Statistics For Sensory and Consumer Science

DK3027_book.
fm Page 167 Friday, November 18, 2005 10:13 AM
6
Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners
Scott Helstad
CONTENTS
Sweeteners Utilized by the Food Industry ................................... 170
Sweetener Performance Characteristics and Functionality ......... 170
Carbohydrate Profile and Dextrose Equivalence ................ 172
pH and Titratable Acidity ............................................... 173
Conductivity .......................................................................... 175
Solids ...................................................................................... 175
Sweetener Attributes ....................................................................... 179
Sweetness ............................................................................... 179
Solubility ................................................................................ 181
Ingredient Interactions ................................................................... 183
Proteins ................................................................................... 183
Impact on Gelatinization: Interaction with Starch ............. 186
Interaction with Fats and Oils .............................................. 187
Trace Mineral Interactions .................................................... 188
Sweetener: Sweetener Interactions ................................................ 188
Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation ..... 189
Inversion .......................................................................................... 191
Conclusion ....................................................................................... 192
References ........................................................................................ 193
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DK3027_book.fm Page 168 Friday, November 18, 2005 10:13 AM
168 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition
Sweeteners are one of the food industry’s most versatile and cost-effective
ingredients. They are used for some of the following reasons:
• To manage a food’s sweetness for taste and pleasure

• To preserve and increase shelf life
• To provide easily metabolized energy
• To help the body absorb water
• To manage a product’s texture
• To contribute to a product’s overall flavor character
• To provide a cost-effective source of bulking solids and ferment-
able carbohydrates
• To affect a product’s finished appearance
• To be solidified into amorphous or crystalline products
• To affect a product’s freezing and boiling point
• To mask the bitter taste of vitamins, minerals, and medicines
• To act as a processing aid
But what is a sweetener? Is it defined by taste or functionality? According

to the New World Dictionary, a sweetener is “a sweetening agent, esp. a
synthetic substance, such as saccharine, calcium cyclamate etc.1,” clearly
a definition based upon taste. From a more practical perspective, the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) defines sweeteners in the U.S. Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR). Table 6.1 lists the locations for CFR standards
of identity for many of the sweetener products used in the United States.
The FDA in 21 CFR 170.3 also divides sweeteners into two classes:
nutritive — substances having greater than 2% of the caloric value of
sucrose per equivalent unit of sweetening capacity; and nonnutritive —
substances having less than 2% of the caloric value of sucrose per equiv-
alent unit of sweetening capacity.2 This definition incorporates both a prod-
uct’s relative sweetness and caloric content compared to sucrose.
TABLE 6.1
CFR Locations for Sweetener Standards of Identity
Sweetener CFR Location
Sucrose 21 CFR 184.1854
Corn syrup (glucose syrup) 21 CFR 168.120
Corn syrup solids (dried glucose syrup) 21 CFR 168.121
Dextrose 21 CFR 168.110–168.111
High-fructose corn syrup 21 CFR 184.1866
Lactose 21 CFR 168.122
Maltodextrins 21 CFR 184.1444
Malt syrup 21 CFR 184.1445

Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 169

Using the CFR definition, the following sweeteners are classified as
nutritive sweeteners: sucrose, dextrose (corn sugar), fructose, honey,
molasses, corn sweeteners (both syrups and corn-syrup solids), high-
fructose corn sweeteners, maple syrup, and milk sugar (lactose) as well
as the sugar alcohols, e.g., sorbitol, maltitol, and lactitol. Nonnutritive
sweeteners would include the high-intensity sweeteners like aspartame
and saccharine. Nonnutritive does not mean zero calories. The high-inten-
sity sweeteners do have a caloric value. However, because of their intense
sweet taste the amount needed for functionality is small compared to the
caloric content provided, effectively resulting in no calories. The caloric
content for most of the sugar alcohols falls between 2 and 3 cal/g. Excep-
tions include mannitol and erythritol.
In order for food scientists, marketers, and consumers to better under-
stand what is a sugar and what is a sweetener, the FDA in the Definitions
Section of CFR 21, Parts 182 and 184, GRAS Status of Corn Sugar, Corn
Syrup, Invert Sugars and Sucrose, Nov 7, 1988 notes:
FDA will use the term “sugar” to refer to any free mono- and disac-
charide present in food such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, or
lactose. It will use the term “sugars” to describe collectively all forms
of sugar present in food.
FDA will use the term “sweetener” to refer to any one or more food
ingredients containing sucrose, invert sugar, corn sugar, corn syrup
and solids, high fructose corn syrup, honey, and other edible syrups.
The term “sweetener,” as used in the document is not intended to
include any other nutritive or nonnutritive sweetener that is added
to food.
In discussing intakes of sugars, the agency will use several additional

terms. The agency will use the term “added sugars” to describe all
sugars that are added to a food, i.e., all sugars from sweeteners added
to foods. The term “naturally occurring sugars” is used to refer to all
sugars present naturally in a food. The term “total sugars” is used to
refer to the total amount of sugars present in a food, that is, the sum
of the added and naturally occurring sugars.
The term “sugar” has traditionally been used by consumers and by

the agency (see 21 CFR 145.3[f], 146.3[f], and 170.3[n][41]) as a syn-
onym for the sweetener sucrose. In this document, however, the
sweetener sucrose is identified as “sucrose.” Because sucrose also
occurs naturally, the term “added” is inserted where it is necessary
to make a distinction between added and naturally occurring sucrose.
The term “complex carbohydrate” is used in this document to describe
any carbohydrates other than those defined as sugars or as specific
oligo- or polysaccharides.

Sweeteners Utilized by the Food Industry

The variety of sweeteners available to the food industry is quite extensive.
Sweeteners can be found in sugar, milk, honey, molasses, maple syrup,
rice syrup, corn syrup, corn-syrup solids, milk solids not fat, corn sugar,
high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juices including concentrates and purees,
fruits, malt syrup, and fructose, etc. From the food industry’s perspective,
the primary sweetener sources are sucrose, from sugar cane or sugar beets,
and corn syrups or glucose syrups derived from wheat, maize, or rice
starch. In 2001, the United States produced about 8.67 million short tons
of sucrose from cane and beet.3 During this same time period, 9.2 million
dry tons of high-fructose corn syrups were produced and 3.65 million dry
tons of corn sweeteners.4
There are two fundamental ways to characterize sweeteners:
1. Molecular makeup. For example, dextrose (glucose), fructose

(levulose), sucrose, maltose, galactose, trehalose, sugar alcohols
or lactose, etc.
2. “Packaging.” Is it in the form of liquid syrup, e.g., a fruit juice or
concentrated syrup, honey, molasses or a corn syrup? Is it dry,
amorphous, or crystalline, e.g., dry sucrose, crystalline fructose,
or corn-syrup solids?
To understand the interaction of sweeteners with other ingredients, and

the overall effect on the final product, it is necessary to know the funda-
mental sugars involved or needed. Once the fundamental sugars are
identified and understood, then the sweetener’s packaging can best be
determined. Or, stated another way, identify the function a particular
sweetener needs to provide a given food or product and then seek out
the package to deliver it, i.e., form follows function.
Sweetener Performance Characteristics and Functionality

How a sweetener performs in a food system, whether it affects the food’s
environment or chemically reacts with other ingredients, is a function of
both physical and chemical properties. Table 6.2 provides a broad overview
of how sweeteners can impact a variety of food system attributes. These
attributes cover characteristics, physical and chemical, for “reducing” sug-
ars, e.g., corn sweeteners and lactose, and nonreducing sugars, e.g., sucrose
and polyols.

Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners
TABLE 6.2
Overview of Sweetener Attributes
Reducing Sugars Nonreducing Sugars
Polyols’ Attributes (dextrose equivalence, DE) (e.g., sucrose or polyols)
Low Med High Low Med High
Bodying agent x x
Browning x
Cohesiveness x x
Fermentability x x
Flavor enhancement x
Flavor transfer medium x
Foam stabilizer x x
Freezing point depression x x
Humectancy x x
Hygroscopicity x x
Nutritive solids x x
Osmotic pressure x x
Prevents sucrose crystallization x x
Prevents coarse ice crystals during
x
freezing
Sheen producer x x
Sweetness x x
Viscosity x x
Note: The above attribute/function table for polyols represents generic attributes. Matching a specific polyol to an attribute should be handled
171
case by case.

For many applications, how a sweetener affects a particular food system

attribute is correlated to dextrose equivalence, or DE. DE is an easily
measured property of nutritive sweeteners. However, it only applies to
reducing sugars, e.g., dextrose, fructose, maltose, lactose, etc. Nonreduc-
ing sugars, like sucrose and sugar alcohols, do not have a DE value.
Carbohydrate Profile and Dextrose Equivalence

Understanding how a sweetener affects a food system requires knowing
what sweeteners are present. Sweeteners are typically identified or clas-
sified by two different analytical techniques: carbohydrate profile or dex-
trose equivalence, DE.
The preferred method for analyzing sweeteners is high-performance
liquid chromatography, or HPLC. These instruments are very efficient and
can analyze for a variety of different sweeteners. How much detail is
needed will be a function of the instrument, its column used to separate
the sugars, the eluent used to carry the sweeteners, and the detector. HPLC
vendors should be consulted to match the instrument with needs. Paper
chromatography, an older analytical method, can also be used. Both meth-
ods can identify the different sugars present, i.e., a carbohydrate profile.
The second means of classifying sweeteners is by DE. DE is an interest-
ing term that applies only to reducing sugars and often leads to confusion.
What DE does not do is describe the carbohydrate profile or quantify how
much dextrose is present. Instead, DE describes the amount of reducing
sugars present, expressing their “quantity” as dextrose. A classic example
of how the DE analytical technique is limited when identifying a carbo-
hydrate profile is illustrated by comparing the DE and carbohydrate pro-
file of a 43 DE corn syrup and a 43% high-maltose corn syrup. Both
products have a DE of 43. However, their carbohydrate profiles vary
dramatically, as shown in Table 6.3.
TABLE 6.3
Carbohydrate Profile Comparing 43 DE Corn Syrup to 43% High-Maltose Corn
Syrup
43% High-Maltose Corn
Carbohydrate Profile 43 DE Corn Syrup9 Syrup9
(DP1) Dextrose 19 9
(DP2) Maltose 14 43
(DP3) Maltotriose 12 18
(DP4+) Higher saccharides 55 30


Even though the DE for these two products is similar, it does not rep-
resent the syrups’ carbohydrate profile. Because the carbohydrate profiles
are different, the functional characteristics of the syrups are quite different.
DE can be determined by a number of different analytical methods. The
most widely used method to measure reducing sugars and expressing a
result in terms of DE is the Fehling’s titration. This test is relatively
inexpensive and quick. When consistently performed by experienced lab-
oratory personnel, it is quite accurate. DE can also be determined by
freezing point depression using an osmometer. A third method to deter-
mine DE uses the carbohydrate profile obtained by HPLC to then calculate
DE. When calculating DE using the carbohydrate profile, accuracy is
limited because of assumptions made about the reducing power factor
for longer-chained sugars, i.e., greater than 4 degrees of polymerization
(DP). DE determinations using HPLC profiles are not as accurate as those
obtained by a Fehling’s titration or an osmometer.
Because it is the “sugar” content in a food product that helps drive
functionality, Table 6.4 summarizes the typical carbohydrate profiles, or
sugars, found in “sweet” ingredients used in today’s food industry.
pH and Titratable Acidity

The primary impact of pH on a sweetener, whether it is in storage or a
finished food product, is stability. Generally speaking, glucose syrups are
more stable in acidic environments, and sucrose is more stable in neutral
to slightly basic.
A sweetener’s pH is a function of the sugar and its form: dry or syrup.
Generally speaking, pH is most important for sweeteners in the syrup
state.
Liquid sucrose is more stable when the pH is slightly greater than 7.0.
A pH on the slightly basic side minimizes sucrose inversion. As the pH
becomes more acidic, inversion accelerates. Sucrose inversion is the
hydrolysis of the disaccharide sucrose molecule into a molecule of dex-
trose and a molecule of fructose, changing a nonreducing sugar into two
reducing sugars. The type of acid used also affects sucrose inversion. For
example, mineral acids accelerate inversion at a greater rate than organic
acids. Inversion is also impacted by temperature. As temperature
increases, the rate of inversion increases. Consequently, in acidic food
systems, given enough time, and exposure to high temperatures, some,
or all, of the sucrose will invert. This can have consequences on a product’s
shelf life, especially a beverage, because it changes a system’s flavor,
sweetness, and solids content.
Glucose syrups, fructose, dextrose, and other reducing sugars are
impacted by pH differently. They are stable in modestly acidic environ-
ments but become unstable as the pH approaches neutral and enters the

