Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Units and Measurements: Quantity Unit Symbol
Units and Measurements: Quantity Unit Symbol
is parabola. W
Power P = = F.V
Equation of trajectory of an oblique projectile in terms t
x Work due to kinetic force of friction between two contact
of range (R) is y x tan 1 surfaces is always negative. It depends on relative
R displacement between contact surfaces.
Maximum height is equal to n times the range when WFK FK (Srel ) .
the projectile is launched at an angle = tan–1(4n).
W K, W total work due to all kinds of
In a uniform circular motion, velocity and acceleration
are constants only in magnitude. Their directions forces, K total change in kinetic energy.
change. Wconservative U ; Wconservative Total work
In a uniform circular motion, the kinetic energy of the due to all kinds of conservative forces.
body is a constant. W = 0, a 0, P constant, L=constant SDu Þ Total change in all kinds of potential energy.
velocity of separation
2 v2 Coefficient of restitution e
Centripetal acceleration, a r r v (always velocity of approach
r
applicable) a r v The total momentum of a system of particles is a
constant in the absence of external forces.
LAWS OF MOTION
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES & ROTATIOAL
Newton’s first law of motion or law of inertia : It is MOTION
resistance to change.
The centre of mass of a system of particles is defined as
Newton’s second law : F ma, F dp / dt
mi ri
2 the point whose position vector is R
Impulse : p F t, p2 p1 F dt M
The angular momentum of a system of n particles about
1
Newton’s third law : F12 F21 n
the origin is L ri p i ; L = mvr = I
Frictional force fs (fs ) max sR ; fk kR i 1
Circular motion with variable speed. For complete The torque or moment of force on a system of n particles
circles, the string must be taut in the highest position,
u 2 ³ 5ga . about the origin is ri Fi
Circular motion ceases at the instant when the string i
becomes slack, i.e., when T = 0, range of values of u for The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is
which the string does go slack is 2ga u 5ga . defined by the formula I mi ri 2
Conical pendulum : w = g / h where h is height of a 1
The kinetic energy of rotation is K I 2
point of suspension from the centre of circular motion. 2
The acceleration of a lift
The theorem of parallel axes : I'z = Iz + Ma2
actual weight apparent weight
a= Theorem of perpendicular axes : Iz = Ix + Iy
mass For rolling motion without slipping vcm = R . The
If ‘a’ is positive lift is moving down, and if it is negative
the lift is moving up. kinetic energy of such a rolling body is the sum of kinetic
energies of translation and rotation :
3
1 2 1 2 Kepler’s 3rd law of planetary motion.
K mvcm I
2 2 T12 a13
A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if T2 a3 ;
T22 a 32
(a) It is translational equilibrium i.e., the total external
force on it is zero : Fi = 0.
(b) It is rotational equilibrium i.e., the total external MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
torque on it is zero : i = ri × Fi = 0. OF SOLIDS
If a body is released from rest on rough inclined plane,
Hooke’s law : stress strain
n
then for pure rolling r tan (Ic = nmr2) F
n 1 Young’s modulus of elasticity Y
n A
Rolling with sliding 0 s tan ; 1
n 1 Compressibility =
Bulk modulus
g sin
a g sin Y = 3k (1 – 2 )
n 1
Y = 2n (1 + )
GRAVITATION If S is the stress and Y is Young’s modulus, the energy
density of the wire E is equal to S2/2Y.
Newton’s universal law of gravitation If is the longitudinal strain and E is the energy density
Gm1m 2 of a stretched wire, Y Young’s modulus of wire, then E
Gravitational force F =
r2 is equal to Y
1 2
Nm 2 2
G = 6.67 × 10 –11 F
kg 2 Thermal stress = = Y Dq
A
The acceleration due to gravity.
(a) at a height h above the Earth’s surface
GM E 2h
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
g(h) g 1 for h << RE OF FLUIDS
(R E h)2 RE
Pascal’s law : A change in pressure applied to an
2h GM E
g(h) g(0) 1 where g(0) enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
RE R 2E point of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
(b) at depth d below the Earth’s surface is Pressure exerted by a liquid column P = hrg
GM E d d Bernoulli’s principle P + v2/2 + gh = constant
g(d) 1 g (0) 1 Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface
R E2 RE RE
energy per unit area) acting in the plane of interface.
(c) with latitude g1 = g – R 2 cos2
Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a
GM sphere of radius a moving with velocity v through a
Gravitational potential Vg = –
r fluid of viscosity F = – 6 av.
