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A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF INDUSTRIAL

TRAINING

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(2010-2014)

SUBMITTED BY

ESAMPALLI RAVI KUMAR – 10521A0314

MUSUNURI MADHU BABU – 10521A0333
GULIPALLI RAVI TEJA – 10521A0317
PARUVU VENKATA RAJENDRA – 10521A0339

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

VISHWANADHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGMENT

Under the esteemed guidance of

Sri M.SRINIVASA RAO

Sr.Manager (Mech.) RS&RS II
VISAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF
SPUR GEAR ON CNC MACHINE” is a bonafied record of,

ESAMPALLI RAVI KUMAR – 10521A0314

MUSUNURI MADHU BABU – 10521A0333
GULIPALLI RAVI TEJA – 10521A0317
PARUVU VENKATA RAJENDRA – 10521A0339

As a part of industrial oriented project at VSP, Visakhapatnam, this project is carried

out with the objective of making the participant well versed in CNC machines and its
scope. In partial fulfillment of Industrial training B.Tech -MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING during the period 23-09-2013 to 19-10-2013.

Under the esteemed guidance of

Sri Srinivasa Rao,

SM (Mech.) RS&RS II,
VISAKHAPATNAM STEEL PLANT
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to take this opportunity to express my deep gratitude to

all the people who have extended their co-operation in various ways in doing
my project work successfully. It is my pleasure to acknowledge the help of all
the individuals.

I would wish to thank whole heartedly and express my deep

gratitude to Sri M.SRINIVASA RAO, SM (Mechanical) RS&RS, RS - II,
VSP for spending his valuable hours to review and analyze my project at every
stage. I considered myself extremely fortunate to have this opportunity of
associating with him. I would also like use this opportunity to express my
sincere thanks to Sri RAJ KUMAR Sir, AM, RS&RS, RS - II, VSP for his
kind cooperation.

A special thanks to Mr. M.GANESH BABU, Dy.Mgr (Trg.), for

providing us this wonderful opportunity by giving internship in VISAKHA
STEEL PLANT.

VITAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

SONTYAM.

Place: Visakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh.
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CONTENTS
DESCRIPTION Page No

1. Project abstract 5
2. Introduction 6
2.1 Over view of Visakha Steel Plant 6
2.2 Main units of VSP 7

3. Introduction to Roll shop & Repair shop 16

4. Introduction to CNC 17
4.1 How CNC works 17
4.2 CNC System 18
4.3 Modes of CNC operations 21
4.4 Specifications of WASI CNC Lathe 26
4.5 Specifications of Herkules CNC Lathe 27
4.6 Specifications of CNC milling machine 28
5. CAD/CAM Systems 28
5.1 Computer Aided Design 28
5.2 Computer Aided Manufacturing 29
5.3 Programming Aspect 30
5.4 G-Codes 31
5.5 M-Codes 35
6. Introduction to gears
6.1 Defintion of gear
6.2 Types of gear
6.3 General nomenclature
7. Design & Fabrication of gear
7.1 Design of a gear
7.2 Design crieteria
8. Conclusion
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1. PROJECT ABSRACT

CNC technology stands as the state of art technology for the manufacturing of job and
shop products with so many tangible and intangible applications resulting through this
adoption, by using CNC controllers, there is a remarkable increase in the quality of products
as well as it offers high flexibility. It increases the productivity and reduces lead time and
scrap generated. To conciliate the investment on CNC, its usage, operating cost and
maintenance must be in balance with the machine cost .So it demands excellent operational
skills and regular maintenance of the machine components .In this the main aspect of
preparing this note is to brief the operation and maintenance of CNC machines being used in
Visakhapatnam Steel Plant.

CNC machines at VSP are used to generate Roll passes on new rolls & redress the
used rolls from the mills. Using “WALDRICHSEIGEN” make with SINUMERIK 850-T
controller lathes and “HERKULES” with SINUMERIK 3-T controller lathes. Simultaneously
CNC Milling machines with “SINUMERIK 810-M” controllers are used for machining the
guide offs of type VVS-I&VVS-II using part programming. In this report a detailed study of
the Numerical part programming used in the CNC machines and the theory of rolling, roll
pass designs used in the rolling mills of VSP.

The entire report has been a keen study about the programming, design and
fabrication of an involute spur gear. And a part programming is formulated for cutting the
gear on CNC Milling Machine.
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2. ABOUT VSP
2.1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANISATION:

PARTICULARS OF THE ORGANIZATION:

1. Name of the Company: Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited.
2. Company Identification Number: U27109AP198GOI003404
3. Date of Incorporation: 18th February, 1982.
4. Mode of Incorporation: Incorporated as Government Company under the provisions
of Companies Act, 1956.
5. Administrative Ministry: Ministry of Steel, Government of India.
6. Present Status: A Government Company within the meaning of
Section-617
7. Address of registered office:
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited
Visakhapatnam Steel Plant,
Administrative Building
Visakhapatnam,
Andhra Pradesh – 530031.

AWARDS AND ACCOLADES:

1. Gold Award for Outstanding Achievement in Training Excellence by Greentech

Foundation, New Delhi in 2010.
2. Strategic Leadership Award for CMD of RINL by Asia Pacific Human Resource
Management Congress, New Delhi in 2010.
3. Global Human Resource Development Award of International federation of Training
and Development Organization.
4. Great Places to Work award by Great Places to Work Institute and Economic Times,
Mumbai in 2010.
5. Bagged the First Steel Minister’s Trophy for the year 2006-2007
6. Vishwakarma Rashtriya Puraskar Awards for the performance year 2007 fifth time in
arrow in 2009 for best suggestions.
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RAW MATERIAL HANDLING

PLANT:

VSP annually requires quality raw materials viz.

Iron Ore, fluxes (Limestone, Dolomite), Coking
and non-coking coals etc., to the tune of 12 – 13
million tons for producing 3 million tons of liquid
steel. To handle such a large volume of incoming
raw materials received from different sources and
to ensure timely support of consistent quality of
feed material to different VSP consumers, raw
material handling plant servers a vital function.
This unit is provided with elaborate unloading,
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blending, stacking & reclaiming facilities viz. Wagon Tipplers, Ground & Track Hoppers,
Stock yards Crushing plants, Vibrating screens Single/twin boom stackers, wheel on boom
and Blender recliners. In VSP Peripheral unloading has been adopted for the first time in the
country.

COKE OVEN &COAL DIVISION:

Coal is converted into coke by heating the prepared coal blend charge in the coke ovens
in the absence of air at a temperature of 1000oC-1050oC for a period of 16/18 hours. The
volatile matter of coal liberated during carbonization is collected in gas collecting mains in
the form of raw coke oven gas passing through stand pipes and direct contact cooling with
ammonia liquor spray. The gas cooled from 800oC to 80oC is drawn to Coal Chemical Plant
by Exhauster. The residual coke is pushed out of the oven by pusher car through a guide into
coke bucket. The red-hot coke is taken to coke dry cooling plant for cooling.

FACILITIES:
There are 4 batteries, each having 67 ovens.
The volumetric capacity of each oven is 41.6 m3.
Dry Coal charge /Oven is 32 t
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SALIENT FEATURES
1. Largest and technologically unique Coke Oven Batteries in the country at the
time of commissioning.
2. 7 metre tall coke ovens batteries.
3. Selective crushing of coal to improve the coke quality.
4. 100% Dry Quenching of coke using Nitrogen gas.
5. Power generation, from the waste heat recovered, at BPTS (Back Pressure
Turbine Station).

CAPACITY
Production capacity – 2.635 Mt of Gross coke per annum (2.261 Mt of BF Coke per annum)

SINTER PLANT:

Sinter is a hard & porous material

obtained by agglomeration of
Iron Ore fines, Coke breeze, Lime
Stone fines, Metallurgical wastes
viz. flue dust, mill scale, LD slag
etc.,

Sinter is a better fed material to

Blast Furnace in comparison to
Iron Ore lumps and its usage in
Blast Furnaces help in increasing
productivity, decreasing the coke
rate & improving the quality of
hot metal produced.

Sintering is done in 2 nos. Of 312 sq.metre, Sinter Machines of Dwight Lloyd type by heating
the prepared feed on a continuous metallic belt made of pallets at 1200 – 1300 0C.
Hot Sinter discharged from Sintering machine is crushed to +5 mm – 50mm size and cooled
before dispatching to Blast furnaces.

PARAMETERS OF SINTERING MACHINE ARE:

Effective Area : 312 sq.metre
Sintering Area : 276 sq.metre
Sintering Bed Height : 300mm
Capacity : 450 TPH each.
No. of wind Boxes : 26
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BLAST FURNACE:
Hot Metal is produced in Blast
furnaces, which are tall vertical
furnaces. The furnace is named as
Blast Furnace as it is run with blast
at high pressures & temperature.

