) feed per
The sound made by the air entering the alveoli 450 g (1 lb) of gain. However, the sow is unable
is generally called the respiratory, or vesicular, to produce sufficient milk to allow the piglet
murmur. It is a soft, low, quiet blowing sound, weight-gain expected. Thus, an average yield is
which can be imitated by the gentle blowing of about 45 kg (100 lb) milk per piglet suckled, or
air from a pair of bellows. In addition to the 9 kg (20 lb) dry matter in 8 weeks which, at an
friction of the air in the alveoli there is also a efficiency of conversion of 0.8, is sufficient to
sound produced by the air in its course down allow a weight gain of 11.3 kg (25 lb). With an
the trachea and along the greater bronchi. average birth-weight of 1.4 kg (3 lb) this would
During disease there are unusual sounds allow the production of 13 kg (28 lb) weaners at
produced, especially by the organs in the chest: 8 weeks. So to produce an 18 kg (40 lb) pig at
for these see RALES; HEART DISEASES; LUNGS, this age it must have consumed some 11 kg
DISEASES OF; etc. (24 lb) creep-feed at an efficiency of feed
conversion of about 2:1.
Soursob The major requirement of a creep-feed is
The Australian name for Oxalis cernua, a mem- energy as the sow’s milk should provide ade-
ber of the sorrel family, found in Australia, quate protein. An early-weaning diet, on the
South Africa, the continent of Europe, and other hand, requires to have a high protein
now the West of England. It has caused fatal content, which will vary with the age of pig to
poisoning in sheep. which it is given.
dogs, cats, and wild carnivores in Australia, the In the past it was common practice to spay
Far East, and North and South America. both cows and sows – the former giving a con-
Sparganosis is a ZOONOSIS, as people can tinuous milk supply for 18 months or even
become infested through eating pork or drink- much longer.
ing water containing the larvae at one stage in Cats are spayed to prevent the birth of unwant-
their development. ed kittens, adding to the problems of stray and
feral cats. The operation is almost invariably
Spasm satisfactory, and involves few if any disadvantages.
An involuntary and, in severe cases, a painful Bitches are spayed to a less extent than
contraction of a muscle, or of a hollow organ cats. The operation may be requested by the
with a muscular wall. Further information is owner on account of domestic difficulties or
given under ASTHMA; COLIC; CHOREA; CON- convenience, or it may be advised as a means of
VULSIONS; CRAMP; EPILEPSY; MUSCLES, DISEASES preventing pyometra. Bitch puppies can be
OF; SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES OF; spayed as early as 8 to 10 weeks of age; kittens
STRYCHNINE; TETANUS; TETANY; RABIES; HYPO- also, though probably most are spayed between
MAGNESAEMIA. 3 and 4 months of age.
Ovario-hysterectomy is performed usually
Spastic through a flank incision.
Spastic is a term applied to any condition show-
ing a tendency to spasm, such as ‘spastic gait’. Spectacles,
In British Friesian cattle, an inherited spastic Spectacles, so-called, of plastic material are
form of lameness may appear when the calf is sometimes used to prevent poultry from resort-
6 or 8 weeks old, but sometimes not until it is ing to cannibalism, etc. ‘Spectacles’ for horses
6 months old. Before long, the toe may not used in mines are really eye-shields. (See also
touch the ground as the calf walks, and the LENSES, CONTACT.)
affected hind-leg is held backwards. Later, the
leg becomes shortened and useless. If, however, Sphinx
the case is treated early enough, a simple oper- A breed of cat originating from Canada, also
ation will correct the deformity and prevent kown as the Canadian hairless cat. Although
these unfortunate sequels. But of course, that it looks hairless, it has a short, soft, downy coat.
calf, grown to maturity, can transmit the This provides insufficient insulation and the
deformity to a proportion of its offspring. The breed needs a warm environment and protec-
condition has also been seen in Shorthorns and tion from sunburn. The breed has a high
Aberdeen Angus crosses. (See TENOTOMY.) pain threshold and should not be given the
opportunity to engage in fights.
Spavin
General name for diseases of the hock-joint (see Speculum
BONE SPAVIN; BOG SPAVIN). Speculum is an instrument designed to aid the
examination of the various openings of the
Spaying body surface. Many are provided with small
Surgical removal of the ovaries, and usually of electric lamps which illuminate the cavity
S the uterus also, carried out mainly in cats under examination.
and bitches. (See OVARIO-HYSTERECTOMY for
reasons for the operation.) Speeds Of Animals
Also, mares to be used in cavalry regiments, RACING CAMEL In Australia the record is 1⁄4
or polo pony mares, as well as certain thor- mile in 27 seconds.
oughbred racing mares, where the occurrence of
CHEETAHS 100 km/h (62 mph).
oestrus and its associated phenomena would
interfere with the proper performance of work, GREYHOUNDS The record is 66 km/h
and mares which are suffering from some defi- (41 mph).
nitely hereditary disease, are subjected to the OSTRICHES can achieve a speed of 72 km/h
operation. (45 mph) over short distances.
In ‘nymphomania’, ovariotomy, when per- PIGEONS can fly at 74 km/h (46 mph).
formed before the symptoms have been in
existence for long, usually results in a complete PORPOISES can swim at 64 km/h (40 mph).
cessation of the kicking, squealing, and frac- PRONGHORN ANTELOPE 56 km/h (35
tiousness which generally render the mare unfit mph) for 6 km (4 miles); 88.5 km/h (55
for work. mph) for 0.8 km (H mile).
Sphincter 655
RACEHORSES have reached 69 km/h (43 ble of fertilising the ovum or egg. The sperms
mph). are derived from non-motile cells in the semi-
KILLER WHALE 30 knots. niferous tubules of the testicle. The first-stage
(with acknowledgements to Guinness World cells, Spermatogonia, divide to form the prima-
Records) ry spermatocytes. When these latter in turn
divide, the chromosomes become paired, one
Speedy-Cut from each pair being found in the resulting sec-
Speedy-cut is the name given to the injury ondary spermatocytes, which accordingly have
that results from a horse striking the inside of half the number of chromosomes found in all
the carpus or metacarpus with some part of the somatic cells. The spermatid is a further
the inside of the shoe of the opposite foot. (See stage of development which includes acquisi-
BRUSHING AND CUTTING.) tion of the flagellum or tail which provides the
sperm with its motility. For their journey to the
Spermatic Fallopian tubes, it appears that the sperms are
Adjective used to describe blood vessels, nerves, not wholly dependent upon their own motive
and other structures that are associated with the powers; the muscles of the female genital organs
testicle. apparently assist onward movements of the
semen.
Spermatic Cord Each spermatozoon has 3 main parts: the
(seeINGUINAL CANAL and the illustration under head, containing the cell’s nucleus; a middle
PENIS) portion; and the tail. (See also SEMEN; REPRO-
DUCTION; and ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION.)
Spermatic Cord, Torsion of In the bull, it takes about 50 days from the
This has been reported, as a rare condition, in time a sperm begins to be formed in the testicle
the dog. In a review of 13 cases, the testicle to the time it appears in semen.
involved was intra-abdominal in 11 dogs, and All normal semen contains some genetically
inguinal and scrotal in others. In most cases the deleterious diploid spermatozoa, distinguishable
torsion appeared to result from enlargement of by their large size.
the testis due to tumours. Two of the dogs died Fever may result in increased numbers of
– one of uraemia due to retention of urine, the abnormal spermatozoa. For example, in
other from shock – and a 3rd after surgery. Australia many abnormalities have been found
However, 10 dogs recovered completely after in the middle portions of sperms from bulls
castration. suffering from bovine ephemeral fever.
Spermatid Spermiophages
A developing stage of the maturing spermatozoa. Spermiophages are macrophages which engulf
sperms, thereby causing infertility. They have
Spermatozoa (Sperms) been found in both human and canine semen.
Spermatozoa (sperms) are the motile male sex
cells which, having matured in the epididymis, SPF
are ejaculated at orgasm and are normally capa- Specific pathogen-free. In Britain as in the
USA, SPF pigs are available for repopulating S
farms where disease has become a problem. SPF
piglets are removed from the uterus by
surgery in a sterile manner, reared in elaborate
isolation premises, and immunised and pre-
pared for a normal farm environment. (See also
‘DISEASEFREE’ ANIMALS.)
Sphenoid
Sphenoid is a bone lying along the base of the
skull in front of the occipital bone, and
immediately above and slightly behind the
throat.
state of moderate contraction prevents the Such spiders are becoming popular as pets,
escape of the contents of the organ. The muscle and veterinary advice is increasingly sought on
fibres forming the sphincter relax when the their care.
contents of the organ are due to be discharged The Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robus-
to the outside past the sphincter. Sphincters tus) is poisonous to a degree which varies with
close the outlet from the stomach, bladder, and its sex. The male is much more poisonous than
rectum, and regulate the escape of the contents the female. Seventy-five per cent of mice, and
from these organs. Under certain conditions 95 per cent of guinea pigs, died after being
the nervous mechanism which keeps these bitten by male spiders, but only 20 per cent or
sphincters shut is liable to become upset, so so after bites by females.
that faeces and urine, for instance, can escape
freely. This incontinence is one of the impor- Spina Bifida
tant symptoms seen in fracture of the spinal A congenital abnormality of the vertebral col-
column, and in some forms of paralysis. umn, involving a defect in closure of the arch
formed by the dorsal laminae of one or more
Sphygmograph vertebrae. The worst lesions prove lethal.
Sphygmograph is an instrument used for Symptoms of less serious lesions include paresis
recording the pulse. or paralysis, and incontinence. The condition
has been found in dogs.
Spica Bandage
(see BANDAGES) Spinal Anaesthesia
(see under EPIDURAL)
‘Spider Syndrome’
A name given by Minnesota sheep breeders to a Spinal Column,
crippling congenital disease seen mostly in The spinal column, the chain of bones reaching
black-faced lambs. The forelimbs may be bent, from the base of the skull along the neck and
spines ‘twisted’, rump angled steeply from tuber back to the tip of the tail, is composed of the
sacrale to T. ischii. vertebrae, and forms the central axis of the
skeleton. Through the spinal canal, formed by
Spiders the arches of adjacent vertebrae, runs the spinal
In the USA and South America, dogs are often cord, which gives off the spinal nerves running
bitten by the black widow spider (Latrodectus to various parts of the body. (See BONES;
mactans), which tends to lurk among piles of NERVES; SPINAL CORD.)
logs or in dark outhouses. The bite is extremely
painful, and may be followed by vomiting, Spinal Cord
laboured breathing, weakness, and paralysis. The spinal cord is the posterior part of the cen-
Death follows within hours or days, unless the tral nervous system and is situated within the
antivenin is administered. spinal canal of the SPINAL COLUMN. It forms the
In the USA bites by the spiders of the subor- direct continuation of the medulla of the brain,
der Labido are fairly common in horses and being usually arbitrarily held to commence at
dogs, the bites being mostly on the head. Cats the foramen magnum, the large opening in the
S are mostly bitten on the face or forepaws. Two occipital bone at the back of the skull.
puncture marks provide a clue aiding diagnosis. Posteriorly, it ends about the middle of the
Within minutes or hours, signs of neurotox- sacrum, although in this region the cord has
icity appear and may last for several days. lost its original form, and consists of a bundle
Myalgia, abdominal rigidity, vomiting, panting, of nerves, the actual termination being at about
disturbance of vision, and shock occur. the level of the joint between 5th and 6th lum-
Another spider, the brown recluse (Loxoceles bar vertebrae, the continuation of bundles
reclusa), causes an erythematous lesion, from behind this being known as the cauda equina,
which a central blister emerges; the skin there owing to its supposed likeness to a horse’s tail.
turns purple or black. Convulsions followed by The spinal cord is thus considerably shorter
death are not uncommon – the preliminary than the spinal column which houses it. During
signs being those caused by the Labido spider. its course in the horse it gives off 42 pairs of
Several of the larger ‘bird-eating’ spiders spinal nerves, each of which takes origin by
have setae, which they brush off their means of a dorsal and ventral root, which join
abdomens with their hind-legs. These setae each other, before emerging from the spinal
(described under CATERPILLARS) can give rise to canal. These spinal nerves, according to their
dermatitis, pharyngitis, and eye inflammation. position, are known as cervical (8), thoracic
Spine and Spinal Cord, Diseases and Injuries of 657
(18), lumbar (6), sacral (5), and coccygeal (5). is that the spinal cord and its nerves may be
The cord itself is divided into cervical, thoracic, simultaneously injured or diseased.
lumbar, and sacral parts. Like the brain, the
cord is surrounded by 3 membranes, the dura Fracture of the spinal column is probably the
mater, arachnoid, and pia mater, from without commonest severe injury that affects this part.
inwards. In the spaces of the arachnoid is a It may be encountered in any animal, but is
quantity of cerebro-spinal fluid, and between probably commonest in the horse and dog. It
the outside of the dura and the inside of usually occurs as a result of external violence,
the bony canal is a padding of fat and blood such as falls, falling timber, running into sta-
vessels, which together prevent injury to the tionary objects and other run-away accidents,
spinal cord itself during the movements of the in the larger animals; in the smaller animals it is
spinal column. often occasioned by run-over accidents, kicks or
blows from large animals, falls from great
On cross-section the spinal cord is found to heights, etc. It may occur from powerful mus-
be composed partly of grey, but mainly of cular contractions when a horse is cast, or falls
white, matter. It differs from the arrangement in a loose-box, and cannot easily regain its feet;
in the brain in that while in the brain the grey while suddenly pulling up during a gallop in a
matter is on the outside of the white mass, in hilly field occasionally causes it in saddle-hors-
the cord the white matter is superficial. The es. Paralysis of the hindquarters, with loss of
arrangement of grey matter, as seen in section sensation, and often local sweating behind the
transversely across the cord, resembles the capi- injury, are symptoms of fracture, in addition to
tal letter H ‘horn’, and the masses at each side severe shock, occasioned by the laceration of
are joined by a wide bridge of grey matter the cord. (See also FRACTURES; PARAPLEGIA;
known as the ‘grey commissure’. In the middle PARALYSIS.)
of this commissure lies the ‘central canal’ of the
cord, which communicates with the ventricles Concussion of the cord, occasioned by fac-
of the brain. tors similar to but milder than those which
cause fracture, is also common. Generally
Microscopic structure The grey matter speaking, if the onset of the symptoms of paral-
consists greatly of ‘neuroglia’ cells, the support- ysis occurs a day or two after the accident,
ing scaffolding fibrous-tissue cells of nerve instead of at the time, concussion, with or
regions, and in the meshes formed by these cells without haemorrhage, should be suspected, and
lie the large multipolar motor nerve cells, and hope of recovery can usually be entertained so
the fibres which spring from them and unite long as there is not much systemic disturbance.
one cell to another, or pass out of the cord to (See also HORSES, BACK TROUBLES IN.)
form the fibres of the nerve trunks. The white
matter is composed almost entirely of bundles Intervertebral disc protrusion Each
of nerve fibres, most of which possess a myeli- intervertebral disc, which has a soft, pulpy cen-
nated sheath, the white colour being due to the tre and a fibrous or gristly outer ring, acts as a
appearance of these sheaths in the mass. (See shock-absorber between the vertebrae, and sup-
NERVES.) There is also in the white matter a cer- ports the spinal cord between them. The nature
tain amount of supporting tissue. Blood vessels of the usual disc injury is one of partial or com- S
are found in both white and grey matter. plete rupture, with compression of the spinal
cord to a lesser or greater extent. The injury is
Functions The spinal cord conveys nerve most common in Pekingese, dachshunds,
impulses to and from the brain, but it also deals Sealyhams, and spaniels. It also occurs in cats.
with spinal reflex actions. For example, sensa- The cause would appear to be a gradual wear
tion of pain in a dog’s paw will cause the animal of the disc with age, and perhaps the extra
to snatch the paw away from the source of pain, strain on the spine which may be imposed upon
e.g. a hot cinder. Such protective action is a the short-legged breeds. In some cases there
spinal reflex, involving sensory and motor is no history of violence; in others, a sudden
nerves, taken without reference to the brain. muscular effort, e.g. in jumping to catch a ball,
(See also CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and BRAIN.) is the cause.
Symptoms consist of pain and weakness or
Spine and Spinal Cord, paralysis of the hindquarters, and may appear
Diseases and Injuries of shortly after the dog has been observed to
These will be considered together, because the jump, slip, or fall; or they may appear in cases
chief danger of injury to or disease in the spine where the owner has not observed any violent
658 Spine and Spinal Cord, Diseases and Injuries of
movement whatsoever: for example, a dog The muscles which control the passage of
apparently normal at night may be found urine and faeces may become paralysed.
paralysed in the morning. In uncomplicated cases, natural recovery
may take place within a fortnight. Where
paralysis persists, the outlook becomes pro-
gressively less hopeful, though a complete
recovery after 12 months is not unknown. It is
essential that veterinary attention is given as
soon as possible.
A ‘fenestration’ operation is occasionally
S performed to reduce pain by relieving pres-
sure upon the spinal cord, but it is not of
much use for paralysis. Other measures are for
the treatment of paralysis generally.
Hemivertebra ‘Wedge-shaped’ vertebra; in Treponema, and Leptospira. The 1st has large
many cases this condition in dogs gives rise to wavy spirals and is flexible, the 2nd has regular
no obvious symptoms, but in others the condi- rigid spirals, while the last has small spirals and
tion is characterised clinically by progressive one hook-like end.
hind-leg weakness, spinal pain, abnormalities of Many spirochaetes produce disease in man
the nervous system and evidence of muscle and animals, the best known among which is
atrophy or other abnormalities of conforma- T. pallida, the cause of syphilis in man. T. cuni-
tion. Confirmation of the clinical diagnosis is culi in rabbits causes ‘rabbit syphilis’, in Britain,
by radiography. Breed incidences are reported. on the continent of Europe and in America.
The occurrence of the disorder in certain B. galinarum is responsible for a form of
families of dogs suggests also that it may be spirochaetosis affecting fowls in the tropics and
hereditary. subtropics, and is transmitted by the fowl tick.
L. canicola causes nephritis in dogs and canico-
Ankylosis of the vertebrae is not rare in hors- la fever in man; L. icterohaemorrhagiae causes
es. It originates from diffuse inflammation of Weil’s disease in man and jaundice in dogs.
the spinal column, frequently due to rheumatic Leptospirosis also occurs in cattle and pigs, and
causes, and one after another of the vertebrae there are many serotypes. (See LEPTOSPIROSIS
becomes fused to its neighbour in front or and, for infection with Treponema in pigs,
behind. In severe cases practically the whole of SWINE DYSENTERY.)
the thoracic and lumbar regions of the horse
may fuse into a rigid bar. Such horses usually Spirochaetosis of Fowls
can perform straightforward work for some Spirochaetosis of fowls is met with in Africa,
time, but are unable to carry any weight, to Asia, the West Indies, South America, Australia,
back heavy loads, or to lie down or rise with and Europe. It occurs in fowls, ducks, geese,
ease. They may develop into ‘shiverers’, but so and turkeys. Canaries and other birds are
long as the spinal cord is not compressed, they susceptible to artificial infection.
may live for years.
Transmission The disease is transmitted
Pachymeningitis, or inflammation of the from diseased to healthy fowls by the fowl tick
membranes of the cord, sometimes occurs in Argas persieus, one of the most important para-
old dogs. It is called ‘ossifying pachymeningitis’ sites of poultry. The ticks are very active at
in these animals, because of the tendency for night, and may travel long distances to reach a
bone to be deposited in the dura mater. host. They remain hidden during the day in
crevices and underneath the bark of trees.
Abscess in the cord, or in one of the vertebrae, Myriads of these ticks may attack fowls on the
may be discovered only at a knackery or at roost, a large quantity of blood being sucked –
autopsy; or it may lead to symptoms of the affected birds becoming weak and unthrifty
paresis/paralysis. (See also ABSCESS; SPINA BIFIDA.) and having ragged plumage.
If, however, the ticks have fed on a bird
Spirillum affected with spirochaetosis, they become
A bacterium with a wavy shape. (See RAT-BITE carriers of this disease and may transmit
FEVER.) the infection through the egg to the next S
generation of ticks.
Spirit
(see ALCOHOL POISONING; and SURGICAL SPIRIT) Signs Affected fowls show diarrhoea, loss of
appetite, loss of power of the head, and may
Spirocerca die in convulsions. A more chronic course is
Worms which are found in nodules on the also described, birds becoming paralysed and
oesophagus. In the dog they may sometimes give emaciated, and dying in about a fortnight.
rise to cancer (sarcoma) of the oesophagus; and
also to fatal haemorrhage. (See ROUNDWORMS.) Treatment Antibiotics are effective.
Spirochaete Preventive Treatment This consists of
Spirochaete is one of the names applied to ridding the premises of ticks.
bacteria possessing a more or less spiral or wavy
outline. Another term applied to this group Spirochaetosis of Pigs
is ‘spirillum’. There are 3 genera which are (see under PORCINE ULCERATIVE SPIROCHAETOSIS
important causal agents of disease: Borrelia, and SWINE DYSENTERY).
660 Spirometra
appears stiff. As a rule splints are not serious, hormone prepared from the pituitary glands of
since with rest and treatment the bony fusion patients dying with CJD. Kuru was transmitted
becomes complete, and the horse goes sound. by cannibalism in Papua New Guinea.
When they are placed high up, however, there is (See also BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPA-
a danger that the new bone formation may THY; FELINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY.)
involve the knee-joint, and when they are
situated far back, so as to interfere with the Sporadic Disease
tendons, they may produce permanent lame- A sporadic disease is a disease occurring in sin-
ness and injury to the tendon. In a horse under gle cases here and there, as distinct from disease
6 years old they should be looked upon as liable occurring as an enzootic, throughout a district,
to cause future trouble, but in a horse over or epizootic, through a country or large tract of
6 years old they can be disregarded unless land.
lameness is present.
Spores
Treatment Most mild cases require nothing Reproductive cells of protozoa, bacteria, and
further in the way of treatment than a rest from fungi, etc., usually able to withstand an adverse
work, and later a run at grass for a fortnight or environment.
so. Topical applications of anti-inflammatory
preparations or hot fomentations may help to Sporidesmin
relieve pain during the acute stage. A poisonous substance, isolated from the fun-
gus Pithomyces chartarum, which causes facial
Spondylitis eczema and liver damage in sheep and cattle in
Inflammation of a vertebra, due to trauma or New Zealand and Australia.
an infection.
Sporotrichosis
Spondylosis A degenerative condition of the A fungal disease of horses, cattle, dogs, cats, and
spine which can lead to ANKYLOSIS. man, caused by Sporothrix schenckii. This gives
rise to nodules under the skin, and thickening
Spondylopathy of the lymphatics with ulceration. In the
Disease of the vertebrae such as may cause com- dog, liver, lungs and bone may show lesions. Of
pression of the spinal cord, disc degeneration, 19 people reported to have acquired this infec-
and narrowing of the intervertebral space. tion from cats, 14 had no history of traumatic
injury at the site; 12 were veterinarians or assis-
Sponges tants/nurses. All had a localised cutaneous
In modern stables it is recognised that if a con- lymph-node infection, lesions resolving in 1 to
tagious disease breaks out, the sponge used for 10 months after potassium iodide treatment.
a number of horses is an important factor in One patient had a deep ulcer on a finger.
the spread of the disease, and consequently a Although rare, infection through inhalation has
piece of flannel or other material which can be been recorded in people.
boiled is generally used instead for ‘quartering’
(see GROOMING). A sponge used at the end of Sporozoa
a hosepipe for udder-washing of cattle led to This is a group of Protozoa which are all para- S
an outbreak of mastitis due to Pseudomonas sitic and produce spores at some stage of their
aeruginosa. life-cycle. It is divided into a number of orders,
of which only 2 are important. These are the
Spongiform Encephalopathy Haemosporidia which are parasites of the red
(Human) blood cells, and the Coccidia which are parasites
The human spongiform encephalopathies – of epithelia.
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), Gerstmann-
Straussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS) and Spotted Fever
kuru – are pathologically very similar to scrapie (see ROCKY MOUNTAIN FEVER)
in sheep and to bovine spongiform encephalopa-
thy (BSE). Like them, they are transmissible, Spotted Horse
although there is very little evidence of person to (see under APPALOOSA)
person transmission, except in a very few iatro-
genic cases, such as the grafting of corneal or dura Sprained Tendons
mater tissues from donors subsequently shown to Sprained tendons is an extremely common con-
have had CJD, and the use of human growth dition in both the heavy and the light draught
662 Sprains
horse. The flexors, superficial and deep, are potato-haulm destroyer such as arsenites. Such
mostly affected. substances constitute a hazard to livestock
which gain entry into fields. (See POISONING;
Causes The superficial flexor tendon is INSECTICIDES; WEEDKILLERS).
sprained during maximum weight-bearing by
the limb, and the deep flexor becomes sprained ‘Spreading Factor’
at the period of thrust. (see HYALURONIDASE)
Signs There are the usual signs of inflamma- Spring Viraemia of Carp
tion – heat, pain, swelling. A horse with a badly A serious viral disease to which farmed or
sprained deep flexor may walk almost sound, ornamental fish are particularly susceptible. It
but goes pronouncedly lame when made to trot. is transmitted by lice which parasitise carp.
A localised sprain of the check ligament and its Clinical signs vary, but affected fish swim errat-
insertion into the deep flexor tendon often pro- ic-ally, may be swollen, and have small red spots
duces acute lameness, but the condition is not on the skin. It is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE.
as serious as a sprain of the tendons lower
down. From an owner’s point of view, however, Spur Veins
differential diagnosis between the various forms The veins liable to damage by the horseman’s
and situations of sprain is not important. spurs.
brain, eyes, tonsils and spinal cord; the spleen young, calves. It is also the British term for a
of any age of sheep or goat is included. The male turkey.
tongue is exempt, provided it is removed
immediately after slaughter. Staggers
Erratic gait caused by incoordination of the
St Bernard limbs, as in ‘rye-grass staggers’. It may be seen
A very large dog with a massive head and in hypomagnesaemia.
drooping ears, traditionally used for mountain
rescue work in the Swiss Alps; the rough-coated ‘Staggers Weed’
variety is commoner. The breed is prone to ‘dia- A poisonous South African plant. (See ‘PUSHING
mond eye’ – a combination of entropion and DISEASE’.)
ectropion. Wobbler syndrome (cervical spondy-
lolithesis) is inherited as a recessive trait and Staining
haemophiolia B is a sex-linked recessive trait. For differentiation of bacteria, see ACID-FAST
Other inheritable conditons include ununited ORGANISMS; GRAM-NEGATIVE.
anconeal process and a progressive posterior
paralysis (Stockards disease). Stallion
An adult male horse, uncastrated, over 4 years
‘Stable Cough’ old.
(see EQUINE INFLUENZA)
Standard International Units
Stable Fly (see SI UNITS)
Stable fly is a serious pest to horses and other
animals, and transmits diseases such as surra and Staphylococcus
anthrax in the tropics. (See FLIES – Fly control (see BACTERIA)
measures; SUMMER SORES.)
Staples for Wound Closure
Stable Vices And Tricks These have long been used in human surgery in
(see ‘VICES’ AND VICIOUSNESS) place of stitches and are also used as wound
closures in some types of surgery for animals.
Stables for Racehorses
A survey of 96 racehorse stables in the south- Starch
west of England showed that a ‘typical’ race- (seeCARBOHYDRATE; DIET AND DIETETICS;
horse is kept in a loose-box with a floor area of DIGESTION)
12 m2 and is bedded on straw; it shares its
airspace of 39 m3 with 7 other horses. In calm Starch Equivalent
conditions, with the top door of the stable This term is no longer used, and the starch
open, natural convection would provide 6.6 air equivalent in the UK was replaced in 1975 by
changes/hour, but with the door closed, only units of METABOLISABLE ENERGY as part of the
2.2 changes. The top door should rarely, if ever, introduction of metric and SI UNITS.
be closed. It has been suggested that present-
day stables are based on designs which are worse Starch Gel Electrophoresis S
than the best available in the 19th century. This is one of the commonest techniques
(See also BEDDING.) for studying the genetic variation in serum
proteins. (See ELECTROPHORESIS.)
Staffordshire Bull Terrier
A medium-sized muscular breed with a smooth Stargazer
coat, often mainly white. Cataract may be The term applied to a newly hatched chick
inherited and the breed is prone to cleft palate. or poult where the head is permanently
The American pit bull terrier was derived from held back with the beak pointing directly
the Staffordshire, which it resembles; it is advis- upwards. Affected birds may twist their heads
able to keep a pedigree record to avoid confu- continuously. The cause is a deficiency of
sion and impounding under the Dangerous thiamine.
Dogs Act.
Staring Coat
Stag Dry, dull, scurvy hair or fur. A common sign of
In deer, it is a male of some species; the female poor condition of whatever cause. In the dog,
of those species is always called a hind and the one cause is lack of suitable fat in the diet. As a
664 Stasis
Steatitis Stephanofilariasis
A yellow discoloration of fat occurring in cats, A chronic skin disease occurring in cattle in
mink, and pigs fed mainly on fish scraps or parts of the USA, and caused by the nematode
tinned fish. Listlessness, tenderness over the worm Stephanofilaria stilesi. The intermediate
back and abdomen, and a reluctance to move host is the horn fly.
are observed. In cats, steatitis may follow pro-
longed and continuous feeding not only with Sterilisation
red tuna or pilchards, but also with white fish (see CASTRATION; also SPAYING for sterilisation in
such as coley. The symptoms include stiffness the sexual sense).
and pain. Steatitis in horses has also been With reference to sterilisation in its other
S reported. Pathological changes in the fat taken sense, see DISINFECTION; ANTISEPTICS; ASEPSIS;
from the abdominal wall was found in 44 of WOUNDS. For most general purposes the best
173 horses and ponies examined post-mortem sterilising agent is boiling water. Boiling should
at the Institute of Veterinary Pathology, be continuous and should last for 30 minutes in
Utrecht, over a 2-year period. Steatitis was order to kill vegetative bacteria, viruses, and
found in fetuses from normal mares, and in most other types of micro-organisms. Surgical
adult horses. Subclinical steatitis was the most instruments and dressings are usually sterilised
common type, but a few deaths were attributed in an autoclave which reaches temperatures in
to this cause. Lesions varied from the presence excess of 100°C.
of macrophages in the fat, to some fibrosis in
addition, and to necrosis. Sternum
The breastbone. This forms the floor of the
Treatment includes a change of diet and a chest (in quadrupeds), provides attachment
vitamin E supplement. for the pectoral muscles, and for the costal
cartilages of the sternal (true) ribs. (The asternal
Steatorrhea (false) ribs are not directly connected to the
Fatty faeces. sternum.) The sternum comprises sternebrae
Stick Insects 665
Of metal construction, on a base of concrete blocks, this modified stell at the Rowett Research Institute,
Aberdeenshire, was designed by Dr E. Cresswell. Sheep doors and a doorway for tractor access are shown.
– segments which fuse together with advancing (c) the administration of a steroid hormone
age. The horse and dog each have 8 of these; the product by, or under the direct responsibility
cow 7; pig and sheep, 6. of, a veterinarian for the synchronisation
of oestrus or the preparation of donors or
Steroids recipients for the implantation of embryos.
Chemical substances closely related to the For the purposes of the controlling regula-
sterols, e.g. the sex hormones, hormones of tion, the term ‘injection’ does not include
the adrenal cortex, bile acids. (See also implantation and the term ‘therapeutic treat-
CORTICOSTEROIDS; DIABETES.) ment’ has a very restricted meaning – i.e. the
treatment of a fertility problem diagnosed by
Prescribing steroid hormone prod- a veterinarian in an animal not intended for
ucts (where allowed) Steroid hormone fattening.
growth promoters are substances with an A small range of products is licensed in
androgenic, oestrogenic or gestagenic action. In the UK for the purposes listed above. The S
general they must not be administered to farm regulations are subject to change; the current
animals. ‘Farm animals’ includes cattle, sheep, status of hormonal products should be
pigs, goats, horses, poultry, the wild animals of checked.
these species and any ruminants raised on a
holding. Sterols
The prohibition does not apply to: Solid alcohols, waxy substances derived from
(a) the administration for therapeutic animal (and plant) tissues, e.g. cholesterol,
treatment by a veterinarian in the form of an ergosterol.
injection of oestradiol-17-beta, progesterone or
testosterone or derivatives of these substances Stertor
which readily yield the parent compound Noisy breathing resembling snoring.
on hydrolysis after absorption at the site of
application; Stick Insects
(b) the administration of a steroid hormone Slow-moving green or brown insects that
product for the termination of unwanted resemble twigs, often kept as ‘pets’. They are
gestation or the improvement of fertility; vegetarian and must have fresh food that is
666 Stiff Lamb Disease
not allowed to wilt. Hygiene is important in enlarged prostate glands, adenoma, misalliance
their care. in the bitch, and urinary incontinence in
spayed bitches.
Stiff Lamb Disease
This is a mild disease occurring in East Stilboestrol
Anglia due to infection with Erysipelothrix An oestrogen formerly used both therapeutically
rhusiopathiae, the cause of swine erysipelas. The and as a growth promoter in food animals. (See
same name is also applied to muscular dystro- HORMONES; HORMONE THERAPY; HORMONES
phy, a condition similar to that occurring in IN MEAT PRODUCTION; STILBENES.)
cattle as a result of vitamin E deficiency.
Stillborn Pigs
‘Stiff-Limbed Lambs’ Breeding stock should, of course, have access to
This is a hereditary condition affecting pasture, but if for any reason this golden rule is
newly born lambs, to which the name going to be broken, then rations should be
Myodystrophia fetalis deformans has been given. supplemented in summer as well as in winter,
It is commoner among Welsh Mountain sheep with vitamin A. In a group of 20 gilts which
than among other breeds. The condition is an were suddenly switched from succulent feeding
arrest of the development of muscular tissue to dry, fibrous grazing late in pregnancy, severe
during fetal life, and a replacement by fibrous constipation resulted, and there were dead
tissue. This contracts and pulls the limb into piglets in 19 of the litters.
an unnatural, stiff attitude, and gives rise to A survey carried out by the Veterinary
difficulty in parturition. Investigation Service in England and Wales
The condition is a Mendelian recessive showed a 4.8 per cent incidence of stillbirths
lethal. It has been reported from Britain and out of a total of 4394 piglets born in 371 litters.
America as affecting cattle, but it is not at all The incidence varied widely from herd to herd,
common in them. as would be expected – ranging from 0.4 to
12.9 per cent. Constipation appears to be a
Stiff Sickness cause of stillbirths, and SENNA may be used.
(see STYFZIEKTE) There are several infections which give rise to
abortion and stillbirths. (See AUJESZKY’S DISEASE;
Stifle ABORTION; MUMMIFICATION; INFERTILITY;
The joint corresponding to the human knee. CARBON MONOXIDE.)
(See BONES and JOINTS.) In horses, stifle lame-
ness is often the result of OSTEOCHONDROSIS Stimulants
dissecans or of subchondral bone cysts. Heart ‘stimulants’ include caffeine, digitalis,
In 42 cases of stifle lameness in cattle, the etc. (See also RESPIRATORY STIMULANTS.)
diagnoses included subchondral bone cysts
(18 cases), joint instability (15), degenerative Stings
joint disease (12), cranial cruciate ligament (see BITES AND STINGS)
injury (9), sepsis (9), collateral ligament
injury (3), femorotibial luxation (2) and intra- Stirk
S articular fracture (2). The prognosis for animals A young female bovine of 6 to 12 months old,
with bone cysts was good, irrespective of sometimes a male of the same age, in Scotland.
treatment (75 per cent recovered), while it
was much poorer for animals with sepsis Stitching
(22 per cent) or joint instability (27 per cent). (see SUTURE; WOUNDS)
In Britain, ‘most grass is greatly under- Usually within 2 to 3 hours after taking food
stocked during the grazing season, chiefly due the acute pain ceases, but the horse remains
to the lack of capacity to carry more stock over dull, and gives the impression that it is affected
winter. with a dull ache rather than with acute
‘Good farmers, using intensive grass-farming pain. Vomiting does not usually occur unless
methods, require 11⁄2 acres (6000 m2) or the stomach is ruptured or the oesophagus is
more per cow, even when winter feeding is dilated.
supplemented considerably with concentrates.
‘Estimates in New Zealand have suggested Impaction of the Stomach is a condition
that dairy cows at 1.2 per acre may consume in which engorgement of the stomach with
as little as 30 per cent of the available herbage.’ food takes place. It may be due to lack of
(Director, Grassland Research Institute, vitality (atony) in the muscular walls, to
Hurley.) impaired gastric secretion.
The most skilful dairy farmers were soon
achieving 0.9 to 1.0 acre per cow without Signs Signs of impaction may occur, suddenly
purchasing more than 10 to 15 per cent of or gradually. There is depression, uneasiness,
their winter feed requirements other than and perhaps colic, in those cases where a horse
production concentrates. over-eats. (See COLIC.)
Sometimes a horse obtains relief by vomiting
Stockmen/Women through the nostrils a quantity of the impacted
For health hazards see under COWHERDS; material, which reduces the amount in the
SHEPHERDS; MEAT-HANDLERS; ZOONOSES. stomach so that the remainder can be dealt with
in the usual way.
Stomach
Prevention It is easier to prevent impaction
Functions of the stomach (see RUMEN; of the stomach than it is to cure it.
