Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.

MODULE 01
Syllabus:
Sources of Energy: Introduction and application of energy sources like fossil fuels, hydel,
solar, wind, nuclear fuels and bio-fuels; environmental issues like global warming and ozone
depletion.

Basic concepts of Thermodynamics: Introduction, states, concept of work, heat,

temperature; Zeroth, 1st, 2nd and 3rd laws of thermodynamics. Concept of internal energy,
enthalpy and entropy (simple numericals).

Steam: Formation of steam and thermodynamic properties of steam (simple numerical).

1. Sources of Energy
1.1 Introduction

Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for his sustenance and well-being
since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man required energy
primarily in the form of food. He derived this by eating plants and animals he hunted.
Subsequently he discovered fire and his energy needs increased as he started to use wood
and other biomass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well as for keeping himself
warm. With the advent of science and technology demand for energy increased at a very
fast rate and with the availability of cheap coal, petroleum oil and natural gas, the
dependence on these energy sources also increased at an alarming rate. Due to ever
increasing rate of consumption of energy day by day, the rate of depletion of these
sources has been very rapid resulting in their reserves reaching very low levels. This
irreversible situation of today in the energy front has directed us to search for the
alternate sources of energy like solar, wind, biomass, tidal, ocean, geothermal, etc.

1.2 Energy and its Forms:

The word energy derives from the Ancient Greek word ‘energeia’. Energy is defined as
the capacity to do work or as the ability to cause change. Energy exists in various forms
like kinetic energy (energy possessed by bodies in motion), potential energy (energy
possessed by bodies at an elevation), chemical energy (internal energy i.e., the energy
possessed by virtue of motion and forces of individual atoms and molecules of the
system).

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

The various other forms of energy are mechanical, thermal, electrical, radiant and atomic.
All forms of energy can be converted by an appropriate process. It is a conserved quantity
and the SI Unit is Joules. 1Joule of energy is defined as 1Newton of force required to move
the object through a distance of 1 meter.

Mathematically Energy is denoted by ‘E’.

E = F.d (Joules)

where ‘F’ is the force in Newton and ‘d’ is the distance in meters.

Other units in which energy is quantified includes Calories, Kcal, Erg (CGS unit).

Law of Conservation of Energy:

It states “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can be transformed from
one form to another”.

1.3 Energy Resource:

The energy used to do the work can exist either in the Earth or may be derived from the
outer space. The energy existing in the Earth is termed as Capital energy and that
obtained from the outer space is called the Celestial or the income energy. The capital
energy sources include: Fossil fuels, heat traps, nuclear fuels etc., whereas the celestial
energy includes solar energy a form of electromagnetic energy from the Sun,
gravitational energy from moon/planets etc. The other sources of energy include wind,
hydel, biofuel that are obtained indirectly from solar energy.

1.4 Classification of Energy Resources:

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria as:

1.4.1 Primary and Secondary energy

1.4.2 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

1.4.1 Primary and Secondary Energy Resource:

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. It includes Coal,
natural gas, crude oil etc., they can be used in direct applications. The primary energy
sources are converted to secondary sources for industrial applications.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

For example, the coal obtained as primary energy resource, is combusted in steam power
plant to generate steam. The nuclear energy of radioactive materials such as uranium is
utilized in generating power in thermal power plants. Thus, secondary energy sources are
derived from the primary source and are the advanced or synthesized forms of primary
energy resources.

1.4.2 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy:

Renewable energy is the energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible
and are continuously produced in nature. The energy from these sources can be harnessed
without producing any harm to the environment and are generally available freely. They
are the non-conventional energy sources. Examples include: Direct solar energy; Wind
energy; Tidal energy; Hydel energy; Ocean thermal energy; Geo thermal energy; Peat;
Fuel wood; Fuel cells; Solid wastes; Hydrogen.

Non-renewable energy is the energy obtained from the resources that have been
accumulated over ages and are not quickly replenishable if exhausted. They are likely to
get depleted with continuous usage. They are the conventional source of energy and
examples include: Coal; Petroleum and Natural Gases; Fuel woods; Nuclear energy.

Advantages of Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Inexhaustible and available freely.

2. Can be matched in scale to the need and can deliver quality energy.

3. Can be built near the load point.

4. Flexibility in the design of conversion systems.

5. Local self-sufficiency by harnessing locally available renewable energy.

6. Except biomass, all other sources are pollution free.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Energy available is intermittent and is generally seasonal.

2. Sources such as wind, tidal etc. are confined to specific geographical regions.

3. Technology is not fully developed to meet the present energy requirements.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

4. Systems such as solar cells require advanced technologies and hence costlier.

5. Application to transport sector has been found to be not viable as on today.

6. Storage systems for conserving the energy isn’t available.

Advantages of Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Initial costs are lower, hence widely used.

2. Unit power costs are much lower and hence economical.

3. Sources are highly reliable.

4. Power generation technologies are well established.

Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Sources get depleted with usage and soon will be exhausted.

2. They pollute the atmosphere.

3. They are not freely available.

Differences between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Renewable energy sources Non-renewable energy sources

Inexhaustible in nature.
Most of the renewable energy sources are
freely and readily available in nature.
Non-reliable since energy concentration
varies from region to region and time to time.
Initial costs of extracting energy are high.
Rarely used due to limitations in their
equipment.
Energy transmission cost is less.
Eco-friendly in nature.
Maintenance cost is low.
Energy conversion equipment are not well
developed.
Energy conversion equipment are of low
efficiency.
E.g. direct solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, hydel energy, ocean thermal energy,
bio energy, geothermal energy, peat, fuel
wood, fuel cells, solid wastes, hydrogen
energy etc.
Exhaustible in nature.
Most of the non-renewable energy sources
are not readily available in nature.
Reliable, since energy concentration is almost
constant in all regions.
Initial costs are comparatively less.
Widely used due to maximum availability of
their equipment.
Energy transmission cost is relatively more.
Not eco-friendly in nature.
Maintenance cost is high.
Energy conversion equipment are well
developed.
Energy conversion equipment are of
relatively high efficiency.
E.g. Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and petroleum
products), nuclear fuels and heat traps.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