Raw materials such as Sinter/iron

ore lumps, fluxes,
(Limestone/Dolomite) and coke are
charged from the top and hot blast at
11000C – 13000C and 5.75 KSCH
pressure is blown almost from the
bottom. The furnaces are designed
for 80% sinter in the burden .VSP
has two 3200 cu.meter Blast
Furnaces (largest in India) equipped with Paul worth Bell less to equipment with conveyor
charging. Rightly named as “Godavari” & “Krishna” after the two rivers of AP, the furnaces
will help VSP in bringing the prosperity to the state of Andhra Pradesh.

Provision exists for granulation of 100% liquid slag at blast furnace cast house and utilization
of blast furnace gas top pressure (1.5 – 2.0 atmospheric pressure) to generate 12 MW of
power in each furnace by employing gas expansion turbines. The two furnaces with their
novel circular cast house and four tap holes each are capable of producing 9720 tons of hot
metal daily or 3.4 million tons of low sulphur hot metal annually.

PROCESSES INVOLVED ARE:

1. Hot blast from Cowper stoves.

2. Melting Zone (bosh).
3. Reduction zone of ferrous oxide
(barred).
4. Reduction zone of ferric oxide
(stack)
5. Pre –hating zone (throat)
6. Feed of ore, limestone and coke
7. Exhaust gasses
8. Column of ore, cock and
limestone
9. Removal of slag
10. Tapping of molten pig iron
11. Collection of waste gases
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STEEL MELT SHOP:

Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon up to 1.8%. Hot metal produced in Blast furnaces
contains impurities such as carbon (3.5 – 4.25% Silicon (0.4% - 0.5%), Manganese (0.3 -
0.4%), Sulphur (0.04%max) and phosphorous (0.14%max) is not suitable as a common
engineering material. To improve the quality the impurities are to be eliminated or decreased
by oxidation process.

VSP produces steel employing three numbers of top blown Oxygen Converters called LD
converters (L & D stand for Linz & Donawitz – two towns in Austria where this process was
first adopted) or Basic Oxygen Furnaces / Converters .Each converter is having 133 cu.metre
volumes capable of producing 3 Million Tons of Liquid Steel annually .Besides Hot Metal,
Steel scarp, Fluxes such as calcined line or Dolomite form part of the charge to the
converters.99.5% pure Oxygen at 15- 16 KSCG pressure is blown in the convergent through
oxygen lance having convergent Divergent copper nozzles at the blowing end. Oxygen
oxidizes the impurities present in the process heat is generated by exothermic reaction of
Oxidation of metalloids viz.Si,Mn,P and Carbon and temperature rises to 17000C enabling
refining & Slag formation.

Different grades of steel of

superior quality can be made
by this process by controlling
the Oxygen blow or addition
of various Ferro alloys or
special additives quantities
while liquid steel is being
tapped from the converter into
a steel ladle. Converter/LD
gas produced as by product is
used as a secondary fuel.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VSP CONVERTERS:

Capacity - 150 tones per heat/blow.

Volume - 133 cu. meters.
Converter Sp. Volume - 0.886 meter cube per ton.
Tap to Tap-Time - 45 mts – 60 mts.
Height to diameter Ratio - 1.36 Lining
Working - Tar Dolomite Bricks
Permanent - Chrome Mangnasite Bricks
Av. Lining Life - 649 (1999 -2000)

Liquid Steel produced in LD Converters is solidified in the form of blooms in continuous

Bloom Casters. However to homogenize the steel and to raise its temperature, if needed, steel
 P a g e | 12

is first routed through, argon rinsing station, IRUT (Injection Refining & Up temperature) /
Ladle furnaces.

CONTINUOUS CASTING DEPARTMENT:

Continuous casting may be defined as teeming of liquid steel in a mould with a false bottom
through which partially solidified ingot / bar (Similar to the shape & cross section of the
mould) is continuously withdrawn at the same rate at which liquid steel is teamed in the
mould. Facilities at a continuous casting machine include a lift and Turntable for ladles,
Copper mould, mould oscillating system tundish, primary & secondary cooling arrangement
to cool the steel bloom. Gas cutting machines for cutting the blooms in required lengths (Av.
6 meters long).

At VSP we have six – 4 strand continuous casting machines capable of producing 2.82
million tons / year blooms of size 250 X 250 mm and 250 X 320 mm. Entire quantity of
molten steel produced (100%) is continuously cast in radial bloom casters which help in
energy conservation as well as production of superior quality products.
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ROLLING MILLS:
Blooms produced in SMS-CCD do not find many applications as such and are require to be
shaped into a products such as billets, rounds, squares, angles (equal & unequal), channels, I-
PE beams, HE beams, Wire rods and reinforcements bars by rolling them in, three
sophisticated high capacity, high speed, fully automated rolling mills, namely Light and
Medium Merchant mills (LMMM) wire rod mill (WRM) and Medium Merchant and
structural Mill (MMSM).

All the above mentioned rolling mills are explained in the next page.

 LIGHT AND MEDIUM MERCHANT MILLS:

LMMM comprises of two units. In the Billet/ Break down mill 250 X 320 mm size
blooms are rolled into Billets of 125 X 125 mm size after heating them in two nos. of
walking beam Furnaces of 200 Tons /hr. capacity each. This unit comprises of 7
stands (2 horizontal 850 X 1200mm) and 5 alternating vertical & horizontal stands
(730 X 1000mm & 630 X 1000mm) .Billets are supplied from this mill to Bar Mill of
LMMM & Wire Rod Mill.
 P a g e | 14

The billets for rolling in bar mill of LMMM are first heated in 2-strand roller hearth
furnace of 200 T/h capacities to temperature of 11500C - 12000C. The bar mill
comprises of 26 stands – 8 stand double strand roughing train,2 nos.of 5 stands,
double stand intermedial train & two nos. 4 stand single strand finishing trains . the
mill is design to produce 7,10,000 tons per annum of various finished products such
as rounds, rebar, squares, flats, angles, and channels besides billets for sale.

 WIRE ROD MILL:

Wire Rod Mill is a 4 strand, 25 stands fully automated & sophisticated mill. The mill
has a four zone combination type reheating furnace (walking beam cum walking
hearth) of 200 TPH capacity for heating the billets received from billet mill of
LMMM to rolling temperature of 12000C. The heated billets are rolled in 4 strands.
No twist continuous mill having the following configuration.

7 stand two high 4 strand horizontal roughing train.

6 stand two high 4 strand horizontal Intermediate Mills.
2 stand 4 strand pre finishing Mill.
10 stand 4 strand. No twist-finishing Mill.

The mill produces rounds in 5.5 -12 mm range and rebars in 8-12 mm range.
The mill is equipped with standard and retarded stelmore lines or producing high
quality Wire rods in Low , Medium &High Carbon grade meeting the stringent
National & international standards viz. BIS, DIN, JIS, Bs etc., and having high
ductility, uniform grain size, excellent surface finish.
 P a g e | 15

 MEDIUM MERCHANT AND STRUCTURAL MILL:

This mill is high capacity continuous mill consisting of 20 stands arranged in 3 trains.

 Roughing train having 8 stands (4 two high horizontal stands, 2 vertical stands
and 2 combination stands).
 Intermediate train has 6million stands as per detail given below.
 2 high horizontal stands.
 2 combination stands.
 2 horizontal stands / two universal stands.

The feed material to the mill to 250X250 mm size blooms, which is heated to rolling
temperatures of 12000 c in two walking beams furnaces each of 130 tons per hour
capacity. The mill is capable of producing 8,50,000 tons of rounds, squares, flats,
angles, (equal & un equal), T-bars, channels, IPE beams / HE beams (Universal
beam) having high strength & close tolerances.
 P a g e | 16

3. INTRODUCTION TO ROLL SHOP AND REPAIR SHOP:

ROLL SHOP AND REPAIR SHOP (RS & RS)
Roll Shop and repair shop plays a major roll in fulfilling the technological needs of all the
mills and caters in respect of Roll Pass Design, Roll redressing, roll assembles, guides, and
few maintenance spares. During Rolling, Roll passes tend to wear out and gradually lose their
initial shape resulting in the size or surface finish of the product being rolled deviated from
the allowable tolerances. This is remedied by Redressing that is by turning the rolls to
restoring the width and depth of pass to its original dimensions. The main activities are roll
pass design, redressing of rolls, new rolls turning, assembly of rolls with bearings,
preparation of guides, and their service and manufacturing or repair of mill maintenance
spares. The roll pass design section designs development of new sections, modification of
existing pass designs for improving the productivity and quality, preparation of rolling
schedules, groove detail and distribution and template drawings, part programming for
grooving of rolls on CNC lathes.

Two decentralized roll shops are envisaged in the department for catering to the needs of the
three rolling mills.

Roll shop No.1 - For LMMM & WRM

Roll shop No.2 - For MMSM

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Roll shop-1 comprises of a Roll turning shop, Bearing shop, a specialized repair shop and
roll storage area catering to the needs of LMMM and WRM. Roll turning shop is equipped
with six CNC lathes, CNC template milling machine, Notch milling machine and a Branding
machine etc.