TABLE 6.4
Summary of Typical Carbohydrate Profiles for Sweet Ingredients
Sweetener Dextrose Fructose Sucrose Maltose Lactose *DP3 *DP4+
Sucrose — — 100 — — — —
Invert sugar 50 50 — — — — —
Med. invert 25 25 50 — — — —
sugar
Honey (as is 31.3 38.2 1.3 7.3 — — 1.5
basis)5
Molasses10 12 13 29 — — — —
Maple — — 88– 99.9 — — — —
syrup6
Grape7 5–8% 5–8% 0–2% 2.19% — Unk Unk
(white)
Apple7 1–4% 5–11% 0.15–1.25% — — —
Pear7 1.0–2.8% 5–9% 0–2% 2.19%* — — —
Orange7 2–3% 2–3% 3–5.5% None — — —
28 DE corn 8 — — 8 — 11 73
syrup9
36 DE corn 14 — — 11 — 10 65
syrup9
43 DE corn 19 — — 14 — 12 55
syrup9
63 DE corn 36 — — 31 — 13 20
syrup9
95 DE corn 96 — — 3 — 0.5 1.5
syrup9
42 HFCS9 53 42 — 3 — 0.7 1.3
55 HFCS9 40.7 55 — 3 — 0.4 0.9
Dextrose 99.5 — — — — — —
Fructose — 99.5 — — — — —
Milk solids — — — — 55.5 — —
nonfat8
Note: The analyses for the above products are typical. With the exception of syrups derived
from cereal grains and milk solids nonfat, the carbohydrate composition can vary
quite dramatically from vendor to vendor and year to year. It is best to consult the
ingredient supplier for the most current information if needed.
*DP = degree of polymerization; Unk = unknown.
basic range. As the pH of the system rises, the sugars become more
chemically active and reactive, breaking down into color bodies and flavor
compounds and reacting with proteins. This pH instability is marked by
accelerated color degradation, going from colorless to yellow to brown.
These reactions are a part of the Maillard and Strecker degradation reac-
tions.
For glucose syrups, pH is a function of processing and purification.
Regular glucose syrups produced by the acid or acid-enzyme process will
have a pH range of 4.5 to 5.3. If the syrup is demineralized, or ion
exchanged (IX), the pH will range from 4.0 to 6.0. Glucose syrups pro-


duced by enzyme or enzyme technology, such as the high-fructose corn
syrups, dextrose syrups, and some high-maltose syrups, will have a pH
range of 4.0 to 6.0 due to their high degree of purification. For many
glucose syrups, the pH will fall over time, from the breakdown of reducing
sugars to weak organic acids. The pH range for honey ranges from 3.2 to
4.5, and the pH for maple syrup falls near 5.15.
Related to pH is a liquid sweetener’s titratable acidity (TA). The TA of
a sweetener is a function of its processing and purification protocols. The
more purification steps a syrup has, the lower its TA, thereby reducing
its buffering capacity in a given application. As the buffering capacity of
the ingredients changes, the pH of a given product or system will adjust
to the stronger buffering components. This can sometimes result in unex-
pected pH shifts, impacting processing, and finished product shelf life.
Conductivity
The conductivity of sweetener syrup is a function of purification. As the
number of purification steps increase, the liquid sweetener’s conductivity
decreases. Conductivity as a physical property has little impact on ingre-
dient interactions or on final product quality. Instead, a liquid sweetener’s
conductivity may affect instruments used in quality assurance testing or
in the process. The laboratory instrument most often impacted is the pH
meter. The type of probe needed to measure pH will be a function of the
syrup’s purity. As the conductivity of the syrup falls, the ability to get a
stable pH reading also falls unless special probes are used. Consult with
the pH meter manufacturer to properly match the probe with the syrup.
In-process instruments include pH meters and flowmeters that rely on
conductivity, e.g., mag meters. When mag meters are used to measure a
liquid sweetener’s flow, it is necessary for the manufacturer to know the
conductivity range of the syrup for appropriate sizing and sensitivity
adjustments. Mass flowmeters are not affected by conductivity.
Solids
How sweetener solids are measured, especially syrups, is important to
understand for formulation purposes. Table 6.5 summarizes the typical
solids level and scale used to measure sweetener solids from typical
sweetener sources. The scale most often used to measure a liquid sweet-
ener’s solid content is %Brix or Brix. The Brix scale was originally set up
to measure the solids content of a pure sucrose solution; but, because of
its ease of use, it is used to measure the solids content of a wide range of
sweetener solutions. Unfortunately, using a Brix scale to measure solid
levels in other sweeteners does not truly represent the sweetener solids

TABLE 6.5
Typical Solids Content of Sweetener Products
Sweetener Typical Solids Content
Sucrose (liquid) 66.5o or 67.5o Brix
Honey5 75%–87% (avg.=82.8%)
Molasses 78o–81o Brix
Maple Syrup6 66o Brix minimum
Grape (white) concentrate7 68o Brix
Apple concentrate7 70o–72o Brix
Pear concentrate7 70o–72o Brix
Orange concentrate7 65o Brix
28 DE corn syrup9 37 Baumé
36 DE corn syrup9 43 Baumé
43 DE corn syrup9 43 or 44 Baumé
63 DE corn syrup9 43 or 44 Baumé
95 DE corn syrup9 71% Dry solids
42 HFCS9 71% or 80% Dry solids
55 HFCS9 77% Dry solids
Dextrose (monohydrate) 92.5% Dry solids
Fructose 99.5% Dry solids
Nonfat dry milk8 97.0% Dry solids
present, as in percentage solids. Why? Because the Brix scale measures

the refractive index of the sample projecting through a scale calibrated
for sucrose solutions. Other sugars have different refractive indexes, mak-
ing their readings in Brix scale “off” from a true solids measurement. A
Brix reading of any solution of sweetener solids other than sucrose does
not represent the true solids of the system. This can be particularly trou-
blesome when using a Brix scale to read solutions of high-fructose corn
syrup or regular corn syrups. Table 6.6 contains correction factors that can
be used to correlate Brix and Baumé scales for corn syrups. Table 6.7 and
Table 6.8 show the correction for percentage Brix and percentage dry
solids found in both 42% and 55% high-fructose corn syrups. A table for
correction factors for maple syrup can be found in the North American
Maple Syrup Producers Manual, Bulletin 856, published by Ohio State Uni-
versity.6
Another solids scale used in the sweetener trade is Baumé. This scale
applies primarily to glucose syrups, or any syrup derived from a starch
source. The Baumé scale originally utilized calibrated hydrometers to
measure a liquid’s specific gravity. Today, instead of hydrometers, refract-
ometers correlate a refractive index to the Baumé scale. This scale utilizes
the refractive index of the syrup read from a refractometer, which is then
correlated to a table specific for the carbohydrate composition of that
syrup. Separate tables are required because as the syrup’s carbohydrate
composition changes, i.e., as the DE changes, the refractive index changes.

