Running Head: ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 1

Arduino Based Oceanographic Instruments:

An Implementation Strategy for Low-Cost Sensors

Daniel P. Langis

California State Maritime Academy

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Abstract

Oceanographic instruments are expensive, yet essential tools for conducting research on critical

environmental processes. Modern trends in technological advancement and inexpensive

electronics would suggest that oceanographic instruments should be becoming cheaper; however,

low-cost instruments are not yet a reality. This paper describes an implementation strategy and

justification for a new form of low-cost instruments using Arduino-based microcontrollers. It

describes present-day instruments and methods, the need for low-cost sensors, and barriers which

have thus far prevented low-cost instruments from being realized. It also details the unique

advantages of the Arduino platform which make it an ideal candidate for reducing costs and

suggests how to capitalize on its open source design and flexibility. Particular attention is paid

to providing a holistic approach towards reducing life-cycle costs at all stages of planning,

development, and operation. This strategy may be used as a baseline and unifying vision for any

oceanographic research institution(s) wishing to develop low-cost instruments and reap the

benefits of expanding research opportunities.

Keywords: Oceanography, instruments, sensors, low-cost, Arduino, life-cycle cost

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Arduino Based Oceanographic Instruments:

An Implementation Strategy for Low-Cost Sensors

The oceans and their resources are major determinants of the global climate, state of the

environment, and economic productivity of nations across the globe – a 2012 study estimated

that if human impacts on the ocean continue unabated, declines in ocean health and

services will cost the global economy $428 billion per year by 2050, and $1.979 trillion

per year by 2100. Alternatively, steps to reduce these impacts could save more than a

trillion dollars per year by 2100, reducing the cost of human impacts to $612 billion

(Virginia Institute of Marine Science).

Oceanographic studies are necessary to understand the scope and nature of potential

impacts. Those studies are heavily reliant on the measurement and collection of data from a

variety of sensors and observation platforms. Characteristics such as water temperature, salinity,

depth, currents, fluorescence, photosynthetic radiation, and pH are all used to monitor and

predict the health and productivity of the oceans.

One of the major cruxes in oceanography is how to collect accurate measurements and

sample water from extremely remote, hostile environments. “The ocean is the most complex,

challenging, and harsh environment on Earth and accessing it requires specially designed tools

and technology” (NOAA, 2013). Traditional methods have relied on robust, precise instruments

which are often deployed on elaborate mooring systems from a research vessel – a prospect

which is both expensive and dangerous. Recent advances in technology, such as satellite

observations and remotely operated vehicles, have already proven great alternatives to traditional

methods for many applications (National Ocean Council, 2011), but many programs are still

dependent on bulky and expensive instrumentation for the backbone of their data collection.
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Due to the dramatic reduction in size and cost of electronic components, there is great

hope on the horizon for redefining how instruments are produced and utilized in the field. To

many, it seems that the industry is on the cusp of a revolution which could decrease costs of

collecting certain data by orders of magnitude. With the remarkable developments and products

made in land-based electronics such as cell phones and computers, one might expect the

revolution to be at hand. There is hope that a miraculous solution will appear which will provide

an immediate low-cost solution to the myriad challenges of technological innovation and

collecting data in ocean environments. An ideal solution would integrate a suite of highly

accurate sensors into a miniaturized package and be available at very low cost.

Despite the optimistic perspective, a survey of the actual available products would

suggest that very few ultra-low-cost solutions have actually been developed. A host of reasons

exist for the stagnation in what could be a potentially ground-breaking arena for innovation. A

number of the major obstacles preventing ultra-low-cost oceanographic instruments from being

produced are listed below. This list is neither exhaustive nor absolute, but is provided to

illuminate a few of the central challenges that this document and implementation strategy are

intended to address and overcome.

1. Many individuals have made attempts at portions of ultra-low-cost sensor

development (such as conducting studies on individual low-cost sensors) but little

work has been done to propose an end-to-end solution that would make them a

reality. A complete solution must consider how to integrate complex issues such as

product development, data quality, testing, calibration, maintenance, and user

interaction – all while driving down total cost (Blanchard, 2008, p.10).
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2. The instrumentation industry is dominated by a limited number of commercial

companies who have a strong hold on the market. Those companies create first-rate

products and do provide reliable end-to-end solutions for the issues above. Although

expensive, the costs for oceanographic instruments are incorporated into budgets as

the price of conducting research; programs also have large amounts of capital already

invested in instruments. These factors reduce pressure and create a justifiable

reluctance to develop and adopt new technologies.

3. Organizational processes and traditions are very hard to change. The adoption of any

revolutionary practice may redefine processes, alter job responsibilities, and create

internal disruptions which require significant organizational change. The

development of ultra-low-cost sensors must also consider how the technology will be

utilized and provide time and recommendations for adopting new processes.

The implementation strategy that follows justifies using ‘Arduino’ based electronics as

the foundation for low-cost instrumentation. The Arduino is an open-source electronics

platform, intended for making interactive projects (Arduino, n.d.). Although inexpensive and

modest in appearance, it is substantively capable of driving the functions of complex

oceanographic instruments. Additionally, the opportunities resulting from open-source design,

modularity, customization, and cost reduction would make it ideal for the challenges faced in

oceanography. Significant discussion is given to exactly how and why the foundation for this

platform should be established, what types of applications it is best suited for, and how to

approach future product development.

Oceanographic research institutions such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, and the Scripps Institute of Oceanography
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are likely to be the immediate beneficiaries of this implementation strategy. It can provide a

unifying vision and direction for the development of a branch of technology which can be shared

across institutions. Individual laboratories and programs within those institutions would then be

able to adapt and customize these technologies for specific projects.

The creation of ultra-low-cost sensors has the opportunity to provide a dramatic impact

on the environment, commercial industries, and the economy as a whole. Reducing instrument

costs by some order of magnitude has the potential to improve monitoring of the climate,

generate new models, improve forecasting, and enhance our ability to responsibly manage our

planet’s resources.

Literature Review

Present-Day Platforms and Methods

In order to understand how low-cost instruments may be developed and applied in

oceanography, one must first consider the current methods of data acquisition and the

fundamental strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches. The National Academy of

Science’s Committee on an Ocean Infrastructure Strategy published a document in addressing

the Critical Infrastructure for Ocean Research and Societal Needs in 2030. The document posed

major research questions, addressed technology trends, and set broad strategic goals for how

technology and infrastructure will be applied specifically to oceanography in the next two

decades (2011). A number of these trends are summarized below.

Ships. Traditional oceanography relied on research vessels equipped with sophisticated

instrumentation to conduct in-situ measurements or sampling and deploy mooring systems to

monitor remote environments. Ships have distinct advantages as mobile, adaptable platforms,

but are remarkably expensive. According to the National Ocean Council’s Federal
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Oceanographic Fleet Status Report (2013, p. 20), “Federal agencies are facing numerous

challenges associated with cost-effectively operating and maintaining the Fleet” of

oceanographic vessels. Fuel costs have increased some 400% since 2003, aging vessels require

higher maintenance costs, personnel costs for salaries and training are increasing, and new safety

and environmental standards are becoming more stringent (National Ocean Council, 2013, pp.