The basic function of roll turning shop is to initially turn the grooves on roll barrel as per the
groove drawings and distribution schemes according to rolling programs of the mills. Re-
turning/ redressing of the used rolls at frequent intervals depending on their usage and service
in the mill.
The grooved rolls are assembled with bearings and chocks in the bearing shop. Used bearings
are dismantled, cleaned, inspected, serviced and reassembled on the rolls at regular intervals.
Separate bearings for taking radial loads and axial loads are used and in specialized repair
shop caters the guide requirements of LMMM and WRM.

Roll shop-2 comprises of Roll turning shop, Bearing shop and Guide shop catering to the
requirement of MMSM. This Roll turning shop is equipped with six CNC Machines for
grooving new rolls as well as redressing. The grooved rolls are assembled with bearings in
the bearing shop. Chocks with bearings serviced periodically. Assembly and service and
repair of guides, preparation of strippers used in rolling of angles, channels, and beams is
done in guide shop.

ARS – Area Repair Shop caters few spares of all the three rolling mills and roll shops

4. INTRODUCTION TO CNC:
4.1. HOW CNC WORKS:
Sequence of events leading to the machining of a part in point to point positional positioning

1. The necessary information for numerical control can often be extracted from
engineering drawing with little or no calculations. For this purposes, the part is
considered as being in a quadrant of rectangular co-ordinates .The dimensions of all
the important details are given from the data point on X and Y axes

2. Stipulate the proper machining sequence. The information is listed on a format

known as manuscript. The manuscript describes the X and Y positions of the each
hole, the sequence in which the whole are to be axillary functions like turning the
coolant on and off or clamping or unclamping the part.

3. After the manuscript is prepared, the information has to be kept in hard disk of
programming transfer unit consisting DNC system to the controller medium (punch
type etc.,) which is done on same automatic writing and tape perforating machines
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4.2. CNC SYSTEMS:

CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control and has been around since the early
1970's. Prior to this, it was called NC, for Numerical Control .CNC controller are
able to execute binary coded commands. The control code for a machine contains
positioning as well as switching information. Positioning information is intended to
position the work piece or else the tool .Switching information controls the machines
servo components. The coded instructions are entered manually at the control as well
as DNC (Distributed Network Controller).

Measuring system record when the position of the work piece or tool indicated on the
part program has been reached. Function such as lubrication, coolant on/ off and
work piece clamping are activated using PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
through relays & contactor at electrical panel.

CNC controllers have several choices for operation. These include polar coordinate
command, cutter compensation, linear and circular interpolation, stored pitch error,
helical interpolation, canned cycles, rigid tapping, and auto-scaling. Polar coordinate
command is a numerical control system in which all the coordinates are referred to a
certain pole. The position is defined by the polar radius and polar angle. Cutter
compensation is the distance you want the CNC control to offset for the tool radius
away from the programmed path. Linear and circular interpolation is the programmed
path of the machine, which appears to be straight or curved, but is actually a series of
very small steps along that path. Machine precision can be remarkably improved
through such features as stored pitch error compensation, which corrects for lead
screw pitch error and other mechanical positioning errors. Helical interpolation is a
technique used to make large diameter holes in work pieces. It allows for high metal
removal rates with a minimum of tool wear. There are machine routines like drilling,
deep drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, etc. that involve a series of machine
operations but are specified by a single G-code with appropriate parameters. Rigid
tapping is a CNC tapping feature where the tap is fed into the work piece at the
precise rate needed for a perfect tapped hole. It also needs to retract at the same
precise rate otherwise it will shave the hole and create an out of spec tapped hole.
Auto scaling translates the parameters of the CNC program to fit the work piece.

4.2.1. TYPES OF CNC SYSTEMS:

1. Closed Loop system

2. Open Loop system

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1. Closed Loop System:

CNC MACHINE TOOL (CLOSE LOOP SYSTEM)

CNC TACHO / POSITION S
BALL ENCODER
SENSOR P
SCREW I
N
SERVO SERVO D
L
DRIVE MOTOR
PLC NC E

JOB
VELOCITY
FEEDBACK

TABLE

POSITIONAL FEEDBACK

D N C LINK
TAPE READER
OTHER DEVICES

MACHINE ELEMENTS
I/P DISPLAY UNIT
INPUT/OUTPUT
O /P KEYBOARD
FLOPPY DISC / CD

2. Open Loop System:

CNC MACHINE TOOL (OPEN LOOP SYSTEM)

CNC TACHO / POSITION S
SENSOR BALL P
SCREW I
N
SERVO SERVO D
L
DRIVE MOTOR
PLC NC E

JOB
VELOCITY
FEEDBACK

TABLE

D N C LINK
TAPE READER
OTHER DEVICES

MACHINE ELEMENTS
I/P DISPLAY UNIT
INPUT/OUTPUT
O /P KEYBOARD
FLOPPY DISC / CD
 P a g e | 20

4.2.2. CNC CONTROLLER:

Electrically, a CNC Machine consists of a multi-axis servo drive, spindle (cutting)

drive, one or more controllers, power supplies, and safety circuits. On larger
systems, a programmable logic controller (PLC) may be used to handle auxiliary
functions such as water cooling and lubrication functions ATC (Automatic Tool
Changer) system, APC (Automatic Pallet Changer) system.

CNC Controller consist of various electronic cards such as Memory Board, NC-PLC
communication Board, Input-Output Board, Video Board, PLC-CPU board,
MCP(Machine control Panel), OCP (Operator Control Panel), Display unit etc.

In CNC System Part program is feed through manual or through program transfer
device like digital instrument & DNC (Distributed Network Controller) system. This
part program stored in RAM memory of CNC controller. When machine is work in
automatic mode the part program is called. Part program commands are executed by
NC controller and give signal to Servo-drives, PLC etc.

In above CNC system block diagram commands are generated by CNC controller fed
to Servo drive for axis movement. Servo drive generate the electrical power to move
the servo motor for axes movements. In Servo loop the Tacho-generator which is
coupled with servo motor give the velocity feedback signal to Servo drive .This
system is known as velocity feedback system. For positioning of axis the encoder or
Linear Scale-Transducer give positional feedback system to CNC controller. Apart
from the positional command spindle CW/CCW, coolant ON/OFF, Tool change,
Feed, G codes are executed by CNC controller & give signal to PLCs.

4.2.3. TYPES OF CNC CONTROLLER:

1. Siemens Sinumerik controller 8T, 810GA3, 840C, 840D, 802D, 810D

2. HMT Hinumerik Controller, 3100M, 2000V2

3. Heidenhain TNC135, TNC415

4. Fanuc Controller Fanuc 6M, 16M, 18M, Fanuc0, Fanuc0I

 P a g e | 21

4.2.4. CNC SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM:

CNC SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

MEMORY

SYSTEM
PROGRAM
SOFTWARE
PLC

MAIN MACHINE
INTERFACE DRIVE
PROCESSOR

INPUTS OUTPUTS MACHINE

~MDI ~ DISPLAY UNIT
~ PAPER TAPE ~ REMOTE LINK
~ MAGNETIC TAPE ~ D N C LINK
~ REMOTE LINK ~ FLOPPY DISC / CD
~ D N C LINK
~ FLOPPY DISC / CD

4.3. MODES OF CNC MACHINE OPERATION:

CNC machine operates in different mode like JOG,MDI, AUTO, Increment mode 1,
10, 100, 1000, 10000 micron, REF, Data input / output mode, Repositioning mode
.These all mode are to be selected from Machine Control Panel

JOG Mode: In this mode machine is operated in manually. In JOG mode machine
moves in respective direction of axis when key is pressed. This mode is normally use
for machine setting. When switch is not pressed machine cannot move. Axis feed can
be change by feed override switch.

REF Mode: In this mode machine is referenced before operating the CNC machine
in Automatic mode (programming mode), machine needed to be referenced.
Reference means machine zero position. It is very necessary to reference M/c because
during power off CNC system loose its positional value.

AUTO Mode: In automatic mode, individual NC traversing programs are processed.

The axes cannot be traversed by means of the direction keys. In this mode machine
works in part programs .Part program is program of particular job. Part program
 P a g e | 22

contains various codes like that the numeric value of axis position, tool command,
spindle rotation, spindle speed, coolant on/off, G-codes, M-codes, T-codes etc.

INCR 1, 10,100,1000,10000 Mode: In this mode machine move in 1, 10, 100, 1000,
10000 microns when switch is pressed with respect to direction of axis. This mode is
normally is used for fine setting of jobs.

MDI Mode: This mode in known as manual data input mode .In MDI mode machine
execute the program block .MDI mode normally is for small program. Like Tool
change Pallet change, Spindle ON /OFF etc.