TABLE 6.6
Brix and Baumé Conversion Chart
Brix 2 Baumé Brix 2 Baumé
1.79 1 0.56 87.45 46 25.17
3.57 2 1.12 89.58 47 25.70
5.38 3 1.68 91.73 48 26.23
7.17 4 2.24 49 26.75
8.97 5 2.79 50 27.28
10.78 6 3.35 51 27.81
12.57 7 3.91 52 28.33
14.38 8 4.46 53 28.86
13.19 9 5.02 54 29.38
18.00 10 5.57 55 29.90
19.82 11 6.13 56 30.42
21.65 12 6.68 57 30.94
23.47 13 7.24 58 31.46
25.30 14 7.79 59 31.97
27.12 15 8.34 60 32.49
28.96 16 8.89 61 33.00
30.80 17 9.45 62 33.51
32.65 18 10.00 63 34.02
34.49 19 10.55 64 34.53
36.32 20 11.10 65 35.04
38.18 21 11.65 66 35.55
40.06 22 12.20 67 36.05
41.93 23 12.74 68 36.55
43.82 24 13.29 69 37.06
45.70 25 13.84 70 37.56
47.61 26 14.39 71 38.06
49.49 27 14.93 72 38.55
51.38 28 15.48 73 39.05
53.30 29 16.02 74 39.54
55.20 30 16.57 75 40.03
57.13 31 17.11 76 40.53
59.07 32 17.65 77 41.01
61.00 33 18.19 78 41.50
62.93 34 18.73 79 41.99
64.93 35 19.28 80 42.47
66.89 36 19.81 81 42.95
68.89 37 20.35 82 43.43
70.91 38 20.89 83 43.91
72.93 39 21.43 84 44.38
74.96 40 21.97 85 44.86
77.00 41 22.50 86 45.33
79.04 42 23.04 87 45.80
81.10 43 23.57 88 46.27
83.16 44 24.10 89 46.73
85.28 45 24.63 90 47.20
Source: Pancoast, H.M. and Junk, W.R., Handbook of Sugars, 2nd ed., AVI Publishing,
Westport, CT, 1980.

TABLE 6.7
42% High-Fructose Syrup Percentage Dry Solids to Brix
1966 Brix 1966 Brix
% Dry Solids @20oC % Dry Solids @20oC
10 9.93 68.0 66.67
10.2 10.12 68.2 66.86
10.4 10.32 68.4 67.06
10.6 10.52 68.6 67.25
10.8 10.72 68.8 67.44
11.0 10.92 69.0 67.64
11.2 11.12 69.2 67.83
11.4 11.32 69.4 68.02
11.6 11.51 69.6 68.21
11.8 11.71 69.8 68.41
12.0 11.91 70.0 68.60
12.2 12.11 70.2 68.79
12.4 12.31 70.4 68.99
12.6 12.51 70.6 69.18
12.8 12.70 70.8 69.37
13.0 12.90 71.0 69.56
13.2 13.10 71.2 69.76
13.4 13.30 71.4 69.95
13.6 13.50 71.6 70.14
13.8 13.70 71.8 70.34
14.0 13.89 72.0 70.53
14.2 14.09 72.2 70.72
14.4 14.29 72.4 70.91
14.6 14.49 72.6 71.11
14.8 14.69 72.8 71.30
15.0 14.89 73.0 71.49
Source: Mageean, M.P., Kristott, J.U., and Jones, SA., Physical Properties of Sugars and
Their Solutions, August 1991, Leatherhead Food R.A. Scientific Technical Surveys No. 172,
Leatherheaad Food International, Surrey, U.K. With permission. E-mail: isbt@bevtech.org;
Web site: www.bevtech.org.
A syrup’s ash content will also affect the refractive index and needs to be
accounted for when using any of the conversion charts.
The last solids scale used by the sweetener industry is percentage dry
solids or DS. This scale has been primarily applied to the high-fructose
corn syrups, making it easier to reformulate from sucrose. It can also be
applied to all sweeteners if the proper tables are used. In the case of the
Baumé scale, percentage dry solids information is available using the
appropriate table for each type of syrup.
Another overlooked factor affecting solids measurement is temperature.
Temperature affects the reading on any refractometer used to measure
solids. As temperature increases, the density of the syrup decreases, result-
ing in lower solids readings. To overcome this temperature error, a tem-
perature-compensated refractometer should be used.

TABLE 6.8
55% High-Fructose Syrup Dry Solids to Brix Correlation Table
1966 Brix 1966 Brix
% Dry Solids @20oC % Dry Solids @20oC
10 9.91 74.0 72.43
10.2 10.10 74.2 72.62
10.4 10.30 74.4 72.81
10.6 10.51 74.6 73.01
10.8 10.71 74.8 73.20
11.0 10.91 75.0 73.39
11.2 11.10 75.2 73.58
11.4 11.30 75.4 73.78
11.6 11.50 75.6 73.97
11.8 11.70 75.8 74.16
12.0 11.90 76.0 74.35
12.2 12.10 76.2 74.55
12.4 12.29 76.4 74.74
12.6 12.49 76.6 74.93
12.8 12.69 76.8 75.12
13.0 12.89 77.0 75.32
13.2 13.09 77.2 75.51
13.4 13.29 77.4 75.70
13.6 13.48 77.6 75.89
13.8 13.68 77.8 76.09
14.0 13.88 78.0 76.28
14.2 14.08 78.2 76.47
14.4 14.28 78.4 76.66
14.6 14.48 78.6 76.85
14.8 14.67 78.8 77.05
15.0 14.87 79.0 77.24
Source: Mageean, M.P., Kristott, J.U., and Jones, SA., Physical Properties of Sugars and
Their Solutions, August 1991, Leatherhead Food R.A. Scientific Technical Surveys No. 172,
Leatherheaad Food International, Surrey, U.K. With permission. E-mail: isbt@bevtech.org;
Web site: www.bevtech.org
Sweetener Attributes
Sweetness
A key attribute that distinguishes sweeteners from other ingredients is
their characteristic and pleasurable sweet taste and intensity. The gold
standard for comparing sweetness is sucrose. The sweetness value
assigned to sucrose is either 100 or 1.0, depending upon the scale or
scoring system used. The relative sweetness of a sweetener can be com-
pared to sucrose in one of two formats. The first is to “scale” a product’s
relative sweetness against an equal amount of sucrose, e.g., how much

sweetness a solution at 10% solids has compared to a 10% solution of

sucrose. The second is to provide a score indicating the amount of sweet-
ener solids needed to match the sweetness of a known amount of sucrose
(equal sweetness). Other conditions that need to be defined when study-
ing or evaluating sweetness include temperature, flavor, solids concen-
tration, pH, and salt level. The relative sweetness of different sweeteners
is shown in Table 6.9.
Another interesting sweetness phenomenon is the concept of synergy,
in which the perceived sweetness of two or more blended sweeteners is
greater than the relative sweetness of the two sweeteners separately. The
synergy effect appears to hold true with all sweeteners. A classic example
of sweetener synergy is found in ice cream. An ice cream mix containing
a mixture of sucrose and 36 DE corn syrup typically has a relative sweet-
ness score greater than the sum of the relative sweetness of the two
sweeteners.
Crystalline fructose is an interesting sugar with regard to sweetness. It
has three and perhaps four different relative sweetness values associated
with its three or four tautomeric forms, all a function of temperature. The
sweetest form, β-D-fructopyranose, is predominant in crystallized fructose
and at cold temperatures in a food product. As the temperature increases,
the molecule rotates into the β-D-fructofuranose form and has moderate
sweetness. At elevated temperatures, α-D-fructofuranose, the least sweet
form of fructose, is favored.11 Consequently, products made with fructose
and tasted at elevated, i.e., warm or hot, temperatures will be less sweet
than a similar product at cold temperatures. For example, crystalline
fructose added to hot coffee does not have a very sweet taste compared
to an iced tea sweetened with the same amount of crystalline fructose.
TABLE 6.9
Relative Sweetness of Various Sugars
Relative Score
Sweetener Compared to Sucrose
Sucrose 100
Fructose (crystalline) 130–180
Dextrose 60–90
Maltose 30–60
Lactose 20–30
90% Fructose 90–100
55% High-fructose corn syrup 100-110
42% High-fructose corn syrup 90–100
63 DE corn syrup 60–70
43 DE corn syrup 40–50
36 DE corn Syrup 30–40