GM 2 r 2 ( – )g
Intensity of gravitational field I = 2 Terminal velocity VT =
r 9
The gravitational potential energy The surface tension of a liquid is zero at boiling point.
The surface tension is zero at critical temperature.
Gm1m 2
V constant If a drop of water of radius R is broken into n identical
r
drops, the work done in the process is 4 R2S(n1/3 – 1)
The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is
3T 1 1
2GM E and fall in temperature Dq = -
ve 2gR E and has a value of 11.2 km s–1. J r R
RE Two capillary tubes each of radius r are joined in
GM E
parallel. The rate of flow is Q. If they are replaced by
Orbital velocity, vorbi = gR E single capillary tube of radius R for the same rate of
RE flow, then R = 21/4 r.
A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) Ascent of a liquid column in a capillary tube
satellite moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane 2s cos f
at a approximate distance of 4.22 × 104 km from the h=
rr g
Earth’s centre.
4
Vd I 0 I1I 2
Mobility, µ and Vd Force between two long parallel wires F Nm 1 .
E Ane 2 a
The force is attractive if currents are in the same direction
and repulsive currents are in the opposite direction.
Resistance R = , = resistivity of the material
A For current carrying coil M NIA ; torque = M B
Equation E J another statement of Ohm’s law,,
Ig
= resistivity of the material. Conversion of (i) galvanometer into ammeter, S G
Ohm’s law I V or V = RI I Ig
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series V
R = R1 + R2 +..... + Rn (ii) galvanometer into voltmeter, S G
(b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel Ig
1 1 1 1 B0
...... The magnetic intensity, H .
R R1 R 2 Rn . 0
Kirchhoff’s Rules – (a) Junction rule: At any junction of The magnetisation M of the material is its dipole moment
circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction per unit volume. The magnetic field B in the material is,
must equal the sum of currents leaving it.
(b) Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential B 0 (H M)
around any closed loop must be zero. For a linear material M H . So that B H and is
The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
R1 , R2 , R3, R4 . The null-point condition is given by called the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
R1 R 3 0 r ; r 1 .
R2 R4
The potentiometer is a device to compare potential ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
differences. The device can be used to measure potential
difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emf’s of The magnetic flux
B B.A BA cos , where is the angle between B & A .
1
two sources. Internal resistance r R 1
2
d B
Faraday’s laws of induction : N
RC circuit : During charging : q = CE (1 – e–t/RC) dt
Lenz’s law states that the polarity of the induced emf is such
During discharging : q = q0e–t/RC
that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
According ‘to Joule’s Heating law, H = I2Rt in magnetic flux that produces it.
The induced emf (motional emf) across ends of a rod B v
MAGNETISM
dI
The total force on a charge q moving with velocity v i.e., The self-induced emf is given by, L
dt
Lorentz force. F q (v B E) . L is the self-inductance of the coil.
A straight conductor of length and carrying a steady current 2
0N A
L=
I experiences a force F in a uniform external magnetic field
A changing current in a coil (coil 2) can induce an emf in a
B , F I B , the direction of is given by the direction of nearby coil (coil 1).
the current.
dI
0 d r 1 M12 2 , M12 = mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t coil
Biot-Savart law dB I 3 . dt
4 r 2.
The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of
NN A
radius R carrying a current I at an axial distance x from the M= 0 1 2
2
0 IR Rt /L
centre is B . Growth of current in an inductor, i i 0 [1 e ]
2 (x 2 R 2 )3/2
For decay of current, i Rt /L
The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying i0e
0 NI
a current I is : B = µ0nI. For a toroid one obtains, B . ALTERNATING CURRENT
2 r
Ampere’s Circuital Law : , where I refers to the For an alternating current i = im sin t passing through a
B.d 0I resistor R, the average power loss P (averaged over a cycle)
C
due to joule heating is (1/2)i2mR.
current passing through S. E.m.f, E = E0 sin wt
7
Hybridisation :
Moles / lit of Acid or Base Mixed
number of valence electrons of central atom (iii) Buffer Capacity =
Change in pH
1
number of monovalent atoms attached to it Relation between ionisation constant (Ki) and degree of
2
negative charge if any positive charge if any 2 2
C
ionisation( ) : – K i = (Ostwald’ss
(1 )V (1 )
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM dilution law)
It is applicable to weak electrolytes for which <<1 then
ng
K p = K c (RT) where ng = nP – n R Ki
Free Energy Change ( G) = Ki V = or V C
C
(a) If G = 0 then reversible reaction would be in Common ion effect : By addition of X mole/L of a common
equilibrium, Kc = 0 ion, to a weak acid (or weak base) becomes equal to
(b) If G = (+) ve then equilibrium will be displaced in
backward direction; Kc < 1 Ka K
or b [where = degree of dissociation]
(c) If G = (–) ve then equilibrium will shift in forward X X
direction; Kc > 1 (i) If solubility product > ionic product then the solution is
(a) Kc unit (moles/lit) n, unsaturated and more of the substance can be dissolved
(b) Kp unit (atm) n in it.
Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium Constant (ii) If ionic product > solubility product the solution is
Consider the following reversible reaction A + B C + D super saturated (principle of precipitation).
Salt of weak acid and strong base :
[C][D]
Qc = [A][B] Kh Kw
pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa + log c); h = ; Kh = K
Case I : If Q c < Kc then : [Reactants] > [Products] c a
then the system is not at equilibrium (h = degree of hydrolysis)
Case II : If Q c = Kc then : The system is at equilibrium. Salt of weak base and strong acid :
Case III : If Q c > Kc then : [Products] > [Reactants] Kw
The system is not at equilibrium. pH = 0.5 (pKw – pKb – log c); h = Kb c
A relationship between the equilibrium constant KC, reaction
quotient and Gibb's energy. Salt of weak acid and weak base :
G = G° + RT ln Q Kw
At equilibrium G = 0 and Q = K then G° = –RT ln Kc pH = 0.5 (pKw + pKa – pKb ); h =
Ka Kb
G° = –RT ln Kp
Le-Chatelier’s principle
(i) Increase of reactant conc. (Shift reaction forward) CHEMICAL KINETICS
(ii) Decrease of reactant conc. (Shift reaction backward)
(iii) Increase of pressure (from more moles to less moles) Unit of rate constant : k = mol1–n litn–1 sec–1
(iv) Decrease of pressure (from less moles to more moles) Order of reaction It can be fraction, zero or any whole number.
(v) For exothermic reaction decrease in temp. (Shift Molecularity of reaction is always a whole number. It is never
forward) more than three. It cannot be zero.
(vi) For endothermic increase in temp. (Shift backward)
First Order Reactions :
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM 2.303 a 0.693
k= log10 (a x) & t1/12 = [A]t = [A]0e–kt
(i) Lewis Acid (e– pair acceptor)
CO2, BF3, AlCl3, ZnCl2, t k
normal cation Second Order Reactions : When concentration of A and B
(ii) Lewis Base (e– pair donor) NH3, ROH, ROR, H2O,
RNH2, normal anions 1 x
Dissociation of Weak Acid and Weak Base taking same. k2 =
t a(a x)
(i) Weak Acid, Ka = Cx2/(1 – x) or Ka = Cx2 ; x << 1 When concentration of A and B are taking different -
(ii) Weak Base, Kb = Cx2/(1 – x) or Kb = Cx2 ; x << 1
Buffer solution {Henderson equation} : 2.303 b(a x)
k2 = t(a b) log a(b x)
(i) Acidic, pH = pKa + log {Salt/Acid}.
For maximum buffer action pH = pKa
a
Range of buffer pH = pKa ± 1 Zero Order Reaction : x = kt and t1/2 =
(ii) Alkaline pOH = pKb + log {Salt/Base} for max. buffer 2k
action pH = 14 – pKb The rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of
Range pH = 14 – pKb ± 1 the reacting substance.