19-20). The overall result is that ship utilization rates are decreasing and researchers are looking

to alternative methods and examining how to reduce other costs in order to afford ship-time.

Total fleet operating costs have risen dramatically in the past several years and were well over

$200 million annually from 2008 to 2012 – forcing total operating days to fall from nearly 8500

to around 7000 in that same time (National Ocean Council, 2013, pp. 21).

Moorings. Moored buoy systems have been another staple of oceanography since the

1960s. Conventionally, moorings are equipped with precision calibrated instruments and

provide important ground-truth and multi-decadal time series data. As they provide such

important benchmarks, mooring systems “will remain a key element of ocean observing

infrastructure by providing high-frequency fixed location data” (National Academy of Science,

2011, p. 30). However, an individual mooring may require many tens of thousands of dollars in

instrumentation and nearly all require the expensive services of vessels to maintain. Their bulk

and complexity can also make them labor intensive and dangerous to deploy and recover.

Autonomous and Remote Vehicles. In recent years, advances in autonomous systems,

such as AUVs, gliders, and ARGO profiling floats have provided an avenue for broad spatial

remote sensing systems. These systems have been developed in response to rising costs and

safety concerns, and have been enabled by advancements in modern technology.

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Indeed, at the onset of the twenty-first century a global program (Argo…) to continuously

monitor velocity within the water column was initiated using relatively inexpensive

subsurface floats that follow the subsurface currents (mostly at a single depth) and report

back to satellites at regular intervals. This program has already revolutionized observing

of the ocean interior, primarily because of the temperature and salinity profiles collected

on every trip to the surface, which has been standardized at ten-day intervals; the velocity

data have been less utilized. A global deployment of surface drifters accomplishes the

same objective at the sea surface…These ocean-wide Lagrangian sampling methods were

not possible prior to the beginning of global satellite communications… (Talley, Pickard,

Emery, and Swift, 2011, Ch. 16, p. 2)

Autonomous systems have vastly increased global measurements in the ocean and

reduced the need for some ship-based measurements. These systems have provided some

reprieve from ship costs, but can still be expensive platforms. They do require substantial

financial and program investment and are best suited for deep-ocean, open-ocean, long-term

deployments – not necessarily for coastal or spatially precise missions. As far as cost for the

ARGO program,

Each float costs about $15,000 USD and this cost about doubles when the cost of

handling the data and running the project is taken into account. Thus the approximate

cost of the project is 800 x $30,000 = $24 [million] per year. (Argo FAQ. n.d.)

Furthermore, future modifications to ARGO floats which could add instrumentation such

as biological and chemical sensors or Iridium communications are likely to increase costs by

several thousands of dollars for each upgrade.

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Other Innovations such as Liquid Robotics’ Wave Glider have added controllable,

remotely operated vehicles to the available options. In terms of total cost, they are a much more

economical option than research vessels for obtaining remote measurements. However, the

newest generation of Wave Glider (SV3) will cost approximately $300,000, significantly more

than the previous $175,000 version (SV2) (Venture Beat, 2013).

The National Ocean Council made this summary about the above technologies:

In the past two decades, use of floats, gliders, ROVS, AUVS, and scientific seafloor

cables has increased; use of ships, drifters, moorings, and towed arrays have remained

stable; and use of HOVs has declined. Based on these trends, utilization and capabilities

for floats, gliders, ROVs, AUVs, ships, and moorings will continue to increase for the

next 20 years, and HOV use is likely to remain stable. Ships will continue to be an

essential component of ocean research infrastructure; however, the increasing use of

autonomous and unmanned assets may change how ships are used. (2011, p. 31)

Satellite Imagery. Satellites, communications technology, and vast amounts of

bandwidth have opened the door to some new options for sensing such as satellite imagery and

moored cable systems. Satellite imagery can provide information on parameters like wind,

temperature, ice distribution, and phytoplankton concentration. Satellites are, of course, limited

to the type of data they can collect viewing the ocean surface and require significant investment

to build and maintain.

Cabled Observatories. Permanently cabled ocean observatory systems may replace

some traditional mooring systems at a substantially reduced life-cycle cost according to Chave,

Waterworth, Maffei, and Massion (2004). Linked to shore by fiber optic cables, they would be

able to transmit near instantaneous measurements from fixed locations to shore, whereas
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traditional moorings may take over a year to collect, recover, and process data. While cabled

systems may provide a better alternative than traditional moorings for some locations, they will

nonetheless suffer from some of the same drawbacks as traditional moorings – namely,

significant infrastructure investment and planning, expensive instrumentation, and high

maintenance costs.

Efforts toward Low-Cost Instrumentation

Background. The National Ocean Council's document describes how oceanographic

sensors are needed to measure physical, biological and chemical, and geological/geophysical

processes. Two of its principal recommendations to the nation were to “expand abilities for

autonomous monitoring at a wide range of spatial and temporal scales with greater sensor and

platform capabilities” and “support continued innovation in ocean infrastructure development.

Of particular note is the need to develop in situ sensors, especially biogeochemical sensors”

(2011, p.3).

For many years, researchers have purported the need for less expensive instrumentation

to obtain a greater number of discrete measurements. The spatial resolution of data, as well as

models used for prediction, both depend on the frequency and location of sampling. In order to

increase the spatial resolution of data and models, especially in heterogeneous environments, a

large number of measurements must be acquired. One of the best ways to resolve this issue is to

create a large network of (hopefully) inexpensive instruments. The need for inexpensive

instruments has been well known for many years. According to Erikson (1997), “Progress in

meeting the daunting challenge of sampling ocean variability will be made through development

of small cheap autonomous instruments that can be used in large numbers.”

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Recent technological advancements have opened the door to the possibility of such

instruments. For example,

Circa 1990, there were only a few 8-bit microprocessor systems with sufficiently low

power consumption for autonomous deployments, and they had volatile solid-state

memory and limited computational power and data storage. In 2010, processors with

orders-of-magnitude-higher computational power can navigate systems, command

sensors and actuators, adapt missions, and retain gigabytes of data in robust solid-state

memory. There have been parallel improvements in power availability, including the

transition from alkaline to lithium batteries. (National Ocean Council, 2011, pp. 28-29)

Examples. Many attempts and proposals have been made in recent years to produce

concepts for low-cost oceanographic instruments though few have gained significant traction or

seen widespread use. More extensive discussion of why they have not, in spite of opportunities,

is provided in the section on Technological and Organizational Challenges. A number of

examples of low-cost instrument designs are provided below. In many cases, these projects

present designs which cost at least an order of magnitude less than traditional commercial

instruments.