Crystalline fructose has its best applications in dry beverage mixes and
in beverages where clean flavors, especially citrus, and acidity are impor-
tant. It can also be used to help reduce the caloric content of a product
because fructose has more sweetness per calorie than sucrose.
Dextrose monohydrate, at a relative sweetness value ranging from 70
to 90, is less sweet than sucrose. Impacting its perception is its negative
heat of solution at −25.2 kcal/mol. This negative heat of solution imparts
a strong cooling effect in the mouth as it dissolves. It may also impact
processing because of the energy absorbed to dissolve the dextrose mono-
hydrate.
Solubility
Sweetener solubility plays an important role in many food products. In
addition to tasting sweet, dissolved sweetener solids influence a product’s
body, viscosity, texture, appearance, mouth-feel, and water activity. Sweet-
eners in the solid state, either crystalline or amorphous, can impact
appearance, shelf life, viscosity, and processing. Fundamentally, solubility
can be described as how much of a sweetener will dissolve in a liquid
before the solution becomes supersaturated with sweetener, causing the
sweetener to “fall out” of solution or crystallize. Using this fundamental
approach to solubility, sweeteners can appear in a given product in three
different states. They can appear completely dissolved, or as a solid, either
crystalline or amorphous, or as a mixture of dissolved and crystallized
solids. How soluble a sweetener will be in a given system is a function
of water availability (free or bound), the total solids of the system, the
nature of other ingredients, processing conditions, the viscosity of the
final product, and temperatures encountered during processing, distribu-
tion, and consumer use. Sucrose, dextrose, and lactose are the three sugars
most likely to demonstrate solubility issues in a food product. Table 6.10
to Table 6.14 provide solubility information for sucrose, lactose, maltose,
and dextrose.
If a “crystallized” sweetener is desired to be present, then the product
is often referred to as “grained.” Examples of grained products include
types of fudge, fondants, and icings. If the sweetener is to remain in
solution, then the product in considered “ungrained.” Examples of
ungrained products include caramels and hard candies. Then there are
the examples of products where graining is not desired, but it occurs, e.g.,
in poor shelf-life hard candy, or, a grained product is desired, but does
not develop, e.g., frosted cereal coating.
Graining occurs when a sugar is in a supersaturated solution, and it is
able to crystallize. Controlling conditions that contribute to graining is
important. These include temperature, sources of seed crystals, moisture

TABLE 6.10
Solubility of Glucose in Water
% Dextrose in Dextrose per 100 g
Temperature in OC Solid Phase Solution of Water
-0.772 Ice 6.83 —
-2.117 Ice 16.65 —
-2.305 Ice 17.59 —
-5.605 Ice 33.02 —
-5.3 Cryohydrate 31.75 —
0.0 Cryohydrate 34.9 —

+0.50 α-C6H12O6-H2O 35.2 54.32
5.0 α-C6H12O6-H2O 38.0 —
10.0 α-C6H12O6-H2O 41.2 —
15.0 α-C6H12O6-H2O 44.5 —
20.0 α-C6H12O6-H2O 47.8 —
22.98 α-C6H12O6-H2O 49.37 97.51
28.07 α-C6H12O6-H2O 52.99 112.72
30.00 α-C6H12O6-H2O 54.64 120.46
35.00 α-C6H12O6-H2O 58.02 138.21
40.40 α-C6H12O6-H2O 62.13 164.06
41.45 α-C6H12O6-H2O 62.82 168.96
45.00 α-C6H12O6-H2O 65.71 191.63
50.00 Transition 70.91 243.76
55.22 α-C6H12O6 73.08 261.7

64.75 α-C6H12O6 76.36 323.0
70.2 α-C6H12O6 78.23 359.3
80.5 α-C6H12O6 81.49 440.2
90.8 α-C6H12O6 84.90 562.3
28.00 ( 67.0 203

28.00 (α-C6H12O6 67.9 —
40.00 (Metastable 67.6 209
45.00 ( 69.69 230
Source: Mageean, M.P., Kristott, J.U., Jones, S.A., Physical Properties of Sugars and Their
Solutions, August 1991, Leatherhead Food R.A. Scientific & Technical Surveys, No. 172,
p. 168, Leatherhead Food International, Leatherhead, Surrey, U.K. With permission.
content or sources of moisture (surface condensate on a product can lead

to a defect called sugar bloom), the sugars being used, their formula
concentration and solubility, and the products finished viscosity, i.e., is it
in a “liquid,” “rubbery,” or “solid” phase. Undesired graining in a food
product is considered a product defect leading to poor appearance or an
undesired texture, as in the case of the sandy texture in ice cream when
lactose crystallizes. Also, when a product starts to grain, especially if it is
sucrose or dextrose, heat is evolved that can significantly increase a prod-
uct’s process or package temperature, leading to more graining.

TABLE 6.11
Solubility of Maltose in Water
Temperature (oC) S (g/100 g Solution)
0.6 36.1
21.0 44.1
29.6 48.0
34.4 49.6
43.5 55.3
49.4 58.3
54.2 60.2
59.8 63.7
66.3 66.7
74.2 72.3
87.0 79.3
96.5 85.1
Source: Washburn, E.W., West, C.J., Dorsey, N.E., Bichowsky,
F.R., and Klemenc, A., Eds.,. Int. Critical Tables of Numerical
Data, Physics, Chemistry and Technology, Vol. II, National
Research Council of USA, 1927.
If a grained product is desired, but it is ungrained, then conditions must

be altered to facilitate the growth of crystals, i.e., grain. This can be done
by working in seed crystals, for example a fondant using sucrose, or by
raising the temperature of the product up high enough to allow the
crystallization process to continue.
One final solubility issue to address is dissolving, or melting, solids into
a liquid. Conditions affecting this processing step include particle size,
temperature of the liquid, agitation, and solids concentration. The finer
the particle size, the greater the surface area and the more rapid a sweet-
ener will dissolve, up to its solubility level. The temperature of the system
is important. A warm liquid will more quickly dissolve a sweetener than
a cold one. Also, there are some sweeteners that have rather significant
negative heats of solution, e.g., dextrose monohydrate that can signifi-
cantly cool a product as the sweetener dissolves. Agitating or mixing
speeds dissolution. As the concentration of a sweetener increases, disso-
lution slows.
Ingredient Interactions
Proteins
The chemical reaction of a reducing sugar with a protein or other nitrogen
source is known as the Maillard reaction or nonenzymatic browning.