RUMINAL DIGESTION; RETICULUM; OMASUM; Whole beans, peas, wheat, or barley should
ABOMASUM.) Broadly speaking, the function not be used for horses. Horses should always be
of the stomach is to store, warm, soften, and allowed as much water as they desire to drink,
prepare food materials, and then to pass them and should be watered before feeding in all
on in regulated amounts into the intestine,
where the more important digestive processes
and absorption occur.
Stomach, Diseases of
In all animals bacterial diseases, such as SALMO-
NELLOSIS, may be involved in diseases of the
stomach; likewise parasitic worms.
cases. Diseased or rough and irregular teeth Cattle Acute indigestion with acidosis, and
should be treated. sometimes impaction of the rumen, may
follow overeating of grain or green foods. (See
Tympany of the stomach When ACIDOSIS.)
vegetable food ferments from any cause, gas is
produced. Certain foods, especially when Tympany of the rumen (bloat) consists of a
unsound, undergo fermentation in the stomach collection of gas in the rumen. (See under BLOAT
instead of digestion, and the gas so formed for symptoms, prevention and treatment.)
is liable to collect in that organ often under
pressure producing great distension. Foods Inflammation of the rumen (see also
which ferment easily are succulent green RUMEN ULCERATION) may be due to ingestion
crops, clovers, lucerne, and potatoes eaten in of irritant poisons, of either chemical or
quantity. vegetable origin, to penetrating foreign bodies,
or to the spread of inflammatory conditions
Signs There is no remission of pain, such as is from other parts in specific diseases.
usually seen when the intestines are tympanitic.
Horses may roll, plunge, and paw the ground Foreign bodies in the reticulum are of
during the earlier part of the attack. great importance in both young and adult
Respirations increase in rate, and become cattle, because of the close proximity of this
laboured. The abdomen becomes tense and organ to the pericardium and heart. In the
often swollen, and in many instances horses reticulum 2 things may happen: they may fall
assume a crouching attitude with their to the lowermost part of the sac and remain
hindquarters, not unlike the way in which a there for an indefinite period, or they may
dog sits. When the tympany is severe, unless slowly penetrate its wall and wander forwards
relief is afforded by the passage of the stomach- through the diaphragm. Their subse-
tube, rupture of the stomach may occur, and quent course is described under HEART
death follow. (See COLIC.) DISEASES – Traumatic pericarditis of cattle. (See
also HAIR-BALLS)
Rupture of the stomach may also
occur when a horse falls violently to the ground Inflammation of the abomasum,
soon after a big feed, i.e. when the stomach abomastitis, or gastritis, is caused by a lack of
is full. long-fibre roughage and the too-rapid intro-
duction of concentrate diets after calving; it
Signs The distress characteristics of engorge- may also be caused by parasitic roundworms.
ment and tympany suddenly cease when the (For the causes, symptoms, and treatment
stomach ruptures, and for a short time the of parasitic gastritis in cattle and sheep, see
horse appears so much better that the owner PARASITIC GASTROENTERITIS.)
imagines recovery will result. After a short
time, however, the more serious symptoms of Displacement of the abomasum may be
peritonitis and shock occur. Profuse perspira- associated with stenosis of the sigmoid curve of
tion usually breaks out; the pulse changes to the duodenum in cattle. The abomasum is then
S what is called a ‘running down pulse’, i.e. there found to be distended with fluid and gas, and
are a few strong beats which gradually become displayed to the right.
weaker until they are almost imperceptible, and
then a succession of strong beats return; this is Signs include a distended abdomen, loss of
repeated rhythmically. Ears and feet become appetite, loss of weight, and depression of
cold and clammy to the touch; respiration is milk yield, and may sometimes be successfully
blowing; and the expression on the face of treated by casting the cow and, with her lying
the horse is one of anxiety. Vomiting is said to on her back, rotating or rocking her through an
characterise rupture of the stomach, but it is angle of 45° from the vertical each way. Surgical
probable that in most cases the vomiting treatment may be necessary. (See TYMPANITIC
occurs before the rupture takes place; the food RESONANCE.)
material escapes into the abdominal cavity after
rupture has occurred rather than up into the Ulceration is a condition by no means rare
pharynx and nostrils. (See also COLIC.) in cattle. It is sometimes associated with dis-
placement of the abomasum, and may give rise
Treatment is usually regarded as useless; to symptoms a few days after calving. Death
euthanasia is advisable. follows perforation. Symptoms are similar to
Stomach, Diseases of 669
those given above. Ulceration is not uncom- Ulceration of the stomach in dog and cat
mon in calves after weaning, giving rise to may be associated with gastritis – sometimes
capricious appetite and sometimes evidence with tuberculosis, malignant growths, and acti-
of abdominal pain. Fusiformis necrophorus, nobacillosis. Ulcers similar to peptic ulcers in
Actinomyces pyogenes, and Pasteurelle organisms human beings, and leading to perforation,
in other parts of the body may be associated. occur occasionally.
Sheep The diseases of the stomachs of the Signs As a rule, a severe attack of vomiting
sheep resemble in general those of the same immediately after a feed, and refusal to touch
organs in cattle. food subsequently. Thirst is nearly always exces-
sive, and if gratified, vomiting usually follows.
Braxy is characterised by a patch of acute If capillary haemorrhage occurs into the
inflammation in the wall of the abomasum, stomach, perhaps as the result of retching,
usually about the size of the palm of the hand, the blood which slowly oozes from its walls
where the mucous membrane is to a large collects in the cavity of the stomach, undergoes
extent destroyed. partial digestion, and becomes changed into a
Another form of gastritis is due to parasitic brownish granular material, strongly resem-
worms in the young lambs. (See WORMS.) bling moist coffee grounds. This always has a
most foul and objectionable odour. The dog
Pigs itself becomes extremely miserable, dragging
itself slowly from place to place, and showing
Gastritis Irritating or poisonous substances, preference for cold places where it may lie
specific disease, or parasites are among the stretched out with its hind-legs straight behind
causes. Salt poisoning is a cause of gastritis, as it, so that the lower wall of the abdomen is in
are also poisonings by arsenic, copper, saltpetre, close contact with the cold surface, e.g. a stone
sheep dips, etc. During the course of swine step, or linoleum in a passage. Constipation
fever, swine erysipelas, foot-and-mouth disease, usually occurs unless the intestines become
and even tuberculosis, the wall of the stomach involved, when diarrhoea is noticed. Pressure
may become involved, and inflammation may on the abdomen causes pain, and sometimes a
result. (See under GASTRIC ULCERS.) Parasites dog lifted by the hand under the abdomen cries
may also cause this condition. (See WORMS, out. The temperature is raised at first.
TREATMENT AGAINST; MUCORMYCOSIS.)
Treatment Hot packs applied to the
Signs Vomiting is the first and most important abdomen soothe pain. Dogs affected with
symptom of stomach disturbance. Thirst, gastritis should be under the charge of a
depression, and sometimes skin discoloration veterinary surgeon, who will vary the treatment
are other symptoms. Convulsions and twitching according to the circumstances.
of the limbs may be seen in young pigs. At first food is better withheld. (See PYLORIC
STENOSIS; GLUCOSE; NORMAL SALINE; PROTEIN,
Treatment All solid foods must be withheld, HYDROLISED.)
and soft light foods given instead. Whole milk
is one of the best. Where the condition is Foreign bodies in the stomach may S
believed to be due to poisonous substances, include pieces of carpet or other fabric, the
the appropriate antidotes must be given. (See rubber from a golf ball, the covers of tennis
ANTIDOTES.) balls, bones, pieces of wood, etc. A depraved
appetite may be due to hunger, a mineral or vit-
Dogs Gastritis may be bacterial in origin, amin deficiency, rabies, or to bad habits – such
caused by parasitic worms, irritating substances as picking up and swallowing pebbles (often
which include poisons, or be associated with misguidedly thrown by the owner).
foreign bodies. It is probably less common than
enteritis or nephritis, both of which may give Signs Ineffectual attempts to vomit, accompa-
rise to vomiting. nied by painful retching, an arched back,
salivation from the mouth, and signs of
Causes Gastritis/gastroenteritis may be a discomfort. Sharp-pointed bodies may cause
complication of distemper, canine virus hepati- perforation of the stomach walls, peritonitis,
tis, or may arise during salmonellosis and and death. (See PERITONITIS.)
other bacterial disease; or follow the eating of In small toy dogs it is quite usual for symptoms
infected or decomposing food. of acute nervous excitement to be shown.
670 Stomach-Tube
Stomach-Tube Straights
A flexible, often rubber, tube used for introduc- Single feeding-stuffs of animal or vegetable
ing into the stomach (either through the mouth origin, which may or may not have undergone
or more often through the inferior meatus of some form of processing before purchase,
the nostril on one side), with a view to relieving e.g. flaked maize, soya bean meal, fish meal,
tympany, or introducing medicines in the barley.
treatment of disease. It is about 3 m long for
horses and cattle, and about 10 to 15 mm in Strain
diameter (proportionately smaller for other The over-stretching of muscle fibres. Often a
species). few of these are ruptured. A painful condition
A tube which possesses 2 channels is requiring rest. The same is true of overstressed
sometimes used to attempt to remove from the tendons. (Compare a SPRAIN which involves
S stomach portions of poisonous plants which ligaments of a joint.)
may have been eaten. Water is pumped down
through one channel, and when the stomach is Stramonium
full it runs from the other carrying with it small Stramonium is the leaf of Datura
pieces of the harmful material. It is not possible stramonium, which is popularly known as
to empty completely the stomach by the double the thorn apple or the Jamestown or jimson
stomach-tube, but considerable amounts of the weed. It contains the alkaloid daturine, which is
harmful material may be removed. almost identical in its actions with atropine.
The stomach-tube is extremely useful in The plant has caused fatal poisoning in
those cases of colic which depend upon distur- pigs in Britain. However, the fatalities which
bances in the stomach, and if warm water is have been reported appear to be the result of
introduced by it in impaction of the large ingestion of large quantities of the plant in the
colon, peristalsis can often be stimulated. (But absence of other food.
see DEHYDRATION.)
Its use demands care and a knowledge of the Strangles
structure of the nasal passage, pharynx, gullet, Strangles is an acute contagious fever of horses,
and stomach. donkeys, and mules.
Streptococcus 671
Strangury Streptococcus
Difficulty and pain in passing more than a A micro-organism which under the microscope
few drops of urine at a time. It is a sign of has much the appearance of string beads. It is
672 Streptococcus Suis
kennels, change of ownership, etc., can all cause Where there is sufficient moisture the eggs
stress. Diarrhoea, sometimes vomiting, and hatch in about 12 hours and the resulting larvae
‘compulsive’ polydipsia may result. attack the skin with their mouths and
secretions, causing raw areas. The consequent
Cats The presence of a particularly aggressive moisture favours the larvae, and their excreta
tom (perhaps newly arrived in the district); attracts further blowflies which give rise to
the addition of another cat or dog to the further generations of larvae.
household, or a mother paying less attention to
the cat after the birth of a baby; or too many Signs A characteristic twitching of the tail is
cats in the same house or confinement in a seen when the hindquarters are affected. Tufts
boarding cattery – these are all potential causes of white wool, discoloured wool, and the odour
of stress. are indications of strike in other parts of
During times of stress, a cat may develop the body. Death may occur within a week,
a transient hyperglycaemia. This could lead to a and the mortality may be high among hill
mistaken diagnosis of diabetes. sheep especially, as the trouble may in them
go undetected.
Stricture S
An abnormal narrowing of one of the natural Treatment consists in the use of a dressing
passages of the body, such as the oesophagus, which will kill the larvae and facilitate healing
bowel, or urethra. of the wounds.
Sunlight Superpurgation
(see under RICKETS; INFERTILITY; LIGHT Superpurgation is excessive purgation which
SENSITISATION; TROPICS) continues for some considerable time, and may
end fatally. It is most serious in the horse, where
Sunstroke it may follow the administration of aloes. It
(see HEAT-STROKE) may also arise through the ingestion of
food-stuffs which are unwholesome, such as
Superfetation sprouted potatoes and decomposed mouldy
The presence in the uterus of fetuses of oats; and it may result from horses breaking
different ages, due to successive services. out from a stable and getting into a field of
678 Supplementary Feeding
Supplements Surfactants
Products for use at less than 5 per cent of Substances that reduce the surface tension of a
the total ration in which they are included, liquid; soap and detergents are examples.
and designed to supply planned proportions Surfactants are used in frothy bloat to allow the
of vitamins, trace minerals, one or more release of gas from the bubbles which are
non-nutrient additives and other special formed.
ingredients.
Surgical Spirit
Suppository A preparation of alcohol used, for example, as
A suppository is a small conical mass made of a skin cleanser before giving an injection. It
glycerine or a similar substance, and containing consists of industrial methylated spirit with the
drugs intended for introduction into the addition of castor oil (2.5 per cent), methyl
rectum. salicylate (0.5 per cent) and diethyl phthalate
(2 per cent).
Suppuration
The formation or discharge of pus (see under Surra
ABSCESS; CELLULITIS; FISTULA; INFLAMMATION; Surra is a disease of most economic importance
PHAGOCYTOSIS; WOUNDS). in camels and horses, but it can affect all the
domestic animals. The disease occurs in Africa
Suprarenal Bodies (north of the tsetse fly belt), Asia, Central and
(see ADRENAL GLANDS) South America. In the latter, Trypanosoma
equinum is responsible; elsewhere it is caused by
Suprascapular Paralysis T. evansi.
Suprascapular paralysis occurs as a result of The infection is spread by blood-sucking
injury to the suprascapular nerve. The term flies, such as tabanids and stable flies. Vampire
‘slipped shoulder’ is applied to the symptoms bats are believed to transmit the infection also.
which are shown in a typical case. The Animals which eat the meat from carcases
supraspinous and infraspinous muscles act as infected with trypanosomes may themselves
ligaments of the shoulder-joint, and when they become infected in the case of surra.
are paralysed the shoulder slips outward each In the Sudan, surra affects mainly camels,
S time the foot is placed upon the ground and which die within weeks or a few months, after
when weight is put upon it. After the paralysis showing symptoms of fever, anaemia, progres-
has been in existence for some few days, 2 dis- sive emaciation, oedema, and paralysis. In Asia,
tinct hollows appear over the shoulder, due to surra in camels is often a chronic disease which
atrophy of the muscles, and the spine of the may persist for years.
scapula stands out prominently between these In horses, symptoms are similar, but the
hollows. When viewed from in front the animal dropsical swellings (oedema) are especially
appears to have lost the symmetry of the 2 shoul- noteworthy, affecting several parts of the body
der regions. In typical cases there is difficulty in (as they do also in the dog). Mortality is
bringing the limb forward, and often the leg high, and occurs in horses after a matter of
appears to swing outwards with a circular move- weeks or months. Loss of power in the hind
ment. When a horse stands quietly, the affected limbs, and exaggerated heart sounds may
limb is usually brought well under the body, and precede death.
may even take up a position across the middle In Central America the names ‘murrina’
line of the body. The paralysis may disappear in and ‘derrengadera’ have been used for
6 weeks; but in more severe cases, 18 months vampire-bat and fly-transmitted infection with
may elapse before the horse is fit for work. T. equinum.
Sweat (Perspiration) 679
Treatment involves use of drugs such as food on the upper surface of the tongue which
antrycide, diminazine and suramin which have is raised, tip first, against the hard palate
specific action on trypanosomes. Fly control is towards the rear. At the same time the soft
also important in reducing the incidence of the palate is raised, closing the gateway to the nose.
disease. The base of the tongue forces food into the
pharynx. The next 2 stages of swallowing are
Suspected Adverse Reaction involuntary, reflex actions. (For difficulty in
Surveillance Scheme (SARSS) swallowing, see DYSPHAGIA.)
In the UK, the Veterinary Medicines Directorate
monitors reports of unusual unexpected adverse Swamp Cancer
reactions to veterinary medicines and lack of A condition affecting horses in Australia. The
efficacy. The manufacturers are kept informed lesion is, in fact, a fungal granuloma caused by
of such reports so that they can take appropriate Hyphomyces destruens.
action.
Swamp Fever
Suture (see EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANAEMIA)
Suture is the name given either to the close
union between 2 adjacent flat bones of the skull Swayback
at their edges, or to a series of stitches by which Swayback is a copper deficiency disease seen in
a wound is closed. (See WOUNDS.) the last 3rd of pregnancy in the ewe or in new-
born and young lambs. It is characterised by
Swabs progressive cerebral demyelination, which
Swabs are used for sampling mucus, etc., for results in paralysis and often death. It occurs in
diagnostic purposes; the material subsequently many parts of the UK.
being cultured so that pathogenic organisms, if
present, may be identified. For swabbing as a Signs A staggering gait or inability to walk.
guide to infertility in the thoroughbred mare, Severely affected cases all die. Newborn lambs
see under EQUINE GENITAL INFECTIONS. cannot rise and suckle.
leaving a high percentage of death in its wake. gilts, but towards the end emaciation and
In the UK the chronic form is usually met with prostration become very obvious.
in small outbreaks in different parts of the Infertility, involving abortion, stillbirths, and
country, but from time to time in certain areas, mummified fetuses, commonly results from
especially in East Anglia, and during hot erysipelas.
dry summer weather, it breaks out in a more
menacing form, and large numbers of pigs Treatment Antibiotics have been used.
become affected with the acute form, and
considerable numbers die. Prevention Avoid any pigs in the open
market which appear to be thin and not thriv-
Cause Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, which may ing, especially sows and boars, or older pigs.
also infect sheep at shearing or dipping time Any showing wrinkling of the skin of the ears,
through small wounds or abrasions. or patches or flushing on the skin, those which
have swollen joints, or those which have
Signs There are 3 recognised forms of swine diarrhoea, should not be bought. Pigs showing
erysipelas: the subacute, the acute, and the extreme breathlessness upon mild exertion
chronic. Mild or subacute attacks come on should be likewise avoided.
suddenly; there is high fever, loss of appetite, Vaccinate piglets from non-immune sows at
dullness, a tendency to lie buried in the litter, 7 days old, repeated at 4 weeks; pregnant sows
and when moved, to do so reluctantly: the skin and gilts should be vaccinated at 6 and 3 weeks
over the chest, neck, back, and over the thighs before farrowing and a booster given 3 weeks
becomes flushed at first, and soon changes to a before subsequent farrowings.
red or purple colour. The outlines of the areas Arthritis and heart disease may be a result of
affected are often square, or they may be the pigs becoming hypersensitised to the bacteria,
shape of the playing-card diamond, from which and not the result of attack by the bacteria
the disease gets one of its names – ‘diamond themselves. This must be borne in mind when
disease’. The areas are usually raised above the prescribing the vaccine.
level of the surrounding skin, are painful to
the touch at first, but not so later, and, appear- Public health Stockmen exposed to
ing about the 2nd or 3rd day of the attack, last infection must be careful to wash their hands.
for 4 days, and then disappear. Recovery may
be followed by the chronic form. In some cases, Swine Fever (Classical Swine
pigs may show painful swellings of the knees Fever) Also called hog cholera or pig
and hocks, but this is not invariable. Young pigs typhoid, this is a highly infectious and conta-
between 3 and 5 or 6 months old are most gious disease of pigs. It is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
commonly attacked; it is rare before 3 months, in Britain and the EU.
but may occur in older animals.
Acute type, or septicaemic type, often results Cause The cause of swine fever is a pestivirus
in sudden death. (a member of the Togavirus family). Secondary
Chronic type is the most insidious, and pigs bacterial invaders include Salmonella suipestifer
affected with it are probably responsible for and Pasteurella suiseptica. None of these
causing most of the outbreaks of the previous secondary organisms is, however, necessary for S
types, since, being bad thrivers, they are often the production of swine fever.
disposed of through the open market and It inevitably happens that pigs harbouring
bought by owners of clean herds. They feed, the virus of swine fever, but not yet showing
but do not always finish their food; they have a symptoms of the disease, are slaughtered for
normal temperature, but are easily distressed human food. Under such circumstances, the
when made to take exercise. Breathing becomes virus can survive in the skin and muscle for
shallow, and a cough generally develops. The 17 days. In frozen pork the survival time has
pulse becomes thready, and if the heart is been quoted as over 4 years; in bacon, 27 days.
listened to, a flowing murmur can be heard No wonder that unboiled swill is responsible
over the left side of the chest. This is due to for so many outbreaks.
the vegetative (or verrucose) endocarditis, At public markets, the urine of infected pigs
which is almost the characteristic feature of often drains into adjoining pens and alleyways.
post-mortem examination of pigs dead from The urine may, too, get splashed on to clothing,
chronic swine erysipelas. The chronic form may boots, etc., and droplets of it find their way into
last for several weeks, or even for 2 or 3 months, lorries and on to farms. In one instance about
especially in strong robust young breeding 30 outbreaks, spread over 10 counties, arose
682 Swine Fever, African
from the sale of a single infected pen at a large body. A period of 56 days may elapse between
market. the last deaths on a farm and a recrudescence of
It seems probable that the virus may be the disease.
carried by rats and mice for short distances
at least. Horse-flies can carry the virus, Diagnosis The fluorescent antibody test.
which – according to an American report – can
be harboured by larvae of the pig lungworm. Prevention Swill must be boiled for at least
These larvae are, in turn, harboured by an hour, and it must be prepared only in regis-
earthworms. tered premises for pieces of infected pig meat
The use of antibiotics contained in feeding- may otherwise give rise to an outbreak
stuffs has had the effect of masking the classical of the disease. NB: Swill feeding is illegal in
symptoms of swine fever, and is sometimes said the UK since the 2001 outbreaks of foot-and-
to have extended the incubation period. mouth disease. Pigs introduced into a herd
should be from premises shown to be free from
Signs In young pigs the disease is often acute the disease. Visits by pig-dealers should be
or peracute, while in older pigs it tends to discouraged.
assume a chronic form, although they also may
be affected with the severe rapidly fatal form.
Acute type: After an incubation period of 5 to Control A swine fever eradication pro-
10 days, signs of the disease include thirst, gramme, with compulsory slaughter, and
sometimes vomiting, shivering, loss of appetite. compensation, was introduced in 1963. The
There is a tendency to lie with backs arched disease was eradicated in 1966, but re-appeared
and tails uncurled. If forced to move, pigs are briefly in Yorkshire in 1971; and a single
seen to be unsteady on their legs. If their outbreak occurred in 1986. In 2000, a serious
temperature is taken, it is found to be high. outbreak occurred in East Anglia, resulting in
Initial constipation is usually followed by the imposition of movement restrictions on
diarrhoea, with a foul odour. There is often a animals from affected areas and the slaughter
discharge from the eyelids. The skin becomes of thousands of pigs. Sixteen areas were
reddened or purplish. Some pigs may cough or affected, the first case being confirmed on
show laboured breathing. Convulsions may August 8; the final restricted area was cleared
precede death. The mortality rate can be as high on December 30. The outbreak might have
as 90 per cent. originated from a pork pie, made from
Pneumonia is a common post-mortem imported pork, discarded where free-range
finding and ‘button ulcers’ may be present in pigs could have consumed it.
the intestines.
Chronic Type The pigs are dull and unthrifty, Swine Fever, African
lose weight, have a variable appetite; coughing This disease, formerly indigenous in the African
and/or diarrhoea may be other signs. The continent, appeared in Spain and Portugal
temperature may be only slightly raised or as during 1960.
high as 41°C (106°F). A partial recovery may During 1978 there was an outbreak in
be followed by relapse and death. Malta; eradication was effected by slaughter of
S Subclinical Swine fever may exist in a herd in a the entire pig population and restocking in a
subclinical form; pregnant sows showing no quarantine station on the island of Comino. An
obvious signs (though fever may be present), outbreak in Sardinia, also in 1978, spread
and the disease remaining unsuspected until into the wild boar population, in which it
the finding of a few dead piglets, or of others remains endemic. The risk of introduction to
showing muscular tremors. other countries is a serious one; there were
Death of the fetus may occur (see MUMMIFI- 5 outbreaks in Belgium in 1985. The
CATION) or weak or deformed piglets may be disease may be caried by airline meals or by
born. If infected late in pregnancy, piglets may passengers.
die without signs of swine fever. Meanwhile, The disease is also known as wart-hog
being viraemic, they may have infected others. disease, as these animals besides bush-pigs are
Infection of a pregnant sow can be followed affected. In some parts of Africa, pig-raising
by the presence of virus in her piglets, either has had to be abandoned on account of the
stillborn or living. The sow is not a carrier in disease, which is highly contagious, nearly
the usually accepted sense, since after the birth always fatal, and gives rise to carriers – those
of her piglets the virus – having crossed the few that survive often transmitting the
placental barrier – no longer remains within her infection to other pigs for a year or more.
Swine Pox 683
The virus causing swine vesicular disease is shown bottom right, labelled It 1/66. Extreme left is the bullet-
shaped virus of vesicular stomatis (VSV), and top right is the virus of vesicular exanthema (VEV). Centre
bottom picture shows foot-and-mouth disease virus. All these viruses affect pigs and have to be
differentiated. (The scale shown 20mm = 0.00002 mm. Photographs by electron microscope, with
acknowledgements to C. J. Smale and the Animal Virus Research Institute, Pirbright.)
684 Swine Vesicular Disease (SVD)
in which the disease is more serious; they also Mode of Infection Although the SVD virus
have conjunctivitis and some may die. The belongs to the enterovirus group, it has been
cause is infection with swine poxvirus and/or difficult to obtain evidence for infection by
vaccinia virus (see POX). mouth. Many experiments, in which precau-
tions were taken to prevent entry of virus by
Swine Vesicular Disease (SVD) other routes, have failed to produce the disease.
A NOTIFIABLE DISEASE. An enterovirus disease In contrast, infection by rubbing or scarification
whose signs resemble those of foot-and-mouth of the skin regularly produces infection, and it
disease. It first appeared in the UK in 1972. In seems that the most likely route of infection in
the Staffordshire outbreak of that year it was the field is through damaged skin.
at first mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease,
from which it cannot be differentiated on Swinge Coat
clinical grounds alone. However, it was shown An abnormality in which the hair is short,
at the Animal Virus Research Institute, sparse and curly.
Pirbright, that the virus was not that of
foot-and-mouth disease but related to an Swollen Head Syndrome of
enterovirus which had caused outbreaks in Italy Chickens (SHS)
and Hong Kong.
All cases in the UK were linked either to swill Signs An oedematous swelling beginning
feeding of pigs or to the movement of pigs from round the eyes and progressing to the inter-
infected to clean premises. The disease appears mandibular tissue. There is coughing and a
to be spread rapidly through contact, with an nasal discharge. Opisthotonus may be seen. If
incubation period of perhaps 4 to 8 days. picked up the birds become incoordinated, roll
Airborne infection appears less likely than with over, and have difficulty in regaining a normal
foot-and-mouth disease. posture; diarrhoea may be seen. The disease
A similar disease has been reported in Austria lasts about 2 weeks.
among pigs imported from Poland, and also in
France. Cause A paramyxovirus.
SVD virus is very closely related to Coxsackie
B5 virus, which causes not only influenza-like Symbiosis
symptoms in man but also sometimes heart Symbiosis means an obligatory association
disease and meningitis. It is thought possible between 2 different species for their mutual
that SVD arose as a result of pigs becoming benefit.
infected by people ill because of Coxsackie
B5 virus, which locally then became adapted to Sympathetic Nervous System
pigs or underwent mutation. (see CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; AUTONOMIC
SVD has been transmitted to laboratory NERVOUS SYSTEM)
workers, so precautions must be taken.
Symphysis
Control Experience has shown that the A joint, in which bones are united by a
incidence of the disease has been quickly flattened disc of fibro-cartilage.
S reduced by the imposition of Controlled Area
measures, and this fact led to the Movement Syn-
and Sale of Pigs Order 1975, and subsequent Syn- is a prefix signifying union.
legislation, designed to slow down the move-
ment of pigs so that infection can show up and Synapse
be dealt with before it spreads further. (see NERVES)
Licences are required for all movement of
pigs; entry of pigs on to a farm precludes Synchronisation Of Oestrus
movement of animals off that farm for 21 days, (see CONTROLLED BREEDING)
except for those going direct to slaughter.
Swill-fed pigs can move only to a slaughter- Syncope (Fainting)
house. All pigs consigned to a slaughter market Syncope (fainting) is generally due to cerebral
or to a slaughterhouse must be marked with a anaemia occurring through weakened pulsation
red cross of specified dimensions. of the heart, sudden shock, or severe injury.
Sporadic outbreaks have occurred since It is common in dogs and cats, especially
the original outbreak. The infection can be when old; cases have however been seen in all
subclinical. animals.
Systole 685
Syndrome Synovitis
A group of symptoms. Inflammation of the membrane lining a joint.
It is usually accompanied by effusion of fluid
Synechia within the synovial sac of the joint. It is found
Adhesions in the eye, e.g. involving the tissues in various injuries and inflammation of joints.
of the iris to the cornea or lens (see EYE,
DISEASES OF – Iritis). Synovitis, Infectious
This is a disease of chicks, of about 2 to 10
Synergism weeks old, and of turkeys; first diagnosed in
Synergism is the opposite of antagonism. Britain in 1959.
Synergism between drugs, e.g. trimethoprim
and sulfadiazine, may be of practical value, Cause Mycoplasma synoviae.
for with the two it may be possible to obtain
the required effect with a dosage of one which, Signs Reluctance to move, lameness, swelling
if used alone, would be insufficient, but of joints, anorexia.
which cannot be increased because larger The confined conditions under which
amounts would cause side-effects. Another broilers are raised appear to render them partic-
advantage of using two drugs is the possibility ularly susceptible to this disease. Mortality is
that this would tend to prevent the multiplica- low, but a third of the survivors may be down-
tion of strains resistant to one of the graded, so that severe financial loss may be
compounds. caused. Control depends upon hygiene, and
The word ‘synergism’ is also used to describe being careful about the breeding stock.
an interaction between a virus and bacteria
in their combined invasion of, for example, Syringe, Hypodermic
the lungs; implying that the result of the A pump-like device used to introduce solutions
‘combined forces’, as it were, is greater than to, or withdraw them from, the body. (see INFEC-
the sum of the effects produced by the agents TIONS, DETERGENT RESIDUE; also PROJECTILE
individually. Synergism occurs in calf pneumo- SYRINGE)
nia between Mycoplasma bovis and Pasteurella
haemolytica. (For another example, see SWINE Systole
DYSENTERY.) Systole means the contraction of the heart as
opposed to the resting phase, which is called S
Synostosis ‘diastole’, and which alternates with the former
Synostosis is the term applied to a union by contracting period. In the cardiac cycle systole
bony material of adjacent bones usually sepa- takes about one-third, and diastole about
rate. It may occur in the spinal column in old two-thirds, of the whole period of the
animals. (See also HORSES, BACK TROUBLES IN.) heartbeat. (See HEART DISEASES.)
T
Tail sores in pigs These may follow
tail-biting by 1 or 2 pigs out of a large batch,
and if untreated can lead to pyaemia.
In 6 months, out of 135 pig carcases con-
demned in an Oslo abattoir, 56 were affected
with pyaemia – and of these, 43 had tail sores.
T-Cells Talfan Disease (Teschen
LYMPHOCYTES from the thymus gland con- Disease; Porcine Viral
cerned with cell-mediated immunity. (See Encephalomyelitis)
IMMUNE RESPONSE.)
This disease of pigs was first recognised in the
Czech Republic and occurs throughout Europe.
T2 Toxin In the UK, it was made a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE
This fungal toxin may poison cattle or poultry in 1974. Its cause is an enterovirus.
eating stored corn containing the fungus Experimentally, the incubation period is stated
Fusarium tricinctum. In cattle, the toxin may to be 12 days. Piglets 3 weeks old and upwards
cause multiple haemorrhages and sometimes are affected; adult pigs may be infected but
death; in poultry, there may be mouth lesions. show no clinical signs. By no means all piglets
in a litter or on a farm become ill, and the
Tachycardia mortality is usually low. The main symptom is
Tachycardia is a disturbance of the heart’s weakness or paralysis of the hind-legs. There
action which produces great acceleration of the is little or no fever or loss of appetite. Recovery
pulse. occurs in a proportion of animals which are
hand-fed. The disease is present in Britain to a
Tachypnoea small extent, and apparently may be associated
An increase in the rate of breathing due to some with abortion.
pathological condition. (See BREATHLESSNESS;
PARAQUAT POISONING.)
Tampan
Taenia A soft tick of the family Argasidae. (See TICKS.)
(see TAPEWORMS)
Tamponade, Cardiac
Tail, Amputation of A rapid accumulation of blood or other fluid in
Amputation of the tail (docking) is, or has the pericardial sac, compressing the heart and
been, undertaken for a variety of reasons. In sometimes suddenly arresting its function.
the UK the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons has ruled that docking a puppy’s tail Tannin (Tannic Acid)
is an unethical procedure except when it is Tannin (tannic acid) is a non-crystallisable
done for prophylactic or therapeutic reasons. white or pale-yellowish powder, which is
Docking by lay persons is illegal. In cattle, soluble in water and glycerine. It is prepared
amputation of the tail is illegal except following from oak-galls, and is found in strong tea or
injury and must, except in an emergency, be coffee. When brought into contact with a
undertaken by a veterinary surgeon. Pigs’ tails mucous surface, tannin causes constriction of
are often docked to prevent tail-biting. Lambs the blood vessels. When brought into contact
tails are docked to prevent faecal soiling and with many poisonous alkaloids it renders
fly strike (see under DOCKING; LAW; WELFARE them temporarily inert by forming the
CODES). insoluble tannate, and so is a valuable antidote.
T. saginata is a tapeworm of man which Dipylidium caninum infests cats also; and
produces cysticercosis infection in the muscles may be transmitted by swallowing a flea.
of cattle; this is C. bovis, known as measly In pigs, cattle, and sheep cysts of the tape-
beef. T. solum is another tapeworm of man, the worm Taenia hydatigena (which infests the dog
intermediate stage of which (metacestode) is and may occasionally attain a length of 5 metres
found in the skeletal and heart muscles of pigs, (16 ft)) may be so numerous in the liver that
producing measly pork. the latter ruptures, causing death.
Diphyllobothrium. D. latum is the broad
tapeworm of man, the dog, and the cat. It is Tapeworms in horses Three species occur
rare in Britain, but has a wide distribution. in horses, all belonging to the genus
Several species are found, but this is the Anoplocephala. A. perfoliata and A. mammillana
commonest. The life-history is interesting. are not uncommon in Britain, while A. magna
The ciliated larva liberated from the egg is is also sometimes encountered.
swallowed by a crustacean, Cyclops strenuus A. perfoliata, a stoutish worm with large head
or Diaptonius spp., in which it becomes an and no hooks, is a cause not only of unthrifti-
elongated form with a terminal sphere contain- ness but occasionally also of ileal and caecal
ing three pairs of hooklets, called a ‘procercoid obstruction, and/or intussusception, where
larva’. The crustaceans are swallowed by a fish, numerous A. perfoliata are present. The
when the larva, migrating to the muscles, infection may therefore be more serious than
becomes an elongated infective larva called a is generally supposed. The intermediate host
‘plerocercoid’. The fish is eaten by a suitable is a mite.
host, and the adults develop. In man, the
tapeworm may attain a length of 18 metres Tapeworms in ruminants All the tape-
(60 feet), and it may cause a grave form of worms of ruminants have 4 suckers and no
anaemia (bothriocephalus anaemia) associated hooks. In Moniezia the intermediate host is a
with gastric and nervous symptoms. free-living mite.
D. mansoni is also widely distributed and has The segments of Moniezia worms are much
a similar life-history, but the infective stage is broader than they are long. The worms may
found in many hosts, including man, pig, and attain a length of several metres/yards, with a
carnivores. It is common in frogs in Japan. The minute head little larger than a pin-head. More
adult worm is found in carnivores. than 1000 worms have been recorded from a
single host. Numerous species have been
Treatment of dogs infested with tape- recorded. H. giardi is found in Europe,
worms is very important, because some of the Australia, and Africa and is from 1 to 2 metres
species in their intermediate stages are danger- (3 to 6 ft) long.
ous to food animals. Farm dogs should never A closely related form, Thysanosoma
be allowed to harbour tapeworms. Routine use actinoides, is found in North America. It is
of anthelmintics is essential: a wide range is about 30 cm (1 ft) long, and is found in
available, many based on praziquantel or the liver. The sheep show general symptoms of
dichlorophen. All material passed should be malnutrition.
destroyed.
Bovine cystercercosis in Denmark
Studies were conducted on 14 farms with a
T history of this disease. On 6 of the farms the
source of infection was sludge from septic tanks
applied to pasture or crops. In 2 herds the
cattle grazed pasture near a sewage plant; while
on 3 farms people defecating on pasture was a
possible source.
with larvae in earthworms; and Hymenolepis of The life-cycle is completed if a dog eats the
various species, some of which may be very head of an infested sheep.
numerous in individual birds.
