INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS

 NETWORK
A network is the interconnection between two or more devices which are
capable of communication or transfer the data is called NETWORK and the
whole process is called NETWORKING.

 USES OF NETWORKS
1. Data communication
2. Resource sharing
3. Production
4. Shipping
5. Advertising

 MODES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Simplex mode
In the simplex mode, communication is unidirectional.
For ex- keyboard and monitor.

2. Half duplex mode

Communication is bidirectional or both device can communicate
but not at the time.
For ex- Walkie-talkie

3. Full duplex mode

Communication is bidirectional but simultaneously.
For ex-Mobile
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1.Unicast – One to one communication.

2.Multicast – One to many communication.

3.Broadcast – One to all communication.

 TYPES OF LINK
1.Point to Point link - A point-to-point connection refers to a
communications connection between two nodes or endpoints.

An example is a telephone call, in which one telephone is connected with one other,
and what is said by one caller can only be heard by the other.

It is made up of serial cable and its speed is 1.54mbps to 44mbps.

Diagram of both point to point link and Multipoint link.

 2.Multipoint link - In telecommunications, point-to-
multipointcommunication (P2MP, PTMP or PMP) is communication which is
accomplished via a distinct type of one-to-many connection, providing multiple paths
from a single location to multiple locations.

In this link,there is Ethernet cable and its speed is 10mbps to 500gbps.

 OSI MODEL
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection and it is a open standard set of
protocol.OSI Model was developed by ISO(International Organization for
Standarization).

The main concept of OSI is that the process of communication between two endpoints
in a telecommunication network can be divided into seven distinct groups of related
functions, or layers. Each communicating user or program is at a computer that can
provide those seven layers of function.
The OSI model has 7 layers.

7.Application Layer - This is the layer at which communication partners are identified
network capacity is assessed .and that creates a thing to send or opens the thing received. (This
layer is not the application itself, it is the set of services an application should be able to make
use of directly, although some applications may perform application layer functions.)

6.Presentation Layer - This layer is usually part of an operating system (OS) and
converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation format to another (for example, from
clear text to encrypted text at one end and back to clear text at the other).

5.Session Layer - This layer sets up, coordinates and terminates conversations.
Services include authentication and reconnection after an interruption. On the
Internet, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provide these
services for most applications. Session layer also manages the port number.
4.Transport Layer - This layer manages Segment of data, then the delivery of the
segment, including checking for errors in the data once it arrives. On the Internet, TCP and UDP
provide these services for most applications as well.

TCP is connection oriented protocol , Reliable protocol and Slow. It is 3 way handshake
process.

UDP is connection less , Unreliable and Fast

3.Network layer - This layer handles the addressing and routing of the data (sending it in
the right direction to the right destination on outgoing transmissions and receiving incoming
transmissions at the packet level). IP is the network layer for the Internet.

2.Data link layer - This layer sets up links across the physical network, putting
packets into network frames. This layer has two sub-layers, the Logical Link Control Layer and
the Media Access Control Layer. Ethernet is the main data link layer in use.

1.Physical layer - This layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical,
optical or radio level. It provides the hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier
network.

 IANA(Internet Assigned Number Authority)

It is a Organisation which is used to manage the IP address. There is five types of class.

1.Class A - In class A there is 32 bits . 8 bits of network and 24 bits of host. Its range
is (1 to 126).

2.Class B - It has 16 bits of Networks and 16 bits of host. Its range is (128 to 191).

3.Class C - It has 24 bits of network and 8 bits of host. Its range is (192 to 223).
 4.Class D - It is Multicast and its range is (224 to 239).

5.Class E - It is Reserved and its range is (240 to 255).

 SUBNET MASK
Ip address = network bits and Host bits

Network bits represented by 1 and Host bits represented by 0.

Class A

Network bits = 8 Host bits = 24

11111111 .00000000.00000000.00000000

255.0.0.0

Class B
Network bits = 16 Host bits = 16

11111111.1111111 .00000000.00000000

255.255.0.0

Class C

Network bits = 24 Host bits = 8

11111111.11111111.11111111 .00000000

255.255.255.0

 SUBNETTING
Subnetting is basically used to remove the wastage of Ip address. Subnetting is the process
of dividing larger networks into smaller networks.

 FLSM(FIXED LENTH SUBNET MASK)

 A fixed-length subnet mask (FLSM) is a sequence of numbers of unchanging length that
streamlines packet routing within the subnets of a proprietary network. A subnet can be a
geographically defined local area network (LAN). Alternatively, a subnet may define
security boundaries, departmental boundaries, multicast zones or hardware security
parameters.

 VLSM(VARIABLE LENGTH SUBNET MASK)

Variable-Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) amounts to "subnetting subnets," which means that
VLSM allows network engineers to divide an IP address space into a hierarchy of subnets of
different sizes, making it possible to create subnets with very different host counts without
wasting large numbers of addresses.

 INTRODUCTION TO DEVICES
1. Hub - A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every computer or Ethernet-based
device connected to it. A hub is less sophisticated than a switch, the latter of which can
isolate data transmissions to specific devices.
2. Switch - A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC
bridge) is a computer networking device that connects devices together on a computer
network by using packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the destination
device.
3. Router -

A router[a] is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
Routers are small electronic devices that join multiple computer networks together via
either wired or wireless connections.

