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1. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNICATION AND PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, including conscious and unconscious phenomena, as
well as thought. Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes,
including perception, cognition, attention, emotion (affect), intelligence, phenomenology, motivation (con
ation), brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such
as interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas.

In any communication, there is a sender and a receiver. The sender ‘encodes’ their message, which is
basically putting thought into speech. The receiver listens, and ‘decodes’ the message, effectively
converting it back to thought. However, everything that is encoded or decoded is open to interpretation
because of this process. A large part of our learned communication style comes from our experiences.
Those experiences are cultural, but also psychological in nature. So an event or experience you had may
actually ‘colour’ your interpretation of the message. When you decode the senders message you are doing
so based on your own last experiences, and hence, your own thought.

If you have ever played the game Telephone, you may have seen some distortion of encoding and
decoding. This game has one person whisper something in the ear of another. That message has to then be
passed on to another whispering in their ear, and they are to use different words to say it but it must mean
the same thing. It continues until everyone in the room has passed it on, and then the person who
originated the message is told what the original message supposedly was. This often has hilarious results,
the original message is so distorted it is completely unecognizable, and has a completely different
meaning.

Another example of someone colouring communication, where psychology enters in is that perhaps the
sender wants to avoid confrontation because in their childhood, there was a verbally abusive parent. As a
child, that person learns to avoid confrontation. Now, when communicating as an adult, they have an
issue and are not necessarily even aware of it. Their sending messages in conflict situations become
coloured by their past experience and they will use language that lightly suggests that someone should do
something or implies that they should do something instead of that the other person ‘must’ do something
when their current actions or thoughts are intolerable to the sender. The receiver, for their part, hears what
they want to hear in their own decoding of it. Their own psychology is such that even if they had been
told very directly that they must change something, they still would not decode it that way. Instead, they
continue on as before. People often call it a failure to communicate. It is a failure to decode correctly or
encode correctly sometimes and that failure can easily be because of individual psychology. The only way
to accurately decode the message is to be able to understand how another person thinks. It actually
requires the receiver to put himself or herself inside the head of the other and try to figure out what was
really meant when the message was encoded.

Communication is highly influenced by the mental condition that the communicators are in and is
disturbed by mental disturbance. If the people involved in communication are not emotionally well, they
won’t be able to communicate properly.

Every person’s mind is unique and communication does not work like that in machines or in numbers.
The people who are involved in the communication matter as much as the message e.g. If your boss
doesn't trust you, he/she will only send selective information, which makes the communication
ineffective.
In his Four-Sides model of communication, Friedemann Schulz von Thun (1981) points out that every
message has four facets to it:
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1. Fact: What I inform about (data, facts, statements)

2. Self-revealing: What I reveal about myself (information about the sender)
3. Relationship: What I think about you (information about how we get along)
4. Appeal: What I want to make you do (an attempt to influence the receiver)

There is never the same emphasis put on each of the four facets, and the emphasis can be meant and
understood differently. For instance, the husband saying “the sugar jar is empty” may be less about the
fact that there is no sugar left in the jar, but the prompt for his wife to go and fill up the jar.

Ex. II husband ….the window is open. Ifact ii. Tired iii. Close iv. Close the window
Causes of Psychological Barriers
1. Lack of Attention
When a person’s mind is distracted or preoccupied with other things, the person is not able to form proper
message, listen to what others tell him/her, interpret the message as required and give proper
feedback.The communication will face problems and becomes ineffective.A person in tragedy, for
instance, does not want to listen to other people giving advice. A person might be preoccupied by the
problems of his/her professional life or personal life, which affects both.

2. Distrust and Defensiveness

Communication is successful when the communicators trust each other. Lack of trust makes them derive
negative meaning of the message and they ignore the message. When a person tries to force his/her own
ideas and opinions, then receiver does not listen. If the receiver does not agree to the message provided or
thinks of it as a threat, he/she will not listen to it. Similarly, when the message is not transferred across to
the receiver, the communication fails. For example, I don’t trust a friend, I will only give the details, of
what is happening in my personal life which I think are harmless.
3. Perception, Viewpoint, Attitudes and Opinions
Perception is the mindset using which people judge, understand and interpret everything. Each person has
his/he own perception of reality which is shaped from mental and sensory experiences.
Likewise, viewpoint is also a mindset to look at the world. Sender might have a particular viewpoint that
is not shared by the receiver. The sender does not explain the viewpoint but takes the viewpoint as
granted. The message is not understood by the receiver as must have been understood, creating a barrier
to effective communication.

Attitude is the established way in which we think and feel about things and ideas which also creates a
psychological communication barrier.
For example, a person takes females to be weak which is the person’s perception. He/she tells that to
someone who does not think so. This causes a misunderstanding between the two. Everything they
communicate after that becomes unsuccessful that the view of the person is already set.
4. Emotions
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Anyone who isn't in a good mood is likely to talk less or talk negatively. A preoccupied mind is
not good at communicating. For example, when a person is angry, he/she might say things
they regret later. Even when listening to someone else speak, an angry person might easily
misinterpret the message. Various other emotions like fear, nervousness, confusion, mistrust and
jealousy affect communication process. For example, a person having extreme moods of happiness
will laugh at anything at all said to him/her. The same person when sad will cry or get angry at
insignificant situations.
5. Closed Mind and Filtering
Man is selfish by nature and put his own needs and problems above all else. This sometimes leads
people to filter information that someone is trying to convey to them. This might be due to mistrust,
competition, jealousy, or the view that the message is insignificant.
For example, a senior in a company does not want the junior to do better at work, the person filters the
information and does not provide crucial information that could help the junior. The junior therefore will
not be able to complete the work properly and progress in ranks. Similarly, when a person is close
minded, the person will have fixed opinions on many things which the person believes resolutely. The
person will interpret any information in a negative way.
For example, a sexist person does not accept the suggestions of a female colleague in a meeting that
affects the communication flow in the meeting. It is difficult to argue with such close minded people and
give proper information.
6. Premature Evaluation
Some people are always in a hurry by habit. These kinds of people most likely make quick judgments and
jump into conclusions. They do not consider all aspects of the information such as social, cultural,
economic, etc. and often end up taking quick and wrong decisions. It is important to hear the whole
message to make proper judgments because they are not changed easily after they are once made.
For example, a person is in a hurry and talks on the phone, the person does not listen to half the message
and makes the decision which is wrong in the situation.
Psychological barriers affect communication more as information is formed in the brain and is sent by
people with various psychological condition which differs from one moment to another. Information is as
effective as the people involved make it.
Similarly, the psychological condition of the receiver also has as much importance as the sender’s.
Communication is ineffective if psychological aspects of communication acts as a barrier to
communication.

2. PERSONALITY & IT’S COMPONENTS

Personality is defined as the set of habitual behaviors, cognitions
( awareness, apprehension, learning, understanding, ) and emotional patterns that evolve from
biological and environmental factors. While there is no generally agreed upon definition of
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personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with ones
environment.

Five-factor model : Personality is often broken into statistically-identified factors called the Big Five,
which are:-

1. openness to experience, :- Openness to experience involves six facets, or dimensions, including

active imagination (fantasy), aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety,
and intellectual curiosity. People who score low on openness are considered to be closed to experience.
They tend to be conventional and traditional in their outlook and behavior. They prefer familiar routines
to new experiences, and generally have a narrower range of interests. Openness has moderate positive
relationships with creativity, intelligence and knowledge. Openness is related to the psychological trait
of absorption, and like absorption has a modest relationship to individual differences in hypnotic
susceptibility.

2. conscientiousness, :- Conscientiousness focuses on how we manage and control our impulses and
desires. Conscientious people are intelligent, organized, and persistent.