Signs These include impairment of vision, a
‘Measles’ in beef due to the presence of the staggering or high-stepping gait, circling, and
cyst stage (Cysticercus bovis) of the tapeworm standing with head lowered, raised, or pressed
Taenia saginata, which is a parasite of man. against an object. Backward somersaults have
Cattle swallow the eggs of the adult tapeworm, been recorded. Recumbency and opisthotonus
and these hatch in the intestines, liberating may occur. A softening of the bone of the skull,
young embryos, which burrow until they settle due to internal pressure of the cysts, is found in
in muscle fibre or connective tissues. Here a proportion of cases.
they appear as small oval cysts, containing fluid,
and each possessing the head of a potential Diagnosis Where there is no softening of the
tapeworm. skull, a guide to the location of the cyst may be
given by interpretation of the neurological signs
‘Measles’ in pork is due to the presence as indicated by the sheep’s behaviour. An intra-
of the cyst stage (Cysticercus cellulosae) of the dermal test has been used: 0.1 ml of cyst
tapeworm of man, Taenia solium. It is fluid is injected into a shaved area of skin.
extremely common among pigs in eastern Thickening of the skin within 24 hours
lands, which have access to garbage and human indicates the presence of a cyst in the animal.
faeces, from whence they pick up the eggs
passed through the human intestines. The Treatment Physical removal of the cyst may
eggs undergo a development similar to those of be attempted. The sheep is anaesthetised and,
the beef-measles tapeworm. Man may also in the absence of any skull softening, a trephine
himself harbour the cystic stage. used to remove a disc of bone 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in
diameter. Draining the fluid from the cyst
Cysticercosis in man Very high sporadic before its removal obviates the need to enlarge
infection rates have been found in Africa with the hole. The cyst is then removed completely.
Taenia saginata and T. solium, the 2 tapeworms (If this is not done, the remaining cyst wall is
of major importance in man. Where T. solium apparently capable of replacing the fluid.)
is present, serious human infections with the
cysticercus stage may be observed, as well as Hydatid disease is caused by the cystic
mild infections with the adult tapeworm. larval stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus
When it occurs in beef cattle, the cysticercus of granulosus, of which the dog and fox are the
T. saginata is a major economic problem and a usual hosts. Eggs released from tapeworm
serious obstacle to the export of meat. segments passed in the faeces by these animals
A single human carrier of T. saginata led to are later swallowed by grazing cattle, sheep and
an outbreak of cysticercosis among cattle on a horses, which may become infested also
large farm in the USA. through drinking water contaminated by
wind-blown eggs.
Coenuriasis (gid or sturdy) in sheep People become infested through swallowing
This disease is caused by the pressure of cysts of eggs attached to inadequately washed vegeta-
the tapeworm Taenia multicepts on cells of the bles, and possibly eggs may be inhaled in dust
brain (or spinal cord). or carried by flies to uncovered food. The T
Sheep become infested by swallowing the handling of infested dogs is an important
unhatched eggs, excreted in a dog’s faeces, while source. In Beirut, the risk is put at 21 times
grazing. In the digestive tract the eggs hatch, greater for dog-owners than others, by the
and pass via the bloodstream to various parts World Health Organisation, which states also
of the body; only those reaching the central that in California nomadic sheep-rearers are
nervous system develop. Here they form small 1000 times more likely to have hydatid disease
cysts, each containing 1 tapeworm head: this than other inhabitants of the state. (WHO
larval stage is known as Coenurus cerebralis. Technical Report 637).
Over a period of months, each cyst increases There have been successful campaigns to
in size, and more heads are budded from the control human hydatid disease in both Cyprus
lining membrane of the translucent cyst wall. and Iceland, by compulsory treatment and/or
Eventually a single coenurus may contain 50 banning of dogs.
or 100 or more tapeworm heads (scolices) Swallowed eggs hatch in the intestines and
projecting inwards. are carried via the portal vein to the liver. Some
690 Tapping
of the mandible; they are situated in the front or absent, the pulp cavity having filled with
of the mouth, and used for grasping and dentine formed from the pulp. The ‘dentine’
cutting. They are absent from the upper jaw forms the greater part of the tooth. It is hard,
of cattle, sheep, and goats, as well as other yellowish, or yellowish-white in colour, and is
ruminating animals. surrounded in the crown by enamel, and in the
The canines are situated behind the incisors, root by cement. The ‘enamel’ consists of a
and are used mainly for fighting purposes, comparatively thin layer of a brilliant white
being most developed in carnivores and omni- colour and extremely dense and brittle, which
vores. They are useless to the domesticated forms a cap to the dentine, or is arranged in
herbivorous animals, and in them are usually of layers through it. The ‘cement’ is always the
small size. They are not present in the upper outermost layer of a tooth, being formed on
jaws of ruminants, and in the lower jaws have the outside of the dentine in the root, and
the shape and function of incisors. filling up the irregular spaces and hollows of the
The molars are the remaining teeth, situated crown. The implanted part of a tooth is fixed
further back in the mouth. They are used into the socket by a layer of vascular fibrous
mainly for chewing, and are specially adapted tissue, which serves as the periosteum both of
for this purpose by having broad strong irregu- the tooth root and of the lining of the alveolus.
lar tables or grinding surfaces. The term ‘cheek It is known as the ‘alveolar periosteum’.
teeth’ is often applied to these teeth, since, Enamel is the hardest tissue in the body, and
strictly speaking, they are composed of consists mainly of phosphate of lime. It is com-
‘pre-molars’, which are represented in the posed of prisms placed side by side, with one
milk dentition, and ‘molars’, which are not so end resting on the dentine and the other end
represented. (See DENTITION.) towards the free surface in a simple tooth, such
Each tooth has a portion covered with as the canine of a dog. Cement is practically of
enamel, the ‘crown’; a portion covered with the same structure as bone, without possessing
cement, the ‘root’; and a line of union between Haversian canals.
these 2 parts known as the ‘neck’. A constric-
tion occurs at the neck in the temporary Arrangement and form For times of
incisors of the horse, in the incisors of the cutting of the various teeth, see DENTITION.
ruminants, and in incisors and molars of the
dog and cat; in the remaining teeth there is no Teeth, Diseases of
such constriction. Most diseases or disorders affecting the teeth are
associated with pain or discomfort, which
Structure Teeth consist of 4 tissues. In the results in absence of appetite, capriciousness in
middle of the tooth is the ‘pulp’, occupying feeding, or other disturbances.
the ‘pulp cavity’. It is soft and gelatinous, well
supplied with blood vessels and nerves, and is Irregularities In certain cases, the incisor
large in the young tooth. It nourishes the or molar teeth develop out of their normal
remaining tissues, and forms dentine for as long positions in the jaw, with the result that perfect
as the pulp cavity is open. In later life it is small apposition between the upper and lower teeth
is not possible, and the rate of toothwear is
not uniform. In other instances, extra or
‘supernumerary’ teeth are formed; in the
T incisor region these are usually placed behind
the arch of normal teeth, while extra molars
may be found as projections from the gums
on the inside or the outside of the line of
normal teeth.
When the temporary teeth are shed, it
sometimes happens that the permanent teeth
erupt irregularly to one side or behind the
temporaries, and are distorted accordingly. This
frequently happens in puppies, and to a lesser
extent in the herbivora. In the former, trouble
is likely to be experienced between 31⁄2 and 5
or 6 months, and in young horses at 21⁄2 and
Tooth structure. (From de Coursey, The Human 31⁄2 years of age. In such cases it is necessary
Organism, McGraw-Hill.) to extract any temporaries which persist, so that
Teeth, Diseases of 693
the permanent teeth can arrive in their proper Treatment Rasping the teeth by means of
places in the mouth. a special tooth-rasp will reduce smaller
In dogs frequently, in sheep sometimes, and irregularities, and bring the teeth back into
in other animals less commonly, there may be a their proper function.
discrepancy in length between the upper and
lower jaws. When the upper jaw is too long, the Caries is not synonymous with tooth decay,
condition is known as an ‘overshot jaw’, and although the term – borrowed from human
when the lower jaw projects too far forward, dentistry – is often used in veterinary practice
it is popularly spoken of as an ‘undershot jaw’. to include all tooth decay.
In bulldogs, pugs, and other breeds of dogs Caries is the destruction of the tooth enamel
with very short upper jaws the undershot and invasion of the dentine by bacteria,
condition is practically normal, while in certain resulting in the formation of a cavity. True
breeds with extremely long upper jaws, such as caries has been confirmed in dogs but is
the greyhound and show collie, overshot jaws comparatively rare in farm animals.
are very common.
Neck lesions in cats’ teeth A painful
Abnormal wear, which is due to malforma- condition affecting middle-aged to elderly cats,
tions of the jaws, to excessive softness of characterised by cavitation of the necks of teeth.
the teeth, or to the direction of the teeth, is This makes extraction difficult because of the
another mechanical cause of tooth disorder. risk of breakage of crowns.
(See SOIL-CONTAMINATED HERBAGE with
reference to sheep.)
Abnormal wear varies in different cases, and
Inflammations of the periosteum
lining the root cavity of a tooth are common.
is productive of some well-known conditions,
They may be due to small particles of food
as follows: (1) shear mouth, in which the molar
getting forced down into the socket of the
teeth of the upper and lower jaws wear so that
tooth, to fractures or fissures of the teeth, to
in time they appear like the blades of a pair of
caries, tumour formation, depositions of tartar,
sheep-shears, the upper row being worn away
and to certain specific diseases, such as
on its inner border, and the lower one along its
actinomycosis, etc.
outer border; (2) step mouth, where the cheek
teeth, instead of being all at the same level,
are arranged with some higher than others, Signs These vary from a slight redness of the
somewhat like steps – a high tooth in the lower gum around the root of the tooth, which is
jaw being opposite a short one in the corre- painful when pressed by the finger, to a large
sponding upper jaw; (3) overhanging upper suppurating tract running alongside the root of
jaw, which is where the first upper cheek tooth the tooth down into its socket, and perhaps
on either side is placed too far forward in through the skin to the outside or into one or
the mouth, and does not come into accurate other of the sinuses. Abscess formation in the
apposition with the tooth immediately below tooth socket may take place, and the abscess
it, causing the formation of a hook – at the may burst into the mouth, to the outside
same time the last lower cheek tooth is situated through the skin, or up into a sinus. In many
too far back and also forms a hook; and (4) cases there is a distinct bulge of the surface
curved tables, where the line of cheek teeth in above the diseased tooth, which may give to the
the upper jaw shows a convexity in its centre, face a one-sided appearance. T
and a corresponding concavity exists in the
lower row. Treatment The affected tooth or teeth must
be extracted, and the areas of suppuration
Signs In most of these instances the animal cleansed and curetted if necessary. The cavity
affected (almost always a member of the horse usually has to be packed with antiseptic gauze
tribe), instead of chewing its food and swallow- afterwards for a few days until it begins to fill
ing it in the usual way, rolls it round and round by healthy granulation tissue.
in the mouth until it collects into a sodden
mass, often about the size of a couple of fingers, Periodontal disease is a name for chronic
and puts it out of the mouth instead of infection of the periodontal membrane. It is
swallowing it. (See QUIDDING.) Pain may be one form of inflammation of the periosteum, or
shown when the hand is passed along the alveolar periostitis. It causes loosening and
outside of the cheek, especially when pressure shedding of the teeth, pain, failure to masticate,
is put upon the line of teeth. and loss of weight.
694 Teeth, Ewes’, ‘Trimming’
Odontomata are tumours formed in taken. An aerosol of mouth flora can remain
connection with the root of one tooth, or they airborne for up to 30 minutes following scaling.
may be found in the jaw, sinuses, or even It is recommended that: (1) the working area
involving part of the nasal passage, and be should be well ventilated – preferably with
composite or compound, when multitudes of forced air extraction; (2) masks should be worn
small rudimentary teeth are present. They at all times by anyone in the working area; and
cause swelling and bulging of the surface of the (3) a 0.2 per cent chlorhexidine solution should
face, and can only be treated surgically. be used as the coolant supplied to the scaling
equipment.
Porphyria gives rise to a pink or brown
discoloration of teeth. (See under BONE, Telogen
DISEASES OF.) The resting phase in the cycle of hair growth.
usually at its lowest, and at its highest in the late in almost all cases much slower than the rise. A
afternoon. wavering temperature, which shows little
For ordinary practical purposes the usual tendency to come down to normal, generally
average temperatures of animals are given as indicates that there is some active focus of
follows: disease, such as an abscess, which the body
Horses 38.0°C (100.5°F) cannot overcome. Sudden rise in temperature
Cattle 38.9°C (102.0°F) in an animal which has shown a steady fall
Sheep, goats 40.0°C (104.0°F) previously is an indication of a relapse or
Pigs 39.7°C (103.5°F) recurrence of the disease. (See also FEVER;
Dogs 38.3°C (101.0°F) HYPERTHERMIA; HEAT-STROKE; TROPICS.)
Cats 38.6°C (102.0°F) Fall of temperature may be occasioned by
Rabbits 38.2°C (100.8°F) great loss of blood, starvation, collapse, or
Fowls 41.6°C (106.9°F) coma; it is characteristic of certain forms of
Small birds 42.5°C (108.6°F) kidney disease. Certain chronic diseases in
Elephants 36.4°C (97.6°F) which emaciation is marked are also associated
Camels 37.5°C (99.5°F) with a subnormal temperature. (See also
HYPOTHERMIA.)
Temperature-taking The most satisfactory
place is within the rectum. In females the ther- Temperature, near calving time A
mometer may also be inserted into the external healthy cow – even though showing the famil-
part of the genital canal; as a rule, the vaginal iar signs – is unlikely to calve during the next
temperature is about half a degree higher than 12 hours if her temperature is 39°C (102°F).
the rectal temperature, so that when a series of This is a useful guide to herdsmen. (See also under
temperatures is to be taken, one site or the FEVER; HOUSING OF ANIMALS, etc.)
other should be selected.
With dogs and cats, one person should hold Temperature Control in Animal
the animal, preferably on a table, while another Housing
inserts and holds the thermometer. In each (see CONTROLLED-ENVIRONMENT HOUSING)
animal, after the bulb of the thermometer has
been lubricated with a little soap or Vaseline, Temperature-Sensitive (TS)
etc., the tail is raised vertically by the left hand, Viruses
and the thermometer is inserted through the (see VACCINE)
anal ring and into the rectum, by a screwing
movement if any resistance is encountered. It is Tenderness
held in position for 30 seconds, or 1 minute, Tenderness is pain that is felt only when a
according to the make of the thermometer, and diseased or injured part is handled.
then withdrawn. With a piece of cotton-wool
any adherent faeces are wiped away, and the Tendon
temperature is read off. Subsequently, the ther- Tendon is the dense, fibrous, slightly elastic
mometer should be washed in cold water, and a cord that attaches the end of a muscle to the
cold solution of disinfectant used to disinfect it. bone or other structure upon which the muscle
For purposes of temperature stress research, acts when it contracts. Tendons are composed
American scientists use a special ear thermome- of bundles of fibrous tissue, white in colour,
ter in cattle. As in similar medical research, this and arranged in a very dense manner, so as to be T
tympanic thermometer is more reliable than the capable of withstanding great strains. Some
rectal thermometer, and can sense changes as are rounded; some are flattened into ribbons;
small as 0.05°C (1⁄50°F). others are arranged in the form of sheets; while
those of a 4th variety are very short, the muscle
Temperature in disease A high tempera- fibres being attached almost directly on to
ture is one of the classic symptoms of fever, and the bone or cartilage which they actuate. Most
in greater or less measure accompanies practi- tendons are surrounded by sheaths lined with
cally all acute cases of disease. A comparatively membrane similar to that found in joint
steady rise in temperature is as a rule succeeded cavities, i.e. synovial membrane. In this sheath
by a correspondingly steady fall, and is to be the tendon glides smoothly over surrounding
looked upon as a more favourable sign of the parts. The fibres of a tendon pass into the fibres
natural course of a disease than when the tem- of the periosteum covering a bone, and blend
perature rises and falls with greater suddenness. with them. One of the largest tendons in the
The reduction of temperature in simple fevers is animal body is the Achilles tendon, which runs
696 Tendons, Diseases and Injuries of
from the large muscles at the back of the stifle A Texas rancher diluted 1 volume of TEPP
down to the point of the hock; it is often called with water to make 120 volumes, and sprayed
the ‘hamstring’, and is the structure that is 20 head of cattle. All were dead within
injured in the condition known as ‘hamstrung’. three-quarters of an hour. Symptoms of poison-
ing in a puppy comprised drowsiness, muscular
Tendons, Diseases and incoordination, and vomiting. The antidote is
Injuries of atropine sulphate.
(see also under MUSCLES; SPRAINED TENDONS) In
most cases the injuries to which tendons are Teratogenic
liable are in the nature of minute lesions in Teratogenic agents, called teratogens, are those
which fibres have been torn across through known to cause congenital defects when the
over-extension of the tendon as a whole. pregnant mother is exposed to them. The most
Accompanying these there are often slight notorious is thalidomide but there are many
haemorrhages or extravasations of blood into others, not all of them drugs: alkaloids found in
the substance of the tendon, and the tendon some plants, e.g. hemlock, viruses and radiation
itself is thickened at the injured part or, when can all be teratogenic.
severe, practically over the whole of its length.
At the same time, a certain amount of damage Teratoma
has usually been sustained by the tendon Teratoma is a developmental irregularity in
sheath, or by its lining, and an unusually large which the embryo, instead of growing
amount of the lubricating synovial fluid is normally in the uterus, develops structural
thrown out, which fills the tendon sheath to the defects or, in extreme cases, develops into a
point of dilatation, causing it to stand out on seriously deformed fetus. The latter are com-
the surface of the limb. paratively common in cattle, and give rise to
When recovery occurs, the swelling subsides, difficulty at parturition. ‘Teratology’ is the
fluid is absorbed, and the broken ends of the study of congenital deformities. (See also under
fibres become attached by strands of fibrous TUMOURS.)
tissue to other intact fibres nearby. Pain disap-
pears, and the animal becomes sound. Termites
Sometimes, however, permanent thickening Whitish, ant-like insects of the tropics. Some
results. (See also KNUCKLING.) species feed on wood, damaging buildings.
Certain of the tendons of the horse’s limb are
liable to become ruptured when subjected to Control Heptachlor and chlordane.
great or sudden strains. Suture of the ruptured
ends of the tendon has given good results when Terrapin
performed early, and when a sufficient amount A small aquatic turtle, of which the diamond-
of support can be provided by splints or other backed terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) is typical.
means. (See CARBON FIBRE.) Males are smaller than females, reaching about
Severing of tendons in dogs’ legs has been 14 cm (51⁄2 in) to the female’s 32 cm (9 in). They
successfully treated. (See also TENOSYNOVITIS.) are popular domestic aquarium pets; however,
they should be handled with care as cases of sal-
Tenesmus monella poisoning in members of households
Straining to pass urine or faeces with little or no in which they are kept have occurred.
T result.
Tervueren
Tenosynovitis A breed of dog originally from Flanders. Epilepsy
Tenosynovitis is inflamation of the tendon and has been recorded in some individual dogs.
its sheath. It affects the legs of broiler chickens
and is usually caused by a virus. Tendons Teschen Disease (Porcine Viral
may enlarge and cease to function. (See also Encephalomyelitis)
SYNOVITIS.) (see TALFAN DISEASE)
the testicle, guided by the fibrous cord known Outside this is a fairly thick layer of scrotal
as the gubernaculum, moves down from a fascia, in which is deposited the ‘cod-fat’ of the
position close to the kidney to a ‘cooler climate’ bullock and wedder. A strong reddish, fibro-
in the scrotum. Into this it is pulled by the elastic tunica dartos forms the next outermost
gubernaculum, which either fails to lengthen or layer, and provides the septum between the
actually shortens. right and left pouches of the scrotum. Finally,
In some animals, e.g. foals, one or both on the outside, there is the practically hairless,
testicles may go up again through the inguinal thin, elastic, oily-feeling skin of the scrotum.
canal. This occurs occasionally in pigs, in which
a returning testicle has been known to become Functions The essential function of the testis
a mere vestige by the age of 6 months. is to produce sperms. (See SPERMATOZOA.)
In certain of the wild animals, such as the rat, Between 60 and 80 million sperms are dis-
and in many tropical animals, e.g. the elephant, charged at each copulatory act by the stallion at
the testes are found in the abdominal cavity, the beginning of the breeding season. Since a
either permanently or temporarily between stallion may serve more than 100 mares during
periods of sexual activity. In the foal the testes the season, many of them upon 2 separate occa-
appear in the scrotum usually very soon after sions, it will readily be understood that the
birth, but they are subsequently drawn up into testes are extremely active organs, and make a
the abdomen, and do not reappear until considerable demand upon the vitality of the
between 5 or 6 months and 10 to 12 months. body generally. The necessity for a recuperative
In a certain proportion of cases the testes are period in breeding males will also be obvious.
retained in the abdomen until 2 years of The other function of the testis is that
age, and then descend into the scrotum; in a associated with elaboration of the male sex-hor-
number of cases they do not descend at all. The mones, resulting in the production of the
name ‘rig’, or ‘cryptorchid’, is applied to secondary sexual characteristics, such as the
such animals, and the condition is known as arched neck and great body size of the stallion,
‘cryptorchidism’. (See CRYPTORCHID.) the broad forehead, massive development of
The testes consist of a dense fibrous coat, the horns, and deep voice of the bull, the horns of
‘tunica albuginea’. Blood vessels run through- the ram, and the tusks of the boar, etc., as well
out the fibrous tissue, and nourish microscopic as the instinctive desire for sexual intercourse.
tubules, lined by layers of specialised cells The chief hormone is testosterone.
which form the spermatozoa. The tubules, (See also REPRODUCTION; ENDOCRINE
known as ‘seminiferous tubules’, are connected GLANDS; ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION.)
with each other near the centre of the testes,
and communicate with the coiled tubes of the Testicle, Diseases of
epididymis, from which springs the vas deferens During service, an irritable mare may kick a
connecting with the urethra at the opposite stallion and rupture one of the testes, or seri-
end. In the epididymis the sperms mature. The ously injure it. Damage may also be occasioned
‘spermatic cord’, which consists of the vas to these organs by the bites of dogs when fight-
deferens, spermatic artery, veins, and nerves, ing, by gores from cattle, or by injuries from
enclosed in the layer of serous membrane the tusks of boars, gunshots, etc. However,
(tunica vaginalis), passes upwards through the infection is probably most common.
inguinal canal and enters the abdomen, whence
it runs back to the region of the neck of Orchitis, or inflammation of the testis, T
the urinary bladder, opening finally into the may be the result of infection (e.g. by
urethra. Along the course of the urethra are Actinobacillus seminis, Brucella abortus, B. suis,
the openings of the ducts from the secondary Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis, tuber-
sexual glands – seminal vesicles, prostate, and culosis) or of trauma which – if the skin is
bulbo-urethral glands – which pour out a secre- broken – may itself lead to infection. A viral
tion which mixes with, nourishes, and protects infection of bulls – infectious orchitis – was
the masses of spermatozoa coming from the reported in the former Czechoslovakia.
testes. Necrotic orchitis in the bull has been caused in
Externally, the testicle is covered by a layer Britain by actinobacillosis. The testis, being
of serous membrane, lying immediately outside enclosed in a fibrous, comparatively non-elastic
the tunica albuginea, and known as the tunica capsule, is not able to swell to a great extent,
vaginalis propria, which also covers the epi- although the loose tissues of the scrotum often
didymis. On the outside of this tunic is the do. The scrotum becomes reddened in animals
tunica vaginalis communis, or the parietal layer. which have unpigmented skin in the inguinal
698 Testosterone
region, and the whole area is very painful to which are exposed to the action of sunlight and
the touch. fresh air. Picked-up nail wounds, cracked heels,
injuries from the prongs of stable-forks, etc., are
Treatment Antibiotics or other therapy may examples of wounds which often become cont-
be needed to deal with an infection. aminated with Cl. tetani. Tetanus may occur in
an animal which has had a slight wound which
Epididimytis (see under main dictionary appeared to heal without any complication. It
heading, and under RAM) may follow tattooing. Cases are met with where
no wound can be found on the surface of the
Hydrocele is a local oedema affecting usually body, nor is there any history of an accident;
one tunica vaginalis, and distending that side of such cases are probably the sequel to injuries
the scrotum with fluid. It is most frequently inflicted by worms in the intestinal wall, or to
encountered in the dog, although it may affect slight scratches from unusually hard or rough
other animals. herbage.
Intramuscular injections are a potential route
Hypoplasia (see under INFERTILITY) of infection when sterile precautions are
neglected.
Tumours affecting the testicle and/or scrotum
include CARCINOMA, SARCOMA, FIBROMA, PAPIL- Signs
LOMA, SEMINOMA, and SERTOLI-CELL TUMOUR.
Horses become stiff and disinclined to move.
Torsion (see under SPERMATIC CORD, TORSION There is difficulty in turning the head round to
OF) the side, and the fore-legs are splayed outwards
as though to enable the unfortunate animal
Testosterone better to retain its balance.
The hormone, secreted by the testicle, which The ears may be turned in towards each
controls development of the secondary sex other.
organs, sex characteristics and libido. (See If the head is lifted sharply up, by placing the
ENDOCRINE GLANDS; HORMONES.) hand under the chin, the haw or 3rd eyelid
(nictitating membrane) is seen to flicker across
Tests the eye to an extent much greater than usual.
(see LABORATORY TESTS) Fixity of the jaws, or trismus, which has been
responsible for the popular name given to
Tetanus (Lockjaw) tetanus (i.e. lockjaw), is not always in evidence
Tetanus (lockjaw) is a specific disease of the in the early stages of an attack.
domesticated animals and man, caused by The tail may be held out quivering, and
Clostridium tetani, which obtains access to the OPISTHOTONOS may be evident.
tissues through a wound. Horses are most com- During the course of an attack, faeces and
monly affected. The organism is present in urine are usually withheld, and digestive distur-
most cultivated soils, especially such as receive bances may occur, sometimes resulting in fatal
heavy dressings of farmyard manure. collections of gas in the large intestines.
In certain districts, tetanus is so common (See HYPERAESTHESIA – another sign.)
that it is usual to take precautions by inoculat-
T ing horses with antitoxin whenever they receive Cattle Early signs include a raising of the
even comparatively slight wounds, and always tail-head and, in some cases, bloat. The gait
before castration or major operations. Lambs becomes stiff and the animal may have diffi-
are lost each year after docking and castration, culty in feeding because it cannot easily lower
or before the umbilicus (navel) has closed after its head because of stiffness in the neck. Trismus
birth, from tetanus. (lockjaw) is a late sign. Tetanus in cattle is not,
Cl. tetani is an anaerobe, i.e. it thrives only in however, at all common; occasionally out-
an absence of oxygen. Its serious effects are pro- breaks occur, possibly due to rough, abrasive
duced by a toxin, which is absorbed into the feed which allows entry of the infection
general circulation and exerts its effects upon through the gut.
the nervous system of the brain and spinal cord.
This toxin is one of the most powerful known. Sheep The signs are similar to those in cattle.
Deeply punctured wounds, from which oxy- As the disease progresses, standing is difficult;
gen is excluded, are much more serious than the affected animals lie on their sides, rapidly
even large superficial wounds, the surfaces of become tympanitic, and die after a very short
Texas Fever 699
Horses The usual practice is to give 2 injec- Signs Stained urine (red-water), high tempera-
tions at an interval of 4 to 6 weeks, with a ture, no appetite, and constipation followed by
booster dose 6 or 12 months later. Further diarrhoea. Cerebral symptoms may be evident.
booster doses may be required. It is practicable The animal dies within 3 to 10 days. On
700 Texel
which possess fewer than 5 digits in their hind- used in treatment. (Red-water, caused by
limbs, the tibia has become modified so that it Babesia divergens, often occurs simultaneously.)
sustains the greater part of the weight borne by
the limb – the fibula, its complementary bone, Tick-Borne Fever of Sheep
having become reduced in size and importance. Tick-borne fever of sheep is a disease caused by
The tibia lies just below the skin on the inside Cytoectes phagocytophilia transmitted by the tick
of the limb, in such a position that it is liable to Ixodes ricinus.
be injured by kicks, blows, etc., and in this Tick-borne fever is a mild febrile disease of
connection is of more importance than those sheep in which the essential symptom is a rise
bones that are surrounded by massive muscles in temperature occurring after an incubation
which afford some protection. It is not uncom- period of 4 to 8 days, and lasting about 10 days,
mon for the tibia to become fractured, but the when it subsides. During this period (which
parts remain held together by the very dense may be prolonged) there is dullness and listless-
periosteum that covers the bone. In the smaller ness, and a considerable loss of weight may
animals, the setting of the fractured bone is a occur. Death occurs in only a small percentage
routine. (See BONES; FRACTURES.) of cases; most sheep recover unless some other
complicating condition such as louping-ill
Tibial dyschondroplasia A crippling supervenes. Abortion is an important result
deformity occurring in certain strains of chick- of infection in many instances, and may affect
ens, ducks, and turkeys selected for high growth 50 per cent of breeding stock introduced from
rates. It is due to a cartilage abnormality. tick-free areas.
Rickettsiae can be demonstrated in the
Tick-Bite Fever of Man in Africa polymorphonuclear white cells of the blood.
The importance of tick-borne fever is that it
Cause A RICKETTSIA. Local reactions, swelling is capable of rendering the vasculo-meningeal
of lymph nodes, occur in some individuals. So barrier of the central nervous system vulnerable
far as is known, tick-bite fever is not fatal. to the virus of louping-ill. Without its presence,
The bont tick, bont-legged blue tick, yellow though the louping-ill virus may be introduced
dog tick, and the brown tick – all common in into the bloodstream (by the bite of a tick), it
East Africa – transmit this disease. It can be cannot pass this barrier to attack the nerve cells
transmitted to the guinea-pig by inoculation of and so produce the typical nervous symptoms.
blood. It has been shown that both infective agents –
that of tick-borne fever and of louping-ill –
Tick-Borne Encephalitis (TBE) frequently exist together in ticks found on
A meningioencephalitis following infection by a animals on farms where louping-ill is common,
flavivirus transmitted by the sheep/cattle tick and it is probable that under natural conditions
Ixodes ricinus. The ticks become infected by field the great majority of adult sheep on such farms
mice, voles, shrews, and occasionally moles. It have been infected with tick-borne fever
occurs throughout continental Europe, being infection and have recovered.
especially prevalent in mountainous regions Tick-borne fever increases the susceptibility
with coniferous forests. It is more common of lambs to tick pyaemia, often caused by infec-
in humans than in animals, but the infection in tion with Staphylococcus aureus following
dogs has been confused with rabies. tick bites. Abscesses occur in the joints and
The human illness resembles influenza in elsewhere, causing lameness, unthriftiness, and T
its symptoms, with a high fever. This may death.
be followed by meningitis. Mortality is about
1 per cent. Tick Paralysis
In differential diagnosis, the flavivirus causing Tick paralysis affects man, cattle, sheep, horses,
TBE has to be distinguished from louping-ill pigs, dogs, cats, and poultry.
virus. It occurs in Africa, Australia, and Canada,
and is caused by the presence on the animal of
Tick-Borne Fever of Cattle various species of Ixodes (especially the dog tick)
Tick-borne fever of cattle is caused by Cytoectes in South Africa and Australia, and Dermacentor
(Erlichia) phagocytophila, transmitted by the in America. In East Africa, the bont-legged tick
common sheep tick, Ixodes ricinus. Symptoms (Hyalomma spp.) and possibly the Red tick
of this infection are high but transient fever, (Rhipicephalus evertsi) cause paralysis.
and a considerable reduction in milk yield. The paralysis is caused by toxin(s) present in
Abortion may also occur. Oxytetracycline is the saliva of ticks.
704 Tick Pyaemia
In human beings, 3 or 4 days after the ticks Family Ixodidae (hard ticks) In this
attach themselves, paralysis of the legs occurs, family the dorsum of the body is more or less
then paralysis of the arms takes place, later the protected by a hard shield of chitin, and in
chest and neck become involved, and ultimate- some species the male has ventral plates also.
ly the heart and respiratory centres are attacked. The principal species attacking the domestic
In the sheep, the parts are affected in the same animals are dealt with below. (See also DOG TICKS
general sequence. for those occurring in Britain.)
This form of paralysis is peculiar in that
symptoms disappear within 2 to 6 days after the Ixodes. There are over 50 species in this genus,
ticks are removed, and recovery takes place including the following:
subsequently. Individual lambs, for example, (a) I. ricinus attacks all the domesticated ani-
can be reinfected and recover more than once, mals and is found in most parts of the world. It
if the ticks are removed by hand. They are usu- is known locally as the castor-bean tick, or
ally not easily seen unless a deliberate search is European sheep tick. A 3-host tick, it leaves its
made in the wool over the vertebral column host before each moult, and then seeks a new
from the base of the skull back to the tail. host. In this way 3 animals are attacked by the
In the dog, they may cause QUADRIPLEGIA. same tick: one as a larva, one as a nymph, and
one as an adult. The animals attacked need not
Tick Pyaemia be of the same species. This tick transmits tick-
(see TICKS; TICK-BORNE FEVER OF SHEEP) borne fever in sheep, louping-ill, and causes tick
paralysis in sheep and cattle. It can also transmit
Ticks Babesia, the cause of red-water.
These are among the most serious parasites of (b) I. hexagonus attacks especially the dog,
domestic animals. In the tropics they transmit but is found on other hosts, notably sheep. It
bacterial, protozoal and viral diseases; in the
UK, tick-borne fever, red-water fever and
louping-ill. Tick pyaemia is caused in sheep
by the transfer of staphylococcal infection.
Lyme disease is considered to be partly tick
spread.
Some cause illness by means of a toxin, while
all feed on the host’s blood – which can result
in a serious anaemia. Large numbers of ticks
also worry the host, and cause unthriftiness.
Suppurating wounds may also result. In the
British Isles, Ixodes ricinus is the main tick
found, although Haemophysalis punctatis is
present in some southern coastal areas.
Life-cycles On this basis, ticks can be divided Ixodes. (Dorsal and ventral views of a small
into 3 groups: female. × 8.) In this and subsequent drawings of
ticks only the fore parts of the legs are shown in
1-host ticks, such as Boophilus, which spend diagrams of the ventral surface.
all 3 stages of their life-cycle on the same ani-
T mal. Larvae having attached themselves to the
host, they feed on it, moult, feed again on it as
nymphs, moult, and the adult ticks also feed on
it – the females subsequently dropping to the
ground to lay their eggs.
2-host ticks: these, such as some Hyalomma
species, feed as both larvae and nymphs on
the same host, but then moult on the
ground; emerging adults find and feed on a
2nd host.
3-host ticks: larva, nymph, and adult each
feeds on a different host, with moulting taking
place on the ground between each stage in the
life-cycle. Ixodes and Dermacentor species are
included in this group. Ixodes. (Ventral and dorsal views of male. × 12.)
Tick 705
occurs in Europe, North Africa, and America; America, and North Africa on all the domestic
it is common on hunting dogs in France. In animals. The life-history is identical with that
addition it is a transmitter of babesiosis. of H. leachii. It transmits Babesia bovis in
(c) I. canisuga is the common species found Britain.
on the dog in Britain. It occurs also in Western (b) H. leachii is a 3-host African species
Europe and North America. Like the last which has been found in Western Asia and
species, only females are found on the host. It is Australia. It attacks carnivores, but is sometimes
known popularly as the British dog tick. found on ruminants. In East Africa it is called
(d) I. pilosus attacks all the domestic mam- the yellow dog tick; it is also known as the
mals in South Africa. It is a reddish-brown tick, South African dog tick. It transmits canine
with the body larger behind than in front. It is babesiosis, Q fever, and tick-bite fever.
known locally as the russet tick, and is a causal
agent of tick paralysis. Dermacentor. The following species are
(e) I. rubicundus, another South African tick, important:
which is found only on sheep, also causes tick (a) D. reticulatus is common in Europe, but
paralysis. also occurs in North Asia. It attacks ruminants,
(f ) I. holocyclus, in Australia and India, is and also the dog and the horse. It is occasional-
found on ruminants, dogs, and pigs. It is the ly found in Western England. It transmits
cause of Australian tick paralysis, symptoms of equine and canine babesiosis.
which may appear within an hour of attachment. (b) D. variabilis (D. electus) is found on dogs
It transmits Q fever. in North America. It also occurs on cattle and
horses. It is known as the American dog tick.
Haemaphysalis. The following species are (c) D. occidentalis occurs in western North
important: America on various domestic mammals. It is
(a) H. punctata (H. cinnabarina var. puncta- considered by some authorities to be D. reticu-
ta) is a common tick in Europe, North latus.
Life-cycle of a 3-host tick, Ixodes ricinus. (Reproduced with permission from H. T. B. Hall, Diseases and
Parasites of Livestock in the Tropics, Longman.)
706 Tick
(d) D. venestus is found in the Rocky (d) R. capensis is found in South Africa on
Mountain District of North America and is cattle, horses and dogs. It is called the Cape
called the Pacific Coast tick. Adults are found brown tick. The life-cycle is similar to the
on various mammals, including man. It is the 2nd species. It can transmit Theileria parva.
transmitter of Rocky Mountain spotted fever in (e) R. simus is found in Africa on dogs and her-
man, and of canine babesiosis. It is the cause of bivores. It is called the dark pitted tick. Its life-
American tick paralysis. It is a 3-host tick. cycle is similar to the 2nd species. It can transmit
Theileria parva, Anaplasma marginale, T. mutans.