The mainstay of oceanographic studies are what are known as CTD profiles

(Conductivity, Temperature and Depth). These are the “primary tool for determining essential

physical properties of sea water. [They] give scientists a precise and comprehensive charting of

the distribution and variation of water temperature, salinity, and density that helps to understand

how the oceans affect life” (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 2007). In 2013, an attempt

was initiated to make an “OpenCTD” – a low-cost, open-source CTD, which could be

constructed for less than $200. When compared to the cost of commercial equipment, this is
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incredibly inexpensive. “Commercial CTD’s start at more the $5,000 and can climb as high as

$25,000 or more” (Thaler, Sturdivant, 2013). Unfortunately, the first prototype of OpenCTD

was created with the basic components installed, but appears not to have completed the process

of testing and calibration according to the team’s crowd-funding site.

A novel design, mimicking the ARGO profiling floats was completed in 2011 (Paradis,

2011). The ‘ECS Unit’ was constructed which was functionally capable of conducting multiple

autonomous profiles using internal buoyancy control. Despite the complex operational profile,

the device cost only about $1,500 to make. The unit was not as sophisticated, accurate, or long-

lasting as ARGO floats, but nonetheless presented an economical option which could conduct

multiple CTD profiles and still be cost-effective enough to be expendable.

A number of other studies have been conducted to develop sensors for measuring

individual parameters.

A 2013 study by Leeuw, Boss, and Wright demonstrated that a fluorometer capable of

measuring chlorophyll  using blue LED excitation could be constructed for $150 with little to

no previous experience. Commercial fluorometers start at roughly $1,750, not including the

interface to continuously log data. Complete units can cost $3,000-$5,000 or more (Turner

Designs, n.d).

Another study demonstrated that current velocity profiles could be measured at a “spatial

and temporal scale relevant to the ecology of individual benthos and fish” using a device

constructed for less than $150 (Johansen, 2014, p. 1).

A plethora of current sensors is currently being used by oceanographers worldwide

including Electromagnetic Current Meters and Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers

(ADCP) [11]. These instruments allow long term monitoring for months to years and
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some are capable of high resolution profiling of the entire water column around each

instrument including near bottom velocity measures [12]–[14]. However, instruments

such as the ADCP's are very expensive ($10,000–25,000 per instrument) and in most

cases not economically viable for profiling currents in multiple locations simultaneously.

(Johansen, 2014, p. 2)

“As ocean and estuarine acidification has gained attention from scientists and policy

makers over the last several years, the need to develop cost-effective and accurate methods to

monitor the chemistry of our coasts and oceans has become increasingly important” (Yang,

Patsavas, Byrne, and Ma, 2014). An LED photometer was developed which was accurate for

measuring pH to .01 units of the state-of-the-art spectrophotometric measurements. However,

the parts for the sensor developed in this study cost only about $50, whereas the state-of-the-art

model cost about $6,000 (Yang, Patsavas, Byrne, and Ma, 2014).

Similar projects have been completed for measuring parameters such as turbidity (Kelley

et. al., 2014) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (Anzalone, Glover, and Pearce, 2013), each using

instruments which cost $50-100. In this case, the turbidity sensor would cost approximately only

4% of the cost of a commercial instrument (Kelley et. al., 2014).

Technological and Organizational Challenges

Despite the recent progress, none of the above examples have been adopted on a large

scale or seem to be gaining much traction. One must ask and consider why. One might suggest

that low-cost instrumentation is still in the early design phases and needs more time to evolve.

However, this does not answer the question, but merely suggests that it still needs to be

answered.
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The primary underlying reason is that the difficulty in implementing low-cost sensors is a

much more comprehensive problem. In Marty Cagan’s book, “Inspired: How to Create Products

Customers Love”, he stresses that products must solve and address a real problem. In

oceanography, the problem researchers must solve asks how to design, evaluate, test, calibrate,

deploy, recover, and maintain instruments. A successful low-cost instrument must consider not

only if building a certain type of sensor is possible, but also how designers and users will interact

with it throughout its life-cycle.

Low-cost, open-source designs are novel and appealing but also present serious

challenges. Many designs (especially in their incipient forms) are labor intensive and require a

great deal of time and attention to build, test, and maintain. Commercial instruments, on the

other hand, are sold as fully constructed, calibrated, reliable instruments. If the equipment

malfunctions or needs to be re-calibrated, it is usually sent back to the manufacturer who then

performs the maintenance. These are important procedures which must be factored into the

value of instruments, as researchers pay for far more than just the cost of materials when

purchasing commercial products and can just as easily neglect downstream costs. According to

Blanchard (2008),

In general, experience indicated that the life-cycle costs of many of the systems in use

today are increasing. Although a great deal of emphasis has been placed on minimizing

the costs associated with the procurement and acquisition of systems, little attention has

been paid to the costs of system operation and support. In the design of systems, it is

important to view all decisions in the context of total cost if one is to properly assess the

risks associated with the decision in question. (p. 10)

And
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It has been determined that a major portion of the projected life-cycle cost for a given

system stems from the consequences of decisions made during the early stages of

advance planning and system conceptual design. Such decisions, which can have a

significant impact on downstream costs, relate to the definition of operational

requirements…, maintenance and support policies…, allocations associated with manual

versus automation applications…, hardware versus software applications, the selection of

materials, the selection of a manufacturing process, whether a COTS item should be

selected versus the pursuit of a new design approach and so on. (p. 13)

Researchers must consider total life-cycle costs when developing low-cost instruments in

order for them to truly be low-cost. Unique procedures may need to be developed for test,

calibration, and maintenance of instruments to drive down total costs. An implementation

strategy is also critical to the future success of low-cost instrumentation because of the effect it

will have on downstream costs.

Additionally, significant care must be given to ensure data integrity and standardization

of instruments. Significant attention has been given to standardizing communications and data

storage protocols across instruments in new programs such as permanent oceanographic

observatories (Maffei et. al., n.d.). Open-source designs present the opportunity to customize

and easily modify projects for individual users, but this can also lead to easily and inadvertently

altering established standards.

The single most difficult concern with low-cost instrumentation revolves around the

reliability of data. A great deal of life and property can often depend on oceanographic

measurements. As NOAA’s Ocean System Test and Evaluation Plan described, sensors need to

be evaluated, quality control procedures developed, and all must be assured by traceable
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calibrations and redundant sensors in order to ensure they are introduced in a responsible manner

(National Ocean Service, 2001). As in the case of the NOS, OSTEP was tasked with “providing

data quality assurance to a level required for NOS to accept legal liability for observations and

derived navigation safety products and services” (National Ocean Service, 2001, p. 2). Low-cost

instruments may still be substantially accurate for a broad variety of studies; nonetheless, they

must be used judiciously and in the appropriate applications, based on their inherent uncertainty

and error.

Basics of the Arduino Platform

The National Ocean Council stated that in coming years, “consumer-driven advances in

microelectronics are likely to continue to benefit the ocean research community through

increased platform capabilities. This will be enabled by modular platforms that can easily

accommodate rapidly evolving sensors” (2011, p. 29).