A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks.[b] When a data
packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the network address information in the
packet to determine the ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing
table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey.

 ARP (ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL)

The address resolution protocol (arp) is a protocol used by the Internet Protocol (IP)
[RFC826], specifically IPv4, to map IP network addresses to the hardware addresses used by
a data link protocol. The protocol operates below the network layer as a part of the interface
between the OSI network and OSI link layer. In this ARP , MAC address is unknown.
 STATIC ROUTING
Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually-
configuredrouting entry, rather than information from a dynamicrouting traffic.

 DEFAULT ROUTING
In computer networking, the default route is a setting on a computer that defines the packet
forwarding rule to use when no specific route can be determined for a given Internet Protocol
(IP) destination address. All packets for destinations not established in the routing table are sent
via the default route.

 AD(ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCE)
Administrative distance is the feature that routers use in order to select the best path when
there are two or more different routes to the same destination from two different routing
protocols. Administrative distance defines the reliability of a routing protocol.

 ROUTER METRIC
 Router metrics are metrics used by a router to make routing decisions. It is typically one of
many fields in a routing table. Router metrics can contain any number of values that help the
router determine the best route among multiple routes to a destination.

 RIP(ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL)

RIP prevents routing loops by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path
from source to destination. The maximum number of hops allowed for RIP is 15, which
limits the size of networks that RIP can support. A hop count of 16 is considered an infinite
distance and the route is considered unreachable.
 RIP has four timers

1. Update timer - 30 seconds

2. Hold down - 180 seconds

3. Invalid - 180 seconds

4. Flush - 240

 EIGRP(ENHANCED INTEROR GATEWAY

ROUTING PROTOCOL)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is an advanced distance-vector
routing protocol that is used on a computer network for automating routing decisions and
configuration.

It has two neighbourship process.

 1. Neighbor

2. Adjacent

EIGRP has 5 messages

1. Hello

2. Udate

3. Acknowledgement

4. Query

5. Reply

 OSPF(OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP)networks.
It uses a link state routing (LSR) algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway
protocols (IGPs), operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined
as OSPF Version 2 in RFC 2328 (1998) for IPv4.
OSPF has 7 states 5 messages

States

1. Down

2. Init

3. Two-way

4. Exstart

5. Exchange

6. Loading

7. Full

Messages

1. Hello
 2. Database Description

3. Link state request

4. Link state update

5. Link state Acknowledgement.

 SPANNING TREE PROTOCOL(STP)

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a Layer 2 protocol that runs on bridges and switches. The
specification for STP is IEEE 802.1D. The main purpose of STP is to ensure that you do not
create loops when you have redundant paths in your network. Loops are deadly to a network.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The summer training opportunity , I had with Dronacharya college of engineering was a
great chance for learning and professional development. Therefore, I consider myself as a
very lucky individual as I was provided with an opportunity to be a part of it. I am also
grateful for having a chance to meet so many wonderful people and professionals who led me
through the summer training period.

Bearing in mind previous I am using this opportunity deepest gratitude and special to the MD
of Dronacharya college of engineering education who in spite of being extraordinary by
his or her duties ,took time out of hear ,guide and keep on the correct path and allowing me
to carry out my project at their esteemed organization and extended during the training.

I expressed my deepest thanks to Mr. Hansraj (Faculty) for taking part of useful decision and
giving necessary advices and guidance and arranged all faculties to make life carrier. I
choose this moment to acknowledgement his/her contribution grateful.

It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards , deepest sense of gratitude to

Mr. Hansraj (Faculty) for their careful and previous guidance which were extremely valuable
for my study both theoretically and practically.

I perceive as this opportunity as a big milestone in my carrer development. I will strive to use
gained skills and knowledge in best possible ways, and I will continuous to work on their
improvement, in order to attain desire carrier objective . Hope to continue cooperation with
all of you in the future.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction to networks……………………………….06

2. Modes of communication………………………………07

3. Types of communication……………………………….08

4. Type of Links…………………………………………...09

5. OSI model………………………………………………10

6. IANA…………………………………………………...12

7. Subnet Mask……………………………………………13

8. Subnetting……………………………………………...14

9. FLSM…………………………………………………..14

10. VLSM………………………………………………….14

11. Introduction to Devices………………………………..15

11.1 Hub

11.2 Switch

11.3 Router

12. ARP……………………………………………………17

13. Static Routing………………………………………….18

14. Default routing…………………………………………18

15. AD……………………………………………………...19

16. Router Metric…………………………………………..19

17. RIP……………………………………………………...20

18. EIGRP…………………………………………………..21

19. OSPF……………………………………………………22

20. Spanning Tree…………………………………………..23

 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my project guide "MR. Hansraj", for giving me the
opportunity to work on topic NETWORKING. It would never be possible for us to take this project to this
level without his innovative ideas and his relentless support and encouragement.

<Signature>

Name of Student(s) : AMIT

(Roll Number) : 18015
Department : CSE