TABLE 6.12
Solubility of Sucrose in Water
184
Temp. % Sucrose by g Sucrose per Temp. % Sucrose by Weight g Sucrose per Temp. % Sucrose by g Sucrose per
(oC) Weight (in air) 100 g of Water (oC) (in air) 100 g of Water (oC) Weight (in air) 100 g of Water
0 64.4 180.9 30 68.18 214.3 60 74.20 287.6
1 64.47 181.5 31 68.35 216.0 61 74.42 291.0
2 64.55 182.1 32 68.53 217.7 62 74.65 294.4
3 64.63 182.7 33 68.70 219.5 63 74.87 297.9
Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

4 64.72 183.4 34 68.88 221.4 64 75.09 301.5
5 64.81 184.2 35 69.07 223.3 65 75.32 305.2
6 64.90 184.9 36 69.25 225.2 66 75.54 308.9
7 65.00 185.7 37 69.44 227.2 67 75.77 312.7
8 65.10 186.6 38 69.63 229.2 68 76.00 316.6
9 65.21 187.5 39 69.82 231.3 69 76.22 320.6
10 65.32 188.4 40 70.01 233.4 70 76.45 324.7
11 65.43 189.3 41 70.20 235.6 71 76.68 328.8
12 65.55 190.3 42 70.40 237.8 72 76.91 333.1
13 65.67 191.3 43 70.60 240.1 73 77.14 337.4
14 65.79 192.3 44 70.80 242.5 74 77.36 341.8
15 65.92 193.4 45 71.00 244.8 75 77.59 346.3
16 66.05 194.5 46 71.20 247.3 76 77.82 350.9
17 66.18 195.7 47 71.41 249.8 77 78.05 355.6
18 66.32 196.9 48 71.62 252.3 78 78.28 360.4
19 66.45 198.1 49 71.83 254.9 79 78.51 365.3
20 66.60 199.4 50 72.04 257.6 80 78.74 370.3
21 66.74 200.7 51 72.25 260.3 81 78.96 375.4
22 66.89 202.0 52 72.46 263.1 82 79.19 380.6
23 67.04 203.4 53 72.67 265.9 82 79.42 385.9
24 67.20 204.8 54 72.89 268.8 84 79.65 391.3
25 67.35 206.3 55 73.10 271.8 85 79.87 396.8
26 67.51 207.8 56 73.32 274.8 86 80.10 402.5
27 67.68 209.4 57 73.54 277.9 87 80.32 408.3
28 67.84 211.0 58 73.76 281.1 88 80.55 414.1
29 68.01 212.6 59 73.98 284.3 89 80.77 420.1
90 81.00 426.2
Source: Pancoast, H.M. and Junk, W.R., Handbook of Sugars, 2nd ed., AVI Publishing, Westport, CT, 1980.

TABLE 6.13
Solubility of Lactose in Aqueous Solution
Temperature
(oC) β/α Ratio % g/100 g H2O
0 1.63 10.6 11.9
10 1.62 13.0 14.9
15 — 14.4 16.9
20 1.59 16.0 19.1
25 1.58 17.9 21.8
30 1.57 19.9 24.8
40 1.55 24.7 32.8
50 1.52 30.3 43.5
60 1.50 36.9 58.4
64 — 39.7 65.8
70 1.48 43.9 78.3
74 — 46.2 86.2
80 1.45 51.1 104.6
87.2 — 55.1 122.5
90 1.42 58.1 138.6
100 — 60.5 157.6
107 — 63.9 177.0
121.5 — 69.4 227.0
133.6 — 73.2 273.0
138.8 — 75.2 306.0
158.8 — 81.1 429.1
178.8 — 86.7 651.9
200 — 95.2 1233.3
Solutions, August 1991, Leatherhead Food R.A. Scientific & Technical Surveys, No. 172,
p. 169, Leatherhead Food International, Leatherhead, Surrey, U.K. With permission.
TABLE 6.14
Other Physical Attributes
Solubility Heat of
Melt Point Carmelization (g/g water)12 Solution
(oC) Temp. (oC) @25oC Kcal/mole Tg (oC) 27
α-D Glucose 14625 160 — –14.225 31

α-D Glucose 8325 — 1.04 –25.225 —
monohydrate
β-D Glucose 15025 — — –6.225 —
Fructose 103–5 110 4 11
Sucrose 185–6 160 2.07 –226 52
Maltose 160–5 180 — — 43
Maltose- 102–3 — 0.85 — —
monohydrate
α-Lactose 222.8 — — — 100
β-Lactose 253 — 0.23 — —
Solutions, No. 172, Leatherhead Food R.A., Surrey, U.K., 1991.

Another reaction that proceeds in a similar fashion is the Strecker degra-

dation. These are two of the most important, and studied ingredient
reactions in food science. These reactions help bread crust brown, caramels
develop caramel flavors, and chocolate develop its flavors. The positive
benefits of these reactions are the generation of eye-appealing color and
enticing aromatic flavors. The negative aspects of these reactions are the
destruction of essential amino acids impacting the nutritional value of a
food, creation of too much or too little color, and the formation of aro-
matics flavor compounds. Of all the interactions that sweeteners can have,
these two have been extensively studied, and still there is much to learn.
Both the Maillard (nonenzymatic browning) and Strecker degradation
reactions involve a reducing sugar reacting with an amino acid under
proper conditions of pH, moisture, and temperature. However, each reac-
tion is distinct in its reaction mechanism and the end product(s) generated.
The Maillard reaction involves the reaction of a reducing sugar with
a reactive nitrogen group, e.g., an amine. Generally speaking, the source
of the amine is a protein; however, any reactive nitrogen source will do,
e.g., urea to make caramel colors. For the Maillard reaction to proceed,
proper reaction conditions are needed including pH, moisture content,
and the type of sugar. A pH of 7.8 to 9.2 is an optimum range for the
Maillard reaction. The reaction is inhibited in acidic mediums, becoming
minimal in a pH range of 4.0 to 5.0.16 The moisture content, and/or
water activity of the food system is also important, having a maximum
reaction value in the range of 0.6 to 0.7 aw.22 The reaction can be inhibited
by management of the system’s water or by the addition of sulfites. The
type of sugar also influences the reaction. The sugars in order of their
reactivity are: L-arabinose > D-xylose > D-galactose > lactose > D-glucose
> maltose.15 Another reference lists the sugars as D-xylose > D-arabinose
> hexoses (D-fructose, D-galactose, D-mannose, and D-glucose) > disac-
charides (maltose, lactose, and sucrose).14 What is clear from the litera-
ture is that reaction conditions for the Maillard reaction are very
dependent upon the type of proteins available, the system’s pH and
moisture content, the presence of trace minerals, and the type of sugar
present.
The Strecker degradation reaction, while similar to the Maillard reac-
tion, is a reaction between a primary amino acid and a reducing sugar.
The end products generated are aromatic aldehydes and ketones.
Impact on Gelatinization: Interaction with Starch

The influence of sweeteners on the gelatinization point of starches is well
documented.17–21 All sweeteners influence the gelatinization point of a
starch by raising the temperature where gelatinization occurs.