4.3.1. CNC MACHINE CO-ORDINATES:

Coordinate systems: Right–handed, rectangular coordinate systems are used for

machine tools. Such systems describe the movements on the machine as a relative
motion between tool and work piece.

Machine Coordinate System (MCS): The orientation of the coordinate system on

the machine tool depends on the particular machine type. It can be turned to various
positions. The origin of the coordinate system is the machine zero. All axes are in
zero position at this point. This point is merely a reference point determined by the
machine manufacturer. It need not to be approachable.

4.3.2. WORKPEICE COORDINATE SYSTEM (WCS): The work piece coordinate

system described is also used to describe the geometry of a work piece in the work piece
program. The work piece zero can be freely selected by the programmer. The programmer
need not know the real movement conditions on the machine, i.e. whether the work piece or
the tool moves; this can be different in the individual axes. The definition of the directions is
based on the assumption that the work piece does not move and the tool moves.
 P a g e | 23

4.3.3 ZERO OFFSET: The actual values are referred to the machine zero after a reference
point approach. The machining program of the work piece refers to the work piece zero.
Machine zero and work piece zero need not be identical. Depending on the type of work
piece and the way it is clamped, the distance between the machine zero and work piece zero
can vary. In part program processing this is compensated for by the zero offset.

P - Tool setting point

W- Work piece zero
 P a g e | 24

F - Slide reference point

XMR, ZMR Reference point coordinates
XMW, ZMW Zero offset
M- Machine zero
R - Machine reference point
WR- Work piece reference point
CNC controller Operating area:

4.3.4 MACHINE: This operating area is used for Execution of part programs, Manual
control operation of machines. In this operating area we can see the different area of mode
Operating areas, Channel status, Program status, Channel name, Alarm and message line,
Operating mode, Program name of selected program, Channel operational messages,
Channel status display, Additional explanatory text (Help) can be called, Working windows,
NC displays The working windows (program editor) and NC displays (feed rate, tool)
available in the selected operating area are displayed here, Dialog line with Operator
prompts ,Recall function , ETC. function, Horizontal soft keys, Vertical soft keys,. When
press the "Area switchover" key, operating areas are displayed on the horizontal soft key bar
and operating modes are displayed on the vertical soft key bar. By this key to go to the area
menu bar from any location in the menu hierarchy if you wish to select another operating
mode or a different operating area.
 P a g e | 25

4.3.5 CNC CONTROLLER OPERATING AREA (PARAMETER):

CNC system have many type of parameters which control the different function of
machine. Tool data, tool compensation, tool management, setting parameters, zero
Offsets-parameter, machine parameter, working area limitation.
Setting Parameter: Setting parameter contains various setting data, Jog data, Spindle
data, Dry run feed rate, Starting angle thread cutting, Zero Offsets, Setting bits, etc.
Setting data are related with jog feed, dry run feed, Spindle max & min. speed, axes
negative & positive limitation etc.

R-Parameter: This is programming parameter. R-parameter mainly used for

arithmetic function in in part program.

Machine Parameter: Machine parameter is heart of CNC system. Without this

parameter machine never work. M/c parameter contains various data like machine
configuration data, Servo drive configuration data, Individual Axis data, Display data,
Channel data,

Configuration data decide the no. of axes in CNC machine, which type of drive used
in machine, rating of servo drives. Drive configuration data indicate the power of
servo motor & drives, its current capacity, torque, acceleration, Gain etc. Axis
parameter contains the each individual axis parameter like axis traverse limit in both
direction, type of measuring system, encoder pulse.

4.3.6. CNC MACHINES DEVELOPMENT:

 Vertical Machining Center(VMC)

 Turret Machining Center (TMC)
 Horizontal Machining Center (HMC)
 Universal Machining Center (UMC)
 CNC Turret Punch Press
 CNC Bending Machine
 CNC Universal Grinding Machine
 CNC Gear Cutting Machine

4.3.7. BENEFITS OF CNC SYSTEMS:

 Increased Flexibility.
 Improved Quality.
 Reduced Lead-Time.
 Higher Productivity.
 Economical Batch Production.
 Reduced Cycle-Time.
 Reduced Scrap Generation
 P a g e | 26

4.4.0. SPECIFICATIONS OF CNC MACHINES:

4.4. SPECIFICATIONS OF WALDRICHSEIGEN CNC LATHE:

a)Work piece dimension DH 1000 DH 750

Max Work piece turning dia (mm) 1000 750

Max work piece length (mm) 3500 3000

Work piece weight (tons) 10 10

b) Machine parameters

Machining diameter (mm) 0-1000 0-750

Center distance (mm) 3500 3000

Center height over machine bed (mm) 800 700

Center height over carriage bed (mm) 800 700

DC Main Drive (KW) 90 90

Torque at the face plate (Nm) 50000 50000

Faceplate speed (rpm) 1-175 1-175

Clamping range of the face plate (mm) 100-550 100-550

Feed range (mm/min) 2-3000 2-3000

Rapid traverse (mm/min) 3000 3000

Cutting force (N) 80000 80000

Total machine weight, approx (tons) 40 38

 P a g e | 27

4.5. SPECIFICATIONS OF HERKULES CNC LATHES

a) Machine Type NWD 350 CNC WD 600 LL CNC

b) Main Dimensions

Floor Space Required 8.0*7.3 m2 11*6 m2 1

Max Turning Length 3000 mm 3150 mm

Max Turning Diameter 750 mm 1100 mm

Max Swing 750 mm 1100 mm

Max cross feed range 275 mm 425 mm

Tool Height 40 mm 40 mm

Heaviest work piece to be permitted 6 tons 10 tons

Speeds of Face Plate 2.5-200 rpm 1.25-100 rpm

Clamping range of Face Plate 350-90 mm 550-100 mm

Max Torque at the Face plate 25000 Nm 35000 Nm

Longitudinal Feed 0.6-300 mm/min 0.6-300 mm/min

Cross Feed 0.6-300 mm/min 0.6-300 mm/min

Rapid Motion Cross 2000 mm/min 2000 mm/min

Rapid Motion Longitudinal 3000 mm/min 3000 mm/min

No of tool position on turret head 6 5

Max Cutting Force 50000 N

Max Working Pressure on Center 6 tons 12 tons

Max Movement of the Tail Stock

Centre 100 mm 150 mm

 P a g e | 28

4.6. SPECIFICATIONS CNC MILLING MACHINE:

1. Name of the controller : SINUMERIC 810 M

2. Length of the bed : 600 mm
3. Width of the bed : 260 mm
4. Maximum height of work piece that can be fixed: 50mm
5. Range of End mill cutter diameters : 3 mm to 9 mm
6. Range of spindle speeds : 2 Steps, 6 speeds

Step I Step II
( rpm ) ( rpm )
500 4000
250 2000
125 1000

7. Mechanism of X and Y axis : Ball screw mechanism

8. Lubrication system
9. Spindle internal taper
10. Drive of spindle
11. Holding device
: Oil lubrication
: 1:20
: V – belt drive with three steeped pulley
: Splitted round shaped collet with 1:20 external
taper and plain bore internally.

In the basic Configuration of SINUMERIK 810-M, 1000 (i.e. R00 to R999) parameters are
available in the controller.

5. CAD/CAM System

5.1 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

Computer aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist
in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. A typical CAD
system consists hardware such as computer, graphic display terminal, keyboards and
other peripheral devices, software for implementing certain engineering application
programs as required by the user.

APPLICATION OF CAD:

The various design related tasks, which are performed by modern CAD system are:
 P a g e | 29

1. Geometric modeling
This includes computer compatible mathematical description of the geometry of the
object. This allows the image of the object to be displayed and manipulated on a graphics
terminal through signals.

2. Engineering Analysis
Analysis of the product may involve stress calculations, heat-transfer computations, or
use of differential equation to describe the dynamic behavior of the system being
designed. The computer can be used to aid in this analysis work. Finite element analysis
and mass properties analysis are the two analysis features.
3. Design review and evaluation
It is concerned with the measurement of design against the specification established in the
problem definition phase. The graphics terminal can conveniently accomplish this.
4. Automated drafting
Creation of hard copy of engineering drawings can be done directly using CAD database.
Many drafting package features for automatic dimensioning, scaling of the drawing are
available.
5. Parts classification and coding
CAD database can also be used to develop a parts classification and coding system. This
involves grouping of similar parts based on design and manufacturing aspects.

5.2 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM)

CAM can be defined as the use of computer system to plan, manage and control the
operation of a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect interface with the
plant’s production resources.