1.5 FOSSIL FUELS

 A fossil fuel is the world’s primary energy resource.
 It is the fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition of buried
dead organisms.
 They are the finite resources and have contributed significantly for the global
economic development over the centuries.
 The fossil fuels include: coal, petroleum and natural gas.
 Chemically the fossil fuels are composed of Hydro-carbons formed by the heat and
pressure exerted by the layers of sedimented buried living organisms.
 The fossil fuel can be broadly classified into three viz,
a) Solid Fossil Fuels
b) Liquid Fossil Fuels
c) Gaseous Fossil Fuels
1.5.1 Coal (Solid Fossil Fuel):

 It is the major conventional energy resource and a solid form of the fossil fuel.
 Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements; chiefly hydrogen,
sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen and is a black or brownish-black combustible
sedimentary rock formed as rock-strata.
 It was formed by the bacterial and chemical decomposition of the trees and ferns
(plants). Their decomposition produced an intermediate product known as peat
which was mainly cellulose (C6H10O5) n. The progressive decomposition of this in
addition to heat and pressure resulted in loosing of the moisture content (H2 & 02)
and got converted into coal. The generalized equation of formation of coal can be
put up as follows:

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

 This process of transformation of the plants into coal under earth’s crust is termed
Metamorphism and the type of coal depends on the period of metamorphism,
pressure and temperature.
 In the metamorphism phenomenon, the vegetable matters undergo the
transformation from peat to anthracite coal, with intermediate forms of lignite
and bituminous coal. The metamorphic grade of coal in successively increased
order is:
i. Peat: a precursor of coal, is an accumulation of partially decayed
vegetation.
ii. Lignite: referred to as brown coal is formed by natural compression of peat
and is used for electric power generation
iii. Bituminous: is relatively a soft form of coal containing the tarlike substance
called bituminous or asphalt and is used in steam powerplants.
iv. Anthracite: it is the hardest form of coal with highest carbon content, used
for residential and commercial space heating.
 The average formula of Coal is (C3H4) n. In India, the coal reserves are spread over
Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
 Some important Indian coal fields are: Talcher, Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Panch-
Konkam, Signoulli.
 The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million tones by end
of 2003.
 The USA had the largest share of the global reserve (25.4%) followed by Russia
(15.9%), China (11.6%). India was 4th in the list with 8.6%.
 The combustion of coal releases air pollutants such as acid rain-inducing sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and mercury.
 The mining process can also be very damaging to the environment, often resulting
in the destruction of vegetation and top-soil. Rivers and streams can also be
destroyed or contaminated by mine wastes.
 The combustion of coal is responsible for 32 percent of the greenhouse gas
emissions.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

1.5.2 Petroleum Oil (Liquid Fossil Fuel):

 Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, mostly alkanes and
cycloalkanes and is the widely used liquid form of fossil fuel.
 All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-
products.
 The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% H2, and varying
percentages of sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
 Petroleum is formed chiefly from ancient microscopic plants and bacteria that
existed in the ocean and seas. When these micro-organisms died and settled to the
seafloor, they mixed with sand the silt to form organic –rich mud. As layers of
sediment accumulated over this organic ooze, the mud was gradually heated and
slowly compressed into shale, chemically transforming into crude oil or
petroleum.
 This crude oil after being refined and purified (distillation process), is available as
petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating oil, plastic etc. for commercial and domestic
use. The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel
and finally heavy fuel oil.
 In India, the oil deposits, are found at Ganga-Brahmaputra Valley, Bombay high,
plains of Gujarat, Thar desert of Rajasthan and area around Andaman Nicobar
Islands.

Advantages of Liquid fuel over Solid fuel:

i. The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and
gaseous fuels.
ii. Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid fuels is less, as
compared to the solid fuels.
iii. Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and
quickly.
iv. There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
The system is very clean, and hence the labor required is relatively less compared
to the operation with solid fuels.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

1.5.3 Natural Gas (Gaseous Fossil Fuel)

 Natural gas, which is primarily composed of methane (CH4 around 95%), and
traces of hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthenic and aromatics, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen is also generated by the decomposition of municipal waste in
landfills and manure from livestock production.
 The natural gas is colorless, odorless and non-toxic.
 Its calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000 kJ/m3, in accordance with the
percentage of methane in the gas.
 Natural gas burns cleaner than coal and oil, with almost zero sulfur dioxide
emissions and far fewer nitrogen oxide and particulate emissions. Natural gas
releases almost 30 percent less carbon dioxide than oil and 43 percent less than
coal.
 Natural gas is most commonly transported by pipeline from the oil wells from
where it is extracted.
 Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by
vehicle, hence the gas is turned to liquid at liquification plant and transported as
liquified natural gas (LNG). The liquefied gas is converted back to gas at
regasification terminal.
 Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of
cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines.
 Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas or associated gas.
Based on the resource from which the natural gas is extracted, it is classified into:
Sour gas; Tight gas; Shale gas and Coalbed Methane.
i. Sour Gas: Natural gas with significant amounts of H2S (Hydrogen
Sulphide).
ii. Tight Gas: Natural gas produced from reservoirs(rocks) with lower
permeability involving higher hydraulic fractures.
iii. Shale Gas: natural gas trapped between the shale (fine grained
sedimentary rocks) formations.
iv. Coalbed Methane: Natural gas extracted from coal beds.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

1.6 Hydel Power

 The power harnessed from the hydraulic energy of water is called the hydro-
electric power and the setup erected to obtain such a power is called Hydel power
plant or Hydro-electric power station.
 In hydroelectric power plants, the potential energy of the stored water due to the
high altitude is converted into the kinetic energy, which in turn is converted to
mechanical energy causing the movement of the turbine. The turbine shaft
coupled to the electric generator shaft causes the production of the electric
current.
 The schematic of the hydel power generation unit is as illustrated below:

Figure 1.1 Layout of Hydel Power Plant

 Construction: The hydel power plant consists of a dam, penstock, nozzle, turbine
and electric generator as the main constituents.
a) Dam: a masonry structure with a defined altitude laid across the river with
a purpose to store the river water.
b) Hydraulic Head: refers to the mechanical energy available with the water
and is equivalent to the water level in the static water body.
c) Penstock: it is an enclosed pipe or sluice designed to regulate the water
supply to the hydro turbines.
d) Nozzle: a device of varying cross-sectional area designed to increase the
velocity of the water impinging on the turbine.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

e) Turbine: a rotary prime mover that converts the hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy and mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Working: A dam (masonry structure) is built across the large river that has
sufficient quantity of water, and provision is made to store the rain water flowing
in the river to be stored up behind the dam. The water stored is released in a
regulated manner to the nozzle through the penstock, by operating the dam gates.
The high-pressure water expands in the nozzle to a low pressure, high velocity
and impinges on the blades of the turbine, this causes the rotation of the turbine
whose mounting shaft is coupled to the generator and in turn results in the power
generation. After doing useful work, water is discharged from the turbine to the
river to the tail race through a draft tube.
 Working principle: The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:
a) The kinetic energy due to flow of water
b) Potential energy due to the height of water
The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical
energy in water turbine. The mechanical energy produced by the water turbine is
converted into electrical energy.
 Merits:
i. Flexibility: Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be
ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Power
generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power
generation.
ii. Reduced CO2 emissions: Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power
generation does not produce carbon dioxide or other toxic gases and particulates.
iii. Large scale power generation: large scale power production is possible due to the
abundant supply of the water from the source.
iv. Low power cost: The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a
competitive source of renewable electricity, as the water is available at free of cost
and no water is actually consumed in the power generation process.
v. Other uses of the reservoir: Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often
provide facilities for irrigation, drinking water, industrial needs and also aid in
controlling floods and promotes tourism.

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 Demerits:
i. Loss of Land Ecosystem damage: reservoirs built across the rivers results in
submersion of massive land in the upstream of the river. This could damage the
existing ecosystem and also the human life in the lands that are submerged.
ii. Siltation: the water in the reservoirs when static encourages siltation of the
particles denser than water, this decreases the storage capacity and also the
capacity to control floods.
iii. Failure Risks: any flaws in construction or the masonry structure, natural disasters
is catastrophic to downstream areas and infrastructure.
iv. Relocation: construction of reservoirs results in relocation of the human
habitation and loss of their properties.

1.7 Solar Power

1.7.1 Solar Energy

 Sun is the source of all life on earth. All forms of energy on the earth are derived from
the Sun. The Sun is considered as a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
continuously generating heat by thermonuclear fusion reactions.
 The radiant energy from the Sun is called solar energy.
 The Sun radiates energy in to space at a rate of 4 x 1026 watt in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. 99% of this radiation lies in the visible spectrum i.e.,
between ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths.
 Less than one thousandth of the one millionth of this energy is intercepted (received)
by the earth.
 The intensity of incoming solar radiation at any point on the earth depends on: Time
of the day, Latitude (location), Season Clouds, Air pollution, and Height above sea
level.
 Solar energy can be utilized directly or indirectly. It can be converted directly into
thermal energy (heat) or electrical energy. Thermal energy obtained can be used in
applications like, for heating water, drying, cooking, refrigeration and air-
conditioning etc. Electrical energy thus obtained, may be stored in solar
cells/batteries which work on Photovoltaic Effect

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

 Indirectly, solar energy plays a major role in hydel (hydro) energy, wind power,
biomass conversion and ocean thermal energy.
 Solar Constant is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit area
perpendicular to the rays of the Sun. At the mean distance of the earth from the Sun.
Solar constant = 1367 W/m2
1.7.2 Solar Energy Conversion Process:
 Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy by three processes
namely:
i. Helio-chemical process
ii. Helio-electrical process (photovoltaic)
iii. Helio-thermal process.
(Helio means ‘Sun’)
1.7.2.1 Helio-chemical Process
 It is the conversion of the solar energy into chemical energy.
 Helio-chemical process is a photosynthesis process which is the source of all fossil
fuels and the food on which we are living.
 Photosynthesis is a complex biochemical reaction in which the plants use solar
energy to produce starch, cellulose and oxygen. The visible light having
wavelength below 700A° is absorbed by the green chlorophyll which becomes
activated and passes its energy on to water molecules. A hydrogen atom is
released and reacts with the carbon dioxide molecules, to produce H2CO and
oxygen. H2CO is the basic molecule forming carbohydrate. The oxygen liberated is
from H2O molecule and not from CO2. This process is called as carbon fixation or
carbon assimilation.
 Hence, photosynthesis is a form of biological energy conversion of solar energy
into chemical energy called bioenergy which is stored in plants.
 This stored bioenergy can be converted into useful energy by combustion or can
be stored as fuels.
 Organic biomass like plants, animals and wastes like cow dung, garbage, sewage
etc. can be used to produce biofuels like bio-ethanol, bio-methanol, bio-diesel and
algae-biofuel.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

Bio-Gas Plant
 The principle of helio-chemical process of energy conversion is best explained by
the working of a biogas production plant as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
 It consists of a Bio-digester tank(T), mixing tank (M), overflow tank (O) all
supported on a masonry structure, preferably built 6-8 ft below the soil. Separate pipes
and valves (V) for collection of bio-gas is also employed.

 A mixture of dung, water etc. is poured into a mixing tank, where these are
thoroughly mixed to form liquid slurry and is fed into the digester tank. In the digester,
anaerobic digestion in the absence of oxygen takes place to form biogas.
 The biogas so formed is drawn out from a pipe at the top of the dome. The digested
slurry flows out of the digester’s outlet.