11
PAo – PA PV
Relative lowering of vapour pressure = Z (compressibility factor) = ; Z = 1 for ideal gas
PAo nRT
PAo – PA nB 8a a a
XB TC , PC 2
, VC 3b, Tb
PAo n A nB 27Rb 27b bR
Colligative Number of particles/ ions/ moles of solute
properties SOLID STATE
Depression of freezing point, Tf = Kfm Available space filled up by hard spheres (packing fraction):
Elevation in boiling point with relative lowering of vapour
Simple cubic = = 0.52
1000K b po p 6
pressure Tb (M 1 = mol. wt. of
M1 po 3 2 2
bcc = = 0.68 fcc = = 0.74 hcp = = 0.74
solvent) 8 6 6
Osmotic pressure (P) with depression in freezing point Tf 3
dRT diamond = = 0.34
P Tf 6
1000K f Radius ratio and co-ordination number (CN)
Relation between Osmotic pressure and other colligative Limiting radius ratio CN Geometry
properties: [0.155– 0.225] 3 [Plane triangle]
p oA p A dRT [0.255–0.414] 4 [Tetrahedral]
(i) M B Relative lowering of vapour pressure [0.414–0.732] 6 [Octahedral]
p oA
[0.732–1] 8 [bcc]
dRT Atomic radius r and the edge of the unit cell:
(ii) Tb Elevation in boiling point
1000K b Pure elements :
dRT a 3a 2a
(iii) Tf Depression in freezing point Simple cubic = r = ; bcc r = ; fcc =
1000K f 2 4 4
Relationship between radius of void (r) and the radius
Normal molar mass Observed colligative property of the sphere (R) : r (tetrahedral) = 0.225 R ; r (octahedral)
i= =
Observed molar mass Normal colligative property = 0.414 R
n Paramagnetic : Presence of unpaired electrons [attracted by
Degree of association a = (1 – i) magnetic field]
n 1 Ferromagnetic : Permanent magnetism [ ]
i 1 Antiferromagnetic : Net magnetic moment is zero [ ]
& degree of dissociation ( ) =
n 1
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
GASEOUS STATE
Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT Ferrimagnetic : Net magnetic moment is three [
(i) R = 0.0821 liter atm. deg–1 mole–1 Emulsion : Colloidal soln. of two immiscible liquids [O/W
(ii) R = 2 cals. deg.–1 mole– emulsion, W/O emulsion]
(iii) R = 8.314 JK–1 mole–1
Velocities related to gaseous state Emulsifier : Long chain hydrocarbons are added to stabilize
emulsion.
3PV 3RT 3P
RMS velocity = = = Lyophilic colloid : Starchy gum, gelatin have greater affinity
M M d for solvent.
8RT 2RT Lyophobic colloid : No affinity for solvent, special methods
Average speed = & Most probable speed = are used to prepare sol. [e.g. As2S3, Fe(OH)3 sol]
M M
Average speed = 0.9213 × RMS speed Preparation of colloidal solution :
RMS speed = 1.085 × Average speed
MPS = .816 × RMS; RMS = 1.224 MPS (i) Dispersion methods (ii) Condensation method.
MPS : A.V. speed : RMS = 1 : 1.128 : 1.224
1
1 Coagulating power
Rate of diffusion Flecculating value
density of gas
van der Waal’s equation Properties of colloidal solution :
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides : B < Al < Ga < In < Tl
PERIODIC TABLE Relative strength of Lewis acid : BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3
Ionisation energy : B > Al < Ga > In < Tl
General electronic configuration (of outer orbits) Electronegativity : Electronegativity first decreases from B
s-block ns 1–2 to Al and then increases marginally.
p-block ns 2 np 1–6
d-block (n–1)d1–10 ns1–2 CARBON FAMILY
f-block (n–2)f1–14 s2 p6 d10
(n–1)s2p6d0 or 1 ns2 Reactivity : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
Property Pr (L To R) Gr (T toB) Metallic character : C < Si < Ge < Sn < Pb
(i) Atomic radius Acidic character of the oxides :
(ii) Ionisation potential CO2 > SiO2 > GeO2 > SnO2 > PbO2
(iii) Electron affinity Weaker acidic (amphoteric)
(iv) Electronegativity Reducing nature of hydrides
(v) Metallic character or CH4 < SiH4 < GeH4 < SnH4 < PbH4
electropositive character Thermal stability of tetrahalides
(vi) Alkaline character CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 > SnCl4 > PbCl4
of hydroxides Oxidising character of M+4 species
(vii) Acidic character GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
(viii) Reducing property Ease of hydrolysis of tetrahalides
SiCl4 < GeCl4 < SnCl4 < PbCl4
(ix) Oxidising property
(x) Non metallic character
NITROGEN FAMILY
1 1
IP Metallic character Reducing character Acidic strength of trioxides : N2O3 > P2O3 > As2O3
Acidic strength of pentoxides
1 N2O5 > P2O5 > As2O5 > Sb2O5 > Bi2O5
EA nuclear charge. Acidic strength of oxides of nitrogen
size
Second electron affinity is always negative. N2O < NO < N2O3 < N2O4 < N2O5
Basic nature, bond angle, thermal stability and dipole moment
Electron affinity of chlorine is greater than fluorine (small
of hydrides NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
atomic size). Stability of trihalides of nitrogen : NF3 > NCl3 > NBr 3
The first element of a group has similar properties with the Lewis base strength : NF3 < NCl3> NBr3 < NI3
second element of the next group. This is called diagonal Ease of hydrolysis of trichlorides
relationship. The diagonal relationship disappears after IV NCl3 > PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3 > BiCl3
group. Lewis acid strength of trihalides of P, As and Sb
PCl3 > AsCl3 > SbCl3
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS Lewis acid strength among phosphorus trihalides
PF3 > PCl3 > PBr3 > PI3
Atomic radii : Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs Nitrogen displays a great tendency to form p – p multiple
Electronegativity : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs bonds with itself as well as with carbon and oxygen.