APPLICATIONS OF CAM:
Application of CAM falls into two broad categories

a) Computer monitoring and control

These are the direct applications in which computer is connected to the manufacturing
process for the purpose of monitoring or controlling the process. Examples for this are
Computer Numerical control, Industrial robots, Computer Integrated production
management systems etc.

b) Manufacturing support application

These are indirect applications in which the computer is used in support of the production
operation in the plant, but there is no direct interface between computer and
manufacturing process. Computer assisted part programming, computer automated
process planning, production scheduling, material requirement planning etc belong to this
class.
Automation is the technology concerned with the application of complex
mechanical, electronics and computer-based systems in the operation and control of
 P a g e | 30

production. CAD/CAM integrates design and manufacturing aspects by pervasive use of

computers, so it can be simultaneously called as Computer Integrated Manufacturing
(CIM).
Automation is concerned with the physical activities in manufacturing such as processing,
assembly, material handling and inspections whereas CIM takes care of information
processing functions such as product design, manufacturing planning and control etc. Both
involve reduced human intervention in production process.

5.3. PROGRAMMING ASPECTS:

The program format, block format and other functions are similar to the NC Part
Programming. Preparatory functions, miscellaneous functions and other variables used are
shown in program key represented by charts for WASI machine.
In addition to above functions, these WASI controllers support the some advanced
programming techniques.

5.4. G-CODES
G-CODES are preparatory functions, which involves actual tool moves (for example control
of machine). These include rapid moves, feed moves, radial feed moves, dwell, and roughing
and profiling cycles. Most G-codes are modal, means that they remain active until cancelled
by another G-code.
A few of the usual preparatory functions, which are generally present in all machining centers
and are uniformly followed by all controller manufacturers are given below:

5.4.1. PROGRAMMING MODES

G90 Absolute programming mode
G91 Incremental programming mode

5.4.2 MOTION GROUP

G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
G02 Clockwise circular interpolation
G03 Counterclockwise circular interpolation

5.4.3 DWELL
G04 Dwell

5.4.4 UNITS GROUP

G70 English (inches) units
G71 Metric (millimeters)

5.4.5 CUTTER RADIUS COMPENSATION

G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G41 Cutter compensation left
G42 Cutter compensation right
 P a g e | 31

5.4.6 CANNED CYCLE GROUP

G80 Canned cycle cancel
G81-G89 Canned cycles definition and ON

5.4.7 PRESET
G92 Absolute position reference is defined or re-defined

5.4.8 ACTIVE PLANE SELECTION GROUP

G17 XY plane selection
G18 XZ plane selection
G19 YZ plane selection

5.4.9. G90 AND G91 PROGRAMMING MODES

Format: N_ G90
N_ G91
Dimensional data in program may be expressed as either absolute or incremental values. It is
placed at the beginning of the program prior to any motion causing blocks, to set the
programming mode for the entire part.

5.4.10. INCREMENTAL MODE: IN INCREMENTAL MODE THE DISPLACEMENTS

SPECIFIED BY X, Y, I, J words are offsets relative to the position of the cutting device at
the start of the block. The end point of the one block becomes zero point of the next block.

5.4.11. ABSOLUTE MODE: IN ABSOLUTE MODE THE DISPLACEMENT SPECIFIED

BY X AND Y WORDS ARE offsets from an absolute reference point, which are fixed for
the entire part unless changed using G92 (Preset). However, I and J values are specified in
incremental mode only.

5.4.12. G00 POSITIONING IN RAPID

Format: N_ G00 X_ Y_
The G00 command is a rapid tool move. A rapid tool move is used when moving the tool in a
linear motion from position to position without cutting any material. This command is not
used for cutting any material. It is modal. This command requires only the coordinates of
destination point.

Example: N01 G00 X10 Y20 (Rapid to X 10 and Y20)

5.4.13. G01 LINEAR INTERPOLATION

Format: N_ G01 X_ Y_ Z_ F_
Linear interpolation is nothing more than a straight line feed moves. A G01 command is
specifically for the linear removal of material from a work piece. The G01 is modal and it is
subjected to a user variable feed rate.
It is not limited it one plane. Three-axis, simultaneous feed move, here all three axis are used
at the same time; to cut different angles are possible. While using these proper spindle feeds
 P a g e | 32

and feed rates are to be used on the part of programmer. It is specified by G01 command,
followed by the end point of the move, and then specified feed rate.

Example: N15 G90 G01 X3 Y15 Z0.125 F5

5.4.14. G02 AND G03 CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION (CW AND CCW)

Format: N_ G02 X_ Y_ I_ J_
N_ G03 X_ Y_ I_ J_
Circular interpolation is more commonly known as radial (or arc) feed moves. The G02
command is specifically for all clockwise radial moves, whether they are quadratic arcs,
partial arcs, or complete circles as long as they lie in the same plane and G03 is for Counter
clock wise radial moves.
I and J are the X and Y interpolation parameters respectively. G02 and G03 both are modal
and they requires end point and radius in order to cut the arc.

3
Start point
2

1
0

Center End

Shows an arc start point, end point and center point (CW)

Center point End point

Start point

Shows an arc start point, end point and center point (CCW)

Format of G02 and G03 are same except the direction of interpolation.
 P a g e | 33

Example: N25 G02 X2 Y0 I0 J-2 (Moves the tool as shown in the first fig.)
N25 G03 X2 Y2 I0 J2 (Moves the tool as shown in the second fig.)

5.4.15. G04 DWELL

Format: N_ G04 P_
The G04 command is Non-modal, Which halts all axis movements for a specified time, it is
largely used in drilling operation by CNC Machine. The program requires the specified
duration, denoted by the letter P and followed by the time in seconds.

Example: N30 G04 P0.5 (Dwell for 0.5 seconds)

5.4.16. G70 INCH UNITS

Format: N_ G70
G70 command defaults the system to inch data units. When running a program and the
G70 command is encountered, all coordinates are adopted as inch units.

Example: N5 G70 (Set inch mode)

5.4.17. G71 METRIC UNITS

Format: N_G71

The G71 command defaults the system to metric data unit (millimeters). After encountering
this command all coordinates are adopted as metric (mm) units.

Example: N5 G71 (Set metric units)

5.4.18. G40 CUTTER RADIUS COMPENSATION CANCEL

Format: N_ G40
The G40 command cancels any cutter radius compensation that was applied to the tool during
a program and act as a safe guard to cancel compensation applied to a previous program.
Cutter radius compensation is used whenever the tool center line programming is rather
difficult, it can also be used to compensate for significant tool wear. Normally CNC
programming is written so that the tool center follows the tool path. When it is necessary to
offset this left or right, Cutter radius compensation is used or else G40 is programmed
However Cutter compensation is modal, so it must be cancelled once it is no longer required.
Example: N30 G40 (Compensation cancelled)
 P a g e | 34

5.4.19. G41 AND G42 CUTTER RADIUS COMPENSATION

Format: N_ G41
N_ G42
The G41 command compensates the Cutter a specified distance to the left hand side of the
plate to be cut by the programmed tool. The command is modal. Compensation shift depends
on the direction of the programmed tool path. When tool path changes direction, this
compensation also must be changed.
The G42 command compensates the Cutter a specified distance to the right hand side of the
programmed tool. All other features are same as G41.

Example: N04 G41 (Left compensation)

N04 G42 (Right compensation)

5.4.20. G92 REPOSITION ORIGIN POINT

Format: N_ G92
The G92 command is used to reposition the origin point. Sometimes the origin point must be
moved. If the operator is to cut several identical parts out of one work piece, the origin point
can be shifted, and the program rerun. This will produce identical part shifted over beside it.

Example: N50 G92 X1 Y1 (Reposition origin to the specified point)

5.4.21. G80 CANNED CYCLE

Format: N_ G80
Canned cycle refer to certain set of motions, which are to be repeated again. Commands G81-
G89 is used to call certain standard canned cycles. There include tapping, boring, spot facing
and drilling. The G80 command cancels all the previous canned cycle commands. Since
canned cycle commands are modal they remain active until cancelled by G80.
Example: N5 G80

5.4.22. ACTIVE PLANE SECTION GROUP

Format: N_ G17 (Set XY Plane)
N_ G18 (Set XZ Plane)
N_ G19 (Set YZ Plane)

These commands set system to their respective plane as main machining plane for specifying
circular interpolation moves and/or cutter compensation.
 P a g e | 35

5.5 M-CODES
M-codes are miscellaneous functions, which are used to control the non-motion related
operations of the cutting machine. M-codes take effect in the sequence in which they are
found.
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional program stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle On CW
M04 Spindle On CCW
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool Change
M07 Coolant On
M08 Coolant Off
M09 Subroutine end
M30 Program end

5.5.1 M00 PROGRAM STOP

Format: N_ M00
The M00 command is a temporary program stop function. When it is executed, all functions
are stopped temporarily, and will not restart unless and until prompted by user input.
This command can be used in lengthy programs to stop the program in order to clear chips,
take measurements or adjust clamps, coolant hose, and so on.
Example: N35 M00 (Program stop evoked)

5.5.2. M01 OPTIONAL PROGRAM STOP

Format: N_ M01
The M01 command is an optional stop command and halts program execution only if the
M01 switch is set to ON.
Example: N25 M01