Rhipicephalus. The following species are (f ) R. evertsi in Africa may be found on
important: all the domestic mammals except pigs. It has
(a) R. sanguineus is found in all parts of the orange-red legs with round convex distinct eyes.
world on dogs and ruminants. It is brown in The scutum is black and densely pitted. The
colour. It is known as the European brown tick underside of the male is red; the females are
and also as the European dog tick – a name brown or reddish brown. It is called the red tick
shared with Ixodes hexagonus. or the red-legged tick. This 2-host species trans-
(b) R. appendiculatus is found in Africa, mits Nuttallia equi and T. parva, causing East
where it attacks cattle, sheep, goats. It is called Coast fever, babesiosis, spirochaetosis.
the brown tick, and is a 3-host tick. This species
transmits East Coast fever, corridor disease, Boophilus
mild gall sickness, red-water, Nairobi sheep (a) B. decoloratus is found on cattle and other
disease. animals in Africa. It is a 1-host tick, called the
(c) R. bursa is found in North Africa and blue tick. This tick, which may be a variety of
Southern Europe on all animals. It is a 2-host B. annulatus, transmits Babesia bigemina,
tick. It transmits ovine babesiosis in Europe. Anaplasma marginale, and Spirochaeta theileri.
(b) B. australis is found in Australia, India, (e) A. cayannense in South and Central
Africa, and tropical America. It is called the America attacks all the domestic mammals. It
Australian blue tick. It also is probably a variety. is a most vicious biter, and transmits equine
(c) B. annulatus is the Texas fever tick, and is nuttalliosis.
found in southern North America. (f ) A. americanum is similar to the last
The tick remains on the host for 3 to species, but the scutum has a silvery white
9 weeks. It transmits B. bigemina. spot, giving it its popular name of the lone star
tick.
Hyalomma. This genus has an oval body An American species of Amblyomma transmits
with longish pedipalps and distinct eyes. Anaplasma argentinum.
(a) H. aegyptium is found on all the domestic
animals in Africa, Southern Europe, and Asia. Family Argasidae (soft ticks) This fami-
It has a brown scutum. Only adults are found ly is distinguished from the hard ticks by the
on the domestic animals, the younger stages absence of a scutum and by the fact that the
being found on small mammals. It is called the males and females are almost indistinguishable.
striped-leg tick, or the bont-leg tick. The tick Looked at from above, the capitulum is invisi-
produces ulcerating sores in cattle, and is fre- ble in the adult, whereas in the Ixodidae the
quently the cause of lameness in sheep and head is always visible.
goats owing to its attachment between the Only 2 genera exist in this family, Argas and
claws. It is believed to transmit both species of Ornithodorus. The adults do not permanently
Theileria, and equine and bovine babesiosis. attach themselves to 1 host, like the hard ticks,
(b) H. truncatum, the African bont-legged but resemble the bed-bug in habits. The female
tick, is usually a 2-host, occasionally a 3-host also generally lays more than one batch of eggs.
parasite. Cattle and goats are the main hosts. It Some ticks in this family are carriers of
transmits sweating sickness and Q fever. A spirochaetal diseases to man and birds.
toxin is thought to be produced by this species
capable of causing necrosis of skin and mucous Argas.
membrane at the site of bites, as well as some (a) A. persicus (A. miniatus) is the well-known
degree of paralysis. The necrosis may be exten- fowl tick, or blue bug, or tampan. It is practically
sive. In one case, in a terrier bitch, it extended cosmopolitan in its distribution.
from vulva to umbilicus, with exposure of the It is essentially a bird tick, but will bite man
urethra and much sloughing. and other mammals (horses and cattle) on occa-
sion. It particularly attacks chickens. A large
Amblyomma. In this genus the body is number on a fowl will suck so much blood that
broadly oval. the bird will die from anaemia. It is the carrier
(a) A. hebraeum is an African tick attacking of fowl spirochaetosis, and fowl piroplasmosis.
all the domestic mammals. It has a conspicu- The tick normally feeds at night, spending
ously marked scutum, yellowish with a red and the day in crevices, and accordingly is seldom
blue tinge, and brown or black markings. The seen – as is the case with bed-bugs, which also
eyes are flat and flush with the body. It is called attack chickens. It is easily distinguished from
the bont tick. This species causes ulcerating this pest by the presence of 8 legs – the bed-bug
sores at the points for attachment, and is a fre- being an insect, and in consequence having
quent cause of sore teats. It conveys heart-water
to ruminants. T
(b) A. variegatum is an African species attack-
ing herbivores. It has distinct convex eyes.
The scutum is reddish yellow bordered with
green with black markings. It is called the var-
iegated tick. Its life-history is as above. It also
transmits heart-water, Nairobi sheep disease,
and Q fever.
(c) A. lepidum, an African 3-host bont tick,
apparently transmits no diseases but gives rise
to unpleasant sores.
(d) A. gemma, an African 3-host bont tick
which infests cattle, camels, and other domestic
animals. It can transmit both heart-water and
Nairobi sheep disease. Argas. × 4.
708 Tick
only 6 legs. The larval tick (seed tick) remains With the exception of ticks of the Boophilus
several days on the host, and is more frequently species, larvae hatching from a tick’s eggs will
seen. The adults can live for 2 years without not immediately be infective because these lar-
food. vae have not yet fed on any host; but as soon as
(b) A. reflexus, a closely related species, is they start feeding they may ingest the causal
found mainly on pigeons, but also attacks poul- organisms of a tick-borne disease. When they
try and man. It is found in Europe, Africa, and moult and become nymphs, they may then be
America. capable of transmitting disease. Similarly, when
the nymph, on moulting, becomes an adult
Ornithodorus. tick, it will be infective if there were already
(a) O. savignyi, the sand tampan, is a soft tick parasites in its blood.
of great economic importance in Africa, Asia, Not all tick vectors will transmit all causal
and the Near East. The tick lives below the sur- organisms; and, of course, not all species of host
face of the sand, emerging to feed on the blood are susceptible to the same causal organisms.
of cattle, other domesticated stock, wild ani- An infective 3-host tick feeding on a non-
mals, and man. The tick’s saliva contains a susceptible host ‘cleans’ itself of infection and
potent toxin and this, together with massive will not transmit disease in the next stage of its
blood loss, readily kills young or debilitated life-cycle. This fact provides a useful control
animals. Amitraz, cypermethrin and ivermectin measure.
are among effective controlling agents. The specific parasites transmitted by the
(b) O. megninii is the spinose ear tick of ticks are not passed on mechanically, but must
America and South Africa. The larvae creep undergo a special development in the tick. This
into the ear of some mammalian host, and in is easily understood when it is realised that any
a few days moult. The nymphs, which are one stage in the life-history of a hard tick bites
covered with minute spines, may live for 1 to only one animal. Accordingly, a tick infected in
7 months in the ear, increasing in size from 3 one stage must be capable of producing the dis-
to 17 mm (1⁄8 to 2⁄3 in). They finally drop to the ease in some succeeding stage, which depends
ground, moult, mate, lay their eggs, and die. on the tick.
The adult is not parasitic. The eggs hatch in
about 10 days. As many as 80 ticks have been Control of ticks In many tropical countries,
found in a single ear. The irritation is consider- energetic measures for the regular and frequent
able and heavy losses may result. A modern dipping of cattle and sheep are necessary. In
treatment is IVERMECTIN. order to achieve adequate control of the tick-
(c) O. coriaceus (pajaroello) is a venomous borne diseases, it is important that hand-
species (found in North America) which causes dressing of certain parts of the body should be
a very painful bite. carried out in addition to the dipping or spray-
ing. This applies to inside the ears, around the
Transmission of disease When an infect- base of the horns, around the eyes, anus, etc.
ed tick feeds upon a calf, it transmits the para- The acaricides, or tick-killing chemicals,
sites – or causal organisms – of the tick-borne have comprised: (1) arsenical compounds;
disease in question. The calf soon becomes ill, (2) chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds;
and either dies or recovers. As a rule, recovery is (3) the organo-phosphorus compounds; and
associated with immunity. However, relapses (4) avermectin compounds.
T may occur in animals thought to be immune to Dipwashes containing arsenic are unsuitable
red-water, for example. for spraying because of the danger of pasture
contamination. Although cheap, stable, and sol-
uble, arsenic compounds are very poisonous:
another disadvantage is that some species of
ticks acquire a resistance to arsenic preparations.
Accordingly, a change to chlorinated hydrocar-
bons followed. Of these, BHC and toxaphene
have been widely used. Unfortunately, ticks can
become resistant to these too. (See also BHC.)
Organophosphorus compounds tend to be
expensive, and are used mostly against ticks
resistant to other acaricides.
Coumaphos; cypermethrin, a synthetic
Ornithodorus. × 3. pyrethroid; diazinon, an organophosphorus
Togaviruses 709
Timber Toadstools
(see WOOD PRESERVATIVES; BEDDING – Pigs, and Toadstools can cause severe poisoning if eaten.
Dogs and cats) In one recorded instance, a cairn terrier died
after eating Nolanea sericeum toadstools growing
Tincture on a lawn. Death occurred within 3 hours.
Tincture is an alcoholic solution, e.g. tincture
of iodine. Signs of poisoning by this fungus are severe
vomiting and abdominal pain.
Tinea
(see RINGWORM) Tobacco
(see NICOTINE) Stalks of tobacco plants fed to
Tissue Culture Vaccines pigs have resulted in piglets born with limb
(see VACCINES) deformities.
ORBIVIRUSES, and PESTIVIRUSES. (See table under may result from injuries, irritant or corrosive
VIRUSES.) poisons, infections, and vitamin deficiencies.
Glossitis may be accompanied by the forma-
Tom tion of vesicles which burst, leaving ulcerated
A male cat. In North America, male turkeys are areas. (See FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE; SWINE
also called toms. VESICULAR DISEASE.) Ulcers are also a symptom
of cattle plague (see RINDERPEST), MUCOSAL
Tomography DISEASE, and ORF in sheep. FELINE CALICIVIRUS
Body section radiography. (See X-RAYS may cause tongue ulcers in the cat.
–Computed tomography.) Raised irregular swellings or abscesses on the
tongues of cattle suggest ACTINOBACILLOSIS.
-Tomy Ulcers along the free edges of the tongue may
-Tomy is a suffix indicating an operation by be produced by diseased teeth.
cutting. In the disease called calf diphtheria (necrosis
of the pharynx), the tongue may be the seat of
Tongue raised areas of false membrane which will also
(see also MOUTH) is a muscular and fibrous be seen in other parts of the mouth.
organ, richly supplied with blood vessels and The tongue may be injured or wounded from
nerves, and covered with a highly specialised too severe a bit in the horse, or from carelessness
mucous membrane. Its shape varies in the dif- in breaking in a young colt. In such cases there is
ferent animals, but in all it consists of a free part usually a distinct mark across the tongue’s upper
or ‘tip’; a middle part, the ‘body’; and a hinder surface, behind which the organ appears normal,
part, the ‘root’. In the horse the tongue is long and in front of which it is reddened and swollen.
and spatulate, with a blunt tip, freely movable, Foreign bodies, such as fish-hooks, needles,
and there is a definite narrowing just behind the wire, splinters of bone, etc., may become fixed
tip. In the ox the tip is short, and pointed or in the tongue, and lead to protrusion of the
conical; mobility and pliability are not so great, organ, difficulty in swallowing, salivation, and a
and on the upper surface is a hump-like emi- disinclination on the part of the animal to allow
nence or ‘dorsum’, divided from the tip by a the mouth to be handled or examined.
distinct, deep, transverse groove. The dorsum is In canine LEPTOSPIROSIS/kidney failure there
of the greatest use in swallowing, and in bring- are often areas of necrosis around the tip (which
ing the small balls of cud from the back of the may slough off ), and a foul odour.
mouth forward for chewing by the cheek teeth. A brown discoloration may be present in the
above condition. (See also ‘BROWN MOUTH’.) A
Tongue, Diseases of soapy-white appearance of the tongue, again
(see
under MOUTH, DISEASES OF; SALIVATION; accompanied by an unpleasant odour, often
RANULA; ‘CURLED TONGUE’ in turkey poults) indicates some digestive disorder.
Curled tongue is an inherited defect in
Condition of the tongue The tongue of turkeys which has largely disappeared from the
any animal in health should be of a pink glis- main hybrids. It may, however, still surface in the
tening appearance, soft and moist to the touch more traditional types – for example, broad-
in the horse, sheep, pig and dog; rough in the breasted bronze or Norfolk black. (See also ‘BLACK
cow and cat. (There are a few breeds of dogs, TONGUE’; BLUETONGUE (a specific disease of
T such as the chow, in which the tongue is nor- sheep and cattle); MYOTONIA; ASPHYXIA.)
mally black or bluish.) When handled the
tongue should possess a considerable power of ‘Tongue Worm’
retraction; a weak flabby tongue usually indi- ‘Tongue worm’ is the colloquial name for
cates general muscular weakness. When at rest Linguatula serrata, a parasite of the nose of the
the tongue should touch the inner edges of all dog and other animals. (See MITES.)
the lower teeth. When it becomes greatly
swollen it presses against the teeth and these Tonic
leave indentations around its margin. In cattle Tonic means, in one sense, a continuous mus-
there is a raised part or ‘dorsum’ behind the free cular spasm, as compared with CLONIC. (See also
tip, which is instrumental in forming the food TONICS.)
into boluses for swallowing.
Tonics
Inflammation of the tongue (glossitis) A name applied to a variety of medicines or other
is usually accompanied by SALIVATION, and substances believed to help improve health. In
Touch 711
human medicine, the term is often applied to £400 for an offending supplier, pet trader, or
bitter herbal extracts that may stimulate the private individual. This little piece of legislation
appetite. may help to mitigate the extremely high mor-
Turning out to grass is itself a tonic to ani- tality of tortoises imported into the UK, often
mals that have been confined indoors. (See also due to their being crammed into unsuitable
under PROTEIN, HYDROLISED; VITAMINS.) containers for their journey here and badly
looked after subsequently.
Tonsillitis It has been suggested that outbreaks of viral
Inflammation of the tonsils, a symptom of e.g. disease are present among tortoises (Testudo
canine viral hepatitis. The dog may retch or species) in the Mediterranean region.
cough, and be slightly feverish. Imported tortoises should be carefully
examined for the presence of exotic ticks.
Tonsils Tortoises and turtles have been known to
Tonsils are collections of lymphoid tissue, situ- infect dogs, cats, and people with salmonellosis.
ated between the anterior and posterior pillars (See also AMERICAN BOX TORTOISES; PETS.)
of the soft palate at the back of the throat. In For euthanasia, an injection into the abdomen
the horse there is not a compact tonsil, as in of pentobarbitone sodium is recommended.
man, the dog, etc., but a diffuse collection of
lymphoid tissue, mucous glands, etc., causing Tortoiseshell Cats, Male
elevations on the surface, in which are seen the Although nearly all tortoiseshell cats are female,
numerous depressions or crypts which charac- males do occasionally occur. It appears that the
terise the tonsil and differentiate it from other most common chromosome complements are
lymphoid tissue. In the sheep the tonsil is bean- 39XXY, 38XY/38XX, 38XY/39XXY and
shaped and does not project into the throat, as 38XY/38XY. A 38XY is needed for the cat to be
in most other animals. In health, the dog’s ton- fertile.
sils are not conspicuous, being situated in a
depression; but when inflamed they appear as Touch
2 bright red lumps. This sense depends upon receptors at the end of
nerves, or upon the nerve endings themselves:
Toothache Touch sense proper, by which touches or
(see TEETH, DISEASES OF) strokes are perceived, such as the lightest sensa-
tion caused by a fly settling on the skin. The
Topical Applications size and shapes of bodies in contact with the
Topical applications of a drug are those made skin which are not seen is also appreciated by
locally to the outside of the body. this sense.
Pressure sense, by which the weight of heavy
Topping of Pastures objects and their hardness can be determined.
Mowing the top growth on an overgrown pas- Heat sense, by which the heat of the sur-
ture. This practice is beneficial from a veteri- rounding atmosphere, or of bodies in contact
nary point of view in that it is unfavourable to with the skin, is appreciated as being above that
the survival of parasitic worm larvae. of body temperature. (Receptors for warmth
in the human body number about 16,000 as
Torsion (Twisting) compared with 150,000 for detecting cold.)
Torsion (twisting) occasionally involves the Cold sense. T
intestine (see VOLVULUS); the pedicle of the Pain sense.
spleen; the stomach; uterus; and spermatic Muscle sense, by which the weight of an
cords. object can be tested, and the amount of energy
necessary for an effort can be gauged.
Torticollis Sense of position, by which, without using
A lateral deviation of the neck. the powers of vision, the attitude and position
of any part of the body is known.
Tortoises The distribution of the sense organs which
In Britain an amendment to the Endangered are concerned with the reception of these sensa-
Species Act, in 1982, required that every buyer tions is very widespread. There is no part of the
of tortoises must sign an undertaking to pro- surface of the body, except the horns, hoofs
vide them with appropriate care, attention, and and claws, which can be cut without giving evi-
living quarters necessary for their survival. dence of pain, and there is no part, including
Failure to comply can result in a fine of up to horny structures, which is insensible to touch.
712 Tourniquet
Pain is detected, it seems, by free nerve end- sudden death. Mortality may reach 95 per cent.
ings in the layers of the skin, connective tissue, It has been seen in chicks only a few days old.
and cornea. The sense of touch is apparently This condition has to be differentiated from
dependent upon Meissner’s corpuscles, situated round heart disease, which usually occurs
under the epidermis; upon Merkel’s discs in sporadically among older birds and is not asso-
tongue, lips, muzzle. Tactile hairs on muzzle, ciated with the feeding of fat-supplemented
etc., function through free nerve endings rations.
surrounding the hair follicle. Pacinian corpus-
cles in connective tissue, penis, clitoris, etc., Toxicology
react to pressure and contact. Receptors for The study of POISONS.
heat and cold are named Ruffini’s corpuscles
and Krause endbulbs, respectively. (See also SKIN; Toxins
HYPERAESTHESIA; PARALYSIS.) Toxins are POISONS produced in animal tissues,
by some bacteria, ticks, and fungi. Waste prod-
Tourniquet ucts, not removed from the body during liver
A tourniquet is an appliance for the temporary or kidney failure, are also sometimes referred to
stoppage of the circulation in a limb or as toxins. (See TETANUS; BOTULISM; TICKS;
appendage of the body, for use only in very MYCOTOXICOSIS; VENOM; TOXOID; MOULDY
severe haemorrhage. Application of a tourni- FOOD.)
quet is a risky procedure, best not undertaken
by the animal-owner unless raising the limb Toxocara
and application of a pressure pad has failed to A genus of roundworm which includes
control the haemorrhage, which appears to Toxocara canis, a parasite of dog and fox, T. cati,
be endangering the animal’s life. It is to be and T. vitulorum of cattle (the last-named not
avoided on cats. present in the UK). Infection with these worms
In emergencies, a handkerchief may be tied is known as toxocariasis. This is important not
round the part, the knot being arranged above only from the veterinary aspect but also as
the principal artery, and a rigid object, piece of regards public health, since toxocara worm
wood, pencil, etc., used to twist the loose part larvae cause visceral larva migrans in man.
up tightly. In dogs, T. canis is primarily a parasite of the
A tourniquet must not be left in position young puppy, which commonly becomes
around a limb for longer than 20 minutes, or infected before birth by larvae crossing the
gangrene of the lower part will result. bitch’s placenta. Post-natal infection may occur
Occasionally, a circular bruise may occur under through the milk. During the first few weeks of
a tourniquet, especially in the limbs of horses; the puppy’s life, the life-cycle of toxocara is
this, after healing, leaving a ring of white hair completed, adult worms being found in the
marking the place where the tourniquet was intestine. (In severe infestations, complete
applied. Such a circular mark is due to a impaction of the bowel has been known to
destruction of the pigmentary apparatus of the occur in puppies as young as 7 weeks.)
hair follicles. (See also BLEEDING.) Larvae acquired prenatally from the bitch
arrive in the puppy’s intestine within 3 days of
Toxaemia birth, and mature at about the 9th day. Egg
The presence of toxins in the bloodstream. production begins when the puppy is about
T 2 months old. The number of worm eggs
Toxaphene excreted by the puppy may be as many as
A chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide which 15,000 per g of faeces.
remains active for a long time on the hair of As the puppy becomes older, the degree of
cattle, and of value against ticks also. infestation diminishes. It seems that larvae from
ingested eggs migrate within the tissues but are
Toxascaris unable to complete the life-cycle. Some of these
(see under TOXOCARA) larvae must remain viable, or prenatal infection
could not occur in succeeding generations.
‘Toxic Fat Syndrome’ Mature male dogs are more likely to carry
‘Toxic fat syndrome’ of broiler chickens, main- patent infection than adult bitches, but the
ly between 3 and 10 weeks old, has occurred in lactating bitch apparently experiences a hor-
the USA and Britain. It is associated with oede- monal suppression of immunity, resulting in a
ma of the pericardium and abdomen, a wad- brief patent infection of T. canis from larvae
dling gait, squawking, laboured breathing, and present in the body. One survey found that
Toxocara 713
of 740 unwanted Glasgow dogs examined after have been found to contain viable toxocara
euthanasia, just under 21 per cent carried eggs, although in one survey the figure was as
T. canis. high as 24 per cent.
Children can easily become infected through
Control This is dependent upon what action not washing their hands after contamination by
dog-owners take or fail to take. Several such eggs – many of which will have undergone
anthelmintics are effective against the adult development, rendering them infective. The
worm, including piperazine. Pups should be World Health Organisation (WHO) has stated:
treated at 2 weeks old, before eggs are passed in ‘Many patients with proven toxocariasis have
the faeces, and at 3, 6, and 8 weeks. not owned or had close contact with a dog or
Nursing bitches should be dosed when the cat,’ but have become infected from eggs in soil.
puppies are 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks old. Febendazole Moreover, ‘even though toxocara eggs are
is a suitable medication; it prevents migration of unlikely to mature on an animal’s coat, infective
larvae into the milk. Adult dogs should be eggs from the soil may adhere to the hair so that
wormed every 2 to 3 months. contact with it can lead to infection’.
In kittens, damage, sometimes severe, may
affect the glomeruli of the kidneys as a result of Prevalence in man Human toxocariasis is
larvae of T. cati. encountered throughout the world. Surveys
have demonstrated that about 2 per cent of
Public health Toxocara eggs are sticky and people over 10 years old in London, and over
readily adhere to children’s hands, blankets, 30 per cent in various African cities, showed a
dog baskets, etc. Fortunately the eggs are not positive reaction to a toxocara skin test.
immediately infective when excreted in canine A medical/veterinary team compared the
faeces, but require a period of weeks to become results of blood tests made on 102 dog-breeder
so. Two larval moults occur before hatching of volunteers, at the 1977 Windsor championship
the egg, so the infective stage is the 3rd stage dog show, with samples from 922 non-
larva. dog-breeders. Antibodies to T. canis were found
The danger of transmission lies in the fact in over 15 per cent of the dog-breeders’ sam-
that the eggs are very resistant and can survive ples, as compared with only 2.6 per cent of the
for long periods in the soil. Garden soil, and controls.
that of parks, playing fields, and grass verges, is Visceral larva migrans affects, states WHO,
an important source of eggs and larvae. About mainly children between 18 months and 3 years
7 per cent of soil samples from public parks of age. Tumours – eosinophilic granulomata – are
T
714 Toxoid
formed in organs such as the liver, lungs, eye, and is probably the major source of human urban
occasionally the brain. In some patients blindness toxoplasmosis in the UK.
is caused; in others the symptoms may resemble T. gondii has been isolated from the milk of
those of asthma or epilepsy. Debility and occa- bitches, cows, ewes, and sows, and it has been
sionally partial paralysis may occur. Eosinophilia shown that the young of these may be born
is usually present. already infected. The parasite can live in ticks
About 50 cases of ocular toxocariasis are and lice, so that the spread of toxoplasmosis by
reported each year in England and Wales. these is not unlikely. The parasite has been
A young woman, who had kept dogs and recovered from the semen of rams.
rabbits for many years, presented with blurred For diagnosis, laboratory techniques are
vision in one eye. This condition was treated essential, e.g. using Sabin-Feldman dye, latex
with corticosteroids. She developed a transient agglutination tests.
swelling and stiffness of the right elbow and
the left ankle and wrist. In the subsequent Sheep After ingestion of feed or water conta-
18 months she suffered repeated episodes minated with toxoplasma oocysts, susceptible
of choroiditis in the left eye and arthralgia. A (seronegative) sheep become, and remain,
toxocaral fluorescent antibody test was positive infected for life. Infection of the ovine placenta
and after treatment with diethylcarbamazine and conceptus occurs only when the initial
citrate her symptoms subsided. infection establishes in susceptible pregnant
sheep, following ingestion of oocysts. The
Diagnosis An immunofluorescent test or the oocysts encyst in the digestive tract and the
ELISA test may be used in human medicine. released sporozoites penetrate the cells lining
Diagnosis of toxocara affecting the eye may be the gut so that tachyzoites eventually reach and
difficult. In one case, fragments of a larva were infect the placenta and fetus.
not found until the 186th section of an eye had Infection in very early pregnancy causes fetal
been made. resorption and the ewes subsequently appear to
be barren, while infection between about 50
Toxoid and 120 days’ gestation presents the clinical
A toxin which has been rendered non-toxic by picture typical of the disease, with the prema-
physical or chemical means, while retaining its ture birth of stillborn and weakly lambs, out-
antigenic properties. An example is TETANUS wardly of quite normal appearance, often
toxoid for immunisation. accompanied by a mummified fetus.
Signs Inflammation and degeneration of the Control A live vaccine containing tachyzoites
retina and of the sclera (white of the eyeball). of T. gondii (Toxovax; Intervet) is available. It
may be used in ewe lambs over 5 months old
Toxoplasmosis and older ewes not less than 6 weeks before
This is a disease of man and of most warm- mating; repeat dosing may be needed after 2
blooded animals. It is a major cause of abortion years. Warning: Accidental exposure to the vac-
T in ewes but the signs of disease in other species cine can cause infection in man – in particular,
can vary widely. abortion. The vaccine must not be handled by
women of child-bearing age.
Cause A coccidian (see COCCIDIOSIS) parasite,
Toxoplasma gondii, closely related to the genus Goats Toxoplasmosis causes abortion and peri-
Isospora. The reproductive cells (gametes) form natal mortality similar to that seen in sheep.
in the intestine of cats (and probably of other Goats also appear to stay infected for life, but
members of the cat family). experiments carried out in the USA suggest that,
Cats (and other carnivores) can become unlike sheep, they may, in subsequent pregnan-
infected through the ingestion of the cysto- cies, pass infection on to their kids in utero and
zoites within cysts in the muscles of their prey; may even abort with overt toxoplasmosis more
or they can – like other animals and man – than once. Infection can spread also via semen
become infected by oocysts present in feline and milk, but the relative importance of these
faeces. (The oocysts can survive outside the 2 routes within a herd is uncertain, as is the risk
body for 17 months.) The ingestion of oocysts to humans ingesting milk from infected goats.
Tracheal Worms 715
sometimes to retching. The cough may be like severed. This led to dyspnoea and a loud respi-
that in kennel cough, and hoarse. This disease ratory noise even with mild exercise; an endo-
occurs in Britain. Diagnosis depends on use scopic examination showed that the lumen of
of an endoscope (which can reveal the charac- the trachea was now key-shaped for a distance
teristic pink nodules), or of X-rays. Treatment of 6 cm.
can be successful, using an appropriate When 6 months old, the foal was referred to
anthelmintic, e.g. oxfendazole. the Ohio State University veterinary hospital,
Another tracheal worm, which seldom gives where it was found that the severed ends of
rise to symptoms, is Capillaria aerophilia. (See the 4 tracheal rings had not healed but were
also under COUGH.) connected solely by fibrous tissue.
In order to effect repair, a prosthesis was made
Tracheitis by cutting in half longitudinally a 60 ml plastic
Inflammation of the TRACHEA. The trachea syringe, and then cutting segments 2 to 5 cm in
may be severely damaged as the result of a dog length, with 2 mm holes drilled to take sutures.
fight, involving bites of the neck. Two 3⁄4-thickness incisions were made trans-
versely at 1 cm intervals in each ring on both
Tracheostomy sides of the defect, and sutures placed, avoiding
Tracheostomy refers to an artificial opening penetration of the tracheal mucosa.
into the trachea, and is usually taken to include Nine days after surgery, endoscopy showed
the insertion of a tracheostomy tube to over- the tracheal lumen to be nearly normal and the
come nerve dysfunction. Tracheotomy is the mucous membrane free from inflammation.
surgical procedure of creating a tracheostomy, Ten months later the surgical site was normal.
although some authors use these words inter- As a 2-year-old, the colt was raced successfully.
changeably.
Severe upper respiratory obstruction presents Tracheotomy
as an anxious, sweating horse with possibly Tracheotomy is indicated when some foreign
stridulous breathing noises at rest, flared nos- body has gained entrance into the trachea or
trils, extended neck, increased costo-abdominal larynx and hinders the flow of air; it relieves
respiratory effort, cyanosis and functioning breathing when an abscess develops at the back
accessory muscles of respiration. Particularly of the throat in strangles in horses, and threat-
if the last 2 signs are present, a temporary ens to occlude the passages; it is also undertak-
tracheostomy is imperative. en in oedema of the glottis, in roaring, and in
other conditions.
Permanent tracheostomy A tracheosto- An incision is made into the trachea, through
my tube is used to bypass a permanent upper- the skin and muscles, usually in the middle
airway obstruction. A permanent tracheostomy line (in cattle sometimes at the side), and a
is most commonly used in performance animals tracheotomy tube is inserted and fixed in place.
to bypass performance-limiting, less severe The air in the stable must be kept as clean and
respiratory obstruction, e.g. cases of laryngeal free from dust as possible, and during foddering
paralysis non-responsive to conventional surgery. or bedding operations a plug should be put into
The term ‘permanent tracheostomy’ is not the tube to prevent pieces of chaff, hay seeds,
absolute because for ease of management many etc., from getting drawn in by the inspired air.
owners request the removal of ‘permanent’
T tracheostomy tubes at the end of each working Trachoma
season, with replacement at the beginning of the (see EYE, DISEASES OF)
following season.
In one survey, of 34 cases of permanent Track Leg
tracheostomy involving 11 dogs and 23 cats, A condition seen in the racing greyhound.
the pet-owners assessed the results as good in There is a swelling of the triceps muscle or the
16, and fair in 6, cases. The most common semitendinosus muscle – due to sprain.
post-operative problem was occlusion of the Prolonged rest is necessary.
trachea by a fold of skin.
Training
A surgical accident Abscesses due to (see MUSCLES; EXERCISE)
Streptococcus equi caused upper-airway obstruc-
tion in a 2-month-old Standardbred foal. Tranquillisers
Unfortunately, while attempting surgical relief, This term usually implies drugs which reduce
4 mid-cervical tracheal rings were completely anxiety without inducing sleep or drowsiness.
Transmissible Gastroenteritis of Pigs (TGE) 717
They include benzodiazepines such as diazepam Signs These vary according to the extent to
and azapirones such as buspirone. They are which the blood calcium level is reduced. A
used in veterinary practice to calm or restrain slight reduction causes the mare to be excitable,
vicious or nervous animals; to obviate travel but a further fall produces muscular incoordi-
sickness; and to facilitate the induction of nation and staggering, and the animal appears
anaesthesia. Their use is not permitted at obviously distressed. Sweating may occur; rapid
Kennel Club shows. and noisy breathing and, in the mare, flared
(For horses, see DETOMIDINE.) nostrils are other signs. A stiff gait, raised tail,
Tranquillisers have been administered to and spasms similar to those of tetanus occur.
cattle, zoo and wild animals, by firing a Another similarity is that eating and drink-
hypodermic syringe from a cross-bow, gun, or ing may become impossible. Recumbency,
blow-pipe. (See DART GUNS; also PIGS, SEDATION coma, and death follow within a couple of days.
OF; ROMPUN.) While mild cases recover, the mortality is
high in untreated animals showing the more
Natural tranquillisers At the Institute of severe signs.
Animal Physiology, during investigation of
the hormones contained in extracts of ovarian Treatment The animal should be kept quiet
tissue, several steroids have been found which and the appropriate dose of a mineral replace-
exert a strong sedative effect on the central ment solution, e.g. calcium borogluconate
nervous system. Variations in secretion rates 20 per cent, given subcutaneously or by slow
of these steroids during the reproductive cycle intravenous injection.
may be partly responsible for cyclic variations
in behaviour, states the AFRC. Slight tranquil- Translocation
lity could occur when the blood concentration In CYTOGENETICS, this means transfer of a
of the steroids is relatively high; restlessness or broken-off fragment of one chromosome to
even aggressiveness might result from a low another. A cause of some congenital diseases.
concentration.
Transmissible Gastroenteritis of
Transferable Resistance Pigs (TGE)
(see under ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; PLASMIDS) Transmissible gastroenteritis of pigs (TGE) is a
rapidly fatal disease in young piglets. The cause
Transferrin is a coronavirus; mortality decreases with age
A beta-globulin present in blood plasma and of the piglet. For example, mortality may be
acting as a carrier of iron. (See also IRON.) 90 per cent in the first week of life, 50 per cent
in the second, 25 per cent in the third, and zero
Transfusion of Blood in older pigs.
(see under BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS) Foul-smelling watery diarrhoea, vomiting
and loss of appetite are the main signs in
Transgenic Animals piglets. Adult pigs are usually little affected,
Those bred by genetic engineering methods although fattening pigs require extra water
involving the isolation of genes from one ani- during an outbreak.
mal, modification of them in the laboratory, TGE is typically but not exclusively a disease
and introduction of them into animals of the of the winter months. Epidemics occurred in
same or different species. (See also RETROVIRUS.) winter every 5 to 7 years between 1956 and T
1983. Apart from 2 incidents in 1996, the UK
Transit Tetany was free from TGE until a single incident in
Transit tetany is the result mainly of HYPOCAL- 1999. The absence of disease from Britain and
CAEMIA, which is precipitated by the stress of continental Europe since the mid-1980s has
long travel. It is seen in ruminants and, more been attributed to the emergence in 1986 of
rarely, in horses. porcine respiratory coronavirus. This is an
In lactating mares (also known as lactation apparent mutant of TGE virus and is believed
tetany), it may occur about 10 days after foal- to have effectively immunised the pig popula-
ing or a day or two after weaning. It can also tion against TGE. The reservoir of virus may be
occur, it has been said, in fillies and colts. as a subclinical infection in large herds.
In ruminants, prolonged travel may induce There is no specific treatment, but losses may
hypocalcaemia or hypophosphataemia in cattle, be reduced by extra care and management:
with hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia and warmth and extra fluids; good-quality milk
hypoglycaemia in ewes. replacer/creep pellets; early weaning into warm
718 Transmissible Mink Encephalopathy
Trichoglyphs
(see WHORLS)
Trichomonas
The flagellates of the genus Trichomonas are
usually pear-shaped, with 3 to 5 anterior flagel-
la, an undulating membrane and, in some
species, 1 free flagellum directed backwards. Trichomonas fetus.
720 Trichostrongylus
mammals, causing poor growth, lack of condi- Triploidy accounts for up to 13 per cent of
tion and diarrhoea. embryonic loss in animals, and for 20 per cent
of all chromosomally-caused spontaneous
Trichostrongylus human abortion (ARC). (See CHROMOSOMES;
A large group of parasitic worms which infest CYTOGENETICS.)
both people and their domestic animals, and
which cause persistent diarrhoea. Trismus
The locking of the jaws, which is characteristic
Trichothecenes of TETANUS.
Trichothecenes are fungal metabolites which
contaminate animal feeds and human foods. Trisomy
Examples are deoxynivalenol and nivalenol. The presence in triplicate of a particular chro-
The most potent toxin is T2 TOXIN. mosome. In the cow, such a condition would be
Throat irritation and digestive disorders are denoted as 61,XXX.
caused in people. Baking does not destroy the
toxin. X-trisomy is associated with nymphomania
and infertility in cows.
Tricuspid Valve
The tricuspid valve is the valve lying in the Trixacarus Caviae
heart between the right atrium and the right The mange mite which is a parasite of guinea-
ventricle, which possesses 3 cusps or flaps. (See pigs.
HEART.)
regarded as suitable for intensive poultry their yields – though obviously this is not
production; and Iran’s uplands, with their always the case.
dry climate, make dairy farming practicable Imported feeds sometimes deteriorate to
despite very high summer temperatures of some extent during long sea voyages and subse-
43°C (109°F) upwards, and very cold ones quent storage in a hot and often humid climate.
in winter. There may, for example, be a serious loss of vit-
When temperature falls during night-time amin E, so that a supplement is required if
hours, cattle may withstand a higher day-time ENCEPHALOMALACIA is to be avoided. (See also
temperature than they otherwise could. VITAMINS.)