Conscientiousness is the personality trait of being careful, or vigilant. Conscientiousness implies a desire
to do a task well, and to take obligations to others seriously. Conscientious people tend to
be efficient and organized as opposed to easy-going and disorderly. They exhibit a tendency to show self-
discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; they display planned rather than spontaneous behavior;
and they are generally dependable. It is manifested in characteristic behaviors such as
being neat and systematic; also including such elements as carefulness, thoroughness,
and deliberation (the tendency to think carefully before acting.) Conscientious individuals are
generally hard-working and reliable. They are also likely to be conformists. When taken to an extreme,
they may also be "workaholics", perfectionists, and compulsive in their behavior. People who score low
on conscientiousness tend to be laid back, less goal-oriented, and less driven by success; they also are
more likely to engage in antisocial and criminal behavior.

3.extraversion, Extraversion pertains to being outgoing, sociable, full of energy, enthusiasm, and action-
oriented. Introversion, on the other hand, refers to lack of liveliness and energy.

The trait of extraversion–introversion is a central dimension of human personality theories. The

terms introversion and extraversion were popularized by Carl Jung, although both the popular
understanding and psychological usage differ from his original intent. Extraversion tends to be manifested
in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior, whereas introversion is manifested in more reserved and
solitary behavior. Virtually all comprehensive models of personality include these concepts in various
forms

Extraversion is the state of primarily obtaining gratification from outside oneself.[4] Extraverts tend to
enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious. Extraverts are
energized and thrive off being around other people. They take pleasure in activities that involve large
social gatherings, such as parties, community activities, public demonstrations, and business or political
groups. They also tend to work well in groups. An extraverted person is likely to enjoy time spent with
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people and find less reward in time spent alone. They tend to be energized when around other people, and
they are more prone to boredom when they are by themselves

Introversion Introversion is the state of being predominantly interested in one's own mental
self. Introverts are typically perceived as more reserved or reflective. Introverts often take pleasure in
solitary activities such as reading, writing, using computers, hiking and fishing. An introvert is likely to
enjoy time spent alone and find less reward in time spent with large groups of people, though they may
enjoy interactions with close friends.

Ambiversion …. Although many people view being introverted or extraverted as mutually exclusive,
most contemporary trait theories measure levels of extraversion-introversion as part of a single,
continuous dimension of personality, with some scores near one end, and others near the half-way
mark. Ambiversion is falling more or less directly in the middle. An ambivert is moderately comfortable
with groups and social interaction, but also relishes time alone, away from a crowd.
4. agreeableness, :- Agreeableness manifests our differences in terms of cooperation and social harmony.
Agreeable people like getting along with each other well while disagreeable individuals are more
concerned with self-interest and personal well-being.

Agreeableness is a personality trait manifesting itself in individual behavioral characteristics that are
perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm, and considerate People who score high on this
dimension are empathetic and altruistic, while a low agreeableness score relates to selfish behavior and a
lack of empathy. Those who score very low on agreeableness show signs of dark triad behavior such as
manipulation and competing with others rather than cooperating.
5. neuroticism (or emotional stability). Neuroticism is evident in individuals who are emotionally reactive
and may have gone through or are going through a particular strong negative feeling.

Individuals who score high on neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to experience
such
feelings,as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, guilt, depressed,mood,and loneliness.[1]
People who are neurotic respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as
threatening and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. They are often self-conscious and shy, and they
may have trouble controlling urges and delaying gratification.
People with high neuroticism indexes are at risk for the development and onset of common mental
disorders, such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorder, symptoms of which had
traditionally been called neuroses
Neuroticism is a trait in many models within personality theory, but there is little agreement on its
definition. Some define it as a tendency for quick arousal when stimulated and slow relaxation from
arousal; others define it as emotional instability and negativity or maladjustment, in contrast to emotional
stability and positivity, or good adjustment. Others yet define it as lack of self-control, poor ability to
manage psychological stress, and a tendency to complain.

These components are generally stable over time, and about half of the variance appears to be attributable
to a person's genetics rather than the effects of one's environment.

WAYS TO MAKE YOUR PERSONALITY MORE VIBRANT

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We can become the best version of ourselves if we want to. So, if you are willing to become the most
terrific version of you, here are some personality development tips to your aid:

KNOW YOU ARE INCOMPARABLE

You bring your self-esteem down by comparing yourself with others. That shrivels your personality and
does not let your strengths blossom . Know that you and the other person are unique and are just
incomparable.

BE KIND TO YOURSELF

We are taught to be kind to others. Yet, many of us fail to be kind to ourselves. Studies show that self-
compassion brings positive traits like optimism, extroversion, wisdom, happiness, positivity and
resilience. self-compassion involves three steps:

 Recognize that you deserve care and concern like anyone else and that is why you must be kind and
understanding with oneself.
 Recognize that making mistakes and failing is part of life. So, do not be hard on yourself when you
commit a mistake or fail and indulge in self-critical thoughts.
 Be aware of one’s emotions and feelings.
Contrary to popular belief, self-compassion does not mean letting yourself off the hook. Rather, it means
taking corrective action, albeit without being too self-critical.

GIVE SPACE TO IMPERFECTION

People and situations always do not fit in your frame of perfection. Often, that makes one agitated and
angry, eventually diminishing the strength of their personality. So, find your peace amidst the world’s
flaws even as you strive to make a change.

BE SPONTANEOUS

Spontaneity makes one to be fun around. However, do not confuse being spontaneous with being
impulsive. Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar says, that while the former is the key to success, the latter can
causes disasters. So, how do you be truly spontaneous? By being cent percent aware in the present
moment.

BE LIGHT IN MIND AND HEART

Don’t overthink and overanalyze. Neither let any negativity like shame, anger, jealousy or greed stay in
your consciousness for too long. Instead, learn to take it easy; forgive easily and drop grudges against
people as soon as they pop up. Being light in mind and heart makes you truly happy from within. And
who does not like happy people?

STAY ENTHUSIASTIC

Enthusiasm is infectious and appealing. That is why everyone loves kids. Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar
says, that despite adverse situations in life, one must never give up their enthusiasm. Here is Gurudev’s
secret of staying enthusiastic.
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BE A BETTER COMMUNICATOR

A couplet in Kannada says that words can create laughter and can also create enmity. A skillful
communicator can win over people and adverse situations. So, bring clarity in your communication. Learn
how you can be an excellent communicator with these tips from Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar.

BE WARM AND APPROACHABLE

We all like people with whom we can easily mingle and talk to. No one likes a person who responds with
a straight face. So, learn to be warm. Flash that smile more often. Be friendly and be ready to share and
help.

DO THINGS WITH STYLE

Doing things with style adds zing to your personality. The secret to doing things with style lies in working
with passion and a relaxed mind. So, while you work at something, don’t let anything distract you from
putting all your energy into it. At the same time, stay relaxed.

LEARN TO LET GO

After you’re done with a task, let go of your attachment with the result. When you let go, you become
free, calm and relaxed - attributes of a strong personality.

BE A LION IN THE FACE OF DANGER

Don’t give into pressure and face every challenge confidently. Either you will overcome the adversity or
learn something invaluable.

STAY CALM WITH THE POWER OF BREATH

Being calm strengthens one’s personality. However, staying calm can be difficult when you have a
terrible headache and have an urgent deadline to meet. In such situations, tap the power of breath. As soon
as you become aware of it, your stress will diminish!

BE A PROTON

A proton can never lose its positivity. Nor can you! Stress may affect us on the outside. However, your
inner core continues to radiate positivity like a proton. It stays unaffected, happy and peaceful. Tune into
this part of yourself again and again with the help of meditation. The process energizes and brings out
positive traits like enthusiasm.

3. . COGNITION
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memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and "computation", problem solving and decision
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making, comprehension and production of language. Human cognition is conscious and unconscious,
concrete or abstract, as well as intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and conceptual (like a model of a
language). Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge.

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experience. Aristotle focused on cognitive areas pertaining to memory, perception, and mental imagery.
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language skills are developed at the end of this stage. The goal is to
develop object permanence; achieves basic understanding of
causality, time, and space.