Figure 1.2 Bio- Gas Plant (Helio-chemical process)

1.7.2.2 Helio-Electrical Process

 Helio-electrical process works on photovoltaic effect i.e. solar energy directly
converted into electrical energy. Photo-voltaic effect can be observed in variety of
materials but best performance is given by semiconductors like silicon (Si), Germanium
(Ge). The photovoltaic effect can be best explained with an example of a solar cell as
illustrated in the Figure 1.3

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Solar Cell

Figure 1.3 Solar Cell (Helio-Electrical process)

 A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light
directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical
phenomenon. This photovoltaic effect is observed in semiconductors. Semiconductors
like silicon, germanium, cadmium sulphide etc. are used to produce solar cells. The
operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:
a) The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs.
b) The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
c) The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit
 Since silicon is a tetravalent material with four valence electrons, doping it with
pentavalent material (like arsenic, phosphorous) forms a N-type semiconductor and
the same with trivalent material (like boron) forms a P-type semiconductor. When P-N
junction of semiconductor is exposed to sunlight, a voltage around 0.5 volts is built up
around the junction and current depends on the exposed area of cell.
 When sun rays fall on top of solar cell, the glass plate scatters them all over the surface.
The photons contained in solar radiation strike the n-type silicon side and penetrate
through the p-n junction. The semiconductor absorbs the photons and creates free
electrons. As a result, an electric field builds up near the p-n junction. n-region gets -
vely charged and p-region gets +vely charged. If an external load is connected across
the p-n junction, the charge difference drives an electric current, which can be used or
stored as required.
 A typical solar cell develops 1W power at 0.5V. To get more power, a combination of
solar cells called solar arrays or solar modules can be used.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

1.7.2.3 Helio-Thermal Process

 In helio-thermal process, the radiant energy falling on the surface on the earth is
directly converted into thermal energy. Surfaces on which sun rays fall are called
collectors.
 The collectors are of two types, viz.
i. Non-concentrating-type/Flat plate collector
ii. Concentrating-type/Focusing/ Parabolic collector
Flat Plate Collector
 The flat-plate solar collectors are probably the most fundamental technology for solar-
powered domestic hot water systems. The main components of a typical flat-plate solar
collector include:
i. Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy
ii. Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber,
but prevents radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
iii. Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
iv. Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
v. Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses
 A flat metallic plate made of copper, aluminum etc. called absorber, is painted or coated
with black to absorb solar energy and is placed below a glass plate. Glass plate (glazing
cover) helps to scatter the solar energy over the plate surface more effectively with
minimum loss and to allow only short wavelength radiation to pass through.
 A number of copper tubes/pipes that carry water are fixed below the plate. The tubes
are well packed with insulating material like glass wool to minimize heat loss. This
whole assembly is placed in a wooden box. The whole unit is kept at an angle of
inclination facing south to receive maximum solar energy.
 The flat-plate systems normally operate and reach the maximum efficiency within the
temperature range from 30 to 80℃. The advantages of flat plate collector include:
i. Easy to manufacture and low cost
ii. Collect both beam and diffuse radiation
iii. Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is required)
iv. Little maintenance
 Soft water is to be used so as to avoid scaling and corrosion of tubes.

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Parabolic Collector

 The parabolic/focusing collector, as shown in the Figure 1.4, consists of a mirror or a

lens system to increase the intensity of solar radiation. They are generally of
cylindrical or spherical shape to focus the incident solar radiation.
 The tracking system is used to track the sun and follow its path to absorb the
radiations. The reflector reflects and concentrates the incident radiation over a
narrow region or area. The concentrated narrow radiation beam is absorbed by the
receiver placed at the focus of the reflector.
 The focusing collectors are mainly used for high temperature heating applications in
industries.
 Solar concentrators such as parabolic troughs, have a small absorber area and
therefore smaller heat losses and provide high efficiencies of around 12% at much
higher working temperatures compared to standard flat panel collectors.
 However, they have the disadvantage of having a smaller angle of view, and therefore,
require some form of tracking system or manual adjustment to keep them at the
correct focal point.

Figure 1.4 Flat plate and Parabolic collectors (Helio-thermal process)

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Solar Pond

 A solar pond (illustrated in Figure 1.5) is a pool of water which acts as a large scale solar
thermal energy collector. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a
kind of a flat plate collector that absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm,
lower layers of the pond.
 The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function effectively as a solar
energy collector is a salt-concentration gradient of the water. This gradient results in
water that is heavily salinated collecting at the bottom of the pond, with concentration
decreasing towards the surface resulting in cool, fresh water on top of the pond. This
collection of salty water at the bottom of the lake is known as the "storage zone", while
the freshwater top layer is known as the "surface zone".
 During daytime, the temperature of the pond increases due to energy absorbed from solar
radiation. As a result, the density of water decreases. Hence this warm water flows to the
top surface of the pond. High temperature water at about 90o C remains at the bottom of
the pond. Salt gradient at the middle layer separates (insulates) the low-density water
from the water at the bottom.
 These ponds can also be used to generate electricity either by driving a thermo-electric
device, solar ponds can be used for desalination purposes as the low cost of this thermal
energy can be used to remove the salt from water for drinking or irrigation purposes.

Figure 1.5 Principle of Solar Pond

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1.8 Wind Power

 Wind power is the use of air flow over the wind turbines to deliver the mechanical power
to turn electric generators. Winds are produced by uneven heating of the atmosphere by
the sun. Hence it is an indirect form of solar energy.
 Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely
distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation, consumes no
water, and uses little land.
 The kinetic energy of one cubic meter of air blowing at a velocity ‘V’ is,

E = (1/2) ρ.V2 J/m3 (J = joule; m = meter)

In one second, a unit volume of air moves a distance ‘V’ meter. Rate at which wind energy
is transferred i.e. wind power is,

P = E.V = (1/2) ρ.V2 W/m2

WINDMILL (WIND TURBINE)

 Wind mill is a device that converts the energy of the wind into the mechanical energy by
means of vanes called blades.
 Apart from generating electricity, wind mills also find applications in grinding, milling
and pumping operations.
 It consists of a rotor (turbine) fitted with two or more large-sized blades. The blades have
an average length of 80 meter. The hub is connected to the generator through a gear
drive. A tower (average of 200 m height) helps to minimize turbulence and ground
effects. The rotor is placed on the tower and the wind with an average velocity of
40km/hr causes the rotor to rotate. Thus, the wind energy gets converted to the
mechanical energy, the rotation of the hub through the gear drives the generator shaft.
The performance of the wind mill can be enhanced by considering the aerodynamic
profiles for blades and employing sound energy principles.
Advantages of wind power:
i. Operation and maintenance costs are less.
ii. Fuel cost is nil and is non-polluting.
iii. Helps in generating power to houses located off-shore and on-shore remote areas.
iv. Reliable at elevated sites.
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Limitations

i. Noisy during operation.

ii. Large hilly areas are required for large power generation.
iii. Needs storage batteries.
iv. Fluctuations in amount of power generated due to time of the day, location etc.