First ionization potential : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs The basic strength of the hydrides
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3
Melting point Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs
The thermal stability of the hydrides decreases as the atomic
Colour of the flame Li - Red, Na - Golden, K - Violet, Rb - size increases.
Red, Cs - Blue, Ca - Brick red, Sr - Blood red, Ba-Apple green
Rb and Cs show photoelectric effect. OXYGEN FAMILY
Stability of hydrides : LiH > NaH > KH > RbH > CsH
Basic nature of hydroxides : Melting and boiling point of hydrides :
LiOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
Hydration energy : Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs Volatility of hydrides:H2O < H2Te < H2Se < H2S
Reducing character : Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na Reducing nature of hydrides : H2S < H2Se < H2Te
Covalent character of hydrides : H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
BORON FAMILY The acidic character of oxides (elements in the same oxidation
state) SO2 > SeO2 > TeO2 > PoO2 ; SO3 > SeO3 > TeO3
Stability of +3 oxidation state : B > Al > Ga > In > Tl Acidic character of oxide of a particular element (e.g. S)
Stability of +1 oxidation state : Ga < In < Tl SO < SO2 < SO3 ; SO2 > TeO2 > SeO2 > PoO2
14
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
GENERAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Heterolytic fission Ions (Carbonium ions, carbanions etc.)
Nucleophiles – Electron rich
Two types : (i) Anions (ii) Neutral molecules
The order of decreasing electronegativity of hybrid orbitals with lone pair of electrons (Lewis bases)
is sp > sp2 > sp3. Electrophiles : Electron deficient.
Conformational isomers are those isomers which arise due Two types : (i) Cations (ii) Neutral molecules with vacant
to rotation around a single bond. orbitals (Lewis acids).
A meso compound is optically inactive, even though it has Inductive effect is due to electron displacement along a
asymmetric centres (due to internal compensation of rotation chain and is permanent effect.
of plane polarised light) +I (inductive effect) increases basicity, – I effect increases
An equimolar mixture of enantiomers is called racemic acidity of compounds.
mixture, which is optically inactive. Resonance is a phenomenon in which two or more structures
Reaction intermediates and reagents : can be written for the same compound but none of them
Homolytic fission Free radicals actually exists.
15
ALCOHOLS
Chair form Half Chair
Most Stable
Alkenes are converted to alcohol in different ways as follows
Reagent Types of addition
dil H2SO4 Markovnikov
B2H6 and H2O2, OH– Anti-Markovnikov
Twist Boat Boat form
(Least Stable) Oxymercuration demercuration – Markovnikov
Oxidation of
ALKENES 1° alcohol aldehyde carboxylic acid
(with same no. (with same no. of
In dehydration and dehydrohalogenation the preferential of C atom) C atom)
order for removal of hydrogen is 3° > 2° > 1° (Saytzeff’s rule). 2° alcohol ketone carboxylic acid
The lower the Hh (heat of hydrogenation) the more stable (with same no. (with less no. of
the alkene is. of C atom) C atom)
Alkenes undergo anti-Markonikov addition only with HBr 3° alcohol ketone carboxylic acid
in the presence of peroxides. (with less no. (with less no. of
of C atom) C atom)
ALKYNES
Alkynes add water molecule in presence of mercuric sulphate
PHENOLS
and dil. H2SO4 and form carbonyl compounds. CHCl3 /OH
Terminal alkynes have acidic H-atoms, so they form metal Phenol Phenolic aldehyde
alkynides with Na, ammonical cuprous chloride solution and (Reimer-Tieman reaction)
ammoniacal silver nitrate solution. Phenol
CO2
Phenolic carboxylic acid (Kolbe's reaction)
Alkynes are acidic because of H-atoms which are attached
to sp ‘C’ atom which has more electronegativity and ‘s’ Acidity of phenols
character than sp2 and sp3 ‘C’ atoms. (i) Increases by electron withdrawing substituents like
– NO2, – CN, – CHO, – COOH, –X, N R 3
ARENES (ii) decreases by electron releasing substituents like
– R, – OH, – NH2, – NR2, – OR
All o and p-directing groups are ring activating groups
(except – X)
They are : – OH, – NH2, – X, – R, – OR, etc.