Symbols or language skills are present; memory and imagination

Toddler and Early are developed; nonreversible and nonlogical thinking; shows
Pre-operational
Childhood (2–7 intuitive problem solving; begins to see relationships; grasps
stage
years) concept of conservation of numbers; egocentric thinking
predominates.

Logical and systematic form of intelligence; manipulation of

symbols related to concrete objects; thinking is now characterized
Concrete Elementary and
by reversibility and the ability to take the role of another; grasps
operational Early Adolescence
concepts of the conservation of mass, length, weight, and volume;
stage (7–12 years)
operational thinking predominates nonreversible and egocentric
thinking

Logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts; Acquires

Formal Adolescence and
flexibility in thinking as well as the capacities for abstract thinking
operational Adulthood (12
and mental hypothesis testing; can consider possible alternatives in
stage years and on)
complex reasoning and problem solving.[18]

Cognitive-Communication Abilities
Cognitive-communication abilities are those thought processes that allow humans to function successfully
and interact meaningfully with each other. Many processes make up cognitive-communication. Examples
of these are: orientation, attention, memory, problem solving, and executive function:

1. Orientation- refers to awareness of person, place, time and circumstance.

2. Attention- refers to the ability to concentrate; often broken down into four types:
 Focused attention- ability to briefly respond to a specific visual, auditory, tactile stimuli
 Sustained attention- ability to maintain concentration on a single activity
 Alternating attention- ability to shift the focus of attention and move between different tasks
 Divided attention- ability to respond simultaneously to multiple tasks demands (e.g. multitask)
3. Memory- refers to the ability to remember; can be broken down in many different ways:
 Sensory Memory- ability to remember information related to any of the five senses: smell, taste,
touch, vision, and audition (hearing)
 Short-Term Memory- ability to remember information for up to a few minutes
 Long-Term Memory- ability to remember for several minutes, hours, days, or longer
 Procedural Memory- ability to physically remember how to do actions, movements, or other motor
activities; for example: serving a tennis ball, playing the piano.
 Prospective Memory- ability to remember what needs to be remembered; for example: meeting
friends at a certain place in two hours; taking a medication at the right time
Sometimes, memory is described in terms of three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. During
encoding, information to be remembered is analyzed/processed. During storage, information to be
remembered is “put in a good place” in the brain. During retrieval, stored information is called back
(recalled) when it is wanted or needed.
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4. Problem Solving- refers to the ability to think or reason about things; may involve decision making.
Problem solving involves five components:
 Identify the problem
 Identify all possible solutions to the problem
 Select the best solution
 Solve the problem
 Make sure that the solution is working/worked and adapt as needed
5. Executive Function- refers to the ability to plan, initiate, complete, and oversee goal-directed
behavior; coordinates attention, memory, and problem solving abilities to function
creatively, competently, and independently.
Language may be viewed as another cognitive-communication process, with many parts that include:
Auditory Comprehension, Verbal Expression (content), Speech Intelligibility, Reading, Writing, and
Social Skills. Developmentally, thinking affects language, and language affects thinking. In Western
Cultures, most thinking is done using language.

4 . EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional intelligence (EI) is the capability of individuals to recognize their own, and other
people's emotions, to discern between different feelings and label them appropriately, to use emotional
information to guide thinking and behavior, and to manage and/or adjust emotions to adapt environments
or achieve one's goal(s) Studies have shown that people with high EI have greater mental health, job
performance, and leadership skills although no causal relationships have been shown and such findings
are likely to be attributable to general intelligence and specific personality traits rather than emotional
intelligence as a construct. For example, Goleman indicated that EI accounted for 67% of the abilities
deemed necessary for superior performance in leaders, and mattered twice as much as technical expertise
or IQ.[10] Other research finds that the effect of EI on leadership and managerial performance is non-
significant when ability and personality are controlled for,[11] and that general intelligence correlates very
closely with leadership.[12] Markers of EI and methods of developing it have become more widely coveted
in the past decade. In addition, studies have begun to provide evidence to help characterize the neural
mechanisms of emotional intelligence

We probably all know people, either at work or in our personal lives, who are really good listeners. No
matter what kind of situation we're in, they always seem to know just what to say – and how to say it – so
that we're not offended or upset. They're caring and considerate, and even if we don't find a solution to
our problem, we usually leave feeling more hopeful and optimistic.

We probably also know people who are masters at managing their emotions. They don't get angry in
stressful situations. Instead, they have the ability to look at a problem and calmly find a solution. They're
excellent decision makers, and they know when to trust their intuition. Regardless of their strengths,
however, they're usually willing to look at themselves honestly. They take criticism well, and they know
when to use it to improve their performance.
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People like this have a high degree of emotional intelligence, or EI. They know themselves very well, and
they're also able to sense the emotional needs of others.

As more and more people accept that EI is just as important to professional success as technical ability,
organizations are increasingly using EI when they hire and promote.

For example, one large cosmetics company recently revised their hiring process for salespeople to choose
candidates based on their EI. The result? People hired with the new system have sold, on average,
$91,000 more than salespeople selected under the old system. There has also been significantly lower
staff turnover among the group chosen for their EI.

So, what exactly is EI, and what can you do to improve yours?

What is Emotional Intelligence?

We all have different personalities, different wants and needs, and different ways of showing our
emotions. Navigating through this all takes tact and cleverness – especially if we hope to succeed in life.
This is where EI becomes important.

EI is the ability to recognize your emotions, understand what they're telling you, and realize how your
emotions affect people around you. It also involves your perception of others: when you understand how
they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more effectively.

People with high EI are usually successful in most things they do. Why? Because they're the ones that
others want on their team. When people with high EI send an email, it gets answered. When they need
help, they get it. Because they make others feel good, they go through life much more easily than people
who are easily angered or upset.

Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence

Daniel Goleman, an American psychologist, developed a framework of five elements that define
emotional intelligence:
1. Self-Awareness – People with high EI are usually very self-aware . They understand their
emotions, and because of this, they don't let their feelings rule them. They're confident – because they
trust their intuition and don't let their emotions get out of control.
They're also willing to take an honest look at themselves. They know their strengths and weaknesses,
and they work on these areas so they can perform better. Many people believe that this self-awareness
is the most important part of EI.

2. Self-Regulation – This is the ability to control emotions and impulses. People who self-regulate
typically don't allow themselves to become too angry or jealous, and they don't make impulsive,
careless decisions. They think before they act. Characteristics of self-regulation are thoughtfulness,
comfort with change, integrity , and the ability to say no.
3. Motivation – People with a high degree of EI are usually motivated . They're willing to defer
immediate results for long-term success. They're highly productive, love a challenge, and are very
effective in whatever they do.
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4. Empathy – This is perhaps the second-most important element of EI. Empathy is the ability to
identify with and understand the wants, needs, and viewpoints of those around you. People with
empathy are good at recognizing the feelings of others, even when those feelings may not be obvious.
As a result, empathetic people are usually excellent at managing relationships , listening , and
relating to others. They avoid stereotyping and judging too quickly, and they live their lives in a very
open, honest way.
5. Social Skills – It's usually easy to talk to and like people with good social skills, another sign of high
EI. Those with strong social skills are typically team players. Rather than focus on their own success
first, they help others develop and shine. They can manage disputes, are excellent communicators, and
are masters at building and maintaining relationships.
As you've probably determined, EI can be a key to success in your life – especially in your career. The
ability to manage people and relationships is very important in all leaders, so developing and using your
EI can be a good way to show others the leader inside of you.

How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence

The good news is that EI can be learned and developed. As well as working on your skills in the five
areas above, use these strategies:
 Observe how you react to people. Do you rush to judgment before you know all of the facts? Do you
stereotype? Look honestly at how you think and interact with other people. Try to put yourself in
their place , and be more open and accepting of their perspectives and needs.
 Look at your work environment. Do you seek attention for your accomplishments? Humility can be a
wonderful quality, and it doesn't mean that you're shy or lack self-confidence. When you practice
humility, you say that you know what you did, and you can be quietly confident about it. Give others a
chance to shine – put the focus on them, and don't worry too much about getting praise for yourself.