Figure 1.7 Wind Power Plant Layout and Wind Mill

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1.9 NUCLEAR POWER

 Nuclear energy is the energy released during splitting or fusion of atomic nuclei.
 Any atom consists of a small, heavy, positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.
 A nuclear reaction involves changes in the structure of the nucleus. As a result of such
reactions, the nucleus gains or loses protons or neutrons, releasing useful amounts of
energy. The nuclear energy measured in Millions of electron Volts (MeV) is released by
either fusion or fission nuclear reactions.
 The most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo
nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor. The most common nuclear fuels are
235U and 239Pu.
 The basic nuclear generating station energy cycle is shown in Figure 1.8. Fuel containing
fissile material (Uranium) is fed to the reactor where fission takes place. The energy
liberated appears in the form of heat, which is used to boil water in Heat exchanger or
steam generator. The steam produced from the boiling water spins a turbine-generator
set, where the heat is converted first to kinetic energy and then it will convert to
mechanical energy in the turbine and to electricity by the generator.

Figure 1.8 Nuclear Power Plant

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1.10 BIO-FUELS
Biofuels are energy sources made from living things, or the waste that living things
produce. Supporters of biofuels argue that their use could significantly reduce
greenhouse gas emissions; while burning the fuels produces carbon dioxide, growing the
plants or biomass removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Ethanol:

Ethanol can be produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the
fermentation of sugar cane. Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for
gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines
can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a
smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means it takes more fuel (volume and
mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that
it has a higher-octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations,
which allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal
efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and
ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.

Advantages:

i. Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource.

ii. Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum, producing less carbon (soot)
and carbon monoxide
iii. The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could reduce carbon dioxide
emissions, provided that a renewable energy resource was used to produce crops
required to obtain ethanol and to distil fermented ethanol

Disadvantages:

i. Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion (per mole, per unit of volume, and per unit
of mass) that petroleum
ii. Large amounts of arable land are required to produce the crops required to obtain
ethanol, leading to problems such as soil erosion, deforestation, fertilizer run-off
and salinity.
iii. Major environmental problems would arise out of the disposal of waste
fermentation liquors.

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iv. Typical current engines would require modification to use high concentrations of
ethanol.
Biodiesel:
It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in
composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl
(or ethyl) esters (FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils,
soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field
pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100) currently reduces
emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel
Advantages of biodiesel fuel:
i. An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to
utilize this surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
ii. One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than petroleum
diesel.
iii. The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
iv. Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended with other
energy resources and oil.
v. It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is another
biodiesel fuel advantage over other alternative fuels.
vi. The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.

Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel:

i. At present, Biodiesel fuel is about one and a half times more expensive than
petroleum diesel fuel.
ii. It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops; plus, there is the
energy of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.
iii. As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected in the
fuel filter, thus clogging it. So, filters have to be changed after the first several
hours of biodiesel use.
iv. Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of
the biodiesel fuel disadvantages.

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1.11 Global Warming

Global warming is a slow and steady rise in Earth's surface temperature. This steady and
slow rise in the temperature is mainly due to the increase in the greenhouse gases.
(Greenhouse gases reflect heat radiation that the Earth emits, and stop it from being lost
into space. This makes the Earth hotter than it would be without greenhouse gases. This
is called the "greenhouse effect").

Among the greenhouse gases, the concentration and increase of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere appears to be the main cause of global warming. Coal-burning power plants,
car exhausts, factory smokestacks, and other man-made waste gas vents give off about
23 billion tons of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the Earth's atmosphere
each year. Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiation forcing from CO2,
methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs, and nitrous oxide.

As the Earth's surface temperature becomes hotter the sea level becomes higher. This is
partly because water expands when it gets warmer. It is also partly because warm
temperatures make glaciers melt. The sea level rise causes coastal areas to flood. Deserts
will probably increase in size. Colder areas will warm up faster than warm areas. Strong
storms may become more likely and farming may not make as much food.

To stop global warming, usually by burning less fossil fuel, many people have tried to get
countries to emit less greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol was signed in 1997. It was
meant to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to below their levels
in 1990.

1.12 Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion describes two related events observed since the late 1970s:

i. Steady lowering of about 4% in the total amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere

(the ozone layer).
ii. Much larger reduction in springtime in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar
regions.

The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. The main cause of ozone
depletion and the ozone hole are manufactured chemicals, especially manufactured
halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants and foam-blowing agents

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(chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances

(ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent mixing after
being emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can settle. Once
in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which
catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2).

Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased
cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB
wavelengths of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
These wavelengths cause skin cancer, sunburn and cataracts, which were projected to
increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and animals.
These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which bans the
production of CFCs, halons and other ozone-depleting chemicals. The Montreal Protocol
is considered the most successful international environmental agreement to date.

Consequences of ozone layer depletion

i. With increased in the depletion of the ozone layer, the harmful ultraviolet
radiations will enter the earth’s atmosphere. These UV rays are
responsible for causing skin diseases, sunburns, cataracts and cancer.
ii. They are also harmful for the vegetation. An increase of UV radiation would
be expected to affect crops. A number of economically important species of
plants, such as rice, depend on cyanobacteria residing on their roots for the
retention of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are sensitive to UV radiation and
would be affected by its increase.

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2. Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

2.1 Introduction to Thermodynamics

It is the science of the interactions among the systems and the consequent changes
experienced by the interacting systems. The interactions occur by exchange of heat
and/or work. These interactions result in changes of the properties of the systems. Thus,
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the study of heat and work interactions and
their effects on the properties of the interacting systems. It deals with energy conversion,
energy exchange and direction of exchange.

Thermodynamics basically governs the following:

i. Energy and its transformation

ii. Feasibility of processes involved in Energy Transformation

iii. Feasibility of processes involved in Transfer of Energy

iv. Equilibrium processes.

Engineering Thermodynamics: it is the science that deals with design and analysis of
practical energy conversion devices that develop power from heat or do work to produce
heat.