Very high altitudes, e.g. in the mountains Local crops such as groundnuts, cotton seed,
of Peru, can themselves be an obstacle to live- sorghum and sunflower seed may be contami-
stock production. (See ALTITUDE; MOUNTAIN nated by AFLATOXINS, so that precautions
SICKNESS.) are needed. Groundnuts may be affected in
this way through being left too long in the
Stock improvement When high-yield ground before harvesting, or during subsequent
stock are imported into tropical regions from storage.
countries having a temperate climate, disap-
pointment often follows. At first, yields – Minerals In many parts of the tropics, milling
whether of beef, milk, pork, or eggs – are better and processing facilities are lacking – at any rate
than those of the indigenous stock, as expected; in the more remote areas; this fact makes feed
but before long, in many instances, the initial supplementation more difficult. Mineral and
gains are offset by a high mortality rate. The trace element supplements are necessary for
exotic animals may not be able to tolerate the avoidance of deficiencies. In South Africa many
heat, may not produce so well when fed on years ago, Sir Arnold Theiler showed that the
local feeds of lower quality, and will have no need of cattle for phosphorus drove them to eat
resistance to many local diseases and parasites, the bones of dead animals, and many cattle
especially ticks. (For cattle resistant to heat and became infected with botulism in that way and
ticks, see DROUGHTMASTER; ZEBU; SANTA died. (See LAMZIEKTE.) In several parts of the
GERTRUDI; AFRICANDER.) world a deficiency of copper in the herbage has
In many situations it is often preferable impeded livestock production, and appropriate
to improve indigenous stock first, before intro- dressings of the land have brought great benefit.
ducing new blood from overseas, by selective (See TRACE ELEMENTS.)
breeding and better management; ensuring that
they are better fed and not deprived of adequate Some tropical crops Apart from the crops
quantities of drinking water. After improve- mentioned above, many others – or their by-
ment has been obtained by these means (but products – are used. For example, cattle may
not before), cross-breeding with exotic high- have the leaves of shade trees, or sugar-cane;
performance stock may be begun, preferably on pigs may be given dried leaf meal, banana
a small-scale trial basis to start with. Use may be waste, coca pod husks, or sweet potatoes; poul-
made of AI. try may receive millet (if any can be spared
from human food requirements) or sago.
Animal power In India it is estimated that (See GOSSYPOL – Gossypol poisoning; CASTOR
work animals provide as much energy as the SEED POISONING; COCOA POISONING.)
T entire electrical system of the country. The num-
ber of work animals is estimated to be 70 million Tropical diseases In some tropical regions
bullocks, 8 million buffaloes, 1 million horses the presence of animal parasites and their
and 1 million camels. Throughout the Far East vectors makes livestock production difficult,
animal power remains the major factor in agri- costly, or even impracticable. This is true of the
culture. Small farms, difficult terrain, lack of African tsetse-fly belt, extending roughly from
roads and the structure of the rural economy in latitude 15°N to 30°S. Here control of try-
many countries mean that situation is unlikely panosomiasis (see TRYPANOSOMES) is dependent
to change in the foreseeable future. (See WATER on drugs for prevention, drugs for treatment,
BUFFALOES.) and use of insecticides against flies. Aerial
spraying, bush clearance, and attempts to erad-
Animal feeds In poorer countries the cost of icate reservoirs of infection among wild animals
importing cereal grains or high-quality protein will, if undertaken, obviously add to the cost,
feeds may be prohibitive, and local stock will which in some territories may be beyond local
then be dependent on feeds which may restrict resources. For many years control of tsetse flies
Trypanosomes 723
had been successfully achieved by aerial spray- the sun supply electricity direct to an ordinary
ing with insecticides, but the ever-rising cost of commercial refrigerator.
these, and of aviation fuel, has led to the aban-
donment of many such government schemes. Sterilisation In the tropics the sun’s rays can
Fly traps have had to be used instead. The be used for sterilisation purposes. Research at
Manitoba trap designed specially for tabanids is the American University of Beirut showed
reported to be very successful; another widely that oral rehydration solution, for treating
used trap is the Laveissire. In other territories dehydration, can be sterilised in plastic bags or
long-term, government-controlled campaigns transparent plastic or glass vessels by exposure
have proved successful in maintaining and to sunlight. In an experiment such a solution,
extending production. contaminated with fresh sewage, proved to have
Humpless cattle, such as the N’Dama, in a zero coliform count after 1 hour. It appears
West Africa had long been regarded as historic that the sterilising effect is not heat, since the
relics, and their reduced susceptibility to try- temperature of the solution rises by less than
panosomiasis as a biological oddity. It has been 5°C (41°F) after 2 hours, but is rather solar
shown, however, that despite their relatively radiation in the near ultra-violet range.
small size, N’Dama cattle could survive and be Another application is the Solomon solar
productive in endemic trypanosomiasis areas steriliser which uses only solar energy to boil
where Zebu cattle died. water and sterilise needles and syringes. The
Comparative studies on 2 types of large East prototype consisted of a metal-lined plywood
African zebu (Bos indicus) Boran cattle, on a box topped with a truncated pyramid of glass.
beef ranch in Kenya, indicated that a Boran The steriliser, in use in the Solomon Islands, is
type bred by the Orma tribe has a superior easily constructed, has no moving parts, and
response to tsetse fly challenge. The Orma requires no fuel; but it does need orienting to
Boran when compared with an improved Boran the sun every half-hour. (World Health
was found to have lower trypanosome infection Organisation.)
rates and, when untreated, better control of
anaemia as well as decreased mortality. Carcase disposal, following post-mortem
In areas where trypanosomiasis is endemic in examinations, may present problems in unde-
susceptible cattle, sequential use of such drugs veloped areas. An Australian veterinarian work-
as diminazine and suramin has been effective in ing at an Indian sheep project found the
controlling the disease without causing drug answer. If unsuitable for boiling as dog food,
resistance to develop. and yet not likely to spread infection, the car-
Trypanosomes cause disease also in Asia and case is dragged out into the open. He timed
Central and South America. events on one occasion. ‘At 2.46 p.m., post-
Ticks are of great importance in the tropics, mortem examination completed; no vultures to
transmitting numerous protozoal parasites, be seen in a clear sky. At 2.50 the first arrived;
viruses, and rickettsias. (See under TICKS.) at 2.53 there were approximately 40 vultures
Among the major diseases caused by viruses around the carcase; at 2.58 carcase stripped to
are cattle plague (rinderpest), African swine bones and sinew – vultures leaving.’
fever, foot-and-mouth disease, and various
types of encephalitis. Bacterial diseases include Trypanocide
anthrax, botulism, haemorrhagic septicaemia A drug which will kill TRYPANOSOMES within
(pasteurellosis), and salmonellosis. A notable the host’s body. T
mycoplasmal disease is contagious bovine pleu-
ropneumonia; another is contagious agalactia of Trypanosomes
sheep and goats. Trypanosomes are small single-celled parasites
found in the bloodstream in certain diseases
Vaccine storage/transport One of the that are classed together as the trypanoso-
problems of veterinary medicine in the tropics miases.
is the storage of vaccines at a sufficiently low The trypanosome is of an elongated shape
temperature (below 8°C (46°F)). With the high with a single flagellum and an undulating
cost and scarcity of kerosene or liquid propane membrane. There are 2 nuclei – a large nucleus
gas in many rural areas, and the fact that (macronucleus or trophonucleus) near the cen-
electricity supply is often unreliable or non- tre of the body; and a small kinetoplast
existent, there is scope for solar refrigerators. (micronucleus) at the posterior end remote
Under a WHO scheme these have been tried in from the flagellum. In some forms there is no
13 countries. Photo-voltaic panels exposed to free flagellum.
724 Trypanosomes
Transmission is generally by the bite of an tsetse fly may have two infective periods, one
insect (except in the case of dourine). The immediately after biting a sick animal and the
transmission may be mechanical, i.e. carried second some time later (about 20 days) after the
directly from an infected animal to an uninfect- trypanosome has progressed to its infective
ed one by the bite of a blood-sucking fly; or stage along normal lines.
cyclical, when the insect host is not infective for
a definite time after ingestion of the parasite. In Life histories of trypanosomes In the
this case the parasite passes a definite part of its blood of the mammalian host, the try-
life-cycle in the fly. In many cases transmission panosomes reproduce by splitting lengthwise
may be both mechanical and cyclical. Thus the (longitudinal fission). A quantity of blood is
Some typical trypanosomes (drawn to the same scale and magnified 2000 times): (a) Trypanosoma brucei;
(b) T. montgomery; (c) T. congolense; (d) T. vivax; (e) T. simiae; (f) T. equinum; (g) T. equiperdum; (h) T. eva-
nis; (i) and (j) T. theileri.
Tsetse Fly 725
sucked up by the tsetse fly, a species of Glossina, In well-managed herds in areas where tsetse-
and in that host the flagellates undergo a devel- fly numbers are relatively low, drugs are used for
opmental cycle. The location chosen by the preventive purposes against the trypanosomes;
parasite for its development varies with the but as the latter develop drug resistance, it is
species. Thus some will develop only in the sali- usually necessary to change drugs.
vary glands, others in the gut, and still others in In other areas, reliance is placed on drugs
the proboscis. After some time they assume the for treatment rather than prophylaxis; these
infective form, and are ready to be passed with can achieve survival of cattle where untreated
the salivary fluids into the bloodstream of a animals die.
suitable vertebrate host. (See also under TSETSE FLY for another aid
to control of the disease, and under TROPICS
African trypanosomiasis Tsetse-borne try- for breeds resistant to trypanosomiasis, and for
panosomiasis renders approximately 10 million drugs in current use.)
square km of prime African land unsuitable for Diseases caused by trypanosomes are sepa-
cattle production. It has been estimated that if rately described under NAGANA, DOURINE,
this disease could be controlled, the infested area SURRA and (for human trypanosomiasis) SLEEP-
would increase its cattle holding capacity from ING SICKNESS and CHAGAS DISEASE. The latter
20 million head to 140 million head. also affects domestic animals and is described
The disease is of greatest importance in immediately below.
cattle, which are hosts of the following try-
panosomes: Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, American trypanosomiasis (Chagas
T. uniforme, and T. evansi. disease) Caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, this
Usually a chronic disease, acute cases also occurs in South and Central America, and
occur, and the mortality may be high. (See also in the southern states of the USA. WHO
also PREMUNITION; and, for resistant breeds, estimates that at least 7 million people are
TROPICS.) infected with T. cruzi.
The infection can be carried from both wild
Signs These include intermittent fever, and domestic animals to people by blood-
anaemia, anorexia or pica, a progressive loss of sucking triatomid bugs; and the latter also cause
condition, and increasing weakness. (See under people-to-people infections. Blood transfu-
CHANCRE for the hard swelling which is often sions, and infection of the human fetus in
the first pointer to trypanosomiasis.) Lymph utero, have also to be borne in mind.
nodes are enlarged in many cases, the coat Dogs, cats, and guinea-pigs are among
harsh, and abortion may occur. domestic animals which are hosts; pigs and
Some cattle recover, but in others apparent rabbits also have the disease. Rats, mice, foxes,
recovery is followed later by a relapse and ferrets, and vampire bats are other vectors.
death. In acute cases, death may occur within a
fortnight. Signs Fever, anaemia, emaciation, ascites, with
death from heart failure following myocarditis
Horses Additional signs include oedema of in children.
the limbs and abdomen, and corneal opacity.
Species of trypanosome infecting horses are T. Trypsin
brucei, T. vivax, and T. evansi. (See also DOURINE, Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme of the pancreat-
caused by T. equiperdum, transmitted at coitus, ic secretion. It changes proteins into peptones. T
and occurring also in Asia.) It is said to be helpful in cases of non-specific
diarrhoea in dogs.
Dogs The eyes may be affected, as in horses.
Canine trypanosomiasis is caused by T. brucei, Tryptophan
T. congolense, and T. evansi. One of the essential AMINO ACIDS. Excessively
high levels of tryptophan can result in fog fever
Pigs often suffer from acute and fatal try- (atypical interstitial pneumonia).
panosomiasis caused by either T. simiae or
T. evansi. Tsetse Fly
Tsetse fly is the insect vector which is of such
Control This is difficult, on account of importance in the transmission of African TRY-
trypanosomiasis existing in wild animals in PANOSOMES. (See also FLIES – Glossina; TROPICS.)
the vicinity of cattle herds, and the fact that Destruction of tsetse flies in the fly-belts –
vaccination has not been practicable. tracts of bush country in which only cattle
726 Tubercle
which have acquired some degree of immunity cattle are close to woods – pigeons are often
to trypanosomiasis can survive – has proved infected), the presence of non-specific mycobac-
an almost insuperable problem. One method is terial infection, of Johne’s disease or so-called
the sterilisation of tsetse flies by the chemicals skin tuberculosis. The swelling caused by the
tepa or metepa, or by gamma radiation, and avian tuberculin is compared to that caused by
the release of sterile males. This can be comple- the bovine, using the same callipers. If reaction
mentary to the use of insecticides. A difficulty to the bovine is 4 mm or more than the avian,
at present is the rearing of tsetse flies in that is considered a positive reaction; a swelling
sufficient quantities. of 3 mm indicates an inconclusive reaction.
Wide use is also made of fly traps, to which Reactors are normally slaughtered at a licensed
tsetse flies may be attracted by means of abattoir and certain organs removed for exami-
PHEROMONES or other chemical compounds nation, even if there are no visible lesions.
such as CO2, acetone, or octenol. Inconclusive reactors are usually retested
75 days after the first test. If a herd being tested
Tubercle has previously been vaccinated against Johne’s
Tubercle is a term used in 2 quite distinct sens- disease, the State Veterinary Service will nor-
es. As a descriptive term in anatomy, a tubercle mally carry out the test as this vaccination
means a small elevation or roughness upon the produces a severe reaction to tuberculin.
surface of a bone, such as the tubercles of the
ribs. In a pathological sense a tubercle is a small Testing other animals Tuberculin testing
mass, barely visible to the naked eye, formed in of deer requires special training, as a swelling of
some organ as the starting-point of the disease as little as 0.5 mm difference, can be considered
which has been called after the tubercle, viz. significant. Poultry can be tuberculin-tested
tuberculosis. using only the avian tuberculin injected intra-
dermally into the left wattle. Any resulting
Tuberculin Test swelling of that wattle is regarded as significant.
The tuberculin test, in its original form, came Sheep, goats and pigs can be subjected to the
into use in 1890. It was developed by Koch, double intradermal comparative test, with the
who grew his tubercle bacilli on broth. Today, avian tuberculin being given on the left side of
Purified Protein Derivatives (PPD) extracted the neck and the bovine on the right. As pigs
from bovine and from avian tubercle bacilli are are not clipped, a ring made by indelible mark-
used. These greatly improve the reliability of er is drawn round the site of the injection.
the test, although false positives still occur. Primates in zoos or research facilities may be
Tuberculin (PPD) is prepared from killed bac- tested; only mammalin tuberculin is used
teria by adding trichloracetic acid; the precipi- and the test carried out under sedation, using
tated tuberculo-protein is allowed to sediment, the left eyelid. Any swelling is regarded as
collected by centrifugation and adjusted to a significant.
standard strength.
Tuberculin has in the past been used by Tuberculosis (TB)
instillation beneath the lower eyelid of one A contagious disease of man, all the domesti-
eye (the ophthalmic test); or by subcutaneous cated animals, many wild animals in captivity,
injection (the subcutaneous tuberculin test). birds, fishes, and reptiles. It is caused by
Today, in the UK, the test used is the double Mycobacterium tuberculosis (bovine, human, or
T intradermal comparative test. Skin is clipped avian strains). It is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE in
free from hair over an area the size of a 50p cattle and deer.
piece in 2 places on the neck. The disease is usually a chronic one, though
A fold of the clipped skin is gathered up and the miliary form is acute. It is characterised
measured with special callipers. Using a stan- by the formation of nodules or tubercles in
dard tuberculin syringe, 0.1 ml of tuberculin is almost any or all of the organs or tissues of the
injected into the skin (not subcutaneously). body. (See also ‘SKIN TUBERCULOSIS’.)
Avian tuberculin is used for one injection,
bovine for the other – the avian tuberculin Occurrence The prevalence of tuberculosis in
being given above the bovine. After 72 hours, animals bears a direct ratio to the intensity of
the test is read by again measuring the thickness the methods of agriculture in an area. Cattle
of the skin and the nature of the swelling closely confined, and housed to a great extent in
produced by the injection. buildings, are much more often affected than
A reaction to the avian tuberculin can mean are those living a free open-air life. The cattle in
exposure to Mycobacterium avium (especially if the prairies of North America, on the tablelands
Tuberculosis (TB) 727
of Central Africa, and in the steppes of Eastern Superficial, as well as deep, lymph nodes may
Europe, are almost entirely free from its ravages, become enlarged.
while it is unknown in many islands (Iceland, A subclinical infection may occur, and result
Sicily, etc.). in overt illness only when stress, under-feeding,
Bovine tuberculosis eradication campaigns exposure or some other infection lowers the
have succeeded in several countries. animal’s resistance.
Animals affected Among the ordinary Cattle As a rule a considerable period of time
domesticated animals, cattle and pigs are more elapses between infection and the appearance of
commonly affected than are other species. Dogs the first symptoms.
are rarely infected but have been known to Tuberculosis of the lungs – the commonest
contract TB. Horses and sheep appear to be type – gives rise to a hard, dry, short cough in
more resistant, though cases of progressive the early stages. Later, coughing becomes more
avian TB have been recorded in both species. frequent and DYSPNOEA is evident.
Donkeys and mules are only very seldom Appetite is variable. Sometimes a difficulty
attacked. in swallowing is noticed. Loss of condition
follows, with pale mucous membranes, and a
Methods of infection Cattle are infected staring coat. There may be diarrhoea.
in 2 chief ways: (1) by the respiratory system; Superficial lymph nodes may become
and (2) by the digestive tract. They are suscep- enlarged. Those at the back of the throat or at
tible to infection from humans suffering from the corner of the lower jaw, or the glands of the
bovine tuberculosis, and serious breakdowns in neck, shoulder, or stifle, may be swollen.
attested herds have been traced to farm workers Tuberculosis of the udder – which is all-
suffering from the disease. Cattle are also sus- important from the milk standpoint – begins
ceptible, to a lesser degree, to infection of the insidiously. The gland slowly becomes diffusely
human type. (See also under TUBERCULIN TEST re thickened, and more solid to the touch than
avian tuberculosis.) Badgers have been impli- normally. After milking, it does not feel quite
cated in the spread of bovine TB and long- so elastic as it should, and in some cases distinct
running tests are taking place in the UK to hard nodules can be felt.
establish whether this is the case (see below, (Tuberculoid mastitis. Over 700 cases of this,
Tuberculosis in wildlife). due to rapidly growing acid-fast organisms
Sometimes tuberculosis may be contracted other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis, occur in
through a wound (e.g. after dehorning) or the UK annually – mainly due to not cleaning
by direct introduction into the tissues of a the teats before introducing antibiotics.)
penetrating instrument, and an infection of Tuberculosis sometimes involves the brain or
the udder may easily occur through the teat spinal cord, giving rise to symptoms described
canal. An aerosol infection commonly results under MENINGITIS.
from coughing cows, and infected sputum may Tuberculosis of the bones and joints is not
contaminate feed or be swallowed, thereby uncommon.
spreading infection to the intestines. In the skin there occasionally develop hard
Within the body, infection may spread via tumours, about the size of a hazelnut (see also
the lymphatic system or the bloodstream. ‘SKIN TUBERCULOSIS’), which, if they are opened,
Tuberculosis of the vagina occurs in cows, are found to contain cheesy or mortar-like mass-
and the disease may be spread from them to es in their centres. Later, ulcers may develop T
healthy cows through the medium of the bull. with the formation of multiple small abscesses
Infected dung can be a source of infection. in any or all of the organs. The abscesses are
millet-seed sized (hence ‘miliary’). This form of
Nature of the lesions A typical lesion is a tuberculosis is rapidly fatal.
tubercle – a small nodular swelling whose cen-
tre contains either pus or dry yellowish cheesy Sheep and goats A distressing painful
material. The peritoneum, liver, lymph nodes, cough, always present, but most noticeable
lungs, etc., may be affected. Sometimes the upon exertion; and a gradual, but quite definite,
disease remains localised to the area of its first loss of condition, with progressing weakness,
infection and does not spread. In other cases are the main symptoms observed in these ani-
the defensive forces of the body overcome and mals. Sheep are very rarely affected, but milking
destroy the focus of infection. goats kept in the vicinity of infected cattle not
Tuberculosis may affect bones and one or uncommonly develop tuberculosis. There is
more joints, causing arthritis. nearly always a marked anaemia, pneumonia,
728 Tuberculosis (TB)
sometimes diarrhoea, and occasionally an infec- infection to healthy human beings, and espe-
tion of the udder corresponding to that found cially to children.
in cattle. As in other animals, the symptoms are some-
what vague until the disease is well established.
Horses Tuberculosis in the horse is not very The first signs may be no more than a capri-
common, but there are certain symptoms which cious appetite, slight loss of condition, general
should always lead one to suspect its presence: a weakness, and exhaustion when at exercise.
gradual emaciation in spite of good food and Pulmonary tuberculosis usually begins with
without any other established possible cause; a a short dry cough. It is less common in these
slight fluctuating increase in the temperature, animals than the abdominal form (but see
an occasional moist weak cough; a tucked-up PLEURISY).
appearance of the abdomen, or in some cases Tuberculosis of the abdominal organs is indi-
(where ascites exists) a heavy pendulous cated by impaired nutrition and anaemia,
condition, ‘pot-bellied’. attacks of diarrhoea and constipation alternat-
Cases in which the abdominal organs are ing with each other. There may be vomiting,
affected sometimes terminate by lung compli- also ascites. Body temperature is very variable.
cations – i.e. miliary tuberculosis sets in – the Joints and sinuses may be sites of infection in
animal becomes feverish, distressed in its the cat. Occasionally skin tuberculosis is seen in
breathing, refuses all food, and generally dies dogs and cats, and may take the form of raised
within a few days. Tuberculosis may also plaques with a tendency to ulcerate.
become localised in the skin, lymph nodes,
brain, or udder, but these are not common. It is Treatment The treatment of tuberculosis in
comparatively often found that sooner or later the domesticated animals is not attempted, for
some part of the skeleton (the bones of the neck 4 reasons: (1) because of the nature of the
being a very usual situation) becomes infected. disease; (2) because of the ever-increasing
Occasionally, tuberculosis in the horse may danger to human beings who have to attend
be caused by the human or avian type of the affected animals; (3) for economic reasons;
tubercle bacillus. and (4) for humanitarian ones. However, in
zoological gardens, animals are sometimes
Pigs Tubercular poultry, or wild birds such as treated. (See PAS.)
wood-pigeons, are a not uncommon source of
infection. A diagnosis may be established by Prevention Good hygiene, good feeding and
means of the tuberculin test. good ventilation all help. Animals brought in
Symptoms are as in the horse. Scouring and from areas known to be infected should be
emaciation may occur. Anaemia is common. As quarantined on the premises and a tuberculin
in horses, the bones are especially vulnerable to test carried out by the veterinarian befoe they
attack. are allowed to mix with other stock.
Lesions, which, to the naked eye, appear
identical with tuberculosis, may be caused by History of control in Britain It was not
infection with Corynebacterium equi. Even the until 1928 that measures to control bovine
use of a microscope sometimes fails to differen- tuberculosis were introduced by the govern-
tiate between the 2 infections. ment. In that year, the Tuberculosis Order,
enacted in 1915, came into force, and the
T Deer Disease caused by bovine or avian tuber- attempt to control the disease by the detection
cle bacilli can be found. The clinical signs, and elimination of ‘open’ cases began. In 1935
which may not be noticeable until the disease is the Attested Herds Scheme carried control
advanced, include respiratory signs. Caseous measures a stage further.
lesions are rarely seen as tuberculous lesions are Area Eradication, which began in 1950, and
usually filled with pus. meant, at first, an extension of the Attested
Herds Scheme on a voluntary basis, and then
Dogs and cats Where tuberculosis is com- the compulsory slaughter of reactors within the
mon in the human population, these domestic prescribed areas, followed.
animals are liable to become infected – either In October 1960, the whole of the UK was
as the result of receiving tubercle-containing declared one Attested Area – bovine tuberculo-
milk, or as the result of infection from sputum sis being virtually eradicated from all herds of
or discharges from a human case. Not only cattle.
may dogs and cats contract the disease from In 1962, the incidence of bovine tuber-
man, but they may occasionally be sources of culosis in herds in England and Wales was
Tularaemia 729
0.14 per cent. The number of reactors slaugh- Tuberculosis has been found in other wild
tered was 8846. animals including deer, foxes and weasels, as
During 1968, 5,854,915 cattle were tested in well as pigeons and their predators.
108,452 herds and as a result 2170 reactors
(including 2 ‘affected’ animals) and 202 contacts The relationship of tuberculosis in
in 1040 herds were slaughtered. animals and man; bovine tuberculosis
The Tuberculosis Orders 1964 provide for This is not a pedantic way of saying ‘tuberculo-
the notification and slaughter of cattle found to sis in cattle’, but indicates that one is referring to
be affected with certain forms of tuberculosis – disease set up by the bovine strain of tubercle
i.e. tuberculosis of the udder; giving tubercu- bacillus as opposed to the human strain or the
lous milk; tuberculous emaciation; chronic avian strain. Man may become infected by any
cough accompanied by clinical signs of tuber- one of the 3 strains. The bovine strain of the
culosis; or found to be excreting or discharging tubercle bacillus is particularly pathogenic for
tuberculous material. children under 16.
Since 1990, TB outbreaks in cattle have been In considering statistics dealing with inci-
increasing by 20 per cent a year in certain parts dence of bovine tuberculosis in humans, it must
of the UK, including the West Country and be borne in mind that bovine tuberculosis can
Staffordshire. The search is on for a vaccine, be spread from one person to another, just as it
which, unlike BCG, does not interfere with can be from animal to man.
the diagnostic skin test. Trials of a promising Human infection with tuberculosis may also
DNA-based vaccine took, place in 2004. arise from eating infected meat, but this risk, is,
in civilised countries, not great owing to meat
Tuberculosis in wildlife In many coun- inspection services, and cooking of the meat.
tries, complete eradication of TB has been elu- The protection of the human population
sive because of reservoirs of infection in from TB involves the tuberculin test, meat
wildlife. In Britain, BADGERS (Meles meles) can inspection and pasteurisation of milk.
become infected and die from TB. The form of
the disease in badgers is variable but is often res- Tuberculosis (Amendment)
piratory; it can be spread between badgers by Order 1973
aerosol (in the breath) or by the shedding of The Tuberculosis (Amendment) Order 1973,
bacilli in the urine. The State Veterinary Service made under the Diseases of Animals Act 1950,
has carried out a long-term policy of eradicating requires anyone who suspects a carcase to be
badger populations in the vicinity of cattle affected with tuberculosis to notify a veterinary
herds. This has not resulted in an overall inspector and to retain the carcase (or parts of
improvement of the situation as the disease has it) for examination. The purpose of the Order
spread from the original infected area. In 1999, is to enable the herd of origin to be traced.
following a report by Professor Krebs, a long- Isolation of suspected tubercular cattle is also
term study to evaluate how TB may be spread empowered.
between cattle, badgers and other wildlife was
begun but was interrupted by the 2001 foot- Tuberculosis, Avian
and-mouth disease outbreak. The aims are to (see AVIAN TUBERCULOSIS)
establish definitively what proportion of TB
outbreaks in cattle is caused by badgers; and Tularaemia
whether culling badgers is an effective way of Tularaemia is a disease of HARES, ground squir- T
controlling the disease. The trial is in 3 parts: rels, rabbits, and rats, caused by the Pasteurella
(a) badgers are culled on and around farms (Francisella) tularensis, and spread mechanically
following TB outbreaks; (b) those where all either by flies or ticks, or by direct inoculation
badgers are killed; and (c) those where no bad- – for example, into the hands of a person
gers are culled. Part (a) of the trial was discon- engaged in skinning rabbits. In man, the disease
tinued in late 2003 as interim results showed an takes the form of a slow fever, lasting several
increasde of 27 per cent in TB breakdowns in weeks, with much malaise and depression, fol-
that area compared with the other two. lowed by considerable emaciation. It was first
DEFRA emphasises that the trial will not described in the district of Tulare in California,
endanger the viability of the UK badger popu- but is found widely spread in North America,
lation of over 300,000; it is estimated that no also in parts of Europe and Japan. Sheep and
more than 12,500 badgers will be culled. More pigs are attacked and many die. Streptomycin
than that number are believed to be killed may prove effective in treatment.
annually in road accidents. Dogs are susceptible, too.
730 Tumbu Fly
Turpentine should never be given when an Predicting twins The presence of twins can
animal is suffering from nephritis, inflamma- sometimes be detected by manual examination,
tions of the bladder, stomach, or bowels, as its but ultrasound scanning is more reliable and
active irritant action only increases the already allows earlier detection.
existing inflammation. (See under SMELL.) The concentration of oestrone sulphate, a
Externally, oil of turpentine is used as a hormone produced by a cow carrying a viable
constituent of liniments. fetus and present in blood plasma or milk, can
be used to confirm pregnancy.
Turtles The concentration is higher in cows carrying
(see AMERICAN BOX TORTOISES; TORTOISES) twins, but the difference does not become sig-
nificant until about the 220th day of gestation.
Threat to public health from pet However, even at this late stage, the prediction
turtles Serious infection can be transmitted of twins could be used as a guide to increase
to owners by turtles, including aquatic turtles the feed allowance of cows carrying more than
(terrapins). Six of 28 lots of embryonated eggs of 1 fetus.
the red-eared turtle (Pseudemys scripta elegans) In strains not noted for twins, twinning may
imported into Canada from Louisiana were occur on farms where there is a herd infertility
found to harbour salmonellae. Salmonella poona problem.
and S. arizonae were isolated from the eggs and Identical twins – always of the same sex –
the packaging moss, and the turtles hatched from result from the division of the fertilised egg into
the contaminated eggs continued to shed salmo- 2; whereas ordinary twins are produced as the
nellae into the tank water for up to 11 months. result of the fertilisation of 2 eggs.
Of the 37 strains of salmonellae isolated, 30 were These 2 eggs may come from the same ovary,
resistant to gentamicin, probably because of the when the 2 fetuses may develop in the same
widespread use of the antibiotic to try to produce horn of the uterus. Sometimes they result in a
salmonella-free eggs for export. Such high levels FREEMARTIN.
of antibiotic-resistant salmonellae in turtle eggs There is apparently, with cattle, a close affin-
could pose a serious risk to human health. ity between identical twins – as there undoubt-
edly is with human beings. In a Swedish study,
‘Twin Lamb’ Disease 6 pairs of twins were split at birth and reared
A colloquial name for PREGNANCY TOXAEMIA. separately for 15 months. At this age they were
all put into a field together. Within a few days
Twinning, Artificial each twin had found and paired off with its sis-
In the interests of increased beef production, ter. (See ERYTHROCYTE MOSAICISM; also GENET-
techniques have been developed to encourage ICS; SUPERFETATION; TWINNING, ARTIFICIAL;
the production of twin calves. A suitable dose of TRIPLET CALVES.)
pregnant mare’s serum (PMS), injected subcu-
taneously at a suitable time, e.g. 4 days before Twins (Foals)
oestrus, will on average give twins; but there In the mare, the presence of twins in the uterus
will be some triplets and singles. The FOLLICLE- is a common cause of abortion. About 3 per
STIMULATING HORMONE contained in the cent of pregnant mares conceive twin fetuses,
serum causes an extra follicle to mature and but the birth of healthy twins is exceedingly
shed an extra egg with resultant twinning. rare – about 0.01 per cent.
Over-dosage, however, leads to undesired T
quadruplets, etc.; or to numerous eggs which Twins, Monozygous
pass quickly down the Fallopian tubes without Identical twins, from the same ovum.
being fertilised; result – no calf at all. There is a
risk of stillbirths and of strain on the dam. Twitch
This consists of a loop of soft rope threaded
Twins (Calves) through a hole near the end of a stout piece of
Twins tend to run in families. For example, a wood. The twitch is applied to the horse’s upper
cow had 3 pairs of twins, her daughter 4 pairs, lip, where it compresses the sensitive nerves. It
and a grand-daughter 2 pairs. That might be used to be thought that the twitch merely
called twinning at its best. Of course, there diverted the horse’s attention away from other
is sometimes trouble. Perhaps the condition parts of the body, but this view is now disput-
of the dam is pulled down; or perhaps the ed. It is thought that pain perception or aware-
‘cleansing’ is retained, becomes infected, and ness are diminished through the activation of
infertility follows. ENDORPHINS. Twitching significantly increases
732 ‘Tying-Up Syndrome’
lymph vessels and a tendency towards ulceration Ultrasound is generally defined as an auditory
of the skin over the parts affected. frequency beyond that perceived by the human
ear. Most humans hear and emit sound in the
Cause Corynebacterium bovis (pseudotuberculo- frequency range 2 to 20 kHz, while in some
sis). It gains access through abrasions. Infection animals ranges are much greater. Bats, dolphins,
may be carried by grooming tools, harness, many rodents and some insects have ranges that
utensils, etc., from one horse to another. extend as high as 120 kHz – well beyond the
limit of human detection. Pigs and poultry can
Signs The commonest seat of the disease is the detect higher ultrasound frequencies and may be
fetlock of a hind-leg. This part becomes swollen disturbed by the noise given off by, for example,
and slightly painful. Small abscesses appear; certain electronic equipment and dripping
ulcers follow. The condition gradually spreads nipple-drinkers. Female rabbits communicate
up the leg. with their litters in ultrasound.
Ultrasound, in the range of 1 million to
Treatment Antibiotics. 10 million hertz, is used in non-invasive diag-
nostic imaging of internal body structures. It is
Ulcerative Spirochaetosis of widely used in pregnancy diagnosis of animals.
Pigs (See also PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.)
This has been reported in the UK, Australia, In human medicine, ultrasound has been
New Zealand, South Africa, and the USA. It shown to be beneficial for wound healing, both
may give rise to foot-rot in pigs, ulceration of in the treatment of pressure sores and in the
the skin, and scirrhous cord. preparation of trophic ulcers for skin grafting.
Studies have shown that it influences the activity
Ulna of fibroblasts.
This is the inner of the 2 bones of the fore-arm.
The shaft has gradually reduced in size as the Ultra-Violet Rays
number of digits has decreased, so that while Ultra-violet rays are used in the treatment of
the ulna is a perfect bone in the dog and cat, in various skin diseases, etc., and in the diagnosis of
the horse its shaft has almost completely disap- ringworm and porphyria; also in the fluorescent-
peared and the bone is only represented by the antibody test for various infections including
olecranon process which forms the ‘point of the rabies.
elbow’. The shaft of the ulna is liable to become
fractured from violence to the fore-limb, but Ultra-violet rays and eye cancer
the commonest seat of an ulnar fracture is the Analysis of data from 14 veterinary colleges in
olecranon process. This occurs from a fall in the USA, where 147 cases of eye cancer in hors-
which the fore-limbs slip out in front of the ani- es were studied, led to the conclusion that ultra-
mal, and the weight of the body comes down violet radiation may be of primary importance
suddenly on to the point of the elbow. (See in triggering cancer.
FRACTURES.)
incorporated uniformly within the dairy ration, the posterior part of the urino-genital passage
has been shown to be safe at a level of 1 per cent. in the female. It serves to conduct the urine
Combined with 5 per cent barley, that mix can from the bladder to the outside; also the semen.
replace 5 per cent ground-nut meal in the
ration. In the diets of finishing beef cattle, the Urethra, Diseases of
animals can gradually have the proportion of Owing to its extreme shortness in the female,
urea increased. the urethra is not subject to the same disease
conditions as in the male, where the tube is
Some guidelines for urea feeding considerably longer. In fact, disease of the ure-
1. Introduce urea feeding gradually, i.e. at a thra in the female hardly ever arises except as a
slowly increasing level over a period of 3 to 4 complication of either disease of the bladder, on
weeks, with adequate minerals and vitamins the one hand, or of the vagina on the other.
provided.
2. Avoid starting newly calved cows on it (but Urethritis Inflammation of the urethra is
it may be included in the steaming-up ration), usually associated with cystitis, and may be the
or giving it to calves under 3 months of age. result of an infection, or of some irritant poison
3. Ensure that urea is fed with adequate readi- (such as CANTHARIDES) present in the urine.
ly digestible carbohydrate, as is contained in cere- The lining mucous membrane may also be
als, molasses, sugar-beet pulp, maize silage, etc. inflamed by crystalline deposits. (See FELINE
4. Do not exceed levels of urea recommended UROLOGICAL SYNDROME; UROLITHIASIS; URE-
by the supplier. THRAL OBSTRUCTION.)
5. Ensure that urea is fed little and often, and In most cases of urethritis there are signs of
not irregularly or at long intervals. pain and distress whenever urine is passed or
when the parts are handled. A little blood may
Urea poisoning Symptoms include saliva- be seen.
tion, excitement, running and staggering, jerking
of the eyeballs, and scouring. Stricture is an abrupt narrowing of the calibre
Acute urea poisoning killed 17 beef cows in a of the tube at one or more places. In almost all
group of 29 in the south of Scotland. The ani- cases of true stricture there has been some injury
mals died over an 8-hour period as a result of to the urethra or penis, resulting in the forma-
drinking water which had been carried to a tion of scar tissue, which eventually contracts
trough in a tanker previously used for transport- and decreases the lumen of the tube. A few
ing urea fertiliser. It was calculated that as little cases, however, are caused by a rapidly growing
as 10 litres of the water would have provided a tumour.
fatal dose of urea to a 500 kg cow.