 Do a self-evaluation. Try out our EI quiz . What are your weaknesses? Are you willing to accept
that you're not perfect and that you could work on some areas to make yourself a better person? Have
the courage to look at yourself honestly – it can change your life.
 Examine how you react to stressful situations. Do you become upset every time there's a delay or
something doesn't happen the way you want? Do you blame others or become angry at them, even
when it's not their fault? The ability to stay calm and in control in difficult situations is highly valued –
in the business world and outside it. Keep your emotions under control when things go wrong.

 Take responsibility for your actions. If you hurt someone's feelings, apologize directly – don't
ignore what you did or avoid the person. People are usually more willing to forgive and forget if you
make an honest attempt to make things right.
 Examine how your actions will affect others – before you take those actions. If your decision will
impact others, put yourself in their place. How will they feel if you do this? Would you want that
experience? If you must take the action, how can you help others deal with the effects?
 13

5 . CULTURE AND IT”S IMPACT ON COMMUNICATION

How cultural differences impact our communication and the way we do business with
foreigners

When used as a count noun, a "culture" is the set of customs, traditions, and values of a society or community, such s an
ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, multiculturalism values the
peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes "culture" is
also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a subculture (e.g. "bro culture"), or
a counterculture. In the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."[5] Alternatively,
in a contemporary variant, "Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material
expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.[6]
The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a
particular group of people at a particular time."[7] Terror management theory posits that culture is a series of activities and
worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as "person[s] of worth within the world of
meaning"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance
and death that Homo sapiens became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.

Culture determines the way people think, act and interact; and it is composed of many layers. Some of
them are obvious, such as customs, arts, food and celebrations. Others, such as social status, body
language, social interaction, sense of humor, concept of time, or even the definition of insanity, aren’t as
noticeable.
The iceberg is often used as a metaphor to define culture: the external part directly visible above the
“waterline”, with the much larger part hidden under the surface. Doing business with foreigners is about
understanding this hidden part of their underlying culture.
Culture is, basically, a set of shared values that a group of people holds. Such values affect how you think
and act and, more importantly, the kind of criteria by which you judge others. Cultural meanings render
some behaviors as normal and right and others strange or wrong.

Every culture has rules that its members take for granted. Few of us are aware of our own biases because
cultural imprinting is begun at a very early age. And while some of culture’s knowledge, rules, beliefs,
values, phobias and anxieties are taught explicitly, most is absorbed subconsciously.

Of course, we are all individuals, and no two people belonging to the same culture are guaranteed to
respond in exactly the same way. However, generalizations are valid to the extent that they provide clues
on what you will most likely encounter – and how those differences impact communication. Here are three
such generalizations.

Culture is a word for people's 'way of life', meaning the way groups do things. Different groups of people
may have different cultures. A culture is passed on to the next generation by learning,
whereas genetics are passed on by heredity. Culture is seen in
people's writing, religion, music, clothes, cooking, and in what they do.
The concept of culture is very complicated, and the word has many meanings.[1] The word 'culture' is most
commonly used in three ways.
 14

 Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture.
 An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior.
 The outlook, attitudes, values, morals goals, and customs shared by a society.
Most broadly, 'culture' includes all human phenomena which are not purely results of human genetics.
The discipline which investigates cultures is called anthropology, though many other disciplines play a
part.

National cultures
Cultures are what make countries unique. Each country has different cultural activities and cultural rituals.
Culture includes material goods, the things the people use and produce. Culture is also the beliefs and
values of the people and the ways they think about and understand the world and their own lives.
Different countries have different cultures. For example, some older Japanese people wear kimonos,
arrange flowers in vases, and have tea ceremonies.

Regional or non-regional cultures

Culture can also vary within a region, society or sub group. A workplace may have a specific culture that
sets it apart from similar workplaces. A region of a country may have a different culture than the rest of
the country. For example, Atlantic Canada has a different culture than the rest of Canada, which is
expressed by different ways of talking, different types of music, and different types of dances.
A group who acts or speaks differently may be said to be, or have, a subculture.

Company cultures
Companies or other organizations (groups of people) can have a separate culture. Japanese manufacturing
companies often have a different culture to Western companies; the workday starts with exercise, and the
workers are very loyal to the company.
Companies in the high-technology sector often have a different culture than other companies. Software
and computer companies sometimes allow employees to play games during the workday, or take time off
work to relax, because these companies believe that this will help the workers to think better.

Anthropology
Anthropology is studying human beings and how they relate to each other. An anthropologist is a person
who studies anthropology. Anthropologists study how culture shapes people and their lives. Cultures
constantly change as people move and communicate with new groups of people.
For example, immigrants (people who move from one country to another) may keep some of their
customs and traditions from their old country. By keeping their culture in this way, they bring pieces of
their culture to a new place where others begin to experiences it.

Cultures are either high-context or low-context

Higher-context culture: Afghans, African, Arabic, Brazilian, Chinese, Filipinos, French
Canadian, French, Greek, Hawaiian, Hungarian, Indian, Indonesian, Italian, Irish, Japanese, Korea
n, Latin Americans, Nepali, Pakistani, Persian, Portuguese, Russian, Southern United
States, Spanish, Thai, Turkish, Vietnamese, South Slavic, West Slavic.
 15

Lower-context culture: Australian, Dutch, English

Canadian, English, Finnish, German, Israeli, New Zealand, Scandinavia, Switzerland, United
States.

Characteristics of High-Context Cultures

Some common characteristics of high-context cultures include:

 The situation, people, and non-verbal elements are more important than the actual words that are
communicated.
 People are comfortable standing close to each other.
 The preferred way of solving problems and learning is in groups.
 Members of the culture place emphasis on interpersonal relationships.
 Trust must be developed before business transactions begin.

Anthropologist Edward T. Hall was the first to discuss and define a low-context culture. In his 1976
book titled Beyond Culture, Hall described a low-context culture as a culture that communicates
information in a direct manner that relies mainly on words. Low-context cultures do not rely on
contextual elements (i.e., the speaker's tone of voice or body language) to communicate information.
They take a more direct and explicit approach. This is in contrast to a high-context culture, which
relies heavily on implicit messages and contextual cues (i.e., the situation and the speaker's tone of
voice) to relay information being communicated.
 Members of low-context cultures have many relationships that last for a short amount of time or
exist for a specific reason. Following procedures and keeping sight of the goal are important in
accomplishing any transaction. The cultural rules and norms need to be spelled out so that people
who are not familiar with the culture know what the expectations are. Communication is expected
to be straightforward and precise, and the use of words must effectively convey the entire
message.

High-Context Cultures
A high-context culture relies on implicit communication and nonverbal cues. In high-context
communication, a message cannot be understood without a great deal of background information. Asian,
African, Arab, central European and Latin American cultures are generally considered to be high-context
cultures.
High-context cultures often display the following tendencies, according to C.B. Halverson’s
book Cultural Context Inventory.

 Association: Relationships build slowly and depend on trust. Productivity depends on

relationships and the group process. An individual’s identity is rooted in groups (family, culture,
work). Social structure and authority are centralized.
 Interaction: Nonverbal elements such as voice tone, gestures, facial expression and eye
movement are significant. Verbal messages are indirect, and communication is seen as an art form
or way of engaging someone. Disagreement is personalized, and a person is sensitive to conflict
expressed in someone else’s nonverbal communication.
 Territoriality: Space is communal. People stand close to each other and share the same space.
 Temporality: Everything has its own time, and time is not easily scheduled. Change is slow, and
time is a process that belongs to others and nature.
 16

 Learning: Multiple sources of information are used. Thinking proceeds from general to specific.
Learning occurs by observing others as they model or demonstrate and then practicing. Groups are
preferred, and accuracy is valued.
 Primarily use non-verbal methods to relay meaningful information in conversations, such as facial
expressions, eye movement, and tone of voice.
 The situation, people, and non-verbal elements are more important than the actual words that are
communicated.
 People are comfortable standing close to each other.
 The preferred way of solving problems and learning is in groups.
 Members of the culture place emphasis on interpersonal relationships.
 Trust must be developed before business transactions begin.