Applications where gelatinization is important are focused mostly in
baked goods, e.g., cakes, cookies, biscuits, pie fillings, and certain confec-
tionery products such as starch jelly candies. In these products fairly high
levels of sweeteners are used relative to the starch, significantly altering
the starch’s gelatinization point. If not accounted for, product processing
and quality problems may result.
Sweeteners affect the gelatinization point of starch by raising the effec-
tive temperature that gelatinization occurs. Each type of sugar influences
a starch’s gelatinization temperature differently. The order of impact being
sucrose > glucose > fructose > xylose.24 Gelatinization temperature is
affected by the concentration of the sugar, increasing as the sugar concen-
tration increases.
The prevailing thoughts about why and how the gelatinization point is
affected by sweeteners focuses on competition for water, with sweeteners
having a stronger affinity than starch. Consequently, there is less water
available for hydrating and gelatinizing the starch.
Altering the gelatinization point of starch in baked goods has a number
of consequences:
1. Height is affected in both cakes and cookies.

2. Spread is affected in cookies and biscuits.
3. Surface appearance is affected in cookies.
4. Crumb texture is affected in cakes.
Interaction with Fats and Oils

Sweeteners do not chemically react with fats and oils. Instead, their inter-
action is physical, impacting a product’s rheological characteristics, i.e.,
viscosity. Product examples range from salad dressings to ready-to-spread
frostings to chocolate.
In chocolate and compound coatings, the rheological characteristics of
the paste are critical to its use and function. Sweeteners impact rheology
via particle size distribution and trace moisture from amorphous sugar.
Both characteristics are affected by milling. Milling, performed on either
roller refiners or hammer mills, reduces the particle size of the sweetener
from coarse to fine. As the sweetener’s particle size decreases, surface area
increases, increasing the need for more fat to maintain the same rheolog-
ical characteristics for a given application. Mill gaps, screen sizes, and
how a sweetener fractures affect particle size and surface area, and surface
area impacts lubrication and rheological characteristics. Milling also cre-
ates small amounts of amorphous sugar. This amorphous sugar releases
its water into the paste and, if excessive, will create rheological problems.

Of the sugars available for use in chocolate and compound coatings, only
sucrose, anhydrous dextrose, and lactose are appropriate. Dextrose mono-
hydrate is a poor choice due to its one molecule of water that releases
during processing, leading to dramatic rheological consequences.
Crystalline fructose also has poor performance in these systems due to its
low glass transition temperature and tendency to absorb moisture from
the air during processing. When milling sweeteners, whether for these
applications or others, another physical characteristic that needs to be
watched is the sweetener’s glass transition temperature. If this tempera-
ture is exceeded, and/or the relative humidity of the air is too great, then
the sweetener will enter a rubbery state and either glaze roller refiners or
plug hammer mills.
How do sweeteners impact rheology? In chocolate and compound
coatings, milled sugar produced by roller refining or hammer mills, is
mixed with a fat to create a paste. After appropriate aging, the paste
is pumped and applied to a product or deposited into a mold. The
rheological characteristics of the paste are critical to its use and are a
function of the milled sugar’s particle size. They can impact rheology
by changes in surface area and contribute moisture released from amor-
phous sugar.
Sweeteners contribute to rheology in chocolate and compound coatings;
only dry or crystalline sweeteners can be used since small amounts of
water will greatly affect the product’s viscosity. Sweeteners that function
well include sucrose, anhydrous dextrose, and lactose. Dextrose monohy-
drate is a very poor sweetener in these applications since the one molecule
of hydration will dramatically impact rheology.
Trace Mineral Interactions

Generally speaking, sweeteners are not reactive to trace minerals. How-
ever, there are two that can influence flavor and color: iron and copper.
Iron at levels greater than 1 ppm will react with reducing sugars and
accelerate color body formation. Copper will react with reducing sugars
and proteins to accelerate the formation of flavor products, especially in
the presence of proteins and fats.
Sweetener: Sweetener Interactions

The interaction of sweeteners with sweeteners is touched upon in other
segments but should be discussed separately. Sweetener-sweetener


interactions fall into two primary areas, sweetness and solubility. The
topic of sweetness interactions and synergy was presented earlier.
Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation

Sweeteners affect the freezing and heat processing of foods and the shelf
life of frozen products through the physical impact of their molecular
weight. In frozen foods, sweeteners impact a product’s freezing point. As
the molecular weight of the sweetener gets smaller, it lowers water’s
freezing point, resulting in a freezing point depression. Likewise, as a
sweetener’s molecular weight decreases, the boiling point increases result-
ing in a boiling point elevation.
In the production of refrigerated and frozen products, the amount of
water that exists in the frozen state is important to the shelf life and the
texture of a product. For frozen products, the amount of unfrozen or free
water is important because it helps determine the shelf life of the product
as well as the quality of the consumer’s eating experience. How sweet-
eners bind, hold, or reduce the mobility of free water in a frozen product
is important when one considers the 5 to 7 freeze-thaw cycles a frozen
product may encounter before it reaches the consumer’s “frost-free”
freezer where additional abuse is heaped on the product.
The types of products where sweeteners are used to manage the freezing
point of the food include ice cream and frozen deserts and to a lesser
extent frozen dough products. With regard to ice cream products, the book
Ice Cream, by Arbuckle,8 addresses how important sweeteners are to frozen
products. In an ice cream product, sucrose and 36 DE corn syrup are the
sweeteners traditionally used. Sucrose is added for sweetness, flavor, and
solids. The 36 DE corn syrup is used to provide some sweetness and solids
and to help manage the product′s freezing point. Because a 36 DE corn
syrup has an average molecular weight higher than sucrose, its has less
depression on the ice cream’s freezing point, thereby permitting more
water to be frozen at a given temperature. This is particularly useful to
manage moisture migration and ice crystal formation as ice cream goes
through the freeze-thaw cycles of distribution and home freezers.
The key to applying sweeteners in ice cream or other frozen products
is to manage their impact on the product’s freezing point depression (see
Table 6.15). For example, ice cream has been traditionally made using
sucrose and or sucrose and 36 DE corn syrup. The 36 DE corn syrup is
added at a level of about 30% of the sweetener solids. Note that if too
much 36 DE corn syrup is used, the ice cream will develop a gummy
texture. The 36 DE corn syrup is added to help bind moisture and to raise
the freezing point of the product relative to an all-sucrose sweetened ice
cream.