The Arduino offers exactly such a platform at the most basic level. Its design enables it to

be an ideal platform for both development and implementation of new instrumentation. The

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform, intended for anyone making interactive projects

(Arduino, n.d.) (Oceanographic projects are no exception.) It integrates a micro-controller,

programming language, and development environment to create easily programmable inputs and

outputs in a convenient package. A variety of Arduino products are available, some in miniature

packages, with typical models starting around $25 each (Adafruit, n.d.). Since the Arduino and

programming language are all open-source, plans and sample projects are widely available.

Since it can interface quickly and easily with COST components, such as integrated circuits and

‘shields’, it offers distinct advantages that would allow modular design and enable laboratories to

build customized instruments.

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The essential feature of the Arduino is that its user-friendly platform reduces the

previously intricate electrical and computer engineering task of sensor design to a much simpler

process of evaluating performance. The fact that a number of the above examples of low cost

sensors use Arduinos as a foundation for the project is no coincidence, as it offers unique

advantages for reducing time, cost, and complexity in the design process (Thaler, Sturdivant,

2013), (Leeuw, Boss, and Wright, 2013), (Yang, Patsavas, Byrne, and Ma, 2014), (Kelley et. al.,

2014) and (Johansen, 2014).

Additional products already exist which can be easily added to the Arduino to enhance

the capability of these low-cost instruments. For example, GPS, wireless communications, and

data logging circuits and are readily available for only $20-30 each (Adafruit, n.d) as is

straightforward code to make each effective. Even more elaborate devices, such as the

RockBlock, developed by Rock Seven (n.d.), allow plug and play satellite communication

providing global 2-way communication to Arduino devices. The RockBlock only costs around

$250, plus small data charges.

Considering the above examples and available technology, it may be quite possible to

build individual instruments at incredibly low costs of around $75-$150. Furthermore, it may be

possible to integrate a suite of physical, biological, and chemical sensors into a single instrument

for $1,000-$2,000 - about the same as a modern commercial instrument with a single sensor.

Low-cost instrumentation has the potential to dramatically reduce costs and open the door for

new entirely new areas of research in oceanography.

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An Implementation Strategy
Major Objectives

The implementation strategy described here seeks to fulfill several major objectives. It

strives to:

1. Describe the importance of low-cost instrumentation and discuss the need to develop a

comprehensive plan for making those products a reality. An end-to-end solution must

consider costs and operational requirements at all stages of product life-cycle in order to

be successful.

2. Discuss the major advantages and limitations of the Arduino platform and present the

implications for specific oceanographic research endeavors.

3. Make technical recommendations for a standard architecture, which will transform the

Arduino from a general electronics platform to one specifically suited for oceanographic

instruments.

4. Make strategic and procedural recommendations for integrating instruments into

oceanographic research institutions and projects.

Highlights of the Arduino Platform

Advantages. The Arduino platform is highly advantageous and offers unique

opportunities for a host of reasons. Most obvious among these is its incredibly low cost. Basic

Arduino modules, such as the Uno R3, are available for ~$25 (Adafruit, n.d.). A wide variety of

Arduino boards and configurations exist, each with slightly different technical specifications and

sizes. Throughout this discussion, the Arduino Uno is used as a baseline comparison because of

its popularity, low cost, and middle-of-the-road components

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Despite its low cost, the Arduino is a highly versatile platform which can be used to

interface with almost any type of modern integrated circuit, such as Analog-to-Digital

Converters, memory cards, real-time clocks, or power switching devices. As for oceanographic

research, it is equally feasible to connect a full suite of oceanographic sensors to a single

Arduino controller. If individual low-cost sensors for oceanographic measurements can be

developed, the Arduino is an ideal platform for integrating multiple sensors into successful low-

cost instruments.

Figure 1: Photo of Arduino Uno R3 (Arduino, n.d.)

The Arduino Uno has 20 pins which can be configured as input or outputs for signal

transmission or data communication (Arduino, n.d.). Depending on the application, users can

add sensors and circuit components to each of the pins, without affecting the base design. This

type of modular design is especially beneficial for oceanographic research applications.

Different laboratories and research teams using Arduino-based instruments could add individual

sensors for according to their specific needs while reducing total costs by connecting them to a

single processing unit. Similarly, modular designs can significantly reduce repair costs if
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instruments are designed with interchangeable parts. Interchangeable parts allow a single

component such as a sensor or accompanying integrated circuit to be replaced, rather than the

entire unit – something that is not possible with traditional embedded systems.

Along with a flexible hardware interface, Arduinos have a flexible software interface and

can be easily programmed with customized code. Researchers using these platforms could easily

modify sampling intervals and data output, or even program instruments to perform different

functions based on environmental conditions. For example, an instrument could sample rapidly

or even deploy secondary devices when the local ecosystem is especially active, but sample more

slowly and conserve energy during times when the ecosystem is relatively dormant. Flexible

programs would allow for more unique research opportunities and investigating previously

unapproachable hypotheses. If a device could wait for a large plankton bloom or high ambient

light conditions before collecting large amounts of data or releasing itself from the ocean bottom,

researchers may be able to better characterize highly transient conditions and better identify

productivity levels which could previously only be measured during occasional opportunistic

circumstances. Allowing users to customize data output would also simplify data ingestion and

processing after instruments are recovered.

Low-cost micro-controllers have been available for some time (National Ocean Council,

2013, pp. 28-29), but the Arduino is truly unique. It reduces what used to be complex computer

and electrical engineering endeavors into projects that can be completed by designers who have

minimal experience in electronics or programming. Its popularity has made it nearly ubiquitous

in the “Maker” culture, and pre-written libraries of code and examples are available for a wide

variety of integrated circuits and applications. This has a compounding effect and again

dramatically reduces the difficulty in designing projects using the Arduino – allowing for even
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novice designers to engage in rapid prototype development. In any case, reducing time and cost

involved in the design process leads to a reduction in total life cycle costs. When developing

new instruments, these savings can be significant and should be considered in addition to the

savings from material costs.

Since the code, schematics, and circuit board designs for Arduino boards are all open

source, organizations and universities around the globe can engage in collaborative development.

Many oceanographic research institutions lack centralized, dedicated engineering teams such as

those in companies specializing in producing traditional oceanographic instruments. Those that

do have engineering teams are stretched quite thin, often as a result of supporting multiple

research groups. As a result, as evidenced by many examples provided in the Literature Review,

non-engineering students and professionals across organizations engage in the creative design

process and are highly invested in developing innovative, low-cost solutions for instrumentation.

If oceanographic institutions across the globe can adopt a common architecture such as the

Arduino platform, they can also share in their progress and build on each other’s work much

more easily. Again, the Arduino platform is particularly attractive because of its low cost and

minimal electronics experience required to operate. Since it is so widely available, almost

anyone can engage in the processes needed for creating successful instruments, whether it is

conceptual design, full-scale production, testing, calibration, or quality control. Distributing

development across organizations would also serve to reduce the costs incurred by any one

group. Global collaborative development also highlights the need for sharing and distributing

information – a topic discussed further below.