2.2 Approaches to study Thermodynamics:

Two different approaches are used for study of thermodynamics namely:

i. Macroscopic Approach

ii. Microscopic Approach

Macroscopic Approach: certain amount of matter is considered for study without

considering the events occurring at molecular level. The macroscopic approach to
thermodynamics doesn’t require the understanding of individual particles, this approach
is called Classical Thermodynamics.

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Microscopic Approach: in this approach matter is considered to be composed of

myriads of molecules and behavior of matter is described by summing up the behavior
of each molecule. This approach to thermodynamics where the average behavior of large
group of particles is considered is called Statistical Thermodynamics.

2.3 Thermodynamic System and Surroundings

2.3.1 System

A thermodynamic system is defined as quantity of matter or region in a space on which

the attention is focused during the thermodynamic analysis of the problem.

2.3.2 Surroundings

The mass or the region external to the system with which it interacts is called the
surroundings or the environment. A system and a surrounding together comprise a
universe.

2.3.3 Boundary

The real or the imaginary surface that separates the system form the surroundings is
called the boundary. The of the system can be fixed or movable, real or imaginary,
adiabatic or diathermic. The boundary is the surface that is shared by both system and
surroundings, mathematically it has zero thickness and thus it cannot contain any mass
nor volume in space.

Figure 2.1 Illustration of System, Surrounding and Boundary

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2.4 Systems and its Types

A thermodynamic system may be classified into three (Figure 2.2) based on the energy
and mass transfer that occurs across the boundary:

i. Closed systems
ii. Open systems
iii. Isolated systems
Closed System (Control Mass): a closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass and
doesn’t allow the mass to transfer across its boundary, i.e. no mass can enter nor leave
the boundary. However, energy in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary and
the volume of the closed system isn’t fixed.

Ex: a certain quantity of fluid in a cylinder bounded by a piston constitutes a closed

system.

Open system (Control Volume): the open system is one which allows both the mass and
energy transfer across its boundaries. Most of the engineering devices allows the mass
transfer and energy transfer across a controlled volume as in case of air compressor
where the air enters at lower pressure and exits at higher pressure and also energy
transfers across the boundary.

Ex: Water flow through nozzle.

Isolated system: the isolated system is one which doesn’t allow the energy as well as
mass to be transferred across its boundary. There is no notable interaction between the
system and surroundings. It’s of fixed mass and energy as there is no mass or energy
transfer across the system boundary.

Ex: Thermos Flask, UNIVERSE.

Figure 2.2 Types of Systems

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Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Systems

A system composed of a single phase throughout is called a homogeneous system and a

system composed of one or more phase is known as heterogeneous phase.

2.5 Control Volume and Control Surface

Any arbitrary region of space that is selected for study or analysis is called a control
volume and the boundaries of a control volume is called a control surface (Figure 2.3).
The characteristics of a control volume are as follows:

i. It can be fixed or moving as in case of a piston cylinder arrangement.

ii. It can be real or imaginary as in case of a nozzle. It can also involve heat and work
interactions across the control surface (Figure 2.4).

Fig 2.4 Types of Boundaries/ Control Surface

Fig 2.3 Control Volume and Control

Surface

2.7 Properties of a System

Any characteristic of a system that are measurable, observable is called its property.
Some of the familiar properties are pressure(p), temperature(T), volume (V), density (ρ),
entropy (S) etc. They are macroscopic in nature, a system with definite values of its
properties is said to be in definite state. Properties are the coordinates to measure the
state of the system. Properties of a system can be classified as:

i. Intensive and Extensive properties

ii. Specific properties

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Extensive properties: are those that are dependent on the mass of the system such as
volume, energy, total momentum etc.

Intensive properties: are those that aren’t dependent on the mass of the system such as
temperature, pressure etc.

Specific Properties: Extensive properties per unit mass of the system are called specific
properties and are intensive properties. Ex: Specific gravity, specific energy, specific
volume etc.

2.8 Thermodynamic State and Equilibrium

2.8.1 State
The condition of the system defined by the
values of all its properties at any instant of time
is called the state of the system. It gives the
complete description of the system. Any
operations in which one or more properties of
the system changes results in ‘Change of the
system’. The figure illustrated shows the system
at two different states i.e. at different
temperatures and volumes which are the
properties of the gas contained in the cylinder.
Fig 2.5 State of a system
The state of the system containing a gas at two
different properties that define its state is
illustrated in Figure 2.5.
2.8.2 State Diagram

Process diagrams plotted by employing

thermodynamic properties as coordinates are
called the state diagrams. It represents the state of
the system at different instant of time. The
commonly considered state diagrams include the
P-V diagrams and T-s Diagrams. A state diagram
Fig 2.6 State Diagram for Cylinder-
for variation of volume with pressure is shown in
Piston System
Figure 2.6 for a cylinder-piston system.

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2.8.3 Process and Path

Succession of states passed through during a change of state of the system is called the
path of the system. In the figure illustrated above, the path is the locus of the point
traversed from its state 1 to state 2. Any change in state, the system undergoes from one
state to another is called a process. To describe the process completely the initial and the
final states of the system, path followed and the interactions with the surroundings must
be defined.
2.8.4 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. Equilibrium implies state of balance. In
an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials within the system. A system in
equilibrium experiences no changes (changes in macroscopic properties) when it is
isolated form its surroundings. There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not
in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of
equilibrium are satisfied. A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if the
conditions for following equilibriums are satisfied:
1. Mechanical Equilibrium (no unbalanced forces in the system)
2. Chemical Equilibrium (no chemical reaction such as diffusion within the system)
3. Thermal equilibrium (no temperature differential, temperature is same
throughout the system)

Mechanical Equilibrium: In the absence of any unbalanced force within the system and
also the system and its surroundings the system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium.
Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure and a system is said to be in mechanical
equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system.

Chemical Equilibrium: A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium if its chemical

composition does not change with time i.e. no chemical reaction occurs.

Thermal Equilibrium: A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same

throughout the entire system and there is no temperature differential across the system
and its surroundings.

A system is said to be thermodynamic equilibrium if no change in property occurs when

it is isolated from its surroundings, i.e. there would be no unbalanced forces and
temperature gradients within the system, no chemical interaction within the system.

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2.9 Process and its Types

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a
process.