Low-Context Cultures
 A low-context culture relies on explicit communication. In low-context communication, more of
the information in a message is spelled out and defined. Cultures with western European roots,
such as the United States and Australia, are generally considered to be low-context cultures.
Members of low-context cultures have many relationships that last for a short amount of time or
exist for a specific reason. Following procedures and keeping sight of the goal are important in
accomplishing any transaction. The cultural rules and norms need to be spelled out so that people
who are not familiar with the culture know what the expectations are. Communication is expected
to be straightforward and precise, and the use of words must effectively convey the entire
message.

Low-context cultures often display the following tendencies, according to Halverson.

 Association: Relationships begin and end quickly. Productivity depends on procedures and paying
attention to the goal. The identity of individuals is rooted in themselves and their
accomplishments. Social structure is decentralized.
 Interaction: Nonverbal elements are not significant. Verbal messages are explicit, and
communication is seen as a way of exchanging information, ideas and opinions. Disagreement is
depersonalized; the focus is on rational (not personal) solutions. An individual can be explicit
about another person’s bothersome behavior.
 Territoriality: Space is compartmentalized. Privacy is important, so people stand farther apart.
 Temporality: Events and tasks are scheduled and to be done at particular times. Change is fast,
and time is a commodity to be spent or saved. One’s time is one’s own.
 Learning: One source of information is used. Thinking proceeds from specific to general.
Learning occurs by following the explicit directions and explanations of others. Individual
orientation is preferred, and speed is valued.

Communication Dynamics in High- and Low-Context Cultures

Cultural differences shape every aspect of global communication, says Forbes contributor Carol Kinsey
Goman. This helps explain why people in Japan (a high-context culture) prefer face-to-face
communication over electronic technology favored by other industrialized countries like the United
States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Germany (low-context cultures).

High-context cultures also prefer personal bonds and informal agreements over meticulously worded legal
documents. They “are looking for meaning and understanding in what is not said — in body language, in
silences and pauses, and in relationships and empathy,” Goman says. Meanwhile, low-context cultures
 17

“place emphasis on sending and receiving accurate messages directly, and by being precise with spoken
or written words,” she explains. U.S. business leaders often fall into a communication trap by
disregarding the importance of building and maintaining personal relationships when interacting with
people from high-context cultures.

People should also watch for differences within high- and low-context cultures. This classification is an
oversimplification, according to A.C. Krizan and others in the book Business Communication. “For
example, although American culture is classified as low context, communication among family members
tends to be high context,” they write. “Family relationships and members’ high level of shared
experiences require fewer words because of mutual understandings.”

On the other hand, communication between two businesspersons from a low-context culture tends to be
more specific and direct. Attention focuses more on what is said than relationships. In China or Japan,
words receive less attention than relationships, mutual understandings and nonverbal body language.

6. .MANNERISM TO BE AVOIDED WHILE COMMUNICATING

You can have a wonderful speech worked out having sweated long and hard on it, only to have an
effective presentation killed through poor delivery. To be specific, delivery marred by mannerisms and
awkward gestures. Mannerisms can be a major distraction for an audience. Some may find them mildly
amusing, others irritating. The problem is, we often don’t realize we have a mannerism. It takes someone
to point it out. Either that or we see it if we watch a playback video of ourselves.

Here is a checklist of 10 common mannerisms that can drive an audience to distraction. Ask a close
friend or relative to critique your next presentation and ensure you are not making these mistakes:
1. Standing with one leg wrapped around the other This can indicate shyness. It can also make an
individual unstable so they may even sway a little.
2. Standing on the sides of one’s shoes This behavior is sometimes seen in young children. With all
their energy they find it difficult sometimes to stand firmly on both feet so they explore various ways of
standing. For a speaker, it can expose feelings of embarrassment or awkwardness in front of an audience.
3. Frequently touching the nose, mouth, ears, or any part of the face These mannerisms are very
unfortunate. Body language experts tell us that frequent touching of the face or scratching behind the ear
indicates deception or lying. This category is a definite NO NO for anyone wishing to make an effective
presentation.
4. Leaning on the speaker’s stand using it as a prop This posture can convey an overly casual
attitude, or perhaps, over-familiarity with an audience. Some may feel you are taking liberties.
5. Putting hands in and out of pockets This can indicate a lack of self-confidence or tell the audience
the speaker feels uncomfortable in front of them.
 18

6. Fiddling with one’s wrist watch This action betrays nervousness. The speaker might as well say out
loud: “Somebody help me! What do I do with my hands?” It can make an audience feel a little sorry for
the speaker.
7. swallowing Repeatedly Nervousness can lead to a dry throat so the speaker feels the need to
swallow frequently to lubricate the throat. At worst it can suggest dishonesty.
8. Buttoning and unbuttoning the jacket This action can indicate a speaker feels very
uncomfortable. One moment they have the jacket buttoned up. The next minute, perhaps because they are
feeling too hot, they unbutton it. A little later they feel too exposed and button it again. All in all, it shows
the speaker is paying more attention to themselves than to their presentation.
9. Standing with hands clasped behind the back This posture can raise questions in the minds of
some regarding your trustworthiness according to some researchers. People can get suspicious if they
can’t see what your hands are doing! So if you want the audience to trust you and have confidence in you,
rather than put your hands behind your back, let them drop naturally to the sides when you are not
gesturing.
10. Repeating same emphatic gesture Using the finger or hand to make a strong point through an
emphatic gesture is one thing. To keep on repeating the gesture throughout your presentation negates the
power of emphatic gestures and renders them annoying mannerisms. Make sure you don’t punctuate
everything you say with the same emphatic gesture.
In Conclusion
To be fair, the observations noted above are not written in stone. Some of the gestures and postures
mentioned may in some settings indicate a relaxed speaker and certainly not one who is devious and
manipulative. However, being aware that these mannerisms and awkward gestures can have these
negative connotations should make us very cautious. You don’t want your excellent material to end up as
good as dumped on the floor in an indescribable mess because your audience was so distracted by
inappropriate body language!

If you really want to deliver an effective presentation, concentrate not just on what you say, but how you
deliver it.If you're in business, it's a simple fact that you need to be able to present well. If you irritate
people when talking, it'll cost you.

There are certain mannerisms that really annoy people, and can stop them from listening and engaging in
what you're saying with their full attention.

Why does that matter?

Well, if you are irritated or switched off when listening to a speaker, are you likely to do business with
that person or recommend them to someone else? Poor speaking skills can have a hugely detrimental
effect on your business results.