Table 1 below provides a summary of the advantages discussed above and their

implications for oceanographic research.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 22

Table 1: Advantages of Arduino Platform for Oceanographic Instruments

Advantage of Arduino Platform Positive Influence for Oceanographic

Applications

-Inexpensive (~$25) -Reduces baseline cost of designing, testing,

and building instruments.

-Very popular development tool -Many students and researchers already

familiar with Arduinos.

-Libraries and examples are widely available.

-Modular Design -Projects can be designed with

interchangeable parts.

-Teams can build custom projects for specific

research needs.

-Open source design -Organizations and universities can engage in

collaborative development of instruments and

sensors.

-Easily programmable -Data output and program structures can be

customized for individual projects.

-Flexible platform -Can interface with a wide variety of

integrated circuits or sensors for more

complex projects.

-Can support full suite of oceanographic

sensors with a single controller.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 23

Disadvantages. Despite the numerous advantages, the Arduino platform does possess

some inherent limitations. Some might suggest that these render the Arduino unsuitable for

oceanographic research, but all can be overcome by adopting a standard architecture and

judiciously selecting research endeavors for Arduino based instruments. Both approaches will

be discussed at length in subsequent sections. .

To begin, Arduinos are generally not optimized for minimal power consumption.

Standard boards draw ~50 mA when running, even without additional circuitry or sensors. If

running continuously for a 1-year remote deployment, such a device would require 438 Amp-

hours of battery power, or approximately 365 standard 9V lithium batteries. Modifications must

be made to improve power consumption and avoid deployments requiring continuous operation.

By including basic circuitry that allows instruments to power-down and wake-up at

predetermined intervals, this problem can largely be eliminated. For example, an instrument that

only needs to be “awake” for one second to take a measurement every 10 minutes can easily

operate for a full year on a single standard 9V battery.

Arduino boards also have limited built-in circuitry. The Uno does not have memory

storage capability (such as an SD card reader) or a real time clock. The built in Analog-to-

Digital converter (ADC) is also limited to a resolution of only 10 bits. The 10-bit ADC limits

analog measurements to only 1024 possible voltage readings, severely limiting the resolution of

possible measurements. For example, a sensor measuring temperature would at best be limited

to about +/- 0.1° accuracy between 32°F and 130°F. While adequate for some applications, these

standards are nowhere near sufficient for oceanographic research and not competitive with

current products. By comparison, SeaBird Electronics’ SBE56 has an accuracy of +/- 0.0036°F

and can sample approximately four times per minute, for 2 years, on a single battery (Seabird
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 24

Electronics, n.d.). Even though Arduino boards do not typically have sophisticated components

built-in, they can easily interface with other integrated circuits – thus converting them into

capable platforms for data collection and research. Adding components for oceanographic

instruments can be simplified considerably by combining all essential components into a single

‘shield’- a process described in depth later.

Boards such as the Arduino Uno have limited capacity for flash memory (32kB) and

static random access memory (1 kB) which does pose some limitation on program length and

complexity (Arduino, n.d.). However, this space is adequate for most applications and thorough

testing, documentation, and training can prevent instruments from malfunctioning in field

deployments. Additionally, other Arduino models such as the ‘Mega’ and the ‘Zero’ (still in

development) have significantly more memory space (256kB flash, 32kB SRAM) and could be

used for applications which do require complex programming (Arduino, n.d.).

From an organizational perspective, the Arduino also poses some difficulties. Most

oceanographic instruments are designed with embedded programs, where users interact with

devices using a serial communication interface (RS-232). This allows users (who are almost

always separated from the design process) to configure settings without affecting the internal

circuitry. Arduino boards, on the other hand, utilize a USB connection and users to upload code

directly affecting the internal circuitry. The problem is twofold; one – users must adapt to an

entirely new interface with devices and two – users can easily alter code that could affect an

instrument’s circuitry or cause a program sequence to malfunction. To overcome these

problems, managers as well as users must be open to utilizing a new interface and should employ

effective change management practices in order to facilitate a transition to these instruments.

Second, designers should provide documentation explaining programs and structure program
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 25

code in a way that makes it very obvious to end users what and how variables may be changed to

customize programming.

Development, production, calibration, and maintenance will likely require additional

involvement from users. Additional involvement will require organizational flexibility. In order

to minimize life-cycle costs, many of these functions may need to be performed by end users,

rather than instrument manufacturers. Every effort should be made to simplify these processes,

which by and large, should not require highly technical skills. Nonetheless, managers should

recognize the implications and reserve resources before launching extensive campaigns using

Arduino-based instruments.

Lastly, it is very likely that low-cost instruments will suffer some slight loss in precision

or accuracy. Modern electronic components are inexpensive, incredibly sophisticated, and may

still reasonably achieve very high absolute accuracy. However, Arduino-based instruments will

likely not be able to compete on a performance basis with many specialized oceanographic

instruments that have been optimized by engineering professionals. A temperature sensor may

only achieve an absolute accuracy of +/- 0.01°C vs. a SeaBird instrument which achieves +/-

0.002°C (Seabird Electronics, n.d.), but this must be taken in perspective. If an experiment only

requires a resolution of +/- 0.01°C and the Arduino-based instrument costs only one-tenth of the

price, the choice of which to use should be clear. This is not to say that all sensors will be

accurate enough for all applications, but researchers should be aware of what their minimum

requirements are and must be willing to forgo the most precise instruments if more economical

options exist. Few studies have been done on long-term stability or reliability of Arduino

boards, especially in cold conditions seen in oceanography. Such studies should be conducted

for all new sensors in order to verify instrument design and alleviate concerns about reliability.
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 26

Table 2 provides a summary of the major disadvantages of Arduino instruments for

oceanographic instruments and the primary solutions for overcoming them.

Table 2: Disadvantages of Arduino Platform for Oceanographic Instruments

Disadvantage/Limitation of Arduino Primary Solutions

Platform

-Power consumption not optimized -Avoid deployments requiring continuous

operation.

-Include circuitry to power-down units

-Lack of memory storage -Include SDCard reader on ‘ocean shield’

-Lack of real time clock -Include RTC on ‘ocean shield’

-Built in ADC only 10-bit -Include 16-bit ADC with individual sensors

-Limited RAM -Utilize robust programming methods.

-Test all programs thoroughly before

deployment.

-Calibration and repairs not included -Develop simple calibration methods.

when manufacturing custom -Improve organizational flexibility to provide

instruments users time for servicing instruments

-New programming interface -Practice sound change management.

-Provide documentation and clear instructions

to end users.