ETHERS
All m-directing groups are ring deactivating groups. 2ROH
Al2O3
R O R H 2O
250ºC
They are : – CHO, – COOH, – NO2, – CN,– NR 3 , etc. RONa X R ' ROR ' NaX
(Williamson's synthesis)
Benzoin condensation Benzaldehyde ethanolic Dil. H2SO4 [or Conc. H2SO4 + H2O]
Benzoin
NaCN Use Hydrating agent (+HOH)
The relative reactivities of different acid derivatives towards Alc. KOH or NaNH2(Use -HX)
nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction follow the order: alc.KOH
CH3CH2Cl CH2=CH2
O O O O O
|| || || || || Lucas Reagent ZnCl2 + Conc. HCl
R – C – Cl R – C – O – C – R ' R – C – OR ' R – C – NH 2 Use For distinction between 1º, 2º
Acid chloride Anhydride Ester Amide
& 3º alc.
Tilden Reagent NOCl (Nitrosyl chloride)
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
C2H5NH2 NOCl C2H5Cl
The rate of esterfication decreases when alcohol, acid or
both have branched substituents. Alkaline KMnO4(Strong oxidant)
Or tho effect : All orth o substituted benzoic acids Toluene Benzoic acid
(irrespective of type of substituent) are stronger than benzoic Bayer’s Reagent : 1% alkaline KMnO4(Weak oxidant)
acid. Use: For test of > C = C < or –C = C –
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS CH2=CH2+H2O+[O] BR CH2OH–CH2OH
Order of basicity : Acidic K2Cr2O7 (Strong oxidant) : RCH2OH [O] RCHO
(R = – CH3 or – C2H5) 2° > 1° > 3° > NH3
Hofmann degradation SnCl2/HCl or Sn/HCl used for reduction of nitrobenzene in
SnCl 2 / HCl
Amides Br2 /KOH 1° amine acidic medium. C6H5NO2 C6H5NH2
6H
The basicity of amines is (i) decreased by electron with
drawing groups (ii) increased by electron releasing groups Lindlar’s Catalyst = Pd/CaCO 3 + in small quantity
Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media gives different (CH3COO)2Pb 2 – butye + H2 "
Cis-2-butene
products
Medium Product (main product)
Acidic Aniline Ziegler –Natta Catalyst (C2H5)3Al + TiCl4
Basic Azoxy, Azo and finally hydrazobenzene Use In Addition polymerisation
Neutral Phenyl hydroxylamine
IDENTIFICATION TESTS
BIOMOLECULES Unsaturated compound (Bayer’s reagent)
Decolourising the reagent
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. Alcohols (Ceric ammonium nitrate solution)
Monosaccharides are simple sugars, containing three to nine Red colouration
carbon atoms. Phenols (Neutral FeCl3 solution)
Characteristic reactions : Violet/deep blue colouration
Homologous series Type of reactions Aldehydes and ketones (2, 4-D.N.P.)
(i) Alkanes Substitution Orange precipitate
Mostly free radical Acids (NaHCO3 solution)
(ii) Alkenes and alkynes Electrophillic addition Brisk effervescence (CO2 is evolved)
(iii) Arenes Electrophillic substitution 1° amine (CHCl3 + KOH)
(iv) Alkyl halides Nucleophillic substitution Foul smell (isocyanide)
(v) Aldehyde and ketones Nucleophillic addition 2° amine (NaNO2 + HCl)
Yellow oily liquid (Nitrosoamine)
(e) tan = tan : = n + ; n
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS (f) tan = k, = n + , where n and = tan–1k
(g) sin2 = sin2 : = n ± ; n
A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian
(h) cos2 = cos2 : = n ± ; n
product A × B obtained by describing a relationship between (i) tan2 = tan2 : = n ± ; n
the first element x and the second element y of the ordered sin + sin ( + ) + sin ( +2 ) +........ to n terms
pairs in A × B.
n 1 n
Function : A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific sin sin
type of relation for which every element x of set A has one 2 2
= ; 2n
and only one image y in set B. We write f : A B, where f (x) sin ( / 2)
= y. cos + cos ( + ) + cos ( +2 ) +........ to n terms
A function f : X Y is one-one (or injective) if n 1 n
cos sin
f (x1) = f (x2) x1 = x2 x1, x2 X. 2 2
A function f : X Y is onto (or surjective) if given any = ; 2n
y Y, x X such that f (x) = y. sin
2
Many-One Function :
A function f : A B is called many- one, if two or more B C b c A
tan cot
different elements of A have the same f- image in B. 2 b c 2
Into function : A (s - b)(s - c)
A function f : A B is into if there exist at least one element sin =
2 bc
in B which is not the f - image of any element in A.