The 10 Most Irritating Mannerisms

1. Speakers who walk back and forwards in front of the screen while presenting “I just want to
shout “Stand still!” You can’t see them properly because of the light from the screen, and you can’t read
the text either because they're in the way. It drives me nuts.”
 19

2. Reading out the PowerPoint slides “I find it insulting – I can read them for myself thanks.”
3. Making every slide the same “It’s really boring, especially when they have so much information on
that you cannot possibly read them. What’s the point?”
4. Speakers who are constantly fiddling “It is so distracting watching speakers who constantly
fiddle with coins in their pockets or are repeatedly touching hair, face, glasses etc. I’m wondering what
they’re going to do next rather than what they’re actually talking about.”
5. Turning around and talking to the screen rather than the audience “It’s as if they don’t know
what they are talking about. If you need to see the slide, why not use the laptop as an autocue in front of
you instead?”
6. Turning around and pointing to something on the screen “It’s really annoying when the speaker
goes up to the screen and actually points to it. It seems unprofessional. Why not use a laser pointer?”
7. Bobbing backwards and forwards to the laptop to change slides “I find it distracting and it
seems amateurish somehow. You can get a remote clicker really cheaply, and it would eliminate the need
for this.”
8. Speaking in a monotone, or the tone rising at the wrong time “I find it really irritating when
the tone goes up, like Australians do, regardless of whether the sentence is really a question or not. I find
myself focussing on listening out for that rather than on what’s being said.”“Just one tone of voice all the
way through makes it difficult for me to concentrate. I find myself drifting off every time.”
9. The speaker using their hands and body too much – too many gestures! “It is really distracting
when the speaker is too expressive with their hands or moves about a lot. I find it difficult to concentrate
on what they are saying.”
10. Just giving information that could be on a hand-out “I find it really annoying when I feel a
presentation has been a waste of my time because the speaker has just given information that I could have
read on a website or a hand-out.”…and there are lots of others.
10 Public Speaking Habits To Avoid At All Costs
as a speaker, you would never consciously clench your hands, pace the floor, and avoid eye contact with
the audience, as your listeners would surely perceive you as nervous and insecure. " Yet, these common
bad habits occur daily in the workplace by presenters who are otherwise smart, accomplished
professionals. "
Here are the top 10 public speaking habits presenters should avoid at all costs, along with their potential
consequences and remedies:
1. Not tailoring your message to your audience. As Benjamin Disraeli once said, "Talk to a man about
himself and he will listen for hours." On the other hand, if you don't talk to your audience about
themselves, they most likely won't listen, Price says. "Speakers frequently fall into the bad habit of giving
generic off-the-shelf presentations that are not tailored to address the needs of this particular audience.
Listeners know when the speaker has not done their homework, and their response ranges from
disappointment and frustration to anger and disengaging."
To avoid this, ask yourself: "Who is my audience? What are their burning issues? How does my message
help them? How much do they know about my topic? What will I ask them to do in response to my
message? "All the best practices in public speaking depend upon this first tenet: Know Your Audience."
2. Eye dart . From beginners to veterans, the majority of speakers fail to maintain meaningful, sustained
eye contact with their listeners. "Unconsciously, their eyes scurry from person to person, darting around
the room, without ever pausing to actually see the recipients of their message," Price says. "A lack of eye
contact implies a list of offenses: insincerity, disinterest, detachment, insecurity, shiftiness, and even
arrogance."
To visually connect, maintain eye contact for at least two to three seconds per person, or long enough to
complete a full phrase or sentence. Effective eye communication is the most important nonverbal skill in a
speaker's toolbox.
 20

3. Distracting mannerisms. There are at least 20 common tics to tackle, including: clenching or wringing
your hands, pacing back and forth, keeping your hands in pockets, jingling change or keys, twisting your
ring, gripping the lectern, licking your lips, adjusting your hair or clothing, fidgeting with a pen, bobbing
your head, placing your arms behind your back, and touching your face. "One or more of these habits can
distract the audience from your message and jeopardize your credibility," Price explains.
As a remedy, record yourself speaking and watch the playback. "Practice often to increase your comfort
level and reduce anxiety. Take a public speaking class or enlist the help of a local coach to eliminate
distracting mannerisms and habituate purposeful movement."
4. Not rehearsing . Most proficient presenters prepare . "That is, they know the topic, organize their
content, design a slide deck, and study their notes," she says. However, according to a recent survey Price
conducted, less than 2% of over 5,000 business presenters in Fortune 100 companies actually conduct a
dress rehearsal and practice their presentation aloud. This bad habit results in the audience seeing and
hearing the unrefined run-through, versus the finessed final performance. "
To optimize their perception of you and get the outcome you want, perform the entire presentation aloud
at least once, and the opening and closing at least three times," she suggests.
5. Low energy . "As the Guinness World Record holder for the most performances in the same Broadway
show, George Lee Andrews is famous for playing the role of Monsieur Andre in The Phantom of the
Opera," Price says. "Surely, he must have felt tired during at least one or two of his 9,382 performances,
but he didn't show it considering his contract was renewed 45 times over 23 years." Enthusiasm, defined
as eager enjoyment and active interest, is an audience's most desired trait in a presenter. Conversely, a
boring delivery - evidenced by a low monotone voice, dull facial expressions, and overall lethargy - is
their most disliked trait.
"To avoid losing your audience in a New York minute, crank up the energy level. Speak expressively,
smile sincerely, move naturally, and enjoy the moment."
6. Data dumping. "It's understandable. After all, our credibility is on the line when we stand up and
speak out," Price says. "So, to be safe, we focus almost entirely on what Aristotle called Logos , which
includes the left-brain functions of logic, language, analysis, reasoning, critical thinking, and numbers."
When we rely too heavily on this type of content, we end up talking too long, reading too many over-
crowded illegible slides, and turning our backs on the most important element of all: the audience. "Ditch
the habit of data dumping," she suggests. "It loses the audience and undermines your innate ability to
inspire, connect, and persuade."
7. Not inspiring . Even more vital to persuasion than Logos , says Aristotle, is Pathos , which includes
the right-brain activities of emotions, images, stories, examples, empathy, humor, imagination, color,
sounds, touch, and rapport, Price says. "Tomes of studies show human beings typically make decisions
based on emotions first (Pathos); then , we look for the facts and figures to justify it (Logos). Audience
members do the same. With your words, actions, and visuals, seek first to inspire an emotion in them (joy,
surprise, hope, excitement, love, empathy, vulnerability, sadness, fear, envy, guilt). Then, deliver the
analysis to justify the emotion."
An engaging, memorable, and persuasive presentation is balanced with both information and inspiration.
"It speaks to the head and the heart, leveraging both facts and feelings," she says.
8. Lack of pauses. Many speakers have the bad habit of rushing through their content. Like a runaway
train, they speed down the track out of control unable to stop and turn at critical junctures. The causes are
often anxiety, adrenalin, or time constraints, Price says. "Regardless of the reason, the three times you
definitely want to pause include: before and after you say something very important which you want your
audience to remember; before and after you transition from one key talking point to the next; and between
your opening, main body and closing."
When you consciously use silence as a rhetorical device, you'll come across as more self-confident, your
message will be more impactful, and your audience will remember more of what you say.
 21

9. Not crafting a powerful opening. "According to Plato, 'The beginning is the most important part of
the work.' Yet, it's a common bad habit for speakers to waste those precious opening seconds rambling
pointlessly, telling a joke, reading an agenda, apologizing needlessly, all of which fail to grab the
audience's attention and motivate them to listen," she says. You, your message, and your audience deserve
much more.
So, open with a bang.? Invest the thought, time and effort to craft and memorize "the most important part
of the work." For example, tell an engaging relevant story; state a startling statistic; or ask a thought-
provoking question.
10. Ending with Q&A. There's a good chance you've heard a speaker end an otherwise effective
presentation with an abrupt, 'That's it. Any questions?' "For the audience, it's like a firework with a wet
fuse, otherwise known as a 'dud,'" Price says. "Your grand finale is your last chance to reinforce your key
points, ensure the memorability of your message, and motivate the audience to action. Avoid the bad habit
of closing on Q&A, which risks ending your presentation on a non-climatic down-in-the-weeds topic."
It's fine to invite the audience's comments and questions; however, be sure to end strong. "Craft an
effective three-part closing where you deliver a strong summary; present a call-to-action; and conclude
with a powerful closing statement. Develop the habit of saying last what you want your audience to
remember most ," she concludes.

7. PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE is used for many reasons, for example, to help to sell products or
services, or to convince people to accept a view or idea. Politicians often
use persuasive techniques to get their audience to agree with their views on a particular topic.