-Mild-to-moderate reduction in -Use low-cost instruments for applications

precision when compared to requiring less precision.

sophisticated instruments -Verify long-term reliability of instruments.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 27

Applications for Oceanographic Research

As discussed in Literature Review, many instruments are already highly specialized and well

suited for specific applications. Moorings and fixed systems are excellent for highly precise,

long time-series benchmark data; profiling gliders and ARGO floats are ideal for wide-scale

remote sampling of the deep ocean; cabled observatories may be best for real-time observation;

and satellite imagery is excellent for monitoring surface conditions and geophysical processes

(National Ocean Council, 2013, pp. 21).

With such highly specialized systems, one must ponder where low-cost systems may

possibly fit in the picture. Oceanographic research has evolved largely as a result of the

available technology and is now heavily reliant on current systems to sustain projects vital to

supporting commerce and environmental management. Unless current systems can be directly

replaced by new systems with equivalent or better performance capabilities, many current

programs must be continued. Given that systems have continually evolved with oceanographic

research as a whole, it is reasonable to assume that many are nearly optimized, and it is unfair to

assume that low-cost instrumentation could be designed for all applications. Nonetheless,

abundant opportunities do exist.

One must consider the distinct advantages to low-cost sensors to understand how they

may be best used. Low-cost sensors primarily provide an opportunity to deploy a large number

of sensors across a region and dramatically improve spatial resolution. It is entirely possible that

Arduino-based instruments, capable of measuring a wide array of properties (temperature,

conductivity, depth, nutrient levels, fluorescence, and chemical properties) can be produced for

1/10th to 1/100th of the cost of a similar suite of instruments. This effectively means that one
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 28

could possibly deploy dozens of Arduino-based instruments rather than a single traditional

mooring.

Research opportunities are abundant in areas where large capital investments in

instruments have previously prohibited certain processes from being studied. As such, low-cost

systems are best for applications where multi-point arrays are needed such as heterogeneous

regions, highly dynamic environments, or unexplored domains. Heterogeneous regions such as

canyons, ridges, and shelves exhibit dramatically different conditions between physical

boundaries. Large numbers of instruments may be especially useful in understanding the

complex physical processes at work and how the local area is impacted as a result. Highly

dynamic environments such as shallow coasts, spawning grounds, or highly productive areas can

change very rapidly, making it very difficult to study transient processes. Typically such

processes are studied opportunistically, only when they occur nearby to ships or established

mooring sites. Instead, low-cost instrumentation may allow transient processes to be studied in a

more thorough manner and possibly identify mechanisms necessary for high biological

productivity. Lastly, domains that are unexplored or not well understood can benefit greatly

from low-cost instruments. Deploying a very large number of instruments during the early

stages of a study can help to more fully characterize a region. Once the predominant

characteristics (currents, biological density, etc.) are understood, researchers may have much

greater success in planning capital-intensive projects such as sophisticated mooring sites or ship-

based in-situ sampling. Arctic regions are particularly notable in this respect as global interest is

intensifying for expanding research to areas that are now accessible and especially intriguing due

to the reduction in ice cover over recent decades.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 29

Deployment methods must also be considered for low-cost instruments in order to ensure

minimal life-cycle cost. If a single $1,000 instrument on a mooring is replaced by a $100

instrument, but the ship-board deployment and recovery methods or mooring hardware is not

changed, the $900 will only carry over to a minimal reduction in total cost. Researchers should

consider using instruments that are expendable, deployed from smaller vessels, and/or deployed

as “piggyback” projects during larger research cruises. In regard to expendable instruments,

Arduino boards can easily connect to Iridium modems that only cost around $250 and would

allow instruments to relay data they have collected via satellite. Developing instruments with

this Iridium communication could eliminate the need for recovery (such as with ARGO floats),

thus eliminating a great deal of cost relative to traditional moorings. Expendable instruments are

widely utilized, but their benefits should, of course, be weighed against the environmental impact

of pollution when leaving instruments adrift or on the ocean bottom. The flexibility and small

size of Arduino-based instruments may also enable the development of ‘miniature’ mooring

systems that have a built-in release or can be deployed without heavy-duty equipment – possibly

even by hand. Building such systems would considerably reduce deployment costs by

eliminating a great deal of expensive hardware or time aboard larger research vessels. When

larger vessels are needed or available, researchers should use every opportunity to “piggy-back”

on pre-existing research cruises, again reducing costs by limiting ship-based time.

Low-cost instruments may be best if limited to shallower depths (say less than 200m) for

several reasons. First, instruments deployed at extreme depths are subject to immense forces.

This requires each aspect of mooring systems must be robust (i.e. heavy and expensive). If low-

cost instruments are largely restricted to shallow water, other components such as waterproof

housings, floats, and mooring hardware can be scaled down and optimized for cost reduction.
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 30

Also, considering that the deep ocean is well populated with ARGO floats; coastal regions are

generally much more heterogeneous and dynamic; and a great majority of ocean productivity

occurs on continental shelves at depths of 150m or less, limiting low-cost instruments to shallow

depths should not significantly reduce the number of potential research opportunities.

As noted, Arduino-based instruments are not well suited for long-term deployments

requiring continuous power. However, many sampling applications might only require one

discrete measurement every few minutes. Researchers should be aware that Arduino-based

instruments will be the most energy efficient and cost effective if used in scenarios that do not

require high temporal resolution. Instruments such as ice profilers, which require measurements

nearly every second to achieve an accurate picture of ice thickness, are not ideal candidates.

Alternately, since Arduinos can be easily programmed, researchers may choose to have

instruments sample rapidly under certain conditions (such as during vertical profiles), but much

more slowly during others. This is an equally effective method of efficient energy consumption.

Take the following scenario as an example. An Arduino-based instrument is designed

which costs around $1,000 to produce and is equipped with GPS, Iridium modem, a built in

release mechanism, and several oceanographic sensors. An array of instruments could then be

deployed by hand via a small, fast vessel over the course of just one or two days in an area of

interest, such as the Barrow Canyon in Northern Alaskan waters. The instruments could be

programmed to release at a specified date after about a year, rise to the surface, and begin

transmitting their data by satellite to shore. Those same instruments could easily be programmed

to relay their GPS position once on the surface to collect data currents and allow them to be

easily recovered when safe and economical. Researchers should endeavor to design experiments

that make full use of low-cost modules and the greater flexibility they can provide.
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 31

Developing a Standard Architecture (Ocean Shield)

When considering the potential research applications, the first practical step towards

developing low-cost instrumentation is to overcome the major technical shortcomings of the

Arduino platform. The best way to do this is to develop what is often referred to as a “shield.”

Shields are modular circuits that usually attach directly to an Arduino board to make them

immediately capable of performing certain tasks. An excellent example is a Data Logging

shield. It combines a real-time clock and a micro SD card reader into a small board which plugs

into an Arduino Uno and enables the board to keep track of time and record data on a removable

storage device. (Adafruit, (n.d))

For the purposes of oceanographic research, one might develop an “Ocean Shield”. If an

inexpensive, modular Ocean Shield is developed, it will provide an incredibly low-cost platform

specifically suited for building oceanographic instruments. To serve as a functional

oceanographic instrument, an Arduino board must be capable of performing a basic series of

tasks. It must be able to:

1) ‘Wake-up’ at a given time

2) Take precise measurements (usually voltage levels),

3) Record data on a storage device

4) Return to a ‘sleep-mode’ (thus minimizing energy consumption).