Many One -Onto function : A (s - b)(s - c)
tan = s (s - a)
A function f : A R is said to be many one- onto if f is onto 2
but not one-one. a b c
Many One -Into function : R= = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C
A function is said to be many one-into if it is neither one-one abc
nor onto. R=
4D
A function f : X Y is invertible if and only if f is one-one
and onto. æA ö æB ö æC ö
r = 4R sin ç ÷ . sin ç ÷ . sin ç ÷
è2ø è2ø è2ø
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND a = c cos B + b cos C
E Q UAT I O N S Maximum value of a sin + b cos a2 b2 and minimum
Area of a triangle : Let (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) Chord of contact :
respectively be the coordinates of the vertices A, B, C of a The equation of chord of contact of tangent drawn from a
triangle ABC. Then the area of triangle ABC, is
x2 y2
1 point P (x1, y1) to the hyperbola = 1 is T = 0
[x (y – y )+ x2 (y3 – y1) + x3 (y1 – y2)] a2 b2
2 1 2 3
Or xx1 yy1
x1 y1 1 where T –1
2
a b2
1 x
= 2 y2 1 Equation of normal in different forms :
2 x y 1 Point Form : The equation of the normal to the hyperbola
3 3
x2 y2 a2x b2 y
CONIC SECTIONS = 1 at the point (x1, y1) is = a2 + b2
a2 b2 x1 y1
Condition of Tangency : Circle
x2 + y2 =a2 will touch the line. THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
y = mx + c if c = ± a 1 m 2
Slope Form : The equation of normal to the hyperbola
Pair of Tangents : From a given point P( x1,y1) two tangents
PQ and PR can be drawn to the circle x2 y2 m(a 2 b2 )
S = x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0. = 1 in terms of slope 'm' is y = mx ±
a2 b2 a 2 b2 m 2
Their combined equation is SS1 = T2.
Condition of Orthogonality : If the angle of intersection of Conditions of Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two
the two circle is a right angle ( = 90°) then such circle are Lines:
called Orthogonal circle and conditions for their orthogonality Case-I : When dc's of two lines AB and CD, say 1 , m1, n1
is 2g1g2 + 2f1f2 =c1 +c2 and 2 , m2, n2 are known.
Tangent to the parabola : AB | | CD 1 = 2 , m1 = m2, n 1 = n 2
Condition of Tangency : If the line y = mx + c touches a AB CD 1 2 + m1m2 + n 1n 2 = 0
parabola y2 = 4ax then c = a/m Case-II : When dr's of two lines AB and CD, say a1, b1 c1 and
Tangent to the Ellipse: a2, b2, c2 are known
Condition of tangency and point of contact :
The condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the a1 b1 c1
AB | | CD a2 b2 c2
x2 y2
ellipse = 1 is that c2 = a2m2 + b2 and the coordinates AB CD a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
a2 b2
If 1, m1, n1 and 2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two
a 2m b2 lines; and is the acute angle between the two lines; then
of the points of contact are ,
a 2m2 b2 a2m2 b2 cos = | 1 2 + m1m2 + n1n2 |.
Normal to the ellipse Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having
(i) Point Form : The equation of the normal to the ellipse
x x1 y y1 z z1
x2 y2 a2x b2 y direction cosines , m, n is
= 1 at the point (x1, y1) is m n
a 2 b2 x1 y1
= a2 – b2 Shortest distance between r a1 b1 and r a2 b2
(ii) Parametric Form : The equation of the normal to the
(b1 b 2 ).(a 2 a1 )
x2 y2 is
ellipse = 1 at the point (a cos , b sin ) is | b1 b 2 |
a 2 b2
ax sec – by cosec = a2 – b2 Let the two lines be
Tangent to the hyperbola :
x 1 y 1 z 1
Condition for tangency and points of contact : The condition ..........(1)
for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola 1 m1 n1
x2 y2
= 1 is that c2 = a2m2 – b2 and the coordinates of the x 2 y 2 z 2
a2 b2 and ..........(2)
2 m2 n2
a2m b2 These lines will coplanar if
points of contact are ,
a 2 m2 b2 a 2 m2 b2
21
2 1 2 1 2 1
For a function f :
m1 n1 Differentiability Continuity;
1 =0 Continuity derivability
2 m2 n2
Not derivibaility discontinuous ;
The plane containing the two lines is
But discontinuity Non derivability
x 1 y 1 z 1 Differentiation of infinite series:
1 m1 n1
=0
2 m2 n2 (i) If y f (x) f (x) f (x) ........
