esign Chap. 2 ve sponds of voices. coordinates rand @ » Part Design and Operation 29 Recalling that fora purely translating frame, ld dra me =¢ = 2931 sin 60’ + r cos 0)k + (—r-eos 08” + » sin 8)) as before, 2.3 HUMAN FACTORS 2.3.1 Perception-Reaction ‘The equations developed so far are based purely on the equations of motion without taking into account the effect of driver performance on the motion described, For example, Eq, 2.2.14 gives the braking distance for a vehicle from the moment when the brakes take effect to the moment when the vehicle reaches its final speed. Normally a driver undertakes such a maneuver in response to a stimulus, for example, avoiding an object on the roadway. ‘When a stimulus appears, a driver requires a certain amount of time to perceive and com- prchend it, to decide on the appropriate response, and to react accordingly. The vehicle braking distance or time constitutes only a portion of the overall stopping distance or time. In many applications the overall maneuver may be divided into two pars: perception-reaction, which includes the occurrences up to the beginning of the vehicular response, and braking, which is described by the equations of motion developed in the previous section. Ifa driver takes 1.5 s to perceive and react to a hazard in the vehicle’s path at a speed of 60 mi/h (88 fs), the vehicle would cover 132 ft before the braking phase begins. Figure 2.3.1 presents the findings of a study conducted by Johannson and Rumar [2.3] regarding driver response times to anticipated braking, The continuous curve at the low end. of the histogram represents the reaction time of the person who took the measurements and. which was accounted for in computing the driver data shown. Johannson and Rumar also found that the response times were longer than those shown when the drivers were sur- prised. The figure illustrates the presence of considerable variability between individuals, In order to enhance safety, engineering designs that incorporate driver characteristics are typically based on values in the 85th to 95th percentile range. Driver response is related to driver characteristics and conditions, such as age, med ical condition, alcohol and drug use, fatigue, sleep deprivation, and emotional condition. It also depends on the complexity of the stimulus and the complexity ofthe required response. Good traffic engineering designs attempt to minimize the stimuli and driving tasks to which the driver must attend at the same time. This is the “one task at a time” rule, which, due to the complexity of the driving environment, is not always possible. Figure 2.3.2 offers two useful insights. The firsts thatthe time to react to unexpected information is clearly longer than the time to react to expected information (c.g., since the traffic signal ahead turned red, the vehicles ahead are expected to slow down and stop). The other insight is that the complexity of the given information has a positive relationship with reaction time (and conceivably a positive relationship with accident risk). Thus the larger the quantity ig and the more complex the information is, the longer it will take drivers to30 Roadway Design Chap. 2 f ce : : ' [ TH Ah ; | 4 "CHUL Lee ee cans 04 05 06 07 08 09 1.0 L112 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 24 igure 23.1. istiution of bake eaton snes (Prom Johannson and Rama 231) compreltend the information and react accordingly. This principle is sefal (0 remember “then placing regulatory ot information trafic signs: They should be cleat nd properly Spaced to avoid giving divers too much information a atime (hiss ‘euphemistically called the information polturion phenomenon). Example 29 ‘Using ie da of Example? 3 determine the stopping distances harionally(Panilonz BT a es near f the zo cases, given that he diver’ percepuon-eacin te wes = 1 Solution ‘The distance traveled during the peteeption-eaction time must be added 19 Ne Teatng stance to compute the total stoping distance, Assuming tat the viele Ot ae ne dain he ime interval the distance traveled during 8 were X, = 8 vy slong he pavement and D, = X,0s a horizontally. @ W773 (7898 ® ma. as say 198Aesign Chap. 2 19 20.21 mar 22.3}) ‘seful to remember clear and properly ‘nemistically called _D,)andalong the pave- time was 8 = 15 8 rust bo added to the ‘the vehicle was not eX, = 8palong the Part 80 10 50 30 20 10 Figure 2.32 Fighty-fith percentile driver reaction time to expecied und unexpected information. (Fram A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Smeets, Copyright 1960, by the American Associaton of State Highway abd Transporation Otticials, Washington, DC 2-2] (Fg. 11-19, p. 48). Used by permission.) Design and Operatic 31 I / | | y 7 / Sfp / | 7 / a ae | 7 Ee as / | ee ‘Information content (bits)