5.5.3. M02 PROGRAM END

Format: N_ M02
The M02 command indicates an end of the main program cycle operation. Upon encountering
M02 command, the MCU switches off all the operations, which is being performed (for
example, spindle coolant, all axes, and any auxiliaries), and the program is terminated. It is
found at the end of the program.
Example: N55 M02 (Program end)
 P a g e | 36

5.5.4. M03 AND M04 SPINDLE CONTROL

Format: N_ M03 S_
N_ M04 S_
Miscellaneous Function M03 turns the spindle ON in clockwise direction, while M04 turns
the spindle on in counterclockwise direction. Functions M03 and M04 use spindle speed
denoted by letter S, followed by the spindle speed in revolution per minute.
Ex: N04 M03 S1500 (Spindle on in clockwise direction at 1500rpm)
N04 M04 S1500 (Spindle on in ccw direction at 1500rpm)

5.5.5. M05 SPINDLE STOP

Format: M05
The M05 command turns the spindle off. Although other M02-code turns off all the
functions, this command is specifically used to shut off the spindle. It is found at the end of
the program.
Example: N50 M05 (Spindle stop command)

5.5.6. M06 TOOL CHANGE

Format: N_ M06
The M06 command halts program operations for a tool change. It is actually a two-fold
command. First, it stops all machine operations, all axes motion stops and then it changes the
current tool with the specified tool.
Example: N40 M06 T8 (Tool change to tool # 8)

5.5.7. M07 COOLANT ON

Format: N_ M07
The M07 command switches on the coolant flow.
Example: N20 M07 (Coolant On)

5.5.8. M08 COOLANT OFF

Format: N_ M08
The M08 command switches off the coolant flow. The coolant should be shut off prior to tool
changes or when rapid motion of tool over long distances.
Example: N30 M08 (coolant off)

5.5.9. M30 PROGRAM END, RESET TO START

Format: N_M30

The M30 command indicates the end of the program data. It means that there are no more
program commands following it. It is used to end the program and reset it to start.

Example: N50 M30 (ends the program and resets it)

 P a g e | 37

6.INTRODUCTON TO GEARS:
6.1.DEFINITION OF A GEAR:A toothed machine part, such as a wheel or cylinder,
that meshes with another toothed part to transmit motion or to change speed or direction.
6.2.TYPES OF GEARS:
6.2.1.EXTERNAL VS INTERNAL GEARS
An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone.
Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or
cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees.
Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal.

INTERNAL GEAR EXTERNAL GEAR

6.2.2.SPUR
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or
disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form (they
are usually of special form to achieve constant drive ratio mainly involute), the edge of each
tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed
together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts
.
 P a g e | 38

6.2.3.HELICAL

Top: parallel configuration

Bottom: crossed configuration

Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth
are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this
angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. Helical gears can be meshed
in parallel or crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each
other; this is the most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this
configuration the gears are sometimes known as "skew gears".
6.2.4.BEVEL GEAR

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off. When two bevel
gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same point. Their shaft axes also
intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary non-straight angle between the shafts. The angle
between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal
numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.
 P a g e | 39

6.2.5.WORM GEAR

Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur gear or a helical
gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel.
Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque, low speed gear
ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear ratios of less than 10:1 while
worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1.A disadvantage is the potential for considerable
sliding action, leading to low efficiency.
6.2.6.NON-CIRCULAR

Non-circular gears are designed for special purposes. While a regular gear is optimized to
transmit torque to another engaged member with minimum noise and wear and
maximum efficiency, a non-circular gear's main objective might be ratiovariations, axle
displacement oscillations and more. Common applications include textile
machines, potentiometers and continuously variable transmissions.
 P a g e | 40

6.2.7.RACK AND PINION

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large
radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion:
the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles
to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s).
Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an
interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth
shapes for gears of particular actual radii are then derived from that. The rack and pinion gear
type is employed in a rack railway.
6.2.8.EPICYCLIC

In epicyclic gearing one or more of the gear axes moves. Examples are sun and planet
gearing (see below) and mechanical differentials.
 P a g e | 41

6.2.9.SUN AND PLANET

Sun (yellow) and planet (red) gearing

Sun and planet gearing was a method of converting reciprocating motion intorotary
motion in steam engines. It was famously used by James Watt on his early steam engines in
order to get around the patent on the crank.
In the illustration, the sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating arm is blue,
the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is grey.
6.2.10.HARMONIC DRIVE

A harmonic drive is a specialized gearing mechanism often used in industrialmotion

control, robotics and aerospace for its advantages over traditional gearing systems, including
lack of backlash, compactness and high gear ratios.
 P a g e | 42

6.3.GENERAL NOMENCLATURE

Rotational frequency, n
Measured in rotation over time, such as RPM.
Angular frequency, ω
Measured in radians per second. rad/second
Number of teeth, N
How many teeth a gear has, an integer. In the case of worms, it is the number of thread starts
that the worm has.
Gear, wheel
The larger of two interacting gears or a gear on its own.
Pinion
The smaller of two interacting gears.
Path of contact
Path followed by the point of contact between two meshing gear teeth.
 P a g e | 43

Line of action, pressure line

Line along which the force between two meshing gear teeth is directed. It has the same
direction as the force vector. In general, the line of action changes from moment to moment
during the period of engagement of a pair of teeth. Forinvolute gears, however, the tooth-to-
tooth force is always directed along the same line—that is, the line of action is constant. This
implies that for involute gears the path of contact is also a straight line, coincident with the
line of action—as is indeed the case.
Axis
Axis of revolution of the gear; center line of the shaft.
Pitch point, p
Point where the line of action crosses a line joining the two gear axes.
Pitch circle, pitch line
Circle centered on and perpendicular to the axis, and passing through the pitch point. A
predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure angle
and helix angles are defined.
Pitch diameter, d
A predefined diametral position on the gear where the circular tooth thickness, pressure angle
and helix angles are defined. The standard pitch diameter is a basic dimension and cannot be
measured, but is a location where other measurements are made. Its value is based on the
number of teeth, the normal module (or normal diametral pitch), and the helix angle. It is
calculated as:

in metric units or in imperial units.

Module, m
A scaling factor used in metric gears with units in millimeters whose effect is to enlarge the
gear tooth size as the module increases and reduce the size as the module decreases. Module
can be defined in the normal (mn), the transverse (mt), or the axial planes (ma) depending on
the design approach employed and the type of gear being designed. Module is typically an
input value into the gear design and is seldom calculated.
Operating pitch diameters
Diameters determined from the number of teeth and the center distance at which gears
operate. Example for pinion:

Pitch surface
In cylindrical gears, cylinder formed by projecting a pitch circle in the axial direction. More
generally, the surface formed by the sum of all the pitch circles as one moves along the axis.
For bevel gears it is a cone.
Angle of action
Angle with vertex at the gear center, one leg on the point where mating teeth first make
contact, the other leg on the point where they disengage.
 P a g e | 44

Arc of action
Segment of a pitch circle subtended by the angle of action.
Pressure angle,
The complement of the angle between the direction that the teeth exert force on each other,
and the line joining the centers of the two gears. For involute gears, the teeth always exert
force along the line of action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line; and thus, for
involute gears, the pressure angle is constant.
Outside diameter,
Diameter of the gear, measured from the tops of the teeth.
Root diameter
Diameter of the gear, measured at the base of the tooth.
Addendum, a
Radial distance from the pitch surface to the outermost point of the
tooth.
Dedendum, b
Radial distance from the depth of the tooth trough to the pitch
surface.
Whole depth,
The distance from the top of the tooth to the root; it is equal to addendum plus dedendum or
to working depth plus clearance.
Clearance
Distance between the root circle of a gear and the addendum circle of its mate.
Working depth
Depth of engagement of two gears, that is, the sum of their operating addendums.
Circular pitch, p
Distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent tooth on the same
gear, measured along the pitch circle.
Diametral pitch,
Ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter. Could be measured in teeth per inch or
teeth per centimeter.
Base circle
In involute gears, where the tooth profile is the involute of the base circle. The radius of the
base circle is somewhat smaller than that of the pitch circle.
Base pitch, normal pitch,
In involute gears, distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of an adjacent
tooth on the same gear, measured along the base circle.
Interference
Contact between teeth other than at the intended parts of their surfaces.
Interchangeable set
A set of gears, any of which will mate properly with any other.
 P a g e | 45

7.DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF GEAR:

7.1.DESIGN OF A GEAR:
We have been given a crane of capacity 5ton which has to carry loads with angular velocity
of π/3 rad s-1. It is powered by a motor of 3HP.

PHOTO

The pinion gear which is to be designed is to be attached to the end of gear box. This pinion
is meshed with another gear which is coupled to the arm of crane which carries loads.

Assumptions:

Gear ratio=3,

Rated power of motor=3HP

Standard pressure angle=20⁰

7.1.1.DESIGN CRIETERIA:

Minimum number of teeth on the pinion inorder to avoid interference.