TABLE 6.15
Sweetener Molecular Weights and Freezing Point Factors for Use in
Determining Freezing Point Depression
Sucrose Freezing Point Factor
Molecular Equivalence (Mol. (Sucrose Equivalence)/
Wt. Wt. Sucrose) /(Mol. (Sweetener Sucrose
Sweetener (approx.) Wt. Sweetener) Equivalence)
Sucrose 342 1.00 1.00
Glucose 180 1.80 0.55
Fructose 180 1.80 0.55
Maltose 342 1.00 1.00
Lactose 342 1.00 1.00
36 DE CS 472 0.72 1.38
43 DE CS 428 0.80 1.25
63 DE CS 298 1.14 0.88
42 HFCS 190 1.80 0.55
55 HFCS 185 1.85 0.54
43% HMCS23 416 0.82 1.22
65% HMCS23 411 0.83 1.20
Source: Adapted from Arbuckle, W.S. Ice Cream, 4th ed., AVI Publishing, Westport, CT,
1986.
One group of sweeteners that has seen limited, and sometimes

maligned use, is the high-fructose corn syrups, both 42 and 55%. Both
of these products are excellent choices to replace sucrose on a relative
sweetness basis. Unfortunately, their molecular weights are about half
that of sucrose, a fact that can result in a significant drop of the ice
cream’s freezing point relative to an all-sucrose mix. Does this mean
that the high-fructose corn syrups have no place in ice cream or other
frozen deserts? No. What it does mean is that careful attention must be
paid to the formulation, especially the sweeteners, to maintain an overall
freezing point depression that is acceptable. It is possible to match a
particular freezing point depression by blending different sweeteners.
In the case of ice cream, the use of sucrose, high-fructose corn syrups,
and a high-maltose syrup will create a functional and cost-effective ice
cream mix.
Perhaps the best example of boiling point elevation is encountered in
the production of hard candy confections. Water evaporated water from
the “sugar” syrup until the final solids content is near 98% solids produces
these products. The molecular weight of the sweeteners used impacts this
boiling point. Table 6.16 shows how a variety of sweeteners impact the
boiling point.

TABLE 6.16
Boiling Points (oC) of Sugar Solutions at Atmospheric Pressure
50% Sucrose/
50% 43 DE 100% Glucose
% Solids Dextrose Sucrose Glucose Syrup Syrup 43 DE
0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
10 100.3 100.2 100.2 100.1
20 100.7 100.3 100.3 100.4
30 101.3 100.6 100.6 100.6
40 102.0 101.1 101.1 101.8
50 103.1 101.8 101.7 101.6
55 103.9 102.3 102.2 102.0
60 104.8 103.0 102.8 102.6
65 106.0 103.9 103.7 103.4
70 107.6 105.1 104.8 104.4
75 109.8 106.9 106.4 105.9
80 112.8 109.4 108.9 108.4
85 118.0 113.3 112.8 112.2
90 126.6 119.3 119.4 119.6
92 132.3 122.6 123.7 124.8
94 138.6 126.6 129.4 132.2
96 145.7 131.6 138.2 144.8
98 153.3 137.7 156.1 174.4
99 158.2 141.3 179.8 218.4
Source: Mageean, M.P., Kristott, J.U., and Jones, S.A., Physical Properties of Sugars
and their Solutions, Aug. 1991, Scientific & Technical Surveys, No. 172, The British
Food Manufacturing Industries Research Association, p. 233.
Inversion
When formulating a product, the food scientist often overlooks sucrose
inversion. The consequences are many. First, there is a chemical gain of
up to 5% as a molecule of water is added during hydrolysis to make
fructose and glucose. This mass gain can impact a product’s mouth-feel.
Second, the relative sweetness of the product increases during inversion,
reaching a peak sweetness at a mix of 50% sucrose and 50% invert. From
this peak, the sweetness drops as inversion proceeds, and at 100% inver-
sion, the relative sweetness returns to the original level. This change in
relative sweetness can alter a product’s flavor with time, thereby changing
the product. Third, the reaction changes a nonreducing sugar into two
reducing sugars, and the chemical reactions that reducing sugars partic-
ipate in now come into play.

What is sucrose inversion? It is the cleavage, or hydrolysis, of the dis-

accharide sucrose into its two fundamental molecules of glucose and
fructose.
Heat and low pH

Sucrose + Water → Fructose + Glucose
or Enzyme
The reaction can be driven by temperature, acidic conditions, or enzy-

matic conversion. The rate of inversion is a function of temperature (the
higher the temperature the faster the rate of inversion), pH (the more
acidic a product, the more likely the sucrose will invert), and moisture
availability.
The management and understanding of sucrose inversion is very impor-
tant in the confectionery industry. Whereas some invert is planned for,
and in some cases needed, if too much develops, finished products will
have poor shelf life and stability. In other applications, the unplanned-for
inversion of sucrose can be a costly error. As noted above, as the sucrose
inverts it can negatively impact a product by shortening shelf life or
causing the product to be reworked or scrapped. Also, if inversion is going
to occur, it is better to formulate with an alternative sweetener like invert
or high-fructose corn syrup. By formulating for the inversion, a product
having a stable shelf life can be created.
Conclusion
The interaction of sweeteners with other ingredients is extremely impor-
tant for the creation of foods appealing to the consumer. Sweeteners
interact with foods in a number of ways. First, their sweet taste can be
used to create tasty products as well as mask the off notes of undesired
flavors. Second, they react with proteins to form distinct flavors, aromas,
and taste. Third, they influence the gelatinization point of starch, which
impacts the production and processing of baked goods and some confec-
tionery products. The food scientist can best harness these interactions
for the benefit of the finished food by understanding the chemistry and
physical characteristics of the individual sugars that are a part of the world
of sweeteners.

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fm Page 167 Friday, November 18, 2005 10:13 AM

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

168 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

• To manage a food’s sweetness for taste and pleasure

But what is a sweetener? Is it deﬁned by taste or functionality? According

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Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 169

In discussing intakes of sugars, the agency will use several additional

The term “sugar” has traditionally been used by consumers and by

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170 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

Sweeteners Utilized by the Food Industry

1. Molecular makeup. For example, dextrose (glucose), fructose

To understand the interaction of sweeteners with other ingredients, and

Sweetener Performance Characteristics and Functionality

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172 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

For many applications, how a sweetener affects a particular food system

Carbohydrate Profile and Dextrose Equivalence

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Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 173

pH and Titratable Acidity

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174 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 175

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176 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

present, as in percentage solids. Why? Because the Brix scale measures

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Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 177

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

178 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 179

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

180 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

sweetness a solution at 10% solids has compared to a 10% solution of

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Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 181

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

182 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

0.0 Cryohydrate 34.9 —

55.22 α-C6H12O6 73.08 261.7

28.00 ( 67.0 203

content or sources of moisture (surface condensate on a product can lead

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 183

If a grained product is desired, but it is ungrained, then conditions must

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Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 185

α-D Glucose 14625 160 — –14.225 31

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186 Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition

Another reaction that proceeds in a similar fashion is the Strecker degra-

Impact on Gelatinization: Interaction with Starch

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Ingredient Interactions: Sweeteners 187

1. Height is affected in both cakes and cookies.