 .
 Why do people use persuasion?
 Persuasion is an umbrella term of influence. Persuasion can attempt to influence a person's
beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors. ... Persuasion is also an often used tool in
the pursuit of personal gain, such as election campaigning, giving a sales pitch, or in trial
advocacy.
 What are the basic elements of persuasion?
 The secret lies in following the advice of Aristotle, breaking down the essential elements of
persuasion into three parts: (1) logos or logic, (2) ethos or ethic, and (3) pathos or emotion.
Logos refers to the logic, the words, and the reasons in your argument.
Brian Tracy suggests that you can Speak to Win in his AMACOM book. The secret lies in following the
advice of Aristotle, breaking down the essential elements of persuasion into three parts: (1) logos or logic,
(2) ethos or ethic, and (3) pathos or emotion. We call these techniques the "language of persuasion.”
They’re not new; Aristotle wrote about persuasion techniques more than 2000 years ago, and they’ve been
used by speakers, writers, and media makers for even longer than that.

Logos refers to the logic, the words, and the reasons in your argument. Says Tracy, “It is important
that everything that you say fits together like links in a chain or pieces of a jigsaw puzzle to form a
coherent statement or argument. When you think through and plan your talk, you organize your
various points in a sequence from the general to the particular, from the start to the conclusion,
with each point building on each previous point to form a persuasive argument.”

 The second aspect of persuasion—ethos—refers to your character, ethics, and your believability
when you speak. Increasing your credibility with your audience before and during your speech
 22

increases the likelihood that listeners will accept your arguments and take action on your
recommendations.

 Pathos is the emotional content of your presentation and is likely the most important. It is only
when you move people at an emotional level that you can motivate them to change their thinking
and take a particular action.

 Tracy writes in his book, “All three elements—logos, ethos, and pathos—must be woven together
if you want to move people and persuade them to your viewpoint.”

Eight Persuasive Techniques

 Appeal to Authority. Important people or experts can make your argument seem more convincing; Using
reliable research can help your argument seem convincing. ...
 Appeal to Reason. ...
 Appeal to Emotion. ...
 Appeal to Trust. ...
 Plain Folks. ...
 Bandwagon. ... an activity or cause that has suddenly become fashionable or popular.
 Rhetorical Question. ...
Repetition

The Language of Persuasion

The goal of most media messages is to persuade the audience to believe or do something. Hollywood
movies use expensive special effects to make us believe that what we’re seeing is real. News stories use
several techniques – such as direct quotation of identified sources – to make us believe that the story is
accurate.

The media messages most concerned with persuading us are found in advertising, public relations and
advocacy. Commercial advertising tries to persuade us to buy a product or service. Public relations (PR)
"sells" us a positive image of a corporation, government or organization. Politicians and advocacy groups
(groups that support a particular belief, point of view, policy, or action) try to persuade us to vote for or
support them, using ads, speeches, newsletters, websites, and other means.

These "persuaders" use a variety of techniques to grab our attention, to establish credibility and trust, to
stimulate desire for the product or policy, and to motivate us to act (buy, vote, give money, etc.)

We call these techniques the "language of persuasion.” They’re not new; Aristotle wrote about persuasion
techniques more than 2000 years ago, and they’ve been used by speakers, writers, and media makers for
even longer than that.

Learning the language of persuasion is an important media literacy skill. Once you know how media
messages try to persuade you to believe or do something, you’ll be better able to make your own
decisions.
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Advertising is the easiest starting point: most ads are relatively simple in structure, easily available, and
in their original format. Media literacy beginners are encouraged to learn the language of persuasion by
examining ads. Keep in mind that many media messages, such as television commercials, use several
techniques simultaneously. Others selectively employ one or two.

Techniques of pursuation :-

1. Association. This persuasion technique tries to link a product, service, or idea with something already
liked or desired by the target audience, such as fun, pleasure, beauty, security, intimacy, success, wealth,
etc. The media message doesn’t make explicit claims that you’ll get these things; the association is
implied. Association can be a very powerful technique. A good ad can create a strong emotional response
and then associate that feeling with a brand (family = Coke, victory = Nike). This process is known as
emotional transfer. Disney Affordable - Happiness and magic is connected with Disney’s brand. Heineken
Hip Hop - If you like hip hop, Heineken is the beer for you.

 2. Bandwagon. ... an activity or cause that has suddenly become fashionable or popular.
Many ads show lots of people using the product, implying that "everyone is doing it" (or at least, "all the
cool people are doing it"). No one likes to be left out or left behind, and these ads urge us to "jump on the
bandwagon.” Politicians use the same technique when they say, "The American people want..." How do
they know? Hot Pockets - Everyone is coming to this house for hot pockets.

3. Beautiful people. Beautiful people uses good-looking models (who may also be celebrities) to attract
our attention. This technique is extremely common in ads,. which may also imply (but never promise!)
that we’ll look like the models if we use the product.

4. Bribery. This technique tries to persuade us to buy a product by promising to give us something else,
like a discount, a rebate, a coupon, or a "free gift.” Sales, special offers, contests, and sweepstakes are all
forms of bribery. Unfortunately, we don’t really get something for free -- part of the sales price covers the
cost of the bribe

5. Celebrities. (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Plain folks.) We tend to pay attention to famous
people. That’s why they’re famous! Ads often use celebrities to grab our attention. By appearing in an ad,
celebrities implicitly endorse a product; sometimes the endorsement is explicit. Many people know that
companies pay celebrities a lot of money to appear in their ads

6. Experts. (A type of Testimonial.) We rely on experts to advise us about things that we don’t know
ourselves. Scientists, doctors, professors and other professionals often appear in ads and advocacy
messages, lending their credibility to the product, service, or idea being sold. Sometimes, Plain folks can
also be experts, as when a mother endorses a brand of baby powder or a construction worker endorses a
treatment for sore muscles

7. Explicit claims. Something is "explicit" if it is directly, fully, and/or clearly expressed or demonstrated.
For example, some ads state the price of a product, the main ingredients, where it was made, or the
number of items in the package – these are explicit claims. So are specific, measurable promises about
quality, effectiveness, or reliability, like “Works in only five minutes!” Explicit claims can be proven true
or false through close examination or testing, and if they’re false, the advertiser can get in trouble. It can
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be surprising to learn how few ads make explicit claims. Most of them try to persuade us in ways that
cannot be proved or disproved.

8. Fear. This is the opposite of the Association technique. It uses something disliked or feared by the
intended audience (like bad breath, failure, high taxes or terrorism) to promote a "solution.” Ads use fear
to sell us products that claim to prevent or fix the problem. Politicians and advocacy groups stoke our
fears to get elected or to gain support. L’Oreal Anti-aging 2 - Fear the signs of aging.

9. Humor. Many ads use humor because it grabs our attention and it’s a powerful persuasion technique.
When we laugh, we feel good. Advertisers make us laugh and then show us their product or logo because
they’re trying to connect that good feeling to their product. They hope that when we see their product in a
store, we’ll subtly re-experience that good feeling and select their product

10. Intensity. The language of ads is full of intensifiers, including superlatives (greatest, best, most,
fastest, lowest prices), comparatives (more, better than, improved, increased, fewer calories), hyperbole
(amazing, incredible, forever), exaggeration, and many other ways to hype the product. Elizabeth Golden
Age - Critics say this film is “powerful,” “brilliant,” “extraordinary” and “Best film of the year.”

11. Maybe. Unproven, exaggerated or outrageous claims are commonly preceded by "weasel words" such
as may, might, can, could, some, many, often, virtually, as many as, or up to. Watch for these words if an
offer seems too good to be true. Commonly, the Intensity and Maybe techniques are used together,
making the whole thing meaningless. Buy Nothing Day - “We are the most voracious consumers in the
world, a world that could die, because of the way we North Americans live.”

12. Plain folks. (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Celebrities.) This technique works because we
may believe a "regular person" more than an intellectual or a highly-paid celebrity. It’s often used to sell
everyday products like laundry detergent because we can more easily see ourselves using the product, too.
The plain folks technique strengthens the down-home, "authentic" image of products like pickup trucks
and politicians. Unfortunately, most of the "plain folks" in ads are actually paid actors carefully selected
because they look like "regular people.” Disney Affordable - This commercial shows an “ordinary”
family, rather than a celebrity family. Dove Pro Age 1 - These Dove Real Beauty ads still use models, but
they are models that look more like “plain folks” compared to women in most beauty ads. Ford Edge - A
testimonial is given by this “average” customer.