In order to perform the above functions, a handful of standard components must be added

to the Ocean Shield. Table 3 summarizes those components, their basic functions, recommended

parts to use, and an approximate unit cost (as quoted on Digikey Electronics’ website (n.d.))
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 32

Table 3: Recommended Components for Ocean Shield

Component Functions Recommended Approximate

Part Unit Cost

-Real-Time -Keep track of time and date. DS3234 $9.65

Clock -Alarm function to ‘Wake’ Unit.

-Coin Cell -Operate Real Time Clock. CR1220 or $1.49

Battery and -Minimize drain from main similar lithium

Holder battery when ‘Asleep’. cell

-Schmidt -Convert alarm signal from Real HC7S14 $0.42

Inverter Time clock to proper voltage

level to wake up device.

-Voltage -Allow unit to operate on a range LT1129 $5.78

Regulator or of voltage sources (anywhere or or

Boost Converter between 1.8V and 30V). “PowerBoost $9.95

(w/shutdown) -Allow unit to ‘Sleep’ 500 Basic”

-Precision -Provide precision voltage to MAX6126 $5.31

Voltage ADC and sensors for accurate

Regulator measurements

-Micro SD Card -Provide mass data storage Push-Push Micro $1.82

Reader capability (up to 32 GB) SD Card Slot

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 33

Figure 2 below shows a block diagram demonstrating the basic functionality and

connections for the Ocean Shield using the components in Table 3. This diagram may be used as

a baseline to develop a schematic and printed circuit board for the Ocean Shield.

Figure 2: Block Diagram for Ocean Shield

Regardless if the exact parts already exist here are used or not, every component on the

Ocean Shield should operate at least in the full “industrial range” for electrical components,

typically between -40°C and +85°C. Some commercial shields utilize less expensive

components that only function reliably to 0°C, but oceanographic applications can easily exceed
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 34

this limit, as sea water freezes at about -2°C. Instruments are commonly used at or near these

freezing conditions.

The total cost for these components adds up to $28.64 (Digikey Electronics’(n.d.)).

(However, the presented costs are for single components and can be reduced significantly if

purchased in bulk.) The components must also be combined and assembled onto a small printed

circuit board, which adds some cost. Given these prices and the average prices of other available

shields (Adafruit, n.d.), one could reasonably expect to create an Ocean Shield that would cost at

most $50.

Including the $25 cost of an Arduino Uno, this means one could conceivably purchase a

platform fully equipped for oceanographic instruments for about $75. Additionally, that $75

platform would be ideally suited for the types of research applications described above and

would easily be able to interface with numerous sensors, incurring minimal marginal costs for

each.

The above-described architecture should be suitable for standard oceanographic

instruments. However, for some specialized applications, the Arduino Uno and its

accompanying Ocean Shield may not be fully adequate. Using other Arduino boards may be

slightly more expensive and will require some additional engineering in order to replicate the

higher functionality of the Ocean Shield, but still may be viable low cost solutions given the

parallel design features. Fortunately, other models of Arduino boards can be utilized with very

few modifications to sensors or program code. For instruments where size and power are

especially important constraints, designers can use the TinyDuino (or similar modules), which

are “as powerful as the Arduino and smaller than the size of a quarter” (TinyCircuits, n.d.). For

applications which require complex programming algorithms or more than a ten sensors,
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 35

designers may utilize a module such as the Arduino Mega. The Mega is a physically larger

board but has 256kB of flash memory, 32kB SRAM, and 54 digital pins - compared to 32kB of

flash memory, 2kB SRAM, and 20 digital pins on the Arduino Uno (Arduino, n.d.). These types

of specialized applications do hold potential but are probably best investigated after standard

Arduino-based instruments are better established. Figures 3 and 4 depict the TinyDuino and

Arduino Mega, respectively.

Figure 3: Photo of the TinyDuino (Tiny Circuits, n.d.)

Figure 4: Photo of Arduino Mega (Arduino, n.d.)

Sensor Design

Once the basic architecture for Arduino-based instruments is created (the Ocean Shield),

developers can easily engage in the process of creating individual low-cost sensors. (A few

example concepts have already been published and are discussed in the Literature Review). The

benefit of creating a standard architecture is that developers can engage in rapid prototype

development - testing and characterizing individual sensors much more quickly. Additionally,

once individual sensors are developed, they can be seamlessly integrated into formal

oceanographic instruments using the same architecture, thus bypassing a sizeable portion of

engineering design costs.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 36

The OpenROV IMU/Compass/Depth Module is a superb example of the form these

individual sensors may take (OpenROV, 2015). An assembled module costs $80.00 and

combines a pressure sensor (for depth) and a 9-axis Inertial Measurement Unit (providing

heading, roll, pitch, and rotational rate). These components are assembled in a tidy package and

encased in an acrylic housing to protect the sensor – the sensor is shown in Figure 5 below

(OpenROV, 2015). Additionally, all signals flowing to and from the sensor are digital, which

dramatically reduces the potential for error from analog signal transmission. This can be

accomplished in all sensors by using integrated circuits or including individual analog-to-digital

converters in close proximity to analog sensors.

Figure 5: OpenROV IMU/Compass/Depth Module (OpenROV, 2015)

A number of traits must be characterized for each type of sensor in order to fully integrate

them into oceanographic instruments. Studies should be completed to determine attributes

including initial accuracy, precision, measurement range, reliability, annual drift, and resistance
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 37

to biofouling. Projects to characterize a single type of sensor in this manner or optimize sensor

quality based on a variety of configurations or materials are sizeable undertakings. Developers

should endeavor to thoroughly test these qualities and perform studies so that sensors can be

seamlessly integrated into instruments – simply demonstrating a proof of concept and measuring

data for a short deployment is not substantial enough evidence to rely on data for formal

oceanographic studies. Accordingly, it would be advantageous if students and researchers

continue to focus on developing a single type of sensor at a time, rather than attempting to build

new, complete instruments during each study. Focusing on individual sensor design will support

collaborative development, standardization across design groups, and modular design – all of

which should reduce life-cycle costs.

Additionally, developers should make efforts to determine inexpensive and simple

methods of calibrating instruments. If low-cost instruments do see a small reduction in

precision, it is very likely that calibrations could be performed by comparison to commercial

instruments with a single or double point reference, or by possibly a directly mapping all voltage

readings to true values. Simple calibration methods are also essential when producing large

numbers of instruments to ensure time commitments for procedures are not prohibitive.