𝑇𝑃 = 2𝐴𝑊
1 1
𝐺√1+ +( +2) sin 2∅ −1
𝐺 𝐺

Where,

𝐴𝑊 = Fraction by which the standard addendum for the wheel to be multiplied.

𝑇 𝐷𝐺
𝐺 = Gear ratios or velocity ratios = 𝐺 =
𝑇𝑃 𝐷𝑃

∅ =Pressure angle

WIDTH OF PINION:

b=2m-4m

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Strength of gear teeth- Lewis equation:

 P a g e | 46

1. First of all design tangential tooth loaded is obtained from the power transmitted and
the pitch line velocity by using the following equations
𝑃
𝑊𝑇 = 𝑉 𝐶𝑉
𝑊𝑇 = Permissble tangential tooth load in N

𝑃 = Power transmitted in W
𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝜋𝑀𝑇𝑁
𝑉 = Pitch line velocity in m/s = = , 𝐷 = 𝑀𝑇
60 60
N = Speed in RPM,
CS= service factor
Type of load Intermittent or 3 8-10 hours per day Continuous 24
hours per day hours per day
Steady 0.8 1.00 1.25
Light shock 1.00 1.25 1.54
Medium shock 1.25 1.54 1.80
Heavy shock 1.54 1.80 2.00

2. Apply the Lewis equation

𝑊𝑇 = 𝜎𝑊 𝑏𝑃𝐶 𝑦

= 𝜎𝑤 𝑏𝜋𝑚𝑦 ,

= 𝜎𝑜 𝐶𝑉 𝑏𝜋𝑚𝑦 , (∴ 𝜎𝑤 = 𝜎𝑜 𝑐𝑣 )

Where,
𝜎𝑤 = Permissible working stress
𝜎𝑜 = Allowable or static stress
𝑦 = Form factor
0.684
𝑦 = 0.124 − , for 1412 ° composite and full depth involute systems
𝑇
0.912
𝑦 = 0.154 − , for 20⁰ full depth involute systems
𝑇
0.841
𝑦 = 0.175 − , for 20⁰ systems
𝑇
𝐶𝑉 = Velocity factor
3 𝑚
𝐶𝑉 = 3+𝑉 , for ordinary cut gear operating at velocities up to 12.5 𝑠
4.5 𝑚
𝐶𝑉 = 4.5+𝑉 , for carefully cut gears operating at velocities up to 12.5 𝑠
6
𝐶𝑉 = 6+𝑉, for very accurate cut and ground metallic gears operating at velocities up to
𝑚
20 𝑠
0.75
𝐶𝑉 = 0.75+√𝑉 , for precision gears cut with high accuracy and operating at velocities
𝑚
up to 20 𝑠
0.75
𝐶𝑉 = 1+𝑉 + 0.25
1
, for non-metallic gears
 P a g e | 47

3. Calculate the dynamic load 𝑊𝐷 on the tooth by using Buckingham equation:

𝑊𝐷 = 𝑊𝑇 + 𝑊𝐼
21𝑉(𝑏𝑐 + 𝑊𝑇 )
𝑊𝑇 +
21𝑉 + √𝑏𝑐 + 𝑊𝑇
Where, 𝑊𝑇 = steady loads due to transmitted torque
𝜋𝐷𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝜋𝐷𝐺 𝑁𝐺 𝑚
𝑣 = Pitch line velocity = or= .
60 60 𝑠

4. Static tooth load

𝑊𝑆 = 𝜎𝑤 𝑏𝜋𝑚𝑦
For safety against breakage 𝑊𝑆 should be greater than 𝑊𝐷 .
For steady loads, 𝑊𝑆 > 1.25𝑊𝐷
For pulsating loads, 𝑊𝑆 > 1.35𝑊𝐷
For shock loads, 𝑊𝑆 > 1.5𝑊𝐷
5. Wear tooth load
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐷𝑃 𝑏𝑄𝐾
Where,
𝑊𝑊 = Maximum or limiting load for wear in newtons
𝐷𝑃 = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion in mm,
𝑏 = Face width of the pinion in mm,
𝑄 = Ratio factor
𝐾 = Load-stress factor (also known as material combination factor) in
2
N/mm
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P a g e | 49
P a g e | 50
 P a g e | 51

SPECIFICATONS OF CNC MILLING MACHINE:

SPINDLE HEAD:
Spindle nose: BT 50
Spindle speed: Variable speed 6000 rpm (max)
Spindle motor: AC spindle motor 11/16 KW (cont. /@50 ED)
Drive to spindle: Thru’ timer belt drive
Spindle taper cleaning: Thru’ pneumatic

TABLE:
Table size: 1250 length × 600 width
T-Slot size: 18mm (5 nos. at 100mm CD)
Max load on table: 1200kgs

X-AXIS:
Stroke: 1050mm
Feed rate: 1-10000mm/min
Rapid transverse: 32000mm/min
Table movement: By AC servomotor thru; ball lead screw and nut (direct drive)
Motor/Torque: 1FK7 101-5AF71/1FG2/18Nm
Guide way: LM Guide way, Make: THK
Ball Screw: Make- Tsubaki

Y-AXIS:
Stroke: 610mm
Feed rate: 1-10000mm/min
Rapid transverse: 32000mm/min
Table movement: By AC servomotor thru; ball lead screw and nut (direct drive)
Motor/Torque: 1FK7 101-5AF71/1FG2/27Nm
Guide way: LM Guide way, Make: THK
Ball Screw: Make- Tsubaki
 P a g e | 52

Z-AXIS:
Stroke: 610mm
Feed rate: 1-10000mm/min
Rapid transverse: 32000mm/min
Table movement: By AC servomotor thru; ball lead screw and nut (direct drive)
Motor/Torque: 1FK7 101-5AF71/1FG2/27Nm (with brake)
Guide way: LM Guide way, Make: THK
Ball Screw: Make- Tsubaki

FIXTURE:
Component Loading: Manual
Component Clamping: Manual:
Component Unloading: Manual

AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER (MAKE: DELTA INTERNATIONAL)

No. of tools: 20
Type of tool selection: Random
Tool Change time (tool to tool): 5secs
Max. Tool dia: 125mm
Max. Tool dia: (with adjacent pocket empty): 220mm
Max. Tool length: 250mm
Max. Tool weight: 15kg

CNC SYSTEM:
CNC system: Siemens 802D SL

LUBRICATION (centralized lubrication unit):

Make: CENLUB
Tank capacity: 5 liters
Model ALU-05

COOLANT EQUIPMENTS AND CHIP DISPOSAL SYSTEM:

(With magnetic filtration system)
Coolant tank capacity: 800 liters including chip conveyor
Coolant pump with motor (for fixture flushing): 105KW (Multistage)
 P a g e | 53

Model: RKM 253/265 Make: Rajamane

Coolant pump with motor (for ring Coolant): 150lpm@1OM HEAD
Model: RKM 252/205 Make: Rajamane
Coolant pump with motor (for coolant transfer): 1.5KW,150lpm@1.5bar
Model: RK 400/300 Make: Rajamane
Slat type Chip conveyor, speed 25RPM, Motor: 0.5HP, 1500RPM
Chip Trolley Size (700mm×700mm×750mm Ht.)

ADDITIONAL FEATURES:
AC for Electrical Cabinet
Rapid Tapping Facility
Machine Guards as shown
Telescopic covers for LM/guide way protection
Operator pendent (Guar mounted)
Electrical cabinet (Machine mounted)
Manual Pulse Generator
Air compressor
Isolation transformer & Voltage Stabilizer
Linear scale for all three axes part program software

ACCURACY (as per JIS):

Positioning accuracy: +/- 0.005mm
Repeatability: +/-0.003mm
Feedback System: Absolute built in encoder

INSTALLATION DATA:
Electrical Main Supply: 415 V AC +/-10%, 3Ph, 50Hz+/-2%
Control Supply: 220V AC for contactors, 24V DC for solenoids
Total Connected Load: 37Kva
Total Floor area: 5580mm×4150mm×3250mm ht.
 P a g e | 54

Machine weight: 12000Kgs.

TOOLS USED DURING MACHINING:

 P a g e | 55

Face milling cutter is used for facing operations. Used for removing unnecessary layers on
the job.
P a g e | 56
 P a g e | 57

Side and end mill cutters are used of prepare holes and grooves. It is used for machining of
job.
 P a g e | 58

FABRICATION OF GEAR:
As designed above the gear involute profile is prepared in AUTOCAD with designed
dimensions and specifications.
 P a g e | 59

After the complete preparation of involute gear profile in AUTOCAD, the drawing is saved
and fed to MASTERCAM X for generation of program.

After opening the required gear profile drawing in MASTERCAM X, the necessary
constraints such as tool radius, tool offset, depth of cut, feed rate, zero offset, etc., must be
specified in the software.
 P a g e | 60

After specifying the necessary parameters the program is generated.