Injuries to the urethra may follow a severe
Ureaplasmas crush or blow which causes fracture of the pelvis
Formerly known as T-mycoplasmas, these have or of the os penis in the dog. They are usually
been isolated from the lungs, and also the uro- obvious when the injury has involved the sur-
genital tract of several species of animals. They face of the body, and may be suspected if there
are a likely cause of pneumonia and infertility. is an inability to pass urine, or if the urine con-
tains blood or pus following upon a severe
Ureter injury to the hindquarters of the body. A com-
The ureter is the tube which carries the urine plication of urethral injuries is abscess formation
excreted by a kidney down to the urinary bladder. around the urethra and consequent stricture at a
U Each ureter begins at the pelvis (main cavity) of later period.
the corresponding kidney, passes backwards and
downwards along the roof and walls of the pelvis, Urethral Obstruction
and finally ends by opening into the neck of the In sheep, the injudicious use of hormones to
bladder. The wall of the ureter is composed of a increase liveweight gain has killed lambs, appar-
fibrous coat on the outside, a muscular coat in the ently as the result of urethral obstruction. In
middle, and this is lined by a mucous membrane one incident in the USA, 200 out of 9000
consisting of cubical epithelium. lambs died after receiving 12 mg stilboestrol by
injection.
Urethra In the UK, an increased incidence of urethral
The urethra is the tube which leads from the obstruction in male calves and lambs followed the
neck of the bladder to the outside, opening at incorporation of too high a level of magnesium in
the extremity of the penis in the male, and into the concentrates fed.
Urinary Bladder, Diseases of 737
Analysis of the calculi (stones) causing the stones and urinary calculi, and may be present in
obstruction showed them to be crystals of mag- joints affected with GOUT.
nesium ammonium phosphate. After reducing
the level of magnesium supplementation to 200 Urinary Antiseptics
mg MgO per tonne of feed, there were no cases Urinary antiseptics include hexylresorcinol,
of urolithiasis in intensively fattened male mandelic acid, hexamine (for acid urine; not
lambs offered a cereal-based diet ad lib. (See also effective in alkaline urine), buchu.
under URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF – Urinary
calculi.) Urinary Bladder
Five outbreaks in male calves of various In some animals the bladder is situated in the
ages investigated by the Veterinary Research pelvis, but in the dog and cat it is placed further
Laboratory, Stormont, showed a magnesium forward in the abdomen, while in the pig and
content of the concentrates (fed from the first ox it may be almost entirely abdominal when
week of life) to range from 4.9 to 9.2 g/kg dry distended. The size of the organ varies with the
matter. (The AFRC recommendation is not breed and sex of the animal, and its capacity
more than 1.4 g/kg dry matter.) depends upon the individual. Two small tubes –
Obstruction of the male urethra is a common called ureters – lead into the bladder, one from
condition in cats, and fairly common in the each kidney, and the larger, thicker urethra con-
dog. (See FELINE UROLOGICAL SYNDROME.) veys urine from it to the exterior. The constrict-
Unless relieved, urethral obstruction can lead ed portion from which the urethra takes origin
to rupture of the bladder and death. is called the neck of the bladder, and is guarded
by a ring of muscular tissue – the sphincter.
Urethrostomy Structure The wall of the bladder is some-
Perineal urethrostomy is a surgical operation for what similar to that of the intestine, and con-
the treatment of urethral obstruction; it consists sists of a mucous lining on the inside, possessing
of making a permanent opening in the urethra, flat, pavement-like epithelial cells; a loose sub-
the lining mucous membrane and the skin mucous layer of fibrous tissue very rich in blood
being joined by sutures. (Urethrostomy differs vessels; a strong, complicated muscular coat in
in this respect from urethrotomy, in which the which the fibres are arranged in many direc-
urethra is incised – to remove a wedged calculus, tions; and on the surface an incomplete peri-
for example – but immediately closed.) toneal coat covering the organ. In places this
Urethrostomy is performed mainly in cats suf- peritoneal covering is folded across to parts of
fering from feline urological syndrome. It is not the abdominal or pelvic wall in the form of lig-
in itself a cure for this, but rather for the often- aments which retain the bladder in its position.
associated urethral obstruction. The operation is In young animals the bladder is elongated
an alternative to euthanasia when the cat cannot and narrow, and reaches much further forward
be catheterised, or has already been subjected to than it does in the adult. In the unborn fetus its
this on 2 or more occasions, when repetition forward extremity communicates with the out-
could be regarded as inhumane. side of the body until just before birth, when
Urethrostomy, skilfully performed, can be the passage becomes closed at the umbilicus, or
successful, in both the short and the long term. navel, and the bladder shrinks backwards.
Complications can arise, however, after both Urinary Bladder, Diseases of
urethrotomies and urethrostomies, and include:
extravasation of urine into surrounding tissues; Cystitis Inflammation of the bladder is often
haemorrhage; and stricture, as the result of scar infective in origin, with micro-organisms com- U
formation. Should the latter occur, it leaves ing either from the kidneys via the ureters, or,
the cat in the same state as it was before the in the female, in the reverse direction – i.e. via
operation, so that nothing has been gained. the urethra from an infected vagina.
Urethrostomy makes the male cat anatomi- Leptospirosis is a common cause of nephritis
cally similar to the female, so that ascending and cystitis in farm animals and in dogs. E. coli
infections may occur. is another common pathogen in dogs; and
Corynebacterium suis in pigs.
Uric Acid In dogs, cystitis is occasionally found to be
Uric acid is a crystalline substance, very slightly due to the bladder worm Capillaria plica; and
soluble in water, white in the pure state, and in cats to C. feliscati. The parasites’ eggs may be
found in the urine of flesh-eating animals in nor- found in the urinary sediment. Anthelmintics
mal conditions. It is also found in some kidney may be used for treatment.
738 Urinary Calculi
Inflammation of the bladder may be caused tumours; 44 of these were carcinomas. Several
by the abrasive action of a sand-like crystalline papillomas were found during cystotomy for
deposit as in the FELINE UROLOGICAL SYN- urinary calculi.
DROME or, to a lesser extent, by sizeable urinary
calculi. Urinary Calculi
(see above, and under URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES
Signs In acute cystitis, small quantities of urine OF)
may be passed frequently, with signs of pain
and/or straining on each occasion. Blood may be Urinary Incontinence in Dogs
seen in the urine. The larger animals may walk and Cats
with their hind legs slightly abducted, and the (see INCONTINENCE)
back is often arched in all animals.
Urinary Organs
Treatment This will naturally vary according (see KIDNEYS; URETER; BLADDER; URETHRA)
to the cause. An appropriate antibiotic may be
used to overcome infection, along perhaps with a Urine
urinary antiseptic. Urine acidifiers, such as ascor- A brief outline of the formation of urine is
bic acid or ammonium chloride, or alkalisers, given under KIDNEYS – Function. (See also
such as potassium citrate or sodium bicarbonate, HOMEOSTASIS.)
may also be used to adjust the pH of the urine. Not only are waste products removed from the
Pain-relievers may be needed. bloodstream by the kidneys, but most poisons
taken into the body are eliminated from the sys-
Urinary calculi These, associated with high tem by way of the urine; thus, quinine, mor-
grain rations and the use of oestrogen, produce phine, chloroform, carbolic acid, iodides, and
heavy losses among fattening cattle and sheep in strychnine can be recognised in the urine by
the feed-lots of the USA and Canada. However, means of appropriate tests, while there is abun-
this condition does not seem to present the dant evidence to show that during bacterial dis-
same problem in the barley beef units in this eases, the kidneys eliminate toxins.
country, although outbreaks do occur in sheep
fed high grain rations. The inclusion of 4 per Specific gravity The specific gravity of the
cent NaCl in the diet decreased the incidence of urine of animals varies between wide limits; for
urinary calculi. average purposes the following figures are given:
In male calves and lambs, crystalline deposits
of magnesium ammonium phosphate cause ure- Lowest Average Highest
thral obstruction if the animals are receiving too
high a level of magnesium supplement in their Horse 1014 1036 1050
concentrate feed. (See URETHRAL OBSTRUCTION.) Cow 1006 1020 1030
Urinary calculi may occur in an individual Sheep 1006 1010 1015
animal irrespective of its diet, or of hormone Pig 1003 1015 1025
implants. There may be one large calculus pre- Dog and cat 1016 — 1060
sent in the bladder, or several small ones, or the
crystalline sand-like deposit already mentioned. Reaction The urine of the herbivorous
In such cases, although hyaluronidase might be animals is usually alkaline, and that of the
tried, treatment usually has to be surgical, i.e. flesh-eating animals, acid. The alkalinity in her-
cystotomy. bivores is due to the salts of the organic acids
U that are taken in with the vegetable diet, such as
Rupture of the bladder This condition is malic, citric, tartaric, and succinic; these acids
usually quickly fatal, and is brought about by a are converted into carbonates in the body, and
painful over-distension of the bladder due to these latter are excreted in solution. In the case
urethral obstruction. of some foods, such as hay and oats, an acid
urine may be produced when they are fed to the
Tumours These may cause difficulty in pass- horse. In the carnivorous animals the acidity is
ing urine, and sometimes the presence of blood due to sodium acid phosphate. The pig’s urine
in the urine. may be acid or alkaline according to the nature
In a study of 70 cases in the dog, no urinary of its food.
signs were found in 9. In the other 61, signs
included haematuria, dysuria, tenesmus, inconti- Amount The quantities of urine excreted
nence, and polyuria. Sixty-two dogs had primary depend upon many factors, among which may
Urticaria (Nettle Rash) 739
be noted: season, diet, amount of water con- cause is the installation of a cat flap, if the flap
sumed, condition of the animal, secretion of does not keep other cats out of the house. A
milk, pregnancy, age, and size of the animal. move to a new home, or even the rearrange-
(See also PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS.) ment of furniture, may initiate urine-spraying
The following are average figures of the indoors. Spraying is common in households
amounts excreted during 24 hours: where several cats are kept.
Horse: 3 to 11 litres (5 to 20 pints), average Hormonal drugs such as progestins, which
5 litres (9 pints). block the effects of male hormones, can be used
Cow: 5.7 to 22 litres (10 to 40 pints), average in male cats. Tranquillisers may be of benefit in
12.5 litres (22 pints). more intractable cases. If a particular area is tar-
Sheep: 285 to 855 ml (0.5 to 1.5 pints), geted, the cat’s food bowl can be placed there, as
average 570 ml (1 pint). cats will not spray close to where they eat. Feline
Pig: 1.4 to 8 litres (2.5 to 14 pints), average pheromone, in an aerosol, is said to inhibit the
4.5 litres (8 pints). cat’s desire to spray.
Dog: 440 to 995 ml (0.75 to 1.75 pints),
average 680 ml (1.25 pints). Urinometer
An instrument designed for the estimation of
Abnormal constituents of urine the specific gravity of urine.
Albumin may be excreted when there is some
disease of the kidneys. Sugar is found in dia- Urogenital Papilla
betes and it is also found in smaller amounts A small projection at the urogenital opening of
after an animal has been fed on a diet that is fish. Damage or infection at this area can lead
too rich in sugar. In this latter case – known as to problems in shedding eggs or semen (‘milt’).
glycosuria – the sugar disappears when the feed-
ing is corrected. Pus and tube-casts are the signs Urolithiasis
of inflammation or ulceration in some part of The formation of calculi (stones), or of a crys-
the urinary system. Bile in the urine is a sign talline sand-like deposit, in the urinary system. A
that there is some obstruction to the outflow of bacterial or viral infection may precede or follow
bile into the intestines, and that the bile is being the condition. (See URETHRAL OBSTRUCTION;
reabsorbed into the bloodstream and excreted URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF; FELINE URI-
by the kidneys. NARY SYNDROME; and URETHRA, DISEASES OF.)
tendency for the skin to weal when rubbed or in 2 layers, the fibres on the outside being
scratched. longitudinal and those on the inside circular; an
innermost coat, which is mucous membrane.
Signs As a rule there is little to be seen beyond This latter is very important, since it is by its
the local swellings of the skin. These may vary agency that the ovum and the sperms are nour-
in size from a pea to a walnut, and are general- ished before they fuse; it is through the mucous
ly more or less almond-shaped. They are pain- membrane that nutrients and oxygen are con-
less to the touch, show no oozing discharge, are veyed from dam to fetus, and that much of the
scattered irregularly over the whole body, and waste products leave the fetal circulation to pass
sometimes involve the skin of the eyelids, nos- into the maternal bloodstream. It consists of
trils, and perineum. In cattle especially they epithelial cells, amongst which lie the uterine
may attain a great size in the throat region and glands which secrete the so-called ‘uterine milk’
produce difficulty in breathing. serving to nourish the newly fertilised ovum.
The most posterior extremity of the uterus is
Treatment Consists of the use of ANTIHISTA- called the os uteri, and this forms the opening
MINES, a light diet, and calamine lotion. An into the cervix uteri, which is a thick-walled
antibiotic may be used to prevent infection from canal guarding entrance into the cavity of the
occurring. body of the uterus. Normally this is almost or
completely shut, but during oestrus it slackens,
Ustu Virus and during parturition it becomes fully opened
Ustu virus is closely related to WEST NILE VIRUS. to allow exit of the fetus. The uterus is held in
An outbreak in Vienna in 2000 is thought to position by means of a fold of peritoneum
have been carried by swallows migrating from attached to the roof of the abdomen, which
Africa. The disease is transmitted by mosqui- carries blood vessels, nerves, etc. This is known
toes, In humans, the signs are fever and a rash, as the ‘broad ligament’; it is capable of a
but serious illness has not been reported. considerable amount of stretching.
Humans and primates are terminal hosts for the
virus and so are not a source of infection for The mare The shape of the uterus of the mare
other animals. most nearly approaches that of the human being.
It possesses a large body and comparably small
Uterine Infections horns. During pregnancy the fetus generally lies
These are discussed under UTERUS, DISEASES OF in horn and body. The mucous membrane is
and INFERTILITY. A list of the principal organ- corrugated into folds.
isms which infect the uterus in the various
species is given under ABORTION; but for the The cow The body is less in size than the
mare, see EQUINE GENITAL INFECTIONS. horns, which are long, tapering, and curved
downwards, outwards, backwards, and upwards
Uterus to end within the pelvis at about the level of the
The uterus is a Y-shaped organ consisting of a cervix. The fetus lies in the body and one horn in
body and two horns, or cornua; it is lined by an single pregnancy, and when twins are present
elaborate mucous membrane which presents each usually occupies one horn and a part of the
special features in different species of animals. body. The mucous membrane presents upon its
The uterus lies in the abdomen below the rec- inner surface a large number (100 upwards) of
tum and at a higher level than the bladder. It mushroom-shaped projections – cotyledons.
becomes continuous with the vagina posteriorly. The fetal membranes are attached to the dome-
U Its most posterior portion, known as the cervix, like free surface of the cotyledons, in which are a
usually lies partly in the pelvis. From the tip of large number of crypts, which receive projections
each horn to the ovary on the corresponding called villi from the outer surface of the chorion.
side runs the Fallopian tube or oviduct, which
conducts the ova from the ovary into the uterus. The ewe has a uterus similar to that of the cow
In the human female the body is large and except that it is smaller and that the cotyledons
horns, for practical purposes, do not exist. In are cup-shaped.
rabbits the 2 horns open into the vagina sepa-
rately. The uteri of domesticated animals are The sow has a small uterine body and a pair
intermediate between these types. of long convoluted horns that resemble pieces of
The walls consist of 3 coats:a peritoneal cov- intestine. The mucous membrane is ridged but
ering on the outside continuous with the rest of has no cotyledons. The young lie in the horns
the peritoneum; a thick muscular wall arranged only.
Uterus, Diseases of 741
The reproductive tract of the cow (side view). B, Urinary bladder; C, cervix; F, Fallopian tube; L, broad
ligament; O, ovary; P, pelvic bone (os coxae); R, rectum; S, suburethral diverticulum; U, uterine horn;
V, vestibule; Va, vagina; Vr, vertebral column. (Hafez, Reproduction in Farm Animals, Lea & Febiger as
reproduced in R. D. Frandson, Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, Baillière, Tindall.)
The bitch and cat have uteri with compar- of the attendants, or by the ropes, instruments,
atively short bodies and long, straight, divergent or other appliances that are used to assist the
horns that run towards the kidneys of the birth of the foal; or it may be the direct result of
corresponding sides. retained membranes that undergo bacterial
(See PREGNANCY; PARTURITION.) decomposition. (This may happen after a large
part, but not all, of the fetal membranes have
Uterus, Diseases of come away.)
Inflammation of the uterus (metritis) may be
acute or chronic, localised (e.g. confined to the Signs Acute metritis is a severe and often fatal
cervix), or involving more than one uterine tissue. condition. Within 24 to 48 hours, the mare
A list of uterine infections giving rise to becomes greatly distressed and loses all interest in
infertility and abortion in the various species the foal. She lies most of the time and refuses
will be found under ABORTION, but for the food; her temperature is usually high. Greyish
mare, see under EQUINE GENITAL INFECTIONS. blood-flecked discharge escapes from the vagina
and soils the tail and hindquarters. The mare
The mare may become tucked up in her abdomen and
stands with her back arched.
Acute Metritis This may occur either before LAMINITIS may develop.
U
or after foaling. When it takes place prior to the
act it is usually associated with the death of the Prevention During foaling and after the act
foal and its subsequent abortion, with or without the greatest attention should be paid to the
discharge of the whole or a part of the mem- cleanliness of everything that is to come into
branes. In such cases the inflammatory condition contact with the genital tract of the mare. The
may persist in an acute form and cause the death attendant’s fingernails should be trimmed
of the mare, or it may assume a chronic form short, and the hands and arms should be well
after the abortion and render the mare incapable scrubbed with soap and water containing
of further breeding; other cases are followed by some antiseptic, such as Dettol. Finally the
recovery. Acute metritis occurring after normal hand and arm should be lubricated with a
foaling may arise through the conveyance of suitable preparation marketed for this purpose.
infection into the uterus by the arms or hands All appliances that are to be used should be
742 Uterus, Diseases of
boiled and kept in a pail of hot water when not LAMINITIS or PNEUMONIA co-exist, they must
actually in use. receive separate attention.
One other factor is of the greatest impor-
tance: after a mare foals, the fetal membranes
Chronic Metritis This may originate as a
sequel to an acute attack in some cases, but
should be given attention. Normally they are
more commonly it is directly due to an injury
discharged by means of a few comparatively
or infection which is not sufficiently severe to
mild labour pains within an hour of the birth of
produce an acute attack.
the foal. If however they are retained for longer
than this period, the person in attendance
Signs There may be a general unthriftiness
should suspect that something may be wrong
following upon foaling. The mare’s appetite is
and seek veterinary advice.
capricious, but her thirst is unimpaired. The
In other cases a series of violent pains may
temperature fluctuates a degree or two above
commence, when the bulk of the membranes
normal. There may or may not be a dirty, sticky,
are passed to the outside, where they hang sus-
grey, or pus-like discharge from the vagina,
pended. Should this happen a sack or sheet
which causes irritation and frequent erections
should be placed under the dependent mass,
of the clitoris. The mare resents handling of the
and held so as to support the weight and relieve
genital organs, but if the lips of the vulva are
the tension on that portion that is still retained
gently separated the mucous membrane is seen
in the uterus. This is necessary lest the weight of
to be inflamed and swollen.
the external membranes causes a tearing away
In other cases the pus collects in the cavity of
from the non-separated part. Gentle traction
the uterus and is retained there through closure
should then be exerted upon the imprisoned
of the os. (See PYOMETRA.) It sometimes happens
portion; as a rule it will gradually detach itself
that after the pus has collected for a certain peri-
and come to the outside. If no progress is made,
od the os suddenly opens and 4.5 litres (1 gallon)
veterinary assistance should be sought promptly.
or more of pus is discharged. The os then closes
Injections of PITUITRIN may obviate manual
once more. Intervals between these evacuations
removal of the fetal membranes. A synthetic
may vary from a few days to 3 or 4 weeks. The
oestrogen may be preferred. (See HORMONE
mare’s general condition shows an improvement
THERAPY.)
immediately following a sudden discharge of
Regarding complete retention of the fetal
pus, but as it re-accumulates she relapses into
membranes – when only a very small portion is
her former chronic state. Chronic metritis may
seen hanging from the vagina – professional
get gradually worse, and the mare dies. Cases
help should be obtained if there is no sign of any
taken in time usually recover with treatment, but
attempt at expulsion within 4 to 6 hours after
further breeding is often impossible.
foaling.
Generally speaking, membranes that have
Treatment An early opportunity should be
remained in position for 8 to 12 hours are start-
taken to evacuate the pus from the uterus, by
ing to decompose, and decomposition means
douching and siphonage, or by irrigation as
bacterial infection of the uterus (i.e. metritis) in
already described under ‘Acute metritis’.
almost every case.
Sulfa drugs or antibiotics may be used.
It should be emphasised that expert advice
Treatment The case must be considered most
should be sought at the earliest opportunity.
serious. The use of antibiotics or one of the
(See also CONTAGIOUS EQUINE METRITIS.)
sulfa drugs is indicated. (See also under NURSING.)
Any retained fetal membrane must be removed
The cow In the following brief account, much
U from the uterus by hand and as much discharge
of what has been said in relation to the mare
as possible cleared out. A solution of acriflavine,
must be understood to apply to the cow as well,
proflavine, or brilliant green, 1 part in 1000
and only the main differences will be stated.
of boiled water, or some other suitable non-
irritant antiseptic solution at blood heat, Acute Metritis In some cases where birth of
is douched into the cavity of the uterus by a the calf has taken place easily and naturally,
length of rubber tubing, and, after allowing metritis supervenes in the course of the first
it to act for 2 to 5 minutes, is syphoned off. A week or 10 days after calving, but in the major-
special 2-way tube is sometimes used for this ity of cases there has been some injury or infec-
purpose – the solution entering by one channel tion at, or shortly after, parturition. Retention
and leaving by the other. When all the fluid of the fetal membranes, which is so much more
has been removed, an antiseptic pessary may common in the cow than in other animals, is
be inserted. When complications such as very often the contributory factor to an attack
Uterus, Diseases of 743
of acute metritis. The conveyance of infection The bitch and cat In these carnivores, owing
by the hands and arms of the attendant, in his to the diffused placenta, and to the consequent
capacity of accoucheur, or insemination of a cow sudden stripping bare of protective covering of a
not in oestrus, are other causes. large surface, inflammation of the uterus is very
prone to follow protracted or difficult parturi-
Signs The cow generally becomes obviously tion, especially when manual assistance from
affected between the 2nd and 8th day after calv- unskilled persons has been undertaken. As in
ing. The vulval lips swell and are painful when other animals, an acute and a chronic form are
touched; the lining membrane of the vagina is recognised.
intensely reddened and swollen. There are fre-
quent and painful attempts at the passage of Acute Metritis may follow difficult whelp-
urine, the temperature rises to 41.5° or 42°C ings, and retention of one or more fetal mem-
(107° or 108°F), the appetite is lost and there branes. The membrane most commonly retained
is a gritting of the teeth. Rumination is sup- is that which belonged to the fetus that was born
pressed, the pulse is hard and fast, the milk last and occupied the extremity of one of the
secretion falls off or stops altogether. A discharge horns of the uterus.
appears at the vulva.
Signs The onset of inflammation of the uterus
Treatment Acute metritis in the cow should generally occurs within a week after whelping,
be looked upon as a contagious disease and but some cases are delayed a little longer than
precautions taken to prevent infection being this, especially in cats. A rise in temperature,
conveyed to other cows that are soon due to increased pulse and respiration rates, dullness,
calve. Actual treatment is similar to that as disinclination for movement, and an absence of
applied to the mare. appetite occur.
Cats and dogs seem to get ease from the pain
Chronic Metritis very often follows an acute by sitting crouched in an upright position on
attack in the cow. The animal partially recovers, their hocks and elbows, and this posture is
the more acute symptoms subside, and there is almost continually assumed. A discharge appears
apparently little or no pain. Milk yield may be at the vulva. Vomiting may occur. The secretion
reasonable, and the animal may appear bright. of milk ceases and the puppies or kittens become
The general health, however, remains indiffer- clamorous for food. The sides of the abdomen
ent and there may be either a constant or an are held tense and rigid, and any attempt at han-
intermittent discharge from the vulva, which dling these parts is resisted. The animal may
soils the tail and hindquarters, and has in many groan or grunt if the flanks are firmly pressed
cases a putrid smell. between the hands.
Chronic metritis may be due to Brucella
abortus (see BRUCELLOSIS), Trichomonas fetus, Treatment The use of antibiotics or sulfon-
Actinomyces pyogenes, or Campylobacter fetus, amides is important. The uterus is syringed
among other organisms. Another form of out with a non-irritant antiseptic such as dilute
chronic metritis that attacks cattle is seen in vir- cetrimide solution; and pituitrin, ergometrine
gin heifers that have never bred. or dinoprost is given. Antiseptic pessaries may
Pyometra (a collection of pus in the uterus) be introduced into the uterus. (See NURSING;
may result from infection introduced during NORMAL SALINE; ANTIBIOTICS.) The puppies or
natural service, insemination, or at or after kittens should be removed from their mother,
calving. Treatment with cloprestonol may be and may be reared either by hand or through
helpful. the agency of a foster-mother. U
Treatment of chronic metritis in the cow is Chronic Metritis is very common in the
much the same as that in the mare, but see also smaller animals, and is sometimes the sequel
under HORMONE THERAPY. of an acute attack that has never completely
cleared up. The cervix remains closed in most
The ewe, sow and goat What has been cases, so that the uterus becomes filled with pus
said in respect to the larger animals applies to (PYOMETRA) and the abdomen consequently
these animals to a great extent. It should be enlarges. It is this increase in size that first draws
remembered that flesh from an animal that is attention to the condition, as a rule.
suffering from a severe inflammatory condition,
such as metritis, is not fit for human food. (See Treatment In cases of pyometra where
also SOW’S MILK, ABSENCE OF.) some pus is coming away, a course of pituitrin
744 Uterus, Diseases of
injections may be useful (and it may be tried accident occurred. For the first 2 or 3 hours
even where the cervix is closed). (See PITUITRIN.) the mucous membrane appears moist and of a
Stilboestrol is no longer an alternative in EU reddish or brownish colour over the whole
countries. A 2-way catheter may be used to wash surface in the mare and sow. In the cow, sheep,
out the pus. Penicillin or acriflavine may be used and goat, the general surface is red or pink,
for irrigation of the uterus, and antibiotics or but the cotyledons show as deep-red mush-
sulfonamides systemically. Ovario-hysterectomy room-like eminences scattered over the outside
is indicated in a number of cases but should not of the tumour. In the bitch and cat there is a
be postponed until toxaemia is far advanced or wide dark-brown zone. Later, the surface
the animal too weak to stand the operation. becomes dry – owing to its exposure to the air
Shock is severe. – and becomes deep reddish, violet, or purple,
according to the amount of congestion and
Stricture of the cervix is one of the results strangulation.
of an inflammatory condition of this part. In the cow the whole of the outer upper
When inflammation has been severe, a certain surface may be covered with the faeces that are
amount of fibrous tissue is laid down around passed as the result of the severe straining. In all
the canal, contracts and causes a narrowing of animals – but especially in ruminants – parts of
the passage. the fetal membranes may be adherent to the
outer surface of the mass, and can be easily
Treatment is described under ‘RINGWOMB’ – a recognised.
term used only for stricture in ewes, in which it The surface is not sensitive to the touch, but
is most often seen. any manipulation of the mass is provocative of
further straining.
Tumours Benign tumours include lipoma, Various complications may occur. The
fibroma, papilloma, myoma, and haemangioma vagina is always displaced when the prolapse is
(rare). Malignant tumours include lymphosar- complete; this obstructs the urethra, and dams
coma, adenocarcinoma, and squamous cell back the urine.
carcinoma.
Treatment Prolapse of the uterus is always an
Prolapse A partial or complete turning- extremely serious condition in any animal, and
inside-out of the organ, in which the inside in the mare and sow very often proves fatal. A
comes to the outside through the lips of the percentage of cows and ewes recover, when the
vulva and hangs down, sometimes as far as the prolapse is replaced without loss of time, and
hocks. When the displacement is only slight when there are no complications.
nothing may be seen at the outside – as, for When treating a case – in whatever animal –
example, when one horn only is inverted into it is absolutely necessary to comply with certain
the body of the uterus. It is most common in essentials as follows:
ruminants, less frequent in the mare. (1) The prolapsed uterus must be protected
from further damage. To ensure this the animal
Signs With an incomplete inversion, the uter- must be secured at once, and a large sheet or
ine horn that carried the fetus becomes turned blanket – which has been previously dipped in
in upon itself like the finger of a glove, but it mild antiseptic solution – must be placed under
remains inside the passages, and nothing is seen the mass, and held by 2 men so that the tension
to the outside. The animal is distressed for a is relieved from the neck, and so that it cannot
time, paws the ground, stamps, lies and rises be further contaminated or injured.
U from the ground frequently, and a series of mild (2) The surface of the organ must be carefully
or violent labour pains occurs. She may settle cleansed. For this purpose a clean pail containing
down in a short while, but in a few hours she a warm solution of potassium permanganate and
generally has a repeated attack, when the bulk common salt (1 teaspoonful of the former and
of the uterus will be expelled to the outside of 100 g (4 oz) of the latter to 4.5 litres (1 gallon)
the body. In the early stages of such a case the of water) or diluted Dettol or cetrimide solution
real nature of the condition is seldom suspected may be used. All the larger particles of straw,
unless a large pear-shaped mass is seen hanging debris, etc., are picked off, and the smaller pieces
from the vulva. removed by gentle washing. Care must be taken
The state of the mucous membrane lining of not to make the surface bleed.
the uterus, which in the prolapse is of course on (3) The prolapsed portion must be replaced.
the outside of the mass, serves as a rough guide To effect this the larger animals may require
to the length of time that has elapsed since the epidural or general anaesthesia to prevent
Uterus, Diseases of 745
the powerful expulsive pains that otherwise monsters. Sometimes a recessive gene is respon-
accompany the process, and make return diffi- sible. It may also occur when crossing an
cult. When the animal has been anaesthetised American bison on a cow, i.e. when producing
the hindquarters are raised as high as possible hybrids.
by building up the floor with straw bales, Where oedema of the allantois alone occurs,
by hoisting the hind-legs, or by other means. the cause may be disease of the uterus, especially
When the protruded mass is very large and has of the caruncles.
a distinct neck, the main bulk is raised to a Sometimes oedema of both the fetal mem-
slightly higher level than the external passage, branes and the fetus occurs. In mild cases the
and a process of ‘tucking in’ is begun near the condition may not be suspected until calving,
vulva. This is carried out by the 2 hands – one when an unusually large amount of fluid will be
at either side – using the hands half closed, so expelled. Retention of fetal membranes and
that the middle joints of the fingers come into subsequent metritis may follow.
contact with the uterus. The fingertips should In severe cases, the cow may lose appetite,
not be employed owing to the danger of lacera- appear distressed, be constipated, with rumina-
tion or even puncture of the walls. The resis- tion adversely affected or depressed. Abdominal
tance is gradually overcome and the mass eased swelling may suggest bloat. In extreme cases,
along the passages back into the pelvis – a the cow may be unable to get to her feet. Cases
labour that often makes great demands upon of dislocation of the hips or backward extension
the strength and endurance of the operator, and of the hind-legs have been seen in combined
frequently takes an hour or more to effect. fetal and fetal membrane oedema involving
Moreover, when once the organ has been amnion and allantois, and uterus (hydrops
returned, unless it is straightened out into its uteri).
normal position, it may be reinverted a 2nd
time. Rupture, involving the uterine wall, may
(4) Measures must be taken to retain the occur before or during parturition in any ani-
uterus in position: the animal may be given an mal, during the reduction of a torsion or pro-
analgesic or a tranquilliser to lessen the chance lapse, or, in the bitch or cat, as the result of a car
of subsequent straining; and sutures may be accident. (See ECTOPIC, PREGNANCY.)
inserted.
Bedding, etc. is arranged so that the animal is Torsion, or twisting, of the uterus is com-
compelled to both stand and lie with the monest in the cow and other ruminants, and
hindquarters raised above the level of the fore- rare in other domestic animals. This accident
quarters. This throws the abdominal contents consists of a partial or complete rotation of the
forwards, and helps to maintain the uterus in uterus around its long axis, and usually involves
place. It is, of course, mainly applicable to mares the neck of the organ.
and cows. Bandages may prove helpful. Signs As a rule there is no indication of the
Amputation of the prolapsed uterus becomes presence of the displacement until parturition
necessary when all attempts at its reduction are is due to commence. The animal is then seen
futile; when the organ has received so much to prepare herself in the usual way, but the
injury or has become so decomposed and gan- preliminary labour pains are exceptionally
grenous that it would be certainly fatal to return feeble and separated by long intervals. After
it to the abdomen; or when prolapse occurs the lapse of some hours – when the ‘waterbag’
time after time in spite of all attempts at reten- and other signs of the approaching act should
tion. have become evident in an ordinary case –
In a survey of 103 cases of uterine prolapse, nothing happens. The animal is slightly dis- U
19 cows died within 24 hours of replacement of turbed, shows an occasional pain, walks round
the uterus. aimlessly, may feed spasmodically, but does not
appear to be greatly distressed. This condition
Hydrops amnii A condition in which the may persist for as long as 48 hours. In other
quantity of amniotic (see AMNION) fluid is cases the animal is very much distressed. It
greatly in excess of normal. It is often associ- has spasms of violent and painful uterine
ated with a similar condition of the ALLANTOIS, contraction.
which is sometimes erroneously called hydrops
amnii. Treatment In the small animals laparotomy
Occurring mainly in cattle, and only rarely is performed, and the twisted organ untwisted.
in other farm/domestic animals, hydrops amnii In the cow, it may be possible to rectify the
is often associated with ‘bulldog’ calves and twist by rolling the animal.
746 Uveitis
U
V
other than the normal host species. For example,
cattle plague vaccine may be prepared from the
virus passaged through (i.e. grown in) chick
embryos. Occasionally the live viruses used are
related but non-pathogenic strains, useful
because they will stimulate antibody production
but will not produce the disease.
Vaccination Viruses may be inactivated by phenol or
A method of producing active immunity against ultra-violet rays, for example; or they may be
a specific infection by means of inoculation modified in some way, such as by artificially
with a vaccine, i.e. a preparation of the necessary induced mutation, to produce a temperature-
antigen(s). (See IMMUNITY; IMMUNISATION; sensitive virus which will replicate in the nose
IMMUNE RESPONSE; VACCINE.) but not in the lungs. Such a virus vaccine can be
Vaccination in mammals is normally carried administered by nasal spray.
out by inoculating individual animals. The Tissue culture vaccines – live vaccines grown
method of administration depends on the type on cell cultures – are used in the prevention of
of vaccine. Most inactivated vaccines are inject- canine distemper, rabies, etc., and in treatment
ed intramuscularly or subcutaneously; tempera- of benign skin papillomata (warts) of cattle.
ture-sensitive live vaccines may be administered Vaccines are sometimes used for treatment as
as drops into the nasal passages; vaccines against well as for prevention of a particular disease.
husk are given orally. X-irradiated worm larvae vaccine is used in
Mass vaccination of poultry against Newcastle the prevention of PARASITIC BRONCHITIS.
disease may be achieved by dispersing aerosols of It is important that, in the commercial pro-
vaccine over the heads of the birds with fine duction of live vaccines involving the use of
spray pumps or adding vaccine to the drinking chicken embryos (or of tissue cultures derived
water. Some fish are vaccinated by dipping the from them), contaminant viruses are eliminated.
fish in a solution of the vaccine. Fox populations For example, the avian leukosis virus has conta-
in Europe have been vaccinated against rabies by minated distemper vaccine and would represent
impregnating chicken heads or other baits and a risk to vaccinated poultry if contaminating vac-
spreading them in known fox runs. Multiple- cines for them. Scrapie was accidentally spread
component vaccines containing antigens against by an early louping-ill virus contaminated by the
a number of diseases are available. For example, scrapie agent.
sheep can be simultaneously immunised against It is essential that vaccines are stored under
pulpy kidney disease, lamb dysentery, braxy, suitable conditions of temperature, etc.; that
blackleg, black disease, struck, Clostridium oede- they are not used after the expiry date shown on
matiens infection and tetanus by a single 8-in-1 the package; that where 2 doses are stated to be
vaccine. necessary, both are given – and at the correct
(In connection with foot-and-mouth disease, interval. Failure to observe these rules can mean
see also RING VACCINATION.) that the vaccinated animal does not become an
immunised animal; it has led to dogs presumed
Vaccine properly vaccinated against rabies becoming
When an animal is inoculated with a vaccine as rabid after exposure to a natural infection. (See
protection against a specific disease, e.g. black- also INJECTIONS; GENETIC ENGINEERING.)
leg, this is carried out with the object of stimu- Inactivated vaccines are prepared from killed
lating production of antibodies in its system, micro-organisms that retain sufficient antigenic
which will confer active immunity against activity to promote immunity. They are not as
blackleg organisms. potent as live vaccines, and 2 doses at specified
Vaccines may be prepared from live micro- intervals are usually necessary to produce effec-
organisms; from inactivated (killed) micro- tive immunity. Inactivated vaccines often con-
organisms; from genetically engineered subunits tain an adjuvant, usually an aluminium salt
of the pathogenic fraction of the organism; such as aluminium hydroxide, which enhances
or from toxoids – heat- or chemically-treated the immune reaction. Some are water-based,
micro-organisms that have lost their virulence others formulated in an oily medium. Oil-
but retain their antigenicity, i.e. ability to create based vaccines can cause serious reactions if
resistance to disease. accidentally self-injected into the operator.