User Interaction Design

Consideration must also be given to how both developers and end-users will interact with

Arduino instruments. The Ocean Shield should do a great deal to the reduce complexity of

hardware for developers. Developers will also be expected to be much more familiar with the

software interface and spend a significant amount of time adjusting settings or writing code -

thus, software is not likely to cause a great deal of problems for developers. End-users, on the

other hand, might have little or no experience using the Arduino programming environment. To
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 38

alleviate problems, developers should make every effort to write code with names and function

calls that make very clear what the program code is doing. Developers are also highly

encouraged to thoroughly comment code to this end. As for hardware, end-users should also be

provided some visual or auditory confirmation that instruments are operating and loaded

properly if possible. Arduino boards themselves have no built functionality for this purpose, and

it can be difficult for first-time users to understand how the devices operate. Lastly, in regards to

both hardware and software, developers should give detailed attention to user instructions for

product assembly, programming, calibration, and repair/maintenance procedures. End users who

have not used the Arduino platform before may be required to interact more with low-cost

instrumentation to reduce costs – a matter that will only magnify the importance of proper

documentation and training.

Sharing and Distributing Information

A common method of sharing and distributing information should also be given

particular attention. Low-cost instrumentation with the Arduino’s open-source design will

benefit most from collaborative development where assorted sensors are developed

simultaneously diverse groups of students and research institutions, rather than a centralized

product development team. Consequently, those groups need to have some system for sharing

design plans and studies on various types of sensors. The most obvious and probably most

effective solution would be to create a centralized website for all Arduino-based oceanographic

instruments.

A centralized website should contain standardized information wherever possible and be

organized in a logical format according to sensor or instrument type. Users should be

encouraged to utilize standard software for designs and thoroughly document their results.
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 39

Schematics, circuit board drawings, program code, component lists, findings, and any academic

publications should all be included in every possible circumstance. Users should also be able to

engage in discussions and upload content as they participate in studies. In order to protect the

integrity of designs and studies published to the page, the information should also be subject to

review by a program and/or site manager.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 40

Summary

Arduino-based instruments hold great promise for realizing successful, low-cost

instruments. Though they are not a universal solution to replacing all traditional instruments,

they can provide opportunities for reducing the costs of many instruments by an order of

magnitude or more and open doors to new research endeavors in the process.

The primary strategies described above which will result in successful implementation of

low-cost sensors are as follows:

1. Develop an Ocean Shield to optimize Arduino functionality for oceanographic

applications.

2. Design downstream operations, maintenance, and calibration procedures for low-cost.

(Consider more than just acquisition costs)

3. Design and characterize individual modular sensors before developing complicated

instruments.

4. Consider user interaction for programming structure and downstream processes.

5. Centralize sharing and distribution of design materials and results on a managed

website.

One difficulty in developing this implementation strategy was identifying and addressing

roadblocks which have thus far prevented low-cost instruments from becoming a reality. From

an organizational perspective, challenges concerning reducing life-cycle costs, maintaining data

quality, and altering traditional methods are, in reality, very complex and intertwined. The main

focus of this strategy was not to develop an exhaustive solution which will overcome every

challenge in the development of low-cost instruments. Instead, it was designed to present a

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 41

methodology and specific technical recommendations for a solution that can overcome the major

challenges and to demonstrate the feasibility of such a solution.

Researching the most recent advances in low-cost instrument design also proved to be

difficult. With the rapidly evolving technology of the day, new design proposals are constantly

being presented – many just in the year prior to the presentation of this strategy and likely many

more underway. This difficulty highlights the need for a centralized database or website for

sharing information. Similarly, various designs utilized different architectures and assessed

different aspects of their feasibility, rarely giving much discussion to how they might actually be

implemented other than demonstrating that they ‘can be cost effective.’ On one hand, this

emphasized the need for an implementation strategy and standardized designs. On the other

hand, it made trying to propose a standard architecture that would work across a variety of

applications very difficult. Envisioning realistic applications for low-cost instruments helped to

narrow the field and propose an architecture which would function well for those situations.

In order to determine specific applications for Arduino-based instruments, it would be

very useful to first interview scientists about potential research opportunities. The strategy here

can be used as a framework to generate questions. What applications may benefit from high

spatial resolution studies? Where can traditional instruments be replaced by cheaper instruments

with slightly reduced data resolution? Can you provide users with additional time for training

and interaction with instruments if it means dramatically reducing material costs? Once several

example applications are identified, developers can work more closely with researchers to

develop prototypes and begin reliability testing. These discussions would also serve to open

communication channels with researchers, making them more open to accepting Arduino-based
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 42

technologies for their work. Interviews could be conducted on an individual basis by a dedicated

team, or during a multi-disciplinary round table discussion.

In regards to individual sensor development, low-cost designs have already been

proposed for a variety of parameters. Thermistors can be used for temperature; LED excitation

for photosynthetic ambient radiation, fluorescence, and pH; and strain gauges for pressure/depth.

One critical parameter is still missing for oceanography – conductivity. Conductivity can be

highly troublesome because the most sensitive sensors are those with electrodes which are in

contact with a liquid solution. Since instruments are used in highly corrosive, conductive

environments, they are highly susceptible to biofouling unless built with expensive materials.

However, toroidal sensors which are usually encased in a polymeric material are highly resistant

to biofouling and require a great deal less maintenance (Down & Lehr, 2005). Low-cost

instrumentation would take a huge leap forward if a very inexpensive (<$200), modular

conductivity sensor (most likely a toroidal cell) could be developed, ideally using COST

electronic components. This development would facilitate standard oceanographic studies using

CTD profiles and dramatically increase the number of potential applications for low-cost

instruments.

The development of low-cost instruments could also benefit from a formal analysis of

life-cycle costs for various current traditional instruments. For example, how much does a

fluorometer cost for a 20-year period when including acquisition costs, semi-annual repairs,

calibrations, shipping, mounting hardware, and mooring equipment. A formal analysis would

improve transparency of how much instruments truly cost, give more support to the need for

low-cost instruments, and provide developers with more accurate price targets for low-cost

designs.
ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 43

Lastly, although a great deal of development on Arduino-based instruments can be done

collaboratively by geographically disparate groups, the overall project would benefit greatly

from a small centralized group to manage and guide the process. A small group would be able to

manage a website for collecting and distributing plans, provide support to new designers or

researchers, summarize and broadcast new developments, and offer recommendations for future

growth. Some processes, such as printed circuit board manufacturing and certain calibrations

may also be the most cost effective if centralized in a single location. Any oceanographic

research institution which has multiple laboratories that could benefit from low-cost instruments

should take leadership and initiate the formation of such a group.

ARDUINO-BASED OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS 44

References

Adafruit. (n.d.). Adafruit Assembled Data Logging shield for Arduino. Retrieved March 2,

2015, from http://www.adafruit.com/product/1141

Adafruit. (n.d.). Adafruit Assembled Data Logging shield for Arduino. Retrieved February 2,

2015, from http://www.adafruit.com/products/1141

Adafruit. (n.d.). Arduino Uno R3. Retrieved February 2, 2015, from

http://www.adafruit.com/products/50

Adafruit. (n.d.). Ultimate GPS Module - 66 channel w/10 Hz updates - MTK3339 chipset.

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