Types of Processes:

i. Isothermal Process: the process is carried out a constant temperature.

ii. Isochoric process: the process is carried out a constant volume.
iii. Isobaric process: the process is carried out a constant pressure.
iv. Adiabatic process: the process is said to be adiabatic if the process occurs within
the system enclosed by an adiabatic wall.
v. Isentropic: the process is carried out at constant entropy.
vi. Isenthalpic: the process is carried out at constant enthalpy.
vii. Reversible process: the process is said to be reversible if the system and its
surroundings are restored to their respective initial states by reversing the
process.
viii. Irreversible process: the process is irreversible if the initial states of the system
and surroundings cannot be restored by reversing the process.
ix. Cyclic Process: a cyclic process is a series of state changes with the initial and final
state being identical. Ex: Carnot Cycle
x. Non-Cyclic Process: a cyclic process is a series of state changes with the initial and
final state not being identical. Ex: Boiling of water
In the Figure 2.7a, Process path is given as 1-A-2-B. The process is cyclic if state of 1 is
same after the cycle is completed and is non-cyclic if state 1 changes at the end of the
process from its initial state. Figure 2.7b different processes represented on P-v diagram.

Fig.2.7a Process-Cyclic and Non-cyclic Fig.2.7b Types of Process on a P-v Diagram

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2.10 Laws of Thermodynamics

2.10. Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

It states “If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body separately, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other, i.e. when a body A is in thermal equilibrium
with body B and also separately with body C, then B and C are said to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other1 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics.

Consider three systems A, B and C as illustrated in Figure 2.8 such that A is in thermal
equilibrium with C, and B is in thermal Equilibrium with C. The systems A and B are
separated by an adiabatic wall (transfers only work not heat) and are in communication
with the system C simultaneously through a diathermic wall (transfers heat across the
wall) as shown in Figure a. After sometime A and B shall reach a thermal equilibrium with
system C. once thermal equilibrium is reached there shall be no changes in the properties
of A and B. at this instant if the adiabatic and diathermic walls are swapped as shown in
figure b, no changes in properties of A and B shall be observed thereby proving the zeroth
law of thermodynamics.

Fig.2.8 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

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2.10.2 First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is based on the law of energy conservation and is
discussed under two scenarios:

i. Closed system undergoing a cyclic process

ii. closed system undergoing a non-cyclic process

Closed system undergoing a cyclic process

First law of thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cyclic process states
“When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cyclic process, then the net heat supplied
to the system from the surroundings is equal to the net work done by the system on its
surrounding”. i.e.,

∮δQ = ∮δW

where ∮ represents the cyclic integral of work and heat transfer.

Closed system undergoing a non-cyclic process

It states that “If a system undergoes a change of state during which both heat transfer
and work transfer are involved, the net energy transfer will be stored or accumulated
within the system”.

If Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the amount of work
transferred from the system during the process as shown in figure, then the net energy
accumulated in the system is given by:

Q - W = ∆U

Where is ∆E the net energy accumulated within the system and is called the Internal
Energy.

W
System
Q

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2.10.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics

There are two classical statements of the second law of

thermodynamics:

 Kelvin – Planck statement

 Clausius statement

Kelvin-Planck statement

“It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle, to receive

heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work”.

i.e. For a heat engine to operate, the working fluid has to exchange
heat with heat sink as well with the heat source. There cannot be a
heat engine whose efficiency is 100%.

Clausius statement
“No device can operate on a cycle and produce effect that is solely the
heat transfer from a lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body”.

i.e. There are devices that can transfer heat from lower-temperature
reservoirs to higher-temperature reservoirs but they have to
consume some energy Win and direct transfer of heat from sink to
source isn’t possible.

2.10.4 Third Law of Thermodynamics

It states “entropy of a pure substance at absolute zero is zero”.

2.11 Thermodynamic Work

In thermodynamics work transfer is considered to occur between the system and the
surroundings. Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect, external to the system
can be reduced to the raising of a weight through a distance.

 Sole effect refers to the one and only effect, thereby barring any other effect
besides the raising of the weight.
 External to the system conveys that work interaction is between the system and
surroundings across the boundary.

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 Could be reduced to raising of the weight implies work interaction need not
necessarily result in raising of the weight in the surroundings.

Consider the battery and the motor shown in Figure as the system. The motor is driving
the fan, the system is doing work upon the surroundings. When the fan is replaced by a
pulley and weight as shown in Figure, the weight may be raised with the pulley driven by
the motor. The sole effect on things external to the system is then raising the weight.

Battery- Motor System Driving a fan Work Transfer by a system

The system cannot do wok by itself as it’s an interaction across the system boundary.
Work done by the system on the surroundings is considered positive and work done on
the system by the surroundings is considered negative. The symbol W is used to denote
the work transfer and Q denotes the heat transfer. In any given process, the magnitudes
of work interaction for both the system and the surroundings are the same but for their
direction. The sign convention is illustrated in Figure.

System

Figure: Sign convention for work transfer Figure: Sign convention for heat transfer

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Similarities between Work and Heat

i. Both are energy transitions across the system boundary.

ii. Both are transient in nature as they occur only when there exists a required
potential to cause the interaction.
iii. Both are not the properties of the system.
iv. Both are path functions and inexact differentials.
v. Both have the SI unit of Joules (J)

Comparison between Heat and Work Transfer

WORK HEAT
Thermodynamic work is defined in terms of Heat is defined an interaction that occurs
either lifting or lowering the weight in the solely due to the temperature difference that
surroundings as the sole effect. exists between the system and surroundings.
Work transfer can either increase or
Heat cannot affect the temperature of the
decrease the temperature of the adiabatic
adiabatic system.
system
Only three modes of heat transfer occur:
There are many modes of work transfer
Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
Complete conversion of work to other In a cyclic process complete conversion of
modes of work or heat is possible heat to work is not possible

Internal Energy: the internal energy of a system is the total energy contained within the
system. The internal energy is an extensive property. The change in the internal energy
is given by ∆U = Q - W.

Enthalpy: it is an extensive property of a thermodynamic system and is equal to the

system's internal energy plus the product of its pressure and volume. It is denoted by ‘H’
and is given by H=U+ p.V, SI Unit is Joules.