Live vaccines are vaccines prepared from bac- Leptospirosis vaccine is an example.
teria or viruses whose virulence is reduced by Subunit vaccines are genetically engineered so
heat, chemicals or passage through an animal that only the antigenic fraction of a pathogen is
748 Vaccinia Virus
utilised. The vaccine does not cause infection but ovariohysterectomy or a caesarean operation,
does stimulate immunity. Feline leukaemia vac- and leads to urinary incontinence. It has been
cine is an example; another is Aujeszky’s disease suggested that the fistula may occur following
vaccine. The virus component of the subunit accidental ligation of the ureter during surgery,
vaccine has difficulty in penetrating the cells of or because the ureter becomes involved in
the vaccinated animal; it does not multiply well an inflammatory adhesion originating in the
within the cells and the animal does not shed the vaginal stump.
virus. By testing for the fraction missing from the
vaccinial strain of virus, a vaccinated animal can Intermittent haemorrhage occasionally
be determined from one carrying the infection. occurs in mares having very prominent varicose
Toxoid vaccines are produced by treating tox- veins at the dorsal aspect of the vulva-vaginal
ins from micro-organisms so that their harmful area; it does not appear to affect health or fertil-
effects are removed but the antigenic properties ity. Persistent vulval haemorrhage from varicose
remain. Tetanus vaccine is an example. veins of the dorsal wall of the vagina has also
been described. It yields to local haemostatic
Vaccinia Virus treatment.
This term may refer to the virus of naturally
occurring cow-pox, or to a strain which has Vaginitis
undergone mutation and was used for vaccina- Inflammation of the vagina. (See under INFERTIL-
tion against smallpox. (See POX.) ITY – Diseases of the genital organs in female;
also ‘WHITES’; EPIDIDYMITIS – Epivag; VULVO-
Vacuole VAGINITIS, GRANULAR; PROLAPSE.)
A cavity within a cell.
Vagotomy
Vacuum-Dipping of Eggs Severing of the vagus nerve. (See HYPERTROPHIC
OSTEOPATHY.)
A technique used in assisting the eradication
of Mycoplasma spp. in poultry. Fertile eggs are Vagus (Pneumogastric Nerve)
dipped in a concentrated solutions of antibiot- The vagus (pneumogastric nerve) is the 10th
ic (usually tylosin) and subjected to a negative cranial nerve. This nerve is remarkable for its
pressure. Some of the air in the egg’s air pocket great length, and for the attachments which it
is thus extracted and about 0.5 ml of antibiotic forms with other nerves and with the sympa-
drawn through the shell into the egg and thetic trunks. It arises from the side of the
absorbed. This process is more effective in help- medulla, passes out of the skull, and runs down
ing to eliminate M. gallisepticum than other to the jugular furrow of the neck, where, along
mycoplasmas. with the sympathetic, it accompanies the
carotid artery to the entrance to the chest. From
Vagina this point the right and left vagi differ from
The vagina extends from the cervix of the each other in their course. They both pass
uterus to the vulva. Vaginal mucus is altered in through the chest cavity, giving branches to the
character during pregnancy, a fact which can be pharynx (which run up the neck again), to the
made use of in pregnancy diagnosis. (For heart, bronchi, oesophagus, etc. Each nerve
inflammation of the vagina, see VAGINITIS.) then splits into 2 parts and the 2 upper branch-
An artificial vagina is used at AI centres for es fuse with each other to form the dorsal trunk,
the collection of semen. the lower branches behaving similarly to form
the ventral trunk. These 2 branches now pass
Vaginal prolapse in ewes This may pre- through the diaphragm, with the oesophagus,
cede lambing by up to 55 days, but most cases into the abdominal cavity, and end by giving
occur within the last 21 days of pregnancy. branches to the stomach, duodenum, liver, and
V
various ganglia nearby. (See Parasympathetic system
Rupture of the vagina, with protrusion of the under CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – Autonomic;
intestine and rapid death, occurs not uncom- also BRAIN.) (See GUTTURAL POUCH DISEASE.)
monly in ewes of a large breed, of mature age,
carrying a twin – a week or two before lambing Valgus
is due. Bulky foods – swedes, turnips, kale – are A bone growth-plate defect. (See under BONE,
often involved. DISEASES OF.)
Variocele
Variocele is a condition in which the veins of
one or both testicles are greatly distended.
Variola (Pox)
Variola (pox) is the inclusive term for fevers of
animals and man, in which a skin eruption takes
the form of a ‘pock’, caused by a POX virus.
Varroasis
Varroasis is a parasitic disease of honey bees,
Apis melifera, caused by the mite Varroa jacob-
soni. The mite feeds on the developing larvae
and on the adult bees. The result is weak bees
and sometimes the death of the queen. Whole
hives can be wiped out, causing great economic
loss not only to the apiculturalist but also to
fruit and arable farmers; beekeepers often sup-
ply hives to fruit growers and to fields of rape
and linseed. Varroasis is prevalent in the UK
and is a NOTIFIABLE DISEASE.
One-month-old foal with bilateral carpal valgus. As both parasite and host are arthropods,
(With acknowledgements to Professor L. C.
Vaughan and the Royal Veterinary College.) products used for control of the disease must
have a fine division between toxicity to the
mite and toxicity to the bee. Suspending strips
Valves impregnated with flumethrin or fluvalinate in the
Valves are found in the heart, veins, lymph ves- hive can be effective. Other treatments include
sels, etc., and serve the purpose of ensuring that tobacco smoke or a vapourising block containing
the fluids will only circulate in one direction. thymol and aromatic oils. Eradication, however,
(See HEART; VEINS; ILEOCAECAL.) is difficult. The disease came from Asia, where it
does less harm because Asiatic bees groom each
Valvular Disease other, thus removing the mites. Long term, it has
(see HEART DISEASES) been suggested that European and Asian bees
may be cross-bred to try to introduce the groom-
Vampire Bats ing habit into the European bee population. A
Vampire bats are important transmitters of leaflet available from DEFRA gives more details
rabies in parts of South and Central America, of the disease and its control.
the West Indies, etc. The bat laps blood from
the wounds inflicted with its upper incisor teeth Vas Deferens
on cattle, horses, etc. In Mexico infected vam- (see under TESTICLE)
pires have made necessary the preventive inocu-
lation of 800,000 cattle a year. Trypanosomiasis Vascular
can also be transmitted by vampire bats. Consisting of, or containing a high proportion
Vampire bats imported into the UK remain in of, blood vessels.
quarantine for the rest of their life.
Vasodilator
Anything which causes dilation of blood vessels.
A drug used for this purpose is isoxuprine
hydrochloride. (See NAVICULAR DISEASE.)
Vasomotor Nerves
Vasomotor nerves are the small nerve fibres that
lie in or upon the walls of the blood vessels and
connect the muscle fibres of the middle coat
with the nervous system. By the continuous
action of the nerves the muscular walls of the
vessels are maintained in a moderate state of
contraction. Any continuous and generalised
increase in this action results in a raising of the
blood pressure of the body, while a diminution
produces a lowering of the pressure. Such vaso-
motor nerves are called vaso-constrictors, but
there are vaso-dilators as well. The latter are
able to dilate the vessels, and cause either a gen-
eral or a local fall in the blood pressure, along
with an increased supply of blood to the part.
Vasopressin
A hormone secreted by the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland.It is also called ANTIDIURETIC Valves of a vein showing pumping action of
HORMONE (ADH). (See PITUITARY.) adjacent muscles. (Grollman, The Human Body,
Macmillan Co., as used in R. D. Frandson, Anatomy
and Physiology of Farm Animals, Baillière, Tindall.)
Vector
The carrier which transmits a disease from one
animal to another. For example, the mosquito
transmits malaria to man and a variety of diseases pockets, and are so arranged that they offer no
to animals. resistance to the blood when it is flowing in
the right direction, but prevent any back-flow.
Veins These valves are most numerous in the veins of
With one or two exceptions, the veins lie along- the limbs, where gravity would naturally tend
side or near to the corresponding arteries – thus to produce a back-flow, and least numerous in
the renal vein brings back blood that has been the veins of the internal organs.
carried to the kidney by the renal artery and
lies alongside it. The veins are, however, more Chief veins The arrangement and relations of
numerous and more irregular in their courses the veins are very different in animals of varying
than are the arteries, especially on the surface of species, and even in different individuals, so that
the body. In regions, such as the cheeks, brain only a general description can be given here.
meninges, and in the abdomen and thorax, Pulmonary veins – as many as 8 or 9 in the
there are veins arranged quite irrespective of the horse and fewer in other animals – return the
distribution of the arteries. oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left auri-
V cle of the heart. They possess no valves. Opening
Structure A vein is a thin-walled tube which into the right auricle are 4 veins: (1) coronary
possesses a structure similar to that of an artery, sinus; (2) anterior vena cava; (3) posterior vena
and consists of 3 coats, viz. an outer fibrous, cava; and (4) azygos vein. The coronary sinus is
a middle composed of muscular and elastic a short thick trunk that discharges the blood
fibres, and an inner coat composed of an elastic used by the heart walls back into the general
membrane and flattened epithelial cells. If an circulation. The anterior vena cava drains the
ordinary vein is split open along its length, blood from the head, neck, 2 fore-limbs, and
there are seen to be a number of flap-like valves much of the chest wall. It is formed by the con-
attached to its inner surface. These are like little fluence of the jugulars and the brachial veins,
Venereal Tumours (Infective Granulomata) 751
and receives other branches from the neck, consequences. The deeper veins are protected
vertebral region, and the chest wall. The posteri- from all but the most severe, and usually fatal,
or vena cava drains all the remainder of the body injuries.
except the region of the diaphragm, the posteri-
or intercostal areas, the oesophagus, and the Inflammation of a vein, or phlebitis, may
bronchial tubes, the blood from these parts follow the collection of blood samples when
being collected into the azygos vein which joins unclean instruments have been used, or when
the right auricle separately in most animals. The the resulting skin wound has not received atten-
posterior vena cava is formed under the lumbar tion. In other cases it follows THROMBOSIS and
region by the union of the right and left com- infection.
mon iliac veins, which drain the blood from the
pelvis and hind legs, and which are distributed Varicose veins are those which have become
in a more or less similar manner to the corre- stretched or dilated to an extent not justified by
sponding arteries of these parts. From here it the blood flow. (See VARIOCELE and under VAGINA.)
passes forwards below the lumbar muscles in
company with the abdominal aorta, until at the Veld Sickness
level of the last thoracic vertebra it passes down- (see HEARTWATER)
wards and forwards, past the pancreas, and
reaches the liver. Vena Cava
Its further course is partly embedded in the Each of the 2 large veins that open direct into
liver substance until it arrives at a special open- the right auricle of the heart. (For further details,
ing in the diaphragm, called the foramen venae see under VEINS.)
cavae, by which it gains the thoracic cavity. Thrombosis of the posterior vena cava, which
From here it passes along in a groove in the may follow abscess formation in the liver or else-
right lung to reach the right auricle. Its main where, is in cattle not infrequently followed by
tributaries are as follows: (1) lumbar veins, the presence of clots in the pulmonary vessels,
which empty blood from the lumbar muscles, abscess formation and sometimes erosion of the
etc.; (2) internal spermatics in the male, and pulmonary artery wall – giving rise to a fatal
utero-ovarian veins in the female, from the haemorrhage. Symptoms may include dullness,
generative organs in either sex; (3) 2 renal veins, rapid breathing, a cough, chest pain, the pres-
one from each kidney, satellites of the corre- ence of blood in material coughed up, anaemia,
sponding arteries; (4) several large hepatic and widespread rhonchi. (See RECUMBENCY.)
veins, which return not only blood carried to
the liver by the hepatic arteries, but also that Venereal Diseases
which comes from the digestive organs by the Animals, with the exception of the monkey, are
portal vein to undergo a second capillary circu- not subject to infection by the 2 great human
lation in the liver (see PORTAL VEIN); and (5) venereal diseases of syphilis and gonorrhoea, but
phrenic veins returning blood from the there are several important contagious diseases
diaphragm. that can be transmitted from animal to animal
In the venous system, even more so than by coitus. These include brucellosis, trichomoni-
in the arterial system, there is an intricate asis, Campylobacter fetus infection, and infectious
arrangement of anastomoses by which, when vaginitis of cattle, venereal granulomata or vene-
one vein becomes damaged or diseased, lateral real tumours of dogs, and dourine or mal du coit
branches from it may enlarge and carry away of horses. (See PROTOZOA; EPIDIDYMITIS; VULVO-
the excess blood into other veins so that no VAGINITIS, GRANULAR; CONTAGIOUS EQUINE
great hindrance to the return flow of the blood METRITIS.)
to the heart may be occasioned. If this were not
so, the circulation might be from impaired Venereal Tumours (Infective
minor causes. Granulomata) V
Venereal tumours (infective granulomata)
Veins, Diseases of characterise a contagious disease of dogs.
Those lying near to the surface are frequently
injured along with other tissues when contusions Signs In the female the original tumour is a
or lacerations have been sustained, but so exten- warty excrescence which soon grows and
sive is their communication with neighbouring becomes cauliflower-like. In advanced stages
veins that it is usually possible for these latter there is a large mass of pinkish or greyish-red
to enlarge and undertake the functions of the tissue, which easily bleeds when touched, occu-
damaged vessels, and thereby prevent serious pying the greater part of the vaginal passage and
752 Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis
Vertebra
(see SPINAL COLUMN) Vesicular Exanthema
A viral disease of pigs (and rarely of horses but
Vesicle (Small Blister) not of cattle) which has to be distinguished from
A vesicle (small blister) is a collection of fluid in foot-and-mouth disease. It was eradicated from
the surface layers of the skin or of a mucous the USA in 1959 and has never been recorded
membrane. Vesicles are present in a number of elsewhere. It is thought that the vesicular exan-
diseases, and according to their location, some thema virus may have been a ‘land variant’ of
assistance is afforded for diagnostic purposes. the San Miguel sea-lion virus, isolated from
For example, in foot-and-mouth disease the vesi- sea-lions off the coast of California.
cles are present in the mouth and on the feet,
while in cow-pox they are found on the teats, Vesicular Stomatitis
udder, and other parts. Vesicular stomatitis is caused by a rhabdovirus
transmitted by mosquitoes and biting flies, and
Vesicles, Seminal may affect horses, cattle, pigs and, occasionally,
These secondary sex glands, like the prostate, sheep. The blisters seen on the tongue have
have openings into the urethra and are situated occasionally caused confusion with foot-and- V
close to the neck of the urinary bladder. (See also mouth disease, and vice versa – with serious
under SEMEN.) consequences. Lesions can also occur on the
Infected seminal vesicles can (rarely) cause udder or around the coronets. It is a disease
problems. At a bull-rearing unit, 4 yearlings of the summer, and mainly of the western
appeared fit and well. Their appetite was good hemisphere, especially in the Caribbean area.
and they showed no signs of pain or discomfort. In man the disease is influenza-like, with
When, however, samples of their semen were fever, sore throat, and several days’ malaise.
taken, clots of pus were noticed. This finding Two strains of the virus are recognised – the
led to a careful examination of the bulls being New Jersey and the Indiana. Experimentally,
756 Vesicular Vaginitis
Vesicular Vaginitis
(see VULVOVAGINITIS, GRANULAR)
Vesiculitis
(see VESICLES, SEMINAL)
Veterinary Degrees
Veterinary degrees are conferred on graduates stops while 2s or 3s are run into the cow-race.
from the veterinary faculties of Bristol, The optimum dimensions are as shown in the
Cambridge, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool diagram, and should not be made larger for large
and London universities. They lead to member- units. The dimensions are those within which
ship of the Royal College of Veterinary cattle cannot evade pressure to go into the race by
Surgeons (MRCVS) which allows the graduate adopting a whirlpool movement.
to practise in the UK as a veterinary surgeon.
Higher degrees (PhD, MSc, etc.) are available Race An 18 m (60 ft) long race, 680 mm (2 ft
after postgraduate study, as well as certificates 3 in) wide internally and 1.680 m (5 ft 6 in) to
and diplomas in specialist areas of veterinary the top rail, will hold 10 to 12 cattle. It should
medicine and surgery. Graduates of veterinary be made up of verticals (sleepers) 2 m (6 ft 6 in)
schools in other EU countries may also become between centres sunk 900 mm (3 ft) into the
MRCVS. University degrees in veterinary nurs- ground, the bottom concreted with a brushed
ing are also available. surface. There should be 4 horizontal rails.
Height above ground of the 2nd and 3rd rails is
Veterinary Facilities on the specific in that it accommodates the large, fat or
Farm pregnant animal.
Every breeding cow and heifer in Britain has,
during its lifetime, to be caught, ear-tag read, Catwalk and working space Catwalks
restrained and a blood sample taken from neck or should be provided on both sides of the cow
tail vein. This will take place at least 2 or 3 times, race, 760 mm (2 ft 6 in) above ground level and
quite apart from any herd or individual han- not less than 300 mm (12 in) wide, in wood.
dlings necessary for clinical reasons or breeding Space should always be provided for 2 catwalks,
management. Taking a blood sample can take as even when building in close proximity to an
little as 30 to 45 seconds given efficient holding existing wall – i.e. the face should be stood off
facilities; 200 cattle could be sampled in a morn- from the wall, however tempting it may be to use
ing’s work. On most farms there is a lack of an existing wall for one side. Cattle can then be
cattle-handling facilities of the right type, so that run in either direction for procedures on either
the catching of a single animal can and does take flank (vaccinations, branding, testing, etc.).
all the farm staff about 20 minutes with the very
real possibility of broken gates and fences and Crush and veterinary gates The crush
varying degrees of personal injury, even before should be stood off 1.079 m (3 ft 6 in) from the
blood-sampling is attempted. end of the cow race with the same internal
Experience in the design and erection of cat- width of 680 mm (2 ft 3 in), and suitable gates
tle handling units for dairy and beef cattle has to hold animal No. 1 firmly, stop animal No. 1
shown the main points to be as follows: from backing out of crush before being held
Collecting pens should be large enough to and prevent animal No. 2 from pushing up. The
hold all stock to be handled, or all the stock materials and sizes are the same as for the race.
V in units as they are housed, e.g. 50s or 100s. A
post-and-rail pen 9 × 18 m (30 × 60 ft) or 12 × Yoke or headstock A device for restraining
13.5 m (40 × 45 ft) will hold 100 cows with cattle by the neck, strongly made from wood or
calves at foot. A pen of 9 × 12 m (30 × 40 ft) metal and designed so that the head cannot jerk
will hold 60 adult cattle or 80 young cattle. about. While securing the animal firmly, it
The forcing pen leads from the collecting pen incorporates a quick-release frame to free it in
to the race or chute, and should be funnel- an emergency.
shaped. It should hold no fewer than 12 cows
plus calves, or 15 adult cattle – enough to provide Three-way cattle shedder If fat cattle are
a group for handling without having repetitive weighed, cows examined for breeding function
Veterinary Products Committee (VPC) 757
measures should be taken to determine which In addition to these there are ‘cow kickers’,
condition is present, and to treat it accordingly. which project one hind-limb forwards, out-
Pawing in the stable may be a sign of impa- wards, and backwards, so that they may reach a
tience or loneliness; then it is not important, person standing as far forward as the shoulder.
but sometimes it develops into a vice of such These are especially dangerous.
persistency that it entails great wear of the
shoes, and may result in the production of holes Biting is commonest among stallions. It is well
in the stable floor. It should be remembered to take precautionary measures, such as muzzling
that pawing is sometimes a sign of abdominal while grooming, tying up short, using double
pain (colic). head ropes, one to either side of the stall, etc.
More serious vices (see CRIB-BITING AND Shying In many cases where horses suddenly
WIND-SUCKING; WEAVING). stop, plunge to one side, snort, tremble, attempt
to turn in the opposite direction and run away,
Aggressiveness may be due to pain (see when confronted by some unusual sight, sound,
HORSES, BACK TROUBLES); and, in countries or smell, the same causes as occasion bolting are
where the disease is present, to RABIES. (See also operative. The horse does not trust his eyesight,
BRAIN DISEASES.) is unable to interpret an unusual sound or smell,
When an animal shows an ungovernable and consequently takes fright. Among the many
temper under the pressure of sexual distur- objects at which horses are liable to shy may be
bances, it is unfair to consider it vicious. Cruel mentioned the following: pools of water shining
treatment in the past may also be an underlying in the sun-light, fluttering pieces of paper,
factor (and see also the effect of EQUINE VERMINOUS clothes hung out to dry, dogs, cats, fowls, and
ARTERITIS). other small animals darting into the roadway.
The odour of wild beasts, and the smell of blood
Kicking (a) Rearing and striking with the and offal, that an animal perceives when passing
fore-feet is a dangerous vice that is more com- a menagerie or a knackery or abattoir, are also
mon among the light horses than among the likely to frighten it and cause it to shy.
heavy draught. Sometimes the animal merely
rears from a desire to get started with his work; Aversion to special objects Occasionally
sometimes he will not allow himself to be held a horse is encountered which has an absolute
by the head when in harness, but rears and horror of some special, usually quite harmless,
strikes out at anyone approaching him; at other common object, e.g. pieces of white or coloured
times he may strike out without rearing. A paper or rag, cock turkeys, pigs, goats, donkeys,
saddle horse, when rearing, may with his head small white inanimate objects of any nature,
strike the face or chest of his rider and unseat etc. Grey horses have been known to attack bay
him, and may so lose his balance that he falls horses, and a brown-bay horse, light grey horses.
over backwards and perhaps crush the rider.
(b) Kicking with the hind-feet. ‘With a kick- Villus
ing horse, pass in front’ is a proverb that it is Villus is the name given to one of the millions
well to remember when dealing with the horse of minute processes which are present on the
that uses his hind-feet for kicking. The hind- inner surface of the small intestine. These are
feet can be used to strike an object within a structures concerned in the taking up of fat. (See
radius of from 1.2 to 1.8 metres (4 to 6 ft) all DIGESTION; INTESTINE.)
around them. It is a well-known fact that a
mule can deliver a kick with his hind-feet to a Viraemia
person standing at its shoulder, and there are The presence of large amounts of infecting virus
many horses able to do likewise. Two methods in the blood.
of kicking with the hind-limbs are commonly V
employed: in the first, which is the horse’s nat- Viral
ural method of defence and offence, the head is Relating to viruses.
lowered, the body is lifted from the withers
backwards, and both the hind-limbs are sud- Viral Haemorrhagic Disease of
denly extended as far backwards as possible Rabbits
with tremendous force; in the second, the horse (see RABBIT HAEMORRHAGIC DISEASE)
lifts one hind-foot and deals a short vicious
backward or sideways kick without always fully Viral Hepatitis in Dogs
extending the limb. (see CANINE VIRAL HEPATITIS)
760 Viral Hepatitis of Ducklings
Viral Hepatitis of Ducklings In a less severe form vivid red discoloration was
Viral hepatitis of ducklings is a disease which noted.
attacks ducklings under 3 weeks of age. There On account of the impossibility of milking
are usually no clinical signs before death except cows with badly ulcerated teats, and because
general malaise. On post-mortem examination, mastitis often follows, several animals may have
the liver shows enlargement and haemorrhaging. to be slaughtered.
It can be prevented by vaccination at 1 day old. The same disease has been seen in south-west
England where the onset appeared to follow a
Viral Infections of Cows’ Teats prolonged period of wet weather. If the virus is
These include cowpox. Nowadays, true cowpox of the herpes type, it may be that it is endemic
is (in the UK) considered to be a rare disease. in the cattle population and produces lesions
Another infection common to man and cattle is only under conditions which result in devitalis-
pseudo-cowpox or milkers’ nodules. The skin ing of the tissues. Another possibility is that
disease in herdsmen is indistinguishable from biting flies transmit the infection. (See also under
that in shepherds who have been handling FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.)
sheep suffering from orf. It is now thought that
the milkers’ nodules virus very closely resembles Viral Pneumonia of Cattle
the orf virus, but that they are 2 distinct entities. (see infections listed under CALF PNEUMONIA)
Two doctors in Dorset who had 7 patients
with milkers’ nodules found, with the aid of a Virginiamycin
veterinary colleague, that the 6 dairy herds in An antibiotic used as a growth promoter which
which the men worked all had some cows with may be included in livestock rations.
pseudo-cowpox (or milkers’ nodules) lesions on
the teats. There are 2 types of this infection: one Virino
is described as benign or chronic – this lasts for A low-molecular-weight nucleic acid and a
months, it is painless throughout, and starts host-derived protein. (See SCRAPIE for a possible
with a mild redness of the teats, followed by the example.)
formation of many scabs which get rubbed off
at milking. The second, or acute, form involves Virion
pain before scabbing begins, but not afterwards. A mature virus; the ultimate phase in viral
First there is reddening, then blisters which development.
burst, then very large scabs form. So-called
proud flesh is formed beneath the scabs. When Virology
these drop off, a characteristic horseshoe- The study of viruses.
shaped ring of minute scabs at the circumfer-
ence is left. All this takes 7 to 10 days. What Virus Diarrhoea of Cattle
looks like a wart remains for several months. (see BOVINE VIRAL DIARRHOEA)
This pseudo-cowpox differs from true cow-
pox in that the latter infection is associated with Viruses
more pain, fewer scabs, quicker development of These are minute entities which carry their
them and recovery within 3 weeks. genetic information in one type of nucleic acid.
The virus which causes pseudo-cowpox or They use the energy system of the host cell for
milkers’ nodules may be identical with, or close- their own biosynthetic needs, and can be differ-
ly related to, that of bovine papular stomatitis entiated from bacteria by their size and by their
(BPS). inability to multiply except in living cells.
Raised, roughened, brownish plaques are seen Most viruses produce disease in man, ani-
on the muzzle, and lesions on the lips and inside mals and plants. They can be transmitted from
V the mouth. one animal to another and stimulate the pro-
An ulcerative infection of the teats of dairy duction of antibodies in infected animals.
cows has been described in Scotland, and given Viruses are mostly invisible under the light
the name bovine ulcerative mammillitis. It is microscope, although some of the larger exam-
caused by a herpesvirus. ples (e.g. the pox viruses) can be seen readily
The disease has been seen only in early win- under the light microscope. Most viruses can
ter, and lasts for up to 15 weeks. In severe cases only be visualised in the electron microscope.
it is of sudden onset, often appearing between There is considerable variation in size. Foot-
milkings; the whole teat being swollen and and-mouth disease virus is about 25 nm in
painful. Blue discoloration is common. The diameter, whereas African swine fever virus is
resultant ulcer covers most, if not all, the teat. about 10 times that size. (See NANOMETRE.)
Vision 761
A vitamin E deficiency in newborn piglets can and softening of the beak occur in adult birds.
result in their sudden death after being given Sunlight, green food, and the judicious use in
iron injections to prevent anaemia. It is advisable winter of cod-liver oil overcome this deficiency.
to delay the injection until the piglet is a week Vitamin E, necessary for hatchability, is present
old, when it is more tolerant of iron. Gilts’ in whole grain and, to a lesser extent, in green-
rations low in vitamin E or high in fatty acid stuff. The latter also contains ample vitamin K,
predispose to this condition in the offspring. a deficiency of which leads to anaemia as a result
Biotin deficiency in pigs gives rise to symp- of internal haemorrhage.
toms which include dermatitis. Lameness can
affect a whole herd where there is a biotin defi- Voice
ciency causing cracks in the sole or wall of the Voice is the sound produced as the result of the
hooves. vibration of a column of air forced through the
larynx by contraction of the respiratory mus-
Dog and cat Vitamin A has been used with cles. The means by which this is produced are
success in the treatment of diarrhoea in kittens. analogous to those by which sound is produced
Corneal lesions, even blindness in extreme in a reed instrument, except that in the living
cases, and sometimes deafness, have also been animal the pitch of the voice can be altered at
attributed to a vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin B will. This is accomplished by the amount of
(thiamin) deficiency results in fatigue and loss tension exerted by muscular action upon the
of appetite, and may be associated with cramp. vocal cords; the more tense these are the higher
Yeast may prove effective in cases of depraved is the pitch of the voice. In the majority of
appetite and chorea. ‘Black tongue’ in the dog mammals the vibrations are produced when a
and an ulcerative stomatitis in the dog are blast of air is expelled from the chest, but in the
seen in the USA in naturally occurring cases of donkey the higher notes of the bray result from
nicotinic acid deficiency. Lack of riboflavin is inspiration of air, and the lower notes from
associated with eye lesions and skin disease. expiration.
Rickets results from lack of vitamin D, espe- The character of the voice can be altered to
cially in the larger breeds, but overdosage is some extent by changes in the resonating cham-
harmful and can lead to deposits of calcium bers of the nose, mouth, pharynx, etc.; thus, the
salts in or between muscles. false nostrils of the horse are used to produce
the snort of fear or excitement, the nasal cavities
Poultry Vitamin A deficiency will occur only transmit the whinny and neigh of pleasure, and
in birds deprived of adequate green food. Maize the mouth and pharynx furnish the character
and cod-liver oil (which must not be rancid) are of the neigh of impatience, loneliness, and
alternative sources of this vitamin. Lack of it sometimes the challenge of anger of the jealous
leads, in chickens, to drowsiness, weakness, stag- stallion.
gering, stunted growth, and often a discharge Neighing or whinnying in the horse is an
from the eyes and nostrils. The presence of expiratory act produced partly through the
pustular lesions in the oesophagus is diagnostic. mouth and partly through the nose; the bray of
Adult birds become dishevelled looking, weak the ass is expiratory for the low notes and inspi-
and emaciated, and show a watery or cheesy ratory for the high; bellowing in the ox, bleat-
discharge from eyes and nostrils. Deficiency ing in the sheep, barking in the dog, and the
of riboflavin (vitamin B2) in the diet is not mew of the cat are all produced by expiratory
uncommon, particularly in wire-floor battery efforts.
brooders, in which the chicks have no access to Animals use their voices upon widely different
droppings. (On solid floors chicks may correct occasions. It seems probable that they make the
the deficiency by eating their droppings, which greatest use of this faculty for the purposes of
contain riboflavin synthesised by organisms in enabling the young to recognise their dams from
the lower part of the gut, but not otherwise a distance, and to maintain cohesion of herds or V
available to the body.) Symptoms are leg weak- flocks. Stragglers getting left behind, or separated
ness and a curling inwards of the toes in chicks; from their special companions, can be heard call-
also decreased egg production and poor hatcha- ing for long distances. Male animals of many
bility. (See also biotin under ‘Vitamin B’, above.) species will give a warning upon the approach
Thin shells, reduced hatchability, and some- of newcomers or danger. Females may produce
times a temporary paralysis after laying, are little cries or screams when attended by males
indications of a vitamin D deficiency. Chicks are during periods of oestrus, or when making
unthrifty, walk with difficulty, and later show acquaintance with their newly born progeny.
typical symptoms of rickets. Bone deformity Almost all the domestic animals emit cries when
766 Volar
suffering pain. In the horse tribe the sounds are the abdominal muscles commence and culmi-
often merely grunts or groans, especially when nate in the ejection of a quantity of frothy mate-
the pain is abdominal. In other cases horses will rial. The diaphragm is generally fixed, and there
scream when they are suddenly subjected to is a powerful closing of the glottis to prevent any
acute pain, or to very great fright. Cattle and fluids from gaining access into the trachea.
sheep in agony behave similarly to horses; they The dog and cat vomit with relative ease.
usually groan, but cows, ewes, and heifers may They are able to induce vomiting by eating por-
issue a long drawn-out bellow or bleat during dif- tions of the green shoots of couch grass
ficult parturition. The pig has a range of notes (Triticum repens), ingestion of which brings on
from the satisfied grunt of suckling a sow, to the vomiting within 5 to 10 minutes. In the pig,
frightened squeals and screams of those that are the process is more exacting than in the carni-
being handled by man. The dog has a note for all vores. Cattle and sheep may vomit occasionally,
occasions; he generally expresses all the emotions but it is not common and may be related to a
of which he is capable by differences in his bark. serious stomach disorder or to rhododendron
(See also LARYNX and MUTING OF DOGS.) poisoning. Vomiting in the horse is rare, and
In rabies the character of the voice may often is associated with a rupture of the
be changed. In the ‘dumb’ form, barking is stomach; when it occurs it should be considered
suppressed. a very grave symptom indeed. The material
always escapes through the nostrils in the horse.
Volar
Refers to the back of the fore-limb. Causes Vomiting can be considered under the
following headings:
Volcanic Gases Travel sickness.
Typically these comprise water vapour, carbon Stress.
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, Simple indigestion. When the stomach has
hydrochloric acid, hydrogen fluoride, and received either a quality or a quantity of food-
carbon monoxide. stuff with which it is unable to deal, the process
of digestion does not proceed, or only proceeds
Volvulus up to a point. The material brought up is recog-
An intestinal obstruction is produced by the nisable as food, but it is mixed with quantities
twisting of a loop of bowel round itself. It is usu- of frothy mucus, water, and perhaps may be
ally due to some spasmodic contraction of the stained brownish from bile. It has a faintly
muscular coat, or to the presence of gas, and is sour smell which is greater the longer the
very dangerous owing to the great risk of stran- process of digestion has been enabled to
gulation of the blood supply and consequent proceed. The ejecta is generally easily brought
necrosis. Excessive gas formation in the caecum up, and the animal soon settles down and
and colon of whey-fed pigs may lead to volvu- becomes normal.
lus. (See HAEMORRHAGIC GASTROENTERITIS Indigestion from foreign bodies. (See
OF PIGS and INTESTINES, DISEASES OF.) ‘CHOKING’; IMPACTION; FOREIGN BODY.)
Gastritis. The walls of the stomach are
Vomica inflamed and thickened, the mucous membrane
A cavity in the lung tissue produced by disease. is swollen and painful, and the nervous system is
Vomicae are most commonly met with in cattle in an irritable state. Whenever food or water
suffering from either tuberculosis or contagious enters the organ, vomiting immediately takes
pleuro-pneumonia. place. The vomit consists of the solid material
swallowed, coated on the outside with mucus and
Vomiting froth. If liquids have been taken they are returned
Vomiting involves not merely a contraction of almost unchanged. When the inflammatory con-
V the stomach walls and a dilatation of the gullet, dition is very severe there are quantities of blood
but is a complex act in which the abdominal that have undergone partial digestion and have
muscles, the diaphragm, the muscles of the an appearance not unlike coffee-grounds, seen in
chest and larynx, and those of the lower part of the vomit. In such animals there will be a very
the neck all play a part. offensive smell both from the ejecta and from the
Before the act there is usually a profuse secre- mouth of the patient.
tion of watery saliva which serves to lubricate Pyloric stenosis, which may be congenital, is
the passage of the stomach contents. The said to give rise to projectile vomiting.
animal appears uneasy, and will usually seek a Enteritis is associated with vomiting but there
secluded spot. Soon rhythmic contractions of is diarrhoea as well.
Vulvovaginitis, Granular 767
Impaction of the rectum, whether from par- loss of appetite, constipation, emaciation, and a
ticles of undigested bone, or hair, hard faeces, hairy appearance. It is caused by a coronavirus,
etc., generally induces vomiting in which not haemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus
only does the stomach expel its contents, but (HEV). (See also ‘ONTARIO ENCEPHALITIS’.)
masses of bowel content as well.
Acute nephritis is an extremely common Von Willebrand’s Disease
cause of thirst and vomiting in the dog. An inherited bleeding disorder found in some
Pyometra in the bitch, cat, and sow is 25 breeds of dogs, and associated with an auto-
frequently accompanied by vomiting. somal trait causing a high morbidity but a low
Accidents. The shock of a severe burn or acci- mortality. Signs may include epistaxis, haema-
dent will cause vomiting, although the injuries turia, lameness, bleeding from genital mucosa,
have not been inflicted upon the stomach itself. and prolonged bleeding from cut nails, etc.
In other cases, where the head has been injured,
the area in the case of the brain which control Vultures
the act of vomiting becomes disturbed and the (see TROPICS; CARCASES, DISPOSAL OF)
animal evacuates its stomach.
Poisons. Many irritant substances will pro- Vulva
duce vomiting. Of the commonest may be men- It has in domesticated animals only simple,
tioned tartar emetic, mustard, salt, carbolic acid, single labia or lips.
areca-nut, castor oil, etc.; and of substances
less common, but more drastic, the following Diseases of the vulva In Kenya, squamous
are examples: strychnine, arsenic, phosphorus, cell carcinoma of the vulva is common in cattle
apomorphine, croton oil, zinc and copper sul- of the Ayrshire breed. Cryosurgery has given
phates, and many of the metallic salts. Some of good results when treatment has not been
these have special characteristics; for example, delayed until the tumour becomes too large. In
phosphorus vomit is luminous in the dark. 62 cases, 55 were successfully treated.
Diseases. The symptom of vomiting is com- (For persistent bleeding from the vulva, see
mon to many other diseases – meningitis, peri- VAGINA.)
tonitis, nephritis, leptospirosis, rabies, vomiting In the tropics, especially, a thick purulent
and wasting syndrome in pigs, etc. discharge from the vagina may be a sign of
tuberculosis involving the uterus/vagina.
Treatment In the dog and cat the use of
normal saline or glucose saline by injection is Vulvovaginitis
frequently indicated as an alternative to giving (see under RHINOTRACHEITIS and VULVOVAGINITIS,
food (liquid or otherwise) by mouth during an GRANULAR)
illness (such as nephritis, uraemia, and enteritis)
in which vomiting is persistent. Vulvovaginitis, Granular
A venereal disease of cattle caused by
Vomiting and Wasting Mycoplasma bovigenitalium, affecting vulva and
Syndrome vagina or seminal vesicles and skin of the penis.