After generation of the program successfully, the program is simulated to check whether it is
free from errors and then fed to the CNC machine.
 P a g e | 61

PROFILE VIEW OF DSIGNED GEAR:

PART PROGRAM FOR INVOLUTE SPUR GEAR:

M06 ;( T3|ENDMILL ROUGH DIA9|H3|D3|CONTROL COMP|TOOL DIA. - 9.)

N100 G0 G40 G90
N110 G17
N120 T4
N130 M6
N140 D1
N150 G40 G17
N160 G0 G90 G55 X-48.712 Y-106.377
N170 G94 S900 M3
N180 G64 SOFT
N190 Z25.
N200 G0 X-48.712 Y-106.377
N210 M8
N220 Z5.
N230 G1 Z-5. F100.
N240 G42 D3 X-37.471 Y-81.829
N250 G3 X-34.441 Y-83.149 CR=90.
 P a g e | 62

N260 X-22.344 Y-70.462 CR=32.903

N270 G2 X-17.937 Y-67.823 CR=5.
N280 X-16.741 Y-67.969 CR=5.
N290 G3 X-15.592 Y-68.241 CR=70.
N300 G2 X-11.708 Y-72.987 CR=5.001
N310 G3 X-6.604 Y-89.757 CR=32.904
N320 X0. Y-90. CR=90.
N330 G1 X.001
N340 G3 X6.321 Y-73.649 CR=32.903
N350 G2 X10.543 Y-69.201 CR=5.
N360 G3 X11.709 Y-69.014 CR=70.
N370 G2 X12.546 Y-68.943 CR=5.
N380 X17.114 Y-71.911 CR=5.
N390 G3 X28.247 Y-85.452 CR=32.903
N400 X34.442 Y-83.149 CR=90.
N410 X35.431 Y-75.143 CR=32.903
N420 X34.024 Y-65.624 CR=32.903
N430 G2 X33.81 Y-64.178 CR=5.
N440 X36.223 Y-59.899 CR=5.
N450 G3 X37.228 Y-59.279 CR=70.
N460 G2 X39.888 Y-58.513 CR=5.001
N470 X43.331 Y-59.888 CR=5.001
N480 G3 X58.798 Y-68.138 CR=32.903
N490 X63.64 Y-63.639 CR=90.
N500 X56.547 Y-47.608 CR=32.903
N510 G2 X55.415 Y-44.44 CR=5.001
N520 X56.388 Y-41.478 CR=5.001
N530 G3 X57.08 Y-40.52 CR=70.
N540 G2 X61.157 Y-38.415 CR=5.
N550 X62.951 Y-38.747 CR=5.
N560 G3 X74.755 Y-40.937 CR=32.903
N570 X80.398 Y-40.45 CR=32.903
N580 X83.149 Y-34.441 CR=90.
N590 X70.462 Y-22.344 CR=32.903
N600 G2 X67.823 Y-17.937 CR=5.
N610 X67.969 Y-16.741 CR=5.
N620 G3 X68.241 Y-15.592 CR=70.
N630 G2 X72.987 Y-11.708 CR=5.001
N640 G3 X89.757 Y-6.604 CR=32.904
N650 X90. Y0. CR=90.
N660 G1 Y.001
N670 G3 X73.649 Y6.321 CR=32.903
N680 G2 X69.201 Y10.543 CR=5.
N690 G3 X69.014 Y11.709 CR=70.
N700 G2 X68.943 Y12.546 CR=5.
N710 X71.911 Y17.114 CR=5.
N720 G3 X85.452 Y28.247 CR=32.903
N730 X83.149 Y34.442 CR=90.
N740 X75.143 Y35.431 CR=32.903
N750 X65.624 Y34.024 CR=32.903
N760 G2 X64.178 Y33.81 CR=5.
N770 X59.899 Y36.223 CR=5.
 P a g e | 63

N780 G3 X59.279 Y37.228 CR=70.

N790 G2 X58.513 Y39.888 CR=5.001
N800 X59.888 Y43.331 CR=5.001
N810 G3 X68.138 Y58.798 CR=32.903
N820 X63.639 Y63.64 CR=90.
N830 X47.608 Y56.547 CR=32.903
N840 G2 X44.44 Y55.415 CR=5.001
N850 X41.478 Y56.388 CR=5.001
N860 G3 X40.52 Y57.08 CR=70.
N870 G2 X38.415 Y61.157 CR=5.
N880 X38.747 Y62.951 CR=5.
N890 G3 X40.937 Y74.755 CR=32.903
N900 X40.45 Y80.398 CR=32.903
N910 X34.441 Y83.149 CR=90.
N920 X22.344 Y70.462 CR=32.903
N930 G2 X17.937 Y67.823 CR=5.
N940 X16.741 Y67.969 CR=5.
N950 G3 X15.592 Y68.241 CR=70.
N960 G2 X11.708 Y72.987 CR=5.001
N970 G3 X6.604 Y89.757 CR=32.904
N980 X0. Y90. CR=90.
N990 G1 X-.001
N1000 G3 X-6.321 Y73.649 CR=32.903
N1010 G2 X-10.543 Y69.201 CR=5.
N1020 G3 X-11.709 Y69.014 CR=70.
N1030 G2 X-12.546 Y68.943 CR=5.
N1040 X-17.114 Y71.911 CR=5.
N1050 G3 X-28.247 Y85.452 CR=32.903
N1060 X-34.442 Y83.149 CR=90.
N1070 X-35.431 Y75.143 CR=32.903
N1080 X-34.024 Y65.624 CR=32.903
N1090 G2 X-33.81 Y64.178 CR=5.
N1100 X-36.223 Y59.899 CR=5.
N1110 G3 X-37.228 Y59.279 CR=70.
N1120 G2 X-39.888 Y58.513 CR=5.001
N1130 X-43.331 Y59.888 CR=5.001
N1140 G3 X-58.798 Y68.138 CR=32.903
N1150 X-63.64 Y63.639 CR=90.
N1160 X-56.547 Y47.608 CR=32.903
N1170 G2 X-55.415 Y44.44 CR=5.001
N1180 X-56.388 Y41.478 CR=5.001
N1190 G3 X-57.08 Y40.52 CR=70.
N1200 G2 X-61.157 Y38.415 CR=5.
N1210 X-62.951 Y38.747 CR=5.
N1220 G3 X-74.755 Y40.937 CR=32.903
N1230 X-80.398 Y40.45 CR=32.903
N1240 X-83.149 Y34.441 CR=90.
N1250 X-70.462 Y22.344 CR=32.903
N1260 G2 X-67.823 Y17.937 CR=5.
N1270 X-67.969 Y16.741 CR=5.
N1280 G3 X-68.241 Y15.592 CR=70.
N1290 G2 X-72.987 Y11.708 CR=5.001
 P a g e | 64

N1300 G3 X-89.757 Y6.604 CR=32.904

N1310 X-90. Y0. CR=90.
N1320 G1 Y-.001
N1330 G3 X-73.649 Y-6.321 CR=32.903
N1340 G2 X-69.201 Y-10.543 CR=5.
N1350 G3 X-69.014 Y-11.709 CR=70.
N1360 G2 X-68.943 Y-12.546 CR=5.
N1370 X-71.911 Y-17.114 CR=5.
N1380 G3 X-85.452 Y-28.247 CR=32.903
N1390 X-83.149 Y-34.442 CR=90.
N1400 X-75.143 Y-35.431 CR=32.903
N1410 X-65.624 Y-34.024 CR=32.903
N1420 G2 X-64.178 Y-33.81 CR=5.
N1430 X-59.899 Y-36.223 CR=5.
N1440 G3 X-59.279 Y-37.228 CR=70.
N1450 G2 X-58.513 Y-39.888 CR=5.001
N1460 X-59.888 Y-43.331 CR=5.001
N1470 G3 X-68.138 Y-58.798 CR=32.903
N1480 X-63.639 Y-63.64 CR=90.
N1490 X-47.608 Y-56.547 CR=32.903
N1500 G2 X-44.44 Y-55.415 CR=5.001
N1510 X-41.478 Y-56.388 CR=5.001
N1520 G3 X-40.52 Y-57.08 CR=70.
N1530 G2 X-38.415 Y-61.157 CR=5.
N1540 X-38.747 Y-62.951 CR=5.
N1550 G3 X-40.937 Y-74.755 CR=32.903
N1560 X-40.45 Y-80.398 CR=32.903
N1570 X-37.471 Y-81.829 CR=90.
N1580 G1 G40 X-39.344 Y-85.92
N1590 Z0.
N1600 G0 Z25.
N1610 M9
N1620 G0 G90 G53 Z0
N1630 M5
N1640 M30

8. CONCLUSION:
CNC machine are used for precision work. The machine will remain operational
and maintain its accuracy for many years, if we are doing proper maintenance as per schedule
and operating the machine with skill. Without having proper operational skill you will not
operate machine. Without doing proper maintenance you may not get required accuracy.