Entropy: it is an extensive property of a thermodynamic system and is the measure of

the degree of randomness or disorderliness of the system. It is denoted by ‘S’ and
mathematically S = δQ/T and the SI Unit is JK-1.

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3.STEAM
3.1 FORMATION OF STEAM:
The process of generation of steam can be represented through a temperature – enthalpy
diagram as shown in the Figure 3.1. Consider 1 kg of water at 00 C taken in a cylinder with
a pressure P applied by a weight ‘w’ on a free frictionless piston as shown in the Figure
3.2. When it is heated keeping the pressure constant, its volume increases with increase
of temperature, until it reaches a point (point B in the figure 3.1) when steam begins to
form. This temperature (Ts) at which steam begins to form is called the saturation
temperature. The saturation temperature is different for different pressures and it
increases with rise of pressure. The saturation temperature at atmospheric pressure of
1 bar is 1000 C. When steam begins to form at saturation temperature, some water
particles may be present in it. If the steam contains water particles in suspension, it is
called wet steam.

Figure 3.1 Temperature – Enthalpy diagram

Figure 3.2 Steam Formation at constant pressure

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On further heating beyond the point ‘B’, the whole amount of water will be converted to
steam without any further rise of temperature. At the saturation temperature if the steam
contains no water particles, it is dry saturated steam.

If the dry saturated steam is further heated beyond point ‘C’, at the same pressure the
temperature of steam rises above the saturation temperature. The steam which is at a
temperature greater than saturation temperature is called superheated steam.

Thus, during the formation there are three states of steam namely wet steam, dry steam
and superheated steam.

i. Enthalpy of Water:

The total amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water which is initially
at 00 C to its saturation temperature, at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of
water. It is also called sensible heat. It is denoted by ‘hf’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.

ii. Enthalpy of Evaporation:

The total amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water which is initially at its saturation
temperature to dry saturated steam at the same saturation temperature and at the given
constant pressure is called enthalpy of evaporation. It is also called the latent heat of
vaporization of steam. It is denoted by ‘hfg’ and is expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.

iii. Enthalpy of Steam:

The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of dry saturated steam from 1 kg of
water which is initially at 00 C and at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of
steam. It is denoted by ‘hg’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’. Enthalpy of steam is equal to the sum
of enthalpy of water (hf) and enthalpy of evaporation (hfg).

Thus, it can be expressed as hg = hf + hfg kJ / kg

iv. Enthalpy of Wet Steam:

Enthalpy of wet steam is defined as the “total amount heat of required to generate 1 kg of
water which is initially at 0˚C to 1 kg of wet steam at the specified dryness fraction”. It is
denoted by ‘hw’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.

Enthalpy of wet steam, hw = hf +x hfg kJ / kg, Where, x = dryness fraction of steam

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

v. Enthalpy of Superheated Steam:

The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of superheated stream at the stated
superheated temperature from 1 kg of water which is initially at 00 C and at a given
constant pressure is called the enthalpy of superheated steam. It is denoted by ‘hs’ and
expressed in ‘kJ / kg’. Enthalpy of superheated steam, hs = hg + hsup

Where, ‘hsup’ is the heat supplied during superheating, i.e., the heat supplied to the dry
saturated steam to attain superheated temperature ‘tsup’.

‘hsup’ is also called the enthalpy of superheat. It can be determined by using the equation

hsup = Cp (tsup – ts) kJ / kg

The difference between the superheated temperature (tsup) and the saturation
temperature (ts) is called the degree of superheat.

vi. Dryness fraction:

Dryness fraction of steam is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam actually present in
a wet steam to the total mass of wet steam”.

Mass of dry steam in wet steam

Dryness fraction, x 
Total mass of wet steam

md
x
mw  md

Where, md — Mass of dry steam.

mw — Mass of suspended water molecules. (x should always be less than 1)

vii. Specific Volume:

The volume of a unit mass of steam at a given pressure is called the specific volume of
steam. It is expressed in m3 / kg. As steam exists in three states, the specific volume is
considered for all the three states.

viii. Specific volume of dry saturated steam:

The volume of a unit mass of dry saturated steam at a given pressure is called the specific
volume of a dry saturated steam. It is denoted by ‘vg’ and expressed in ‘m3 / kg’.

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

ix. Specific volume of wet steam:

The volume of a unit mass of wet steam at a given pressure is called specific volume of wet
steam. It is denoted by ‘vw’ and expressed in ‘m3 / kg’.

Wet steam consists of saturated liquid in suspension. If in 1 kg of wet steam there is ‘x’
kg of dry steam, then ‘(1 – x)’ kg will be the saturated liquid. Therefore, specific volume
of wet steam vw = x.vg + (1–x) vf m3/ kg

Since ‘(1–x) vf’ is too small quantity it is neglected. Hence

Specific volume of wet steam, vw = x.vg m3 / kg

x. Specific volume of the superheated steam:

The volume of a unit mass of superheated steam at a given pressure is called the specific
volume of superheated steam. Since superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas, its
specific volume can be determined by using Charles law as follows:

vg v sup

Ts T sup

T sup
V sup  Vg
Ts

where, vg —Specific volume of dry saturated steam at pressure ‘p’

Ts —Saturation temperature, K

Tsup —Specified superheated temperature, K

vsup — Specific volume of superheated steam at pressure ‘p’

xi. Internal energy of steam:

When water vaporizes and gets converted into steam there is a considerable increase in
its volume. Thus, some amount of external work is done during vaporization. This
external work can be expressed as product of pressure and volume of steam. Thus, the
external work done, for the three states of steam are as follows:

p.vg for dry saturated steam p.vw for wet steam p.vsup for superheated steam

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering, 18ME15/25 Notes Prepared by Prof. Vinayaka G.P

Internal energy of steam is the actual energy stored in steam which can be utilized for
doing external work. It is equal to the difference between the total heat of steam and the
external work done during vaporization. It is denoted by ‘U’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.
Thus,

Internal energy of dry saturated steam : Ug = hg – p.vg kJ / kg

Internal energy of wet steam : Uw = hw – p.vw kJ / kg

Internal energy of superheated steam : Usup = hs – p.vsup kJ / kg

Department of Mechanical Engineering, VVIET, Mysuru Page 41 of 41