This occurs in piglets 5 days old and upwards, The lesions are nodules.
and is characterised by vomiting, depression,
V
W
consequently unusual. It is not a serious defect
except in tropical countries.
Wallabies
Smaller than kangaroos, these native Australian
marsupials are a source of human HYDATID DIS-
EASE in the southern tablelands of New South
‘Walkabout Disease’ Wales. Lumpy jaw is a common finding. They
(see KIMBERLEY HORSE DISEASE) may sometimes be found as feral animals in
parts of England.
Wall Eye (Leukoma)
Wall eye (leukoma) is a condition in which Warble Fly Order
the brown pigment of the iris is lacking, giving The Warble Fly Order came into force in 1989.
the iris a steely blue appearance. In dogs, it The presence of warble fly lesions in cattle is a
is usually unilateral and is not a problem. In NOTIFIABLE DISEASE in Britain. Where a blood
the horse, wall eyes may occur when the greater test indicates that an infestation may be pre-
part of the face, or that portion around the sent, treatment under the supervision of an offi-
eyes, is white. The pupil of the eye appears cer of the State Veterinary Service is required.
to be encircled by a ring of bluish or greyish Every herd and every bovine animal within
white, and the expression of the horse’s face is 3 km of an infestation must be treated (the fly
is able to travel only short distances). As warble jelly’ or ‘licked beef’ is an oedematous, straw-
flies are present in other countries, all cattle coloured, jelly-like substance, which infiltrates
imported into Britain must be treated for the tissue near the larvae. The holes which the
possible infestation within 24 hours of arrival. larvae produce in the hides reduce their value;
The treatment must be supervised by a State heavily infected hides are often useless for leather.
Veterinary Service officer. Warbles are most common in young animals,
in which loss of condition is most serious; but
Warbles they have been found in small numbers in ani-
Warbles are swellings about the size of a marble mals up to 15 years old. They are sometimes
or small walnut occurring upon the backs of found in young horses. The larvae occasionally
cattle in spring and early summer, caused by the enter the spinal canal and produce very serious
presence in them of the larvae of one of the lesions. Horses are attacked mostly by H. bovis
warble flies – Hypoderma bovis or H. lineata. larvae, which affect the area of the saddle
These are of very great economic importance. chiefly; but brain involvement has been report-
The adults – especially H. bovis – cause great ed in the horse. In deer, larvae of the warble fly
annoyance to stock during the period when H. diana are often found.
eggs are being laid. Not only does this result in
injuries, animals rushing around (‘gadding’) to Methods of control Satisfactory control
avoid the attacks, but the milk yield is reduced, depends upon artificial interference with the
sometimes by as much as 25 per cent, and life-cycle. (See IVERMECTIN.) A systemic insecti-
condition is impaired. cide will kill a high percentage of larvae before
H. lineata in its migration through the body they complete their migration and penetrate
irritates the gullet; and both species may injure the back.
the spinal cord. The warbles on the back are In Britain in 1978, 40 per cent of cattle in
really so many small abscesses which not only England and Wales, and 20 percent in W
reduce condition very considerably but may, Scotland, were affected with warbles. (See FLIES
when many are present, result in the death of – FLY control measure.)
young animals. The accidental crushing of a Autumn is the more effective time for
number of the larvae in these cavities may cause treatment, even though infestation cannot be
the death of the animal from anaphylactic shock. visually detected then, and cattle-owners in
In the carcases there is considerable destruction warble-affected areas are advised to treat their
of valuable meat around the warbles; ‘butcher’s herds accordingly.
770 Warfarin
Pour-on warblecide compounds include Horses The commonest situations are the skin
phosmet and ivermectin. Parenteral prepara- of the udder or sheath, the lips and nostrils,
tions of abamectin, doramectin and moxidectin the eyelids, outer and inner skin of the ears,
are also effective. the region of the breast, and the insides of the
limbs.
Reindeer In Canada they are attacked by the
warble fly Edoede magena tarandi. Ivermectin Cattle The commonest seats of warts are the
has been used for control. teats of cows. Young cows in winter are fre-
quently affected about the skin of the eyelids
Goats Ivermectin has been used also against and along the lower line of the abdomen, but
the goat warble Przhevalskiana silenus. the growths often drop off spontaneously from
Following the introduction of the Warble Fly these positions when the young animals are
Order 1985, infestation by warbles was virtually turned out to grass in the early spring.
eradicated by 1995. Otherwise warty growths are found as in the
horse.
The tropical warble fly of Central
America is Dermatobia hominis, which lays its Dogs and cats In the dog especially, less so
eggs on an intermediary vector – fly or mosqui- in the cat, warts are common. Single small
to – which it catches for the purpose. (See also warts with a cauliflower-like extremity or with a
under FLIES, and IVERMECTIN.) rounded top are commonly found about the
eyelids, lips, ears, paws, etc., as well as upon the
Warfarin general surface of the body. They usually grow
An anticoagulant drug used in human medi- very slowly and may be present for years with-
cine; its veterinary use is mainly as a rat poison. out causing any pain or inconvenience. In other
It causes death of rats and mice from internal cases warts appear in connection with the
haemorrhage. In the strengths used, 0.005 per gums, tongue, and insides of the cheeks; in
cent and 0.025 per cent, it is considered that these positions they arise in clusters and grow
properly prepared baits will not prove danger- very rapidly. Cases such as these are usually
ous to livestock if used with ordinary care. accompanied by a great amount of salivation
Cases of accidental poisoning have occurred, and a fetid discharge from the mouth.
however, in domestic animals; and food conta-
minated by rodents’ urine may be dangerous Removal Of Warts Multiple warts in cattle
where warfarin is used. have been treated by a variety of chemicals,
Therapeutically, warfarin is used in the including injections of lithium antimony
treatment of navicular disease. tartrate, with varying degrees of success.
Autogenous and other vaccines have also
Treatment of warfarin poisoning been used where there is a herd problem, and
Vitamin K1 (phytomenadione) by intramuscular surgical removal may be resorted to.
injection. Blood transfusion may be necessary.
Once symptoms have appeared, use of glu-
Washing of Animals
(see BATHS)
cose saline, or blood transfusion, is indicated.
The poisoned animal must be handled very Wasp Stings
gently, or further internal bleeding may occur. (see under BITES)
(See also NAVICULAR DISEASE.)
Waste Food
Warts (Papillomas) (see BAKERY WASTE; SWILL; CHOCOLATE
Warts (papillomas) are small growths which POISONING)
appear on skin or mucous membrane, and
occur in all farm and domestic animals. Wasting
Papillomas are benign, but an individual wart (see ATROPHY)
W can become malignant. (See PAPILLOMA.)
Around the mouth they may interfere with Water and Watering of
feeding, and when occurring about the nostrils Animals
they may obstruct the breathing. Soft warts in
the oesophagus sometimes make swallowing Amounts required The quantity of water
difficult, and upon the penis or in the urethra needed per day by the various domestic animals
they may hinder the passage of urine. (See also depends upon the nature of the food, the cli-
EYE.) mate, the temperature, and the size and the
Water and Watering of Animals 771
activity of the animals themselves. When very The use of lead paints in storage tanks is also a
dry food is given, such as hay, bran, oats, etc., danger. (See also ZINC POISONING.) Stored rain-
more water is required than when roots or water containing decaying organic matter
growing grass is eaten. (leaves, bird droppings, etc.) has led to the
Drinking water should be freely available to death of pigs from nitrite poisoning.
animals, so that they can drink as and when
they choose. (See below under ‘Water supply’.) Diseases spread by water Apart from
Stress may occur in an animal deprived of the illness caused by some inorganic substance
chance to drink sufficient water, and actual dissolved in the water, such as lead from lead
dehydration (which can lead to death) may be pipes or tanks, or arsenic from contamination
caused. Production of milk, etc., will obviously with sheep-dip, water-borne infection may
be adversely affected. cause disease.
With an ad lib water supply, the amount of Among diseases that can be distributed in
water required by various animals under various this manner are the following: anthrax, from
conditions is of mainly theoretical interest, water used in tanneries or wool-washing
apart from practical aspects of planning ade- premises, or when a carcase has been buried
quate supplies of piped water, trough space, etc. near a stream; Johne’s disease, salmonellosis,
Water requirement figures can be taken only as and coccidiosis in cattle, from contamination of
approximate guidelines, and authorities differ streams, ditches, and ponds. Liver fluke can be
to some extent. spread via infected mud snails, Lymnaea trun-
catula. Leptospira hardjo infection is 8 times
Cattle Dry cows of the larger breeds require more likely where cattle have access to a water
between 36.5 and 45 litres (8 to 10 gallons) course.
per day. Those in milk need in addition about Washing water and water-tanks have been
5 times as much water as the volume of milk contaminated with, for example, Bacillus
produced, while for the last 4 months of preg- subtilis, leading to MASTITIS.
nancy, the daily consumption may rise to about
70 litres (approximately 15 gallons). Water supply A good stockman will ensure
As the air temperature increases above 10°C that the animals in his care are never short of
(50°F), the water requirement rises rapidly. water; that all automatic drinking bowls or nip-
Calves require much more water after they ple drinkers are in working order; that frost has
are weaned than before. A common mistake is not cut off the supply of piped water (lagging of
to ignore this fact, with the result that the calves exposed pipes is obviously necessary in winter);
receive a check to their growth from which they and that the water has not been allowed to
may never fully recover. freeze in troughs, tanks, etc. It is also necessary
to ensure that the levers of automatic drinking
Pigs are highly susceptible to water depriva-
tion. (See SALT POISONING.) Approximate quan-
tities required have been given as 4.5 litres
(1 gallon) per day for a litter of 3-week-old
piglets, and up to 22.5 litres (5 gallons) per day
for a nursing sow. The benefits of creep feeding
may be lost if the piglets are denied water.
bowls are not too stiff for young animals to during the heat of the day as they have very few
operate, and that young stock are shown work- sweat glands and are prone to heatstroke.
ing nipple drinkers – not left to find them for However, they can be reared away from water if
themselves. (See also ALGAE.) shade is available. They are widely used as a
In one incident, newly weaned pigs were put draught animal in warmer countries, including
into a yard having automatic water-bowls fit- the poorer parts of Italy. They are farmed in
ted, but as the yard had been mucked out the Britain to produce mozzarella cheese. Studies in
bowls were out of reach of the young pigs. the USA, Papua New Guinea, Trinidad and
Pigs deprived of water show nervous symp- Australia have shown water buffalo perform
toms. They may walk in circles, or backwards, well as regards growth rates, health and produc-
press their heads against a wall, champ their jaws, ton of meat and milk. They are able to digest
collapse and have convulsions. Of course, some rougher material than cattle or sheep.
pigs may be found dead without symptoms Water buffalo meat is similar in taste to beef;
having been observed. the milk is richer in butterfat and solids-not-fat
Sheep have shown symptoms suggestive of than cows’ milk. There is a general low inci-
twin-lamb disease, and died, after being dence of mastitis, probably because on ceasing
removed from a field where they had access to milking, the teat canal closes very rapidly.
a stream and placed on pasture where the ball- Water buffalo are generally quite docile unless
valve of a drinking trough had been tied up. severely stressed or in pain.
Sheep prefer to drink running water, and those Some of the steps needed to permit greater
of some breeds are so reluctant to drink any- exploitation of this valuable animal are:
thing else that, when housed, a running water 1. Trials to compare growth rate, feeding,
supply must be arranged indoors. nutrition and other characteristics of water
A drop in milk yield may occur in dairy buffalo with those of cattle.
herds where the cows are moved periodically to 2. Selective breeding and protection of out-
a field too far from a water-trough; or where the standing buffalo specimens, especially in
water pressure is too low to ensure adequate Southeast Asia.
supply. 3. Replacement of the 1500-year-old ineffi-
Dogs, cats, and poultry should always be cient wooden yoke (in rural Asia, where the
allowed an unlimited supply of water so water buffalo is the small farmer’s ‘tractor’,
arranged that they are unable to foul or upset improved harnesses could increase pulling
the drinking vessels. power by up to 25 per cent). (See TRANSPORT OF
(See also DEHYDRATION.) ANIMALS.)
The limitation of water buffaloes must be
Horses Wherever possible, water should be taken into account. For instance, the animals
given before the food, or not for 1 to 2 hours suffer if forced to remain, even for a few hours,
after feeding. The horse’s stomach is small, and in direct sunlight. They cannot be worked for
cannot contain a full feed and several litres/ long periods during the heat of the day, and
gallons of water simultaneously. Water in excess they are also susceptible to extreme cold. (The
of requirements should be offered when horses Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an
are at rest, and they should be allowed to drink Underutilized Animal, US National Academy of
frequently when working. Sciences).
An important roundworm of the water buf-
Water intoxication This may occur in falo (Bubalus bubalis) is Paracooperia nodulosa.
farm livestock when, as a result of bad manage- This causes development of nodules in the
ment, they have been deprived of adequate intestine, and diarrhoea, anaemia, emaciation
drinking water and then suddenly find them- and sometimes death. (See LIVESTOCK PRODUC-
selves in circumstances which enable them to TION.)
drink as much as they want.
One symptom may be a red discoloration of Water-Dropwort
W the urine. Convulsions, recumbency, hyperaes- This is Oenanthe fistulosa, and while it and pars-
thesia, aimless wandering, and death have been ley water-dropwort (O. lachenalii and also O.
seen in calves. aquatica) are all poisonous, they are less so than
hemlock water-dropwort (O. crocata) – a weed
Water Buffaloes of marshy places, ditches, and other wet loca-
Water buffaloes are regarded by many as an tions. This is considered to be one of the most
under-utilised form of livestock. It is common dangerous and poisonous of the commoner
practice in the tropics to immerse them in water plants found in Britain, and many cases of
Water Hemlock 773
can be successfully carried out. Strong black dam’s milk takes a more and more secondary
coffee or tea may be given. Veterinary help place for some weeks before actual separation
should be sought. occurs. In the case of dairy cattle there is an
exception to this rule, in that newly born calves
Water, Loss of are often taken away from their mothers as soon
Loss of water from the tissues – a serious con- as they have had some colostrum, and are then
dition – is referred to under DEHYDRATION. It reared from a pail. Sudden changes in the diet
occurs especially during the course of diarrhoea. are to be avoided at all times, and the changes
from a milk to a herbivorous or omnivorous
Waterhammer Pulse diet should be gradual, for obvious reasons. In
The peculiarly sudden pulse that is associated modern pig husbandry, creep-feeding is prac-
with incompetence of the aortic valves of the tised before weaning. (See CREEP-FEEDING;
left side of the heart. COLOSTRUM.)
rabbits. The regulations incorporate many of the reaches the cavity of the mouth. It opens in the
guidelines in the WELFARE CODES FOR ANIMALS. floor of the mouth almost opposite to the
canine tooth in the horse.
Wells (Well Water)
(see WATER AND WATERING OF ANIMALS) Wharton’s Jelly
Wharton’s jelly is the embryonic connective
Welfare of Animals (Slaughter tissue that forms the basis of the umbilical cord
or Killing) Regulations 1995 in the fetus. In its substance are found the
These cover the licensing of slaughtermen and umbilical vessels and the other structures that
knackermen, including the handling of animals constitute the umbilical cord.
at abattoirs. They detail the (only) methods by
which animals may be slaughtered or killed. Wheat Gluten
For the adverse effect of this in some instances
Wesselsbron Disease in calves, see under SOYA BEANS.
Whiteside Test
This has been used for the detection of subclin-
ical mastitis, by indicating an abnormally high
white-cell count of the milk. A modified ver-
sion consists of placing 1 drop of 4 per cent W
caustic soda (NaOH) and 5 drops of the milk
on a glass plate, and stirring with a glass rod for
20 seconds or so. The presence of flakes indi-
cates a positive result; a viscous mass at the end
of the rod suggests a strong positive result. It is
An arched back is characteristic of white scour; a laboratory version of the California Mastitis
also a dejected appearance. Test.
778 Whorls
appearing fluorescent in the case of same time as they are housed, to reduce the
Microsporum canis infection, but only to the number of periods of stress; and that a better-
extent of 50 per cent or so. A useful screening quality diet should be provided after shearing.
method, nonetheless. The fluorescence is of an The diet should be introduced before housing.
applegreen colour.
Works Chimneys
Wooden Tongue (see FACTORY CHIMNEYS)
(see ACTINOBACILLOSIS)
Worm Egg Counts
Wool Balls in Lambs The use of faecal egg counts as a means of
On opening a lamb’s stomach after death from estimating the degree of infestation can be
some unknown disease, if a mass of wool and misleading. With Ostertagia worms in calves,
greyish or greenish softer material is found in for example, the pattern of faecal egg counts
the 1st or 4th stomach and no other readily tends to be the same whether the worm burden
obvious symptoms are noticed, the shepherd or is large or small, increasing or decreasing.
owner is prone to reach the conclusion that the Counts increase fairly rapidly to an early peak,
cause of death was this mass of wool. In some from which they decrease according to a loga-
districts, so-called ‘wool balls’ have in the past rithmic curve. This means that the egg count at
been held to account for a high mortality any one point in time bears a constant relation
among lambs, when the real cause was often to the egg count a given number of days before.
lamb dysentery. The limit to total egg output evidently depends
There is no doubt, however, that wool balls on the host’s degree of immunity.
do occasionally kill in dry seasons or when ewes
have for some other reason a reduced flow of Worms
milk. The hungry lamb withdraws all the milk (see ROUNDWORMS; TAPEWORMS; LIVER-FLUKES;
available, but when it reaches the age of 2 to RUMEN-FLUKES; SCHISTOSOMIASIS for ‘blood
4 weeks or so, this proves insufficient to satisfy flukes’; HEARTWORMS; also EARTHWORMS.)
its needs. It empties first one teat, then the
other, and finally, searching for a further supply In cattle and sheep, parasitic gastroenteri-
it finds a small tag of wool on the udder or near tis and bronchitis (husk) are important diseases
to it and sucks at it. The somewhat salty taste caused by worms. (See also LIVER-FLUKES; NEMA-
of the contained wool grease may possibly be TODIRUS, STEPHANOFILARIASIS; and WORMS,
pleasing, and in time the lock of wool comes FARM TREATMENT AGAINST.)
away and is chewed and swallowed. Another
lock is found, sucked, and also swallowed. In horses, strongyle worm larvae may cause a
The mass of wool may occasionally result in verminous arteritis with fatal results. (See HORS-
blockage of the outlet from stomach to small ES, WORMS IN; EQUINE VERMINOUS ARTERITIS;
intestine (PYLORUS). DIARRHOEA; FOALS, DISEASES OF; HYDATID
DISEASE.)
Prevention The removal of shed wool from
the pastures, and ‘udder-locking’ (clipping all In dogs in Britain, the worms usually encoun-
wool from the udder before or at lambing). tered comprise ascarids, hookworms, whip-
worms, and tapeworms. (See also ANTHELMINTICS;
Wool-Eating by Cats TOXOCARA; TRACHEAL WORMS; HEARTWORMS;
Wool-eating by cats may result from boredom KIDNEY WORM; FLUKES.)
(e.g. in Siamese) or from persistence of the
sucking reflex, and cause an obstruction of In pigs Ascaris worms in the intestine reduce
pylorus or bowel. growth rate, while their larvae, migrating through
the lungs, may give rise to pneumonia and the
Wool Rot symptom known as ‘thumps’. Metastrongylus
(see under LUMPY WOOL) lungworms cause bronchitis and sometimes W
pneumonia. (See also THIN SOW SYNDROME and
Wool Slip WORMS, FARM TREATMENT AGAINST.)
Alopecia occurring in housed ewes shorn dur-
ing the winter, reducing wool yield by up to Worms, Farm Treatment
25 per cent. Against
In order to avoid this alopecia, it has been Much effort has been concentrated on the
suggested that sheep should be sheared at the development of effective and safe anthelmintic
780 Worms, Farm Treatment Against
an incised wound is apt to be very profuse for a who should also always be consulted concern-
time, but it soon stops and is easily controlled. ing the treatment of punctured and lacerated
Punctured wounds or stabs are inflicted with wounds.
a pointed instrument or another animal’s Other points that should be noted are: (1)
incisor or canine teeth. (A dose of tetanus anti- that stitches should be removed if they com-
toxin or toxoid is indicated in punctured mence to suppurate, and in any case after being
wounds, especially in the horse, cow, and dog.) in position for a week, after which they serve no
Lacerated wounds are those in which great useful purpose; (2) that if pus burrows under
tearing takes place. They are usually very painful the skin surrounding a wound, it must be given
for a few days, and suppurate before they drainage by incision below the level of the most
heal. They are usually followed by disfiguring dependent burrowing or by drainage tubes; (3)
scars when extensive. that if the granulation tissue (i.e. ‘proud flesh’)
Contused wounds are those accompanied by rises to a higher level than the skin around, it
much bruising of the surrounding tissues, as in may need professional treatment; and (4) that
the case of blows from heavy sticks, kicks from in cases of injury to parts such as the eyes, nos-
shod horses, and from road accidents. There is trils, lips, genital organs, feet, etc., it is essential
usually little bleeding from the wound itself, to seek skilled advice rather than to persist in
but blood may be extravasated into the tissues. rule-of-thumb methods which often lead the
(See HAEMATOMA.) enthusiastic amateur astray, and cause the ani-
Any one of these forms of wounds may mal unnecessary distress. (See also FRACTURES;
become infected with pus-forming organisms, GRANULATIONS; ULCER; ANTISEPTICS; ANTIBI-
and develop into a suppurating, septic wound. OTICS; SULFONAMIDES; and under ACCIDENTS,
(For other information, see under ACCIDENTS; INJURIES, and CORTISONE.)
FRACTURES; etc.)
Wounds, How They Heal
First-aid treatment With a serious wound The blood forms clots; these consist of minute
involving much haemorrhage, the first consid- threads of fibrin, in which are enmeshed red
eration must obviously be to stop the bleeding. blood cells and white blood cells. The threads
(See BLEEDING – Bleeding, external; first aid for.) of fibrin bridge the gap between the cut surfaces
With all wounds it is advisable to clip away of the wound, at its base, forming a matrix,
the hair – preferably using blunt-pointed surgi- hardening into a scab under which tissue repair
cal scissors – first inserting a piece of cotton- can take place. (See CLOTTING OF BLOOD.)
wool moistened in antiseptic into the cavity of From the neighbouring blood capillaries
the wound (if large enough), so that the cut hair come white cells (especially neutrophils) which
does not fall into the wound. engulf dirt, bacteria, etc. (See PHAGOCY-
If the hair is not cut away, it is apt to become TOSIS.) Monocytes arrive later, especially if the
matted by blood or oozing serum, and the wound has become infected. They become
wound may later be found to be suppurating macrophages which remove any disintegrated
instead of healing. (What may look to the ani- neutrophils and also bacteria. Meanwhile, the
mal-owner like a normal healthy scab may be, cells of the epidermis begin to multiply in order
in fact, a crust of blood, matted hair and dirt.) to restore the skin covering. (See LYMPHOCYTES.)
The surface of the wound may be cleaned by Healing of wounds may be delayed if the
gentle application of a piece of cotton-wool animal is being treated with corticosteroids.
soaked in warm antiseptic such as diluted
Dettol or Cetrimide, etc., or KY Jelly. Wry-Neck (Torticollis)
The wound may be covered in order to prevent Wry-neck (torticollis), which occurs in foals,
contamination and infection by flies – in the case sheep and poultry particularly, is a lateral
of farmyard animals – or to prevent excessive lick- deviation of the head and neck to the right or
ing by dogs and cats. Before covering, a dry anti- left side of the body, usually so marked as to
septic dressing of sulfanilamide may be applied. hinder or prevent foaling. The bones of the
The covering of a wound cleaned and skull and neck are frequently distorted, and W
dressed as described should be removed daily so the ligaments, tendons, and muscles on the
that the progress of healing can be observed, inside of the curve are shorter than those on
and cleaning repeated if necessary. An open, the outside.
granulating wound should have a clean, pink The condition may also be encountered in
appearance. cattle.
Large, gaping wounds may require suturing, When seen in rabbits, the cause may be
which should be done by a veterinary surgeon, middle ear infection.
X
using X-ray equipment to notify their local
Health and Safety Executive. Many veterinary
practices now employ a radiation protection
adviser to ensure compliance with the require-
ments of the regulations.
A teaspoon in the stomach of a cocker spaniel. The spoon was swallowed while the animal was being
given cod-liver oil. (Reproduced by courtesy of Mr S. W. Douglas, University of Cambridge School of
Veterinary Medicine.)
Radiography reveals that a painful swelling on the leg of a St Bernard is due to an osteosarcoma involving
the radius. (Reproduced by courtesy of Mr S. W. Douglas, University of Cambridge School of Veterinary
Medicine.)
X
lead becomes deposited in the tumour and an emulsion of bismuth or barium carbonate,
intensifies the contrast. Where some displace- or some other harmless metallic salt, or has
ment, stricture, or dilatation of the stomach or some of the same material injected into the rec-
of part of the intestinal canal is suspected, the tum. After waiting until the salt has become
animal is given a feed or a draught containing suitably distributed, a radiograph of the
786 Xanthosis
X
Y
Yellow Fat Disease of Cats
(see STEATITIS)
Yellow Fever
A viral disease affecting man and other verte-
brates, principally monkeys, in large areas of
tropical America and Africa. There are 2 known
Yarded Cattle cycles of transmission, the urban and jungle
Before yarding cattle in the autumn, it is wise to cycles. In the urban cycle, man is the reservoir
make a gradual change from sugar-poor and Aedes aegypti probably the only vector. This
autumn pasture to things like roots; otherwise cycle from man to A. aegypti to man is now
digestive upsets are likely to occur. virtually unknown in the Americas owing
Similarly, in spring it is a mistake to turn to efforts to eradicate the vector, but it is still
calves straight out on to grass. This means a common in Africa.
sudden change from protein-poor food to The jungle cycle has a primate reservoir
the rich protein of the early bite, and the maintained by various mosquitoes. Movement
resulting effect upon the rumen will set them of virus from the monkey-mosquito-monkey
back. It is best to get them out before there cycle into man is accidental, and is the result
is much grass for a few hours each day; of human penetration into jungle where the
let them have hay and shelter at night to protect disease is endemic.
them from sudden changes of weather. The causative organism is classified as a
Hypomagnesaemia, too, is far less likely under flavivirus.
these circumstances. (See also HOUSING OF
ANIMALS.) Yelt
Boss cows can be a nuisance in yards, but the A female pig intended for breeding, up to the
provision of yokes for feeding overcomes the time that she has her 1st litter.
main diffculty.
When self-feeding of silage is practised, pre- Yersiniosis
cautions are necessary in order to prevent foot Infection with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis or
troubles. (See SILAGE.) with Y. enterocolitica.
Yarded animals fed on cereals, sugarbeet Up to 1960, states WHO, only the former
pulp, straw, and hay – but with little or no organism was regularly isolated in man and
greenstuff – may suffer from xerophthalmia and animals in Europe; but since then most of the
go blind as a result of a vitamin A deficiency. isolations have been of Y. enterocolitica.
Pheasants Yersiniosis is an important cause fastigiata) and the yellow yew appear to contain
of death of these birds in the UK. less of the poisonous alkaloid, which is called
taxine. The bark, leaves and seeds all contain it.
Yersinia enterocolitica infection in Europe The older dark leaves are more dangerous than
was first found in hares, in outbreaks of disease the fresh green young shoots, which cattle have
on chinchilla farms, in monkeys in zoos, and in been known to eat in small amounts without
guinea pigs. There may be enteritis and other harm. Cases of poisoning have been noted
lesions, but symptomless carriers have been among horses, donkeys, mules, cattle, sheep,
found among all the farmyard mammals and goats, pigs, deer, rabbits, and even pheasants,
birds. but the majority of cases occur in young store
Occasionally Y. enterocolitica has been isolat- cattle and in dairy cows which have access to
ed from cases of mastitis in cows, endocarditis the shrubberies, graveyards, etc., where yew
in bulls, and septicaemia in pigs. In cattle, the trees are most common.
antibody produced may be difficult to differen-
tiate from that produced by Brucella abortus. Signs In many cases cattle drop dead without
Camels, foxes, and fleas may also carry the showing any preliminary symptoms at all. They
organism. may fall while cudding almost as suddenly as if
shot. In other cases where less has been eaten,
Public health Yersinia enterocolitica infection excitement and paresis may be seen.
is not regarded as a genuine zoonosis by WHO.
Person-to-person infection occurs, and also Treatment Antidotes are as for alkaloids. If
infection from soil-contaminated vegetables. time allows, rumenotomy may be carried out.
The human illness is characterised by enteritis,
and is a cause of diarrhoea, although less impor- Yolk Sac Infection
tant than salmonella and campylobacter. Ileitis (see OMPHALITIS OF BIRDS)
may be accompanied by acute pain, suggestive of
appendicitis. A mesenteric adenitis is also seen, Yorkshire Terrier
and sometimes polyarthritis, deep abscesses, eye A long-haired, black-and-tan coloured toy dog.
lesions, and occasionally septicaemia. The breed is prone to tracheal collapse caused
In the UK in 1984, 250 cases were reported. by a cartilage defect that may or may not be
Outbreaks in North America have been linked inherited. Patellar luxation is inherited as a
to raw milk. (For Y. pestis see BUBONIC PLAGUE, recessive trait.
which can occur in cats and dogs in subclinical
form.) Yorkshire Boarding
Vertically arranged boards with a gap between
Yew Poisoning each, used for partial cladding of a livestock
All varieties of the British yew trees are poiso- building. It is a very useful means of improving
nous, but owing to its more frequent cultiva- ventilation and avoiding condensation, thereby
tion, the common yew (Taxus baccata) is most reducing the risk or incidence of bronchitis and
often responsible for outbreaks of poisoning pneumonia in housed livestock.
among animals. The Irish yew (T. baccata var.
Y
Z
Zinc Poisoning
Chronic zinc poisoning has been reported in a
dairy herd as a result of contaminated drinking
water – caused by interaction between copper
pipes and newly galvanised tanks. The main
symptom was chronic constipation throughout
the herd, and a diminished yield from the cows
Zearalenone in milk.
An oestrogenic toxin from the fungus Fusarium Fatal zinc poisoning has occurred in dairy
graminearum of standing corn. The toxin has cattle fed on dairy nuts to which zinc oxide has
caused abortion in sows, and possibly a splayleg been added instead of magnesium oxide. The
condition in piglets. first death occurred after 3 weeks.
Zebu Zinc-responsive skin disease The most
Bos indicus, the cattle of India, East and West common cause of this is the feeding of soya or
Africa, and Southeast Asia. The American name cereal-based diets – with little or no meat,
is Brahman; in South Africa, the Afrikaner. which is rich in zinc. Some dogs may have an
inherent defect which limits zinc absorption.
Zero-Grazing
Taking cut fodder to yarded cattle, or to cattle
in exercise paddocks. Zero-grazing has a place
Signs A dull, harsh coat; sometimes with
whitish crusts on the skin.
on heavy land, with high stocking rates and
large herds. It obviates poaching and the spoil-
ing of grass, and a given acreage zero-grazed can
Zondek-Ascheim Test
(see PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS)
provide more grass than if grazed. It means,
however, cutting grass every day, and mechani-
cal failures can upset the system. It is not yet Zoo Licensing Act 1981
considered economic for sheep. The Zoo Licensing Act 1981 is intended to pro-
mote animal welfare and public safety at zoos. It
Zinc (Zn) covers any collection of wild animals (including
Zinc (Zn) is a trace element, and a deficiency mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, and insects) in
has occurred in pigs. (See PARAKERATOSIS.) A Britain to which the public has access for more
zinc supplement to prevent or correct this con- than 7 days in any 12-month period; but
dition must be used with care, as 1000 parts per exempts pet shops and circuses, as these are cov-
million can cause poisoning. It seems that a ered by the Pet Animals Act 1951 and the
high calcium intake by pigs aggravates a zinc Performing Animals (Registration) Act 1952.
deficiency. Of 150 zoos inspected following the passing
A zinc deficiency may also occur in dogs, of the Act, only 5 were refused a licence; and in
especially in those fed largely on flaked maize or those cases it was public-safety considerations
‘loose cereal-based diets’. Signs include a predis- rather than the quality of animal care which
position to skin infections, a poor coat, brought about the refusal.
localised alopecia, and hardening of the skin in
places. Response to a zinc supplement is usual- Zoonoses
ly quick. (See SHEEPDOGS.) Diseases communicable between animals and
A zinc supplement has been used to protect man. Information about them will be found
sheep against facial eczema due to ingestion of under the following headings: ARIZONA INFEC-
the mycotoxin sporidesmin. TION; BABESIA – Babesiosis; ANTHRAX; B VIRUS
(from monkeys); BRUCELLOSIS; CAT-SCRATCH
External uses Zinc oxide is an ingredient FEVER; CHAGAS DISEASE; EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS;
of ointments; the carbonate an ingredient of EQUINE INFECTIOUS ANAEMIA; FOOT-AND-
calamine lotion used for moist eczema, etc. The MOUTH DISEASE (very rare in human beings);
sulphate in weak solution has been used in GLANDERS; HYDATID DISEASE; LEPTOSPIROSIS;
wound treatment and in eye lotions; the LISTERIOSIS; LIVER-FLUKES; LOUPING-ILL; LYME
chloride – a caustic – to repress granulations. DISEASE; LYMPHOCYTIC CHORIOMENINGITIS
(from mice); NEWCASTLE DISEASE; ORNITHOSIS;
Zinc Bacitracin ORF; PASTEURELLOSIS; Q FEVER; RABIES; RATBITE
An antbiotic formerly used as a feed additive to FEVER; RIFT VALLEY FEVER; RINGWORM; ROCKY
improve growth rate in most farm animals and MOUNTAIN FEVER; RUSSIAN SPRING-SUMMER
egg production in poultry. (See ADDITIVES.) VIRUS; SALMONELLOSIS; SCABIES; SCHISTOSOMI-
790 Zoonoses in UK Veterinarians
ASIS; TAPEWORMS; TICK-BITE FEVER; TICK PARAL- laboratory workers. In contrast, ornithosis,
YSIS; TOXOCARA; TOXOPLASMOSIS; TRICHINOSIS; salmonellosis and Q fever occurred at least as
TUBERCULOSIS; TULARAEMIA; VESICULAR STOM- often in the laboratory staff. Fourteen people
ATITIS; MARBURG DISEASE; WESSELBRON DIS- developed tuberculosis during their employ-
EASE; YERSINIOSIS; YELLOW FEVER; SWINE VESIC- ment, although only 1 was caused by
ULAR DISEASE; PORCINE STREPTOCOCCAL Mycobacterium bovis. The veterinarians report-
MENINGITIS; ROTAVIRUS; LASSA FEVER; BOVINE ed 441 injuries that resulted from accidents at
ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; LEISHMANIASIS; BUBONIC work; 397 (71 per cent) of these involved ani-
PLAGUE; ENCEPHALOMYOCARDITIS.) mal-handling. The comparable figures for labo-
It should be added that typhus and plague ratory workers and technical staff were 329 and
may be transmitted, by flea-bite, from rats; and, 103 (15 per cent) and 198 and 179 (42 per
in jungle areas, yellow fever, by mosquito- cent) respectively.
bite, from monkeys. (See also under RODENTS;
MONKEYS; INFLUENZA.) Zoonoses Orders 1988 & 1989
Among skin diseases, the parasite of follicu- These include measures intended to reduce
lar mange may occasionally infest the human the risk to humans of salmonella and brucella
eyelid. Among eye infections, INFECTIOUS infections of animal origin. The 1989 Order
BOVINE KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS should be recognises bovine spongiform encephalopathy
mentioned. Human enteritis has followed con- as a zoonotic disease.
tact with sheep affected with campylobacter
abortion. Zootechny
(See also BIRD-FANCIER’S LUNG; MELIOIDOSIS; Animal management.
CAMPYLOBACTER INFECTIONS; CHLAMYDIA;
PSITTACOSIS; BOUTONNEUSE FEVER; LEISHMA- Zygoma
NIA; HANTAVIRUS; TICK-BORNE ENCEPHALITIS; Zygoma is the bridge of bone which runs from
EHRLICHIA CANIS; ABORTION, ENZOOTIC.) near the base of the ear to the lower posterior
part of the eye-socket. It protects the side of
Zoonoses in UK Veterinarians the bony orbit, forms part of the support of the
A questionnaire was distributed to 1717 mem- outside of the joint of the lower jaw with the
bers of veterinary and support staff of the rest of the head, and serves as a base of attach-
Ministry of Agriculture and the Institute for ment for part of the strong masseter muscle
Research on Animal Diseases; 1625 (95 per which closes the mouth and is important in the
cent) responded, comprising 563 veterinary chewing of the food. The zygomatic arch
surgeons, 690 scientific staff and 372 technical (another name for the zygoma) is formed by
support staff. A total of 1057 (61.5 per cent) projections from the temporal, zygomatic, and
had apparently not suffered any zoonotic infec- maxillary bones.
tion. Animal ringworm was the commonest
reported zoonosis. The incidences of ringworm, Zygote
brucellosis and Newcastle disease were higher The body that results from the fertilisation of
in the veterinary and support staff than in the an egg cell by a sperm.
Z
USEFUL ADDRESSES