13. Repetition. Advertisers use repetition in two ways: Within an ad or advocacy message, words, sounds
or images may be repeated to reinforce the main point. And the message itself (a TV commercial, a
billboard, a website banner ad) may be displayed many times. Even unpleasant ads and political slogans
work if they are repeated enough to pound their message into our minds. Clutter - This movie clip from
Frontline’s The Persuaders discusses the repetition of advertising in general and discusses advertising in
new spaces. Notice the wall of iPod ads in this video, another example of repetition.

14. Testimonials. Media messages often show people testifying about the value or quality of a product, or
endorsing an idea. They can be experts, celebrities, or plain folks. We tend to believe them because they
appear to be a neutral third party (a pop star, for example, not the lipstick maker, or a community member
instead of the politician running for office.) This technique works best when it seems like the person
“testifying” is doing so because they genuinely like the product or agree with the idea. Some testimonials
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may be less effective when we recognize that the person is getting paid to endorse the product. Ford Edge
- This entire commercial is a testimonial by an “average” test driver.

15. Warm & fuzzy. This technique uses sentimental images (especially of families, kids and animals) to
stimulate feelings of pleasure, comfort, and delight. It may also include the use of soothing music,
pleasant voices, and evocative words like "cozy" or "cuddly.” The Warm & fuzzy technique is another
form of Association. It works well with some audiences, but not with others, who may find it too corny.
Disney Affordable - This commercial is meant to make you feel good and uses magic (animation),
animals (horses), happy children, music and more to make us feel this way. MasterCard Elephant - This
commercial also uses animals (who help the man when he is sick) and music to make us feel good about
the product

16. The Big Lie. According to Adolf Hitler, one of the 20th century’s most dangerous propagandists,
people are more suspicious of a small lie than a big one. The Big Lie is more than exaggeration or hype;
it’s telling a complete falsehood with such confidence and charisma that people believe it. Recognizing
The Big Lie requires "thinking outside the box" of conventional wisdom and asking the questions other
people don’t ask. Energizer Lithium - This battery cannot re-power an entire city.

17. Charisma. Sometimes, persuaders can be effective simply by appearing firm, bold, strong, and
confident. This is particularly true in political and advocacy messages. People often follow charismatic
leaders even when they disagree with their positions on issues that affect them. Nike King James - LeBron
James appears strong and confident in this Nike ad, due to his expression and the symbols of royalty,
wealth and status that surround him.

18. Euphemism. While the Glittering generalities and Name-calling techniques arouse audiences with
vivid, emotionally suggestive words, Euphemism tries to pacify audiences in order to make an unpleasant
reality more palatable. Bland or abstract terms are used instead of clearer, more graphic words. Thus, we
hear about corporate "downsizing" instead of "layoffs," or "intensive interrogation techniques" instead of
"torture.” Nip Tuck Botox - The euphemism exists in the title of this show about plastic surgery. The
words “nip” and “tuck” don’t sound as harsh as “plastic surgery” and they may not evoke the images of
how difficult and painful plastic surgery, recovery and societal pressure to look a certain way can be.
Botox injections are a milder example of this.

19. Extrapolation. Persuaders sometimes draw huge conclusions on the basis of a few small facts.
Extrapolation works by ignoring complexity. It’s most persuasive when it predicts something we hope can
or will be true. Jim Beam Constitution - If the U.S. constitution was revised this many times since 1787,
yet the recipe for Jim Beam hasn’t changed since 1795, then Jim Beam must be perfect. Other subtext
includes: Jim Beam stands the test of time. Jim Beam has always been there. Jim Beam is true and
important

20. Flattery. Persuaders love to flatter us. Politicians and advertisers sometimes speak directly to us: "You
know a good deal when you see one." "You expect quality." "You work hard for a living." "You deserve
it." Sometimes ads flatter us by showing people doing stupid things, so that we’ll feel smarter or superior.
Flattery works because we like to be praised and we tend to believe people we like. (We’re sure that
someone as brilliant as you will easily understand this technique!) Pantene - You are one in a million if
you use Pantene. You are special, unique and you are worth it.
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21. Glittering generalities. This is the use of so-called "virtue words" such as civilization, democracy,
freedom, patriotism, motherhood, fatherhood, science, health, beauty, and love. Persuaders use these
words in the hope that we will approve and accept their statements without examining the evidence. They
hope that few people will ask whether it’s appropriate to invoke these concepts, while even fewer will ask
what these concepts really mean. Soft & Dry - This deodorant is strong and beautiful.

22. Name-calling. This technique links a person or idea to a negative symbol (liar, creep, gossip, etc.). It’s
the opposite of Glittering generalities. Persuaders use Name-calling to make us reject the person or the
idea on the basis of the negative symbol, instead of looking at the available evidence. A subtler version of
this technique is to use adjectives with negative connotations (extreme, passive, lazy, pushy, etc.) Ask
yourself: Leaving out the name-calling, what are the merits of the idea itself? Altoids Chicken - You are
chicken if you don’t try this product.

23. New. We love new things and new ideas, because we tend to believe they’re better than old things and
old ideas. That’s because the dominant culture in the United States (and many other countries) places
great faith in technology and progress. But sometimes, new products and new ideas lead to new and more
difficult problems. Soft & Dry - “Introducing New Soft & Dri Dermastripe.” It must be better than the old
deodorant.

24. Nostalgia. This is the opposite of the New technique. Many advertisers invoke a time when life was
simpler and quality was supposedly better ("like Mom used to make"). Politicians promise to bring back
the "good old days" and restore "tradition." But whose traditions are being restored? Who did they
benefit, and who did they harm? This technique works because people tend to forget the bad parts of the
past, and remember the good. Disney Affordable - The music in this commercial could invoke a nostalgic
feeling and for many people, the Disney brand conjures up nostalgic feelings of seeing their animated
films when they were young or possibly visiting one of their resorts.

25. Rhetorical questions. These are questions designed to get us to agree with the speaker. They are set up
so that the “correct” answer is obvious. ("Do you want to get out of debt?" "Do you want quick relief
from headache pain?" and "Should we leave our nation vulnerable to terrorist attacks?" are all rhetorical
questions.) Rhetorical questions are used to build trust and alignment before the sales pitch.

26. Scientific evidence. This is a particular application of the Expert technique. It uses the paraphernalia
of science (charts, graphs, statistics, lab coats, etc.) to "prove" something. It often works because many
people trust science and scientists. It’s important to look closely at the "evidence," however, because it
can be misleading. L’Oreal Anti-aging 2 - The text in this print ad states that this product “tightens
sagging skin with Dermo Peptides 67% saw improvement” and it “visibly minimizes age spots with BHA
Complex 68% saw more even skin tone.”

27. Simple solution. Life is complicated. People are complex. Problems often have many causes, and
they’re not easy to solve. These realities create anxiety for many of us. Persuaders offer relief by ignoring
complexity and proposing a Simple solution. Politicians claim one policy change (lower taxes, a new law,
a government program) will solve big social problems. Advertisers take this strategy even further,
suggesting that a deodorant, a car, or a brand of beer will make you beautiful, popular and successful.
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Political rhetoric – whether used by politicians, government officials, lobbyists, or activists - is more
difficult to analyze, not only because it involves more emotional issues, but also because it is more likely
to be seen in bits and fragments, often filtered or edited by others. Identifying the persuasion techniques in
public discourse is important because the consequences of that discourse are so significant – war and
peace, justice and injustice, freedom and oppression, and the future of our planet. Learning the language
of persuasion can help us sort out complex emotional arguments, define the key issues, and make up our
own minds about the problems facing us.