The equation of a plane through a point whose position
y = f (x) y y2 = f (x) + y
vector is a and perpendicular to the vector N is
(r a).N 0 dy dy dy f '(x)
2y = f ' (x) + =
Vector equation of a plane that passes through the dx dx dx 2y 1
intersection of planes r.n1 d1 and r.n 2 d 2 is
f (x)....
r.(n1 n2 ) d1 d 2 , where is any nonzero constant. (ii) If y = f (x)f (x) then y = f (x)y.
Two planes r log y = y log [f(x)]
a1 b1 and r a2 b2 are coplanar if
1 dy y '.f '(x) dy
(a 2 a1 ) (b1 b2 ) 0 log f (x).
y dx f (x) dx
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS dy y 2 f '(x)
dx f (x)[1 y log f (x)]
Existence of Limit :
lim f (x) exists lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 1 dy y f '(x)
x® a x® a- x® a+ (iii) If y = f (x) .... then
Where is called the limit of the function f (x) 1 1 dx 2y f (x)
(i) If f(x) g(x) for every x in the deleted nbd of a, then f (x) f (x)
(iii) lim fog (x) = f lim g (x) = f (m) where lim g (x) = m Interpretation of the Derivative : If y = f (x) then, m= f (a) is
x a x a x a the slope of the tangent line to y = f (x) at x = a
1 Increasing/Decreasing :
(iv) If lim f(x) = + =0 or – , then lim (i) If f (x) > 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is increasing
x a f (x) x a
CONTINUITYAND DIFFERENTIABILITY OFFUNCTIONS on the interval I.
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a if (ii) If f (x) < 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is decreasing
on the interval I.
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f(a)
x® a+ x® a- (iii) If f (x) = 0 for all x in an interval I then f (x) is constant
Discontinuous Functions : on the interval I.
(a) Removable Discontinuity: A function f is said to have Test of Local Maxima and Minima –
removable discontinuity at x = a if lim f (x) = lim f (x) First Derivative Test – Let f be a differentiable function defined
x® a- x® a+ on an open interval I and c I be any point. f has a local maxima
but their common value is not equal to f (a). or a local minima at x = c, f (c) = 0.
(b) Discontinuity of the first kind: A function f is said to
have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = a if dy
Put 0 and solve this equation for x. Let c1, c2........cn be
dx
lim f(x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal. the roots of this.
x® a- x a
(c) Discontinuity of second kind: A function f is said to If dy changes sign from +ve to –ve as x increases through
have a discontinuity of the second kind at x = a if neither dx
lim f (x) nor lim f (x) exists. c1 then the function attains a local max at x = c1
x® a- x® a+
dy
Similarly, if lim f (x) does not exist, then f is said to have If changes its sign from –ve to +ve as x increases through
x a dx
discontinuity of the second kind from the right at x = a. c1 then the function attains a local minimum at x = c1
22
dy g(x)
If does not changes sign as increases through c1 then d
dx Leibnitz rule : F(t) dt g (x)F(g(x)) f (x)F(f (x))
x = c1 is neither a point of local maxm nor a point of local dx f (x)
minm. In this case x is a point of inflexion. If a series can be put in the form
Rate of change of variable :
1r n 1 r 1r n r
dy dy f or f , then its limit as n
The value of at x = x0 i.e. represents the rate n r 0 n nr 1 n
dx dx x x0
of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 1
dy dy / dt dx is f (x) dx
If x = (t) and y = (t), then , provided that 0 0
dx dx / dt dt
Thus, the rate of change of y with respect to x can be Area between curves :
calculated by using the rate of change of y and that of x b
each with respect to t. y f (x) A [upper function] [lower function] dx
dx dy a
Length of Sub–tangent = y ; Sub–normal = y ;
dy dx d
=
dy
(x – x1). The equation of the normal at P (x1, y1) PROBABILITY
dx P
Probability of an event: For a finite sample space with equally
1
to the curve y = f (x) is y – y1 = (x – x1) likely outcomes Probability of an event is
dy
dx n(A)
P P(A) , where n (A) = number of elements in the set
n(S)
INTEGRAL CALCULUS A, n (S) = number of elements in the set S.
Theorem of total probability : Let {E1, E2, ...,En} be a partition
of a sample space and suppose that each of E1, E2, ..., En has
Two standard forms of integral : nonzero probability. Let A be any event associated with S,
e x [f (x) + f ' (x) dx = ex f (x) + c then
P(A) = P(E1) P (A | E1) + P (E2) P (A | E2) + ...
e x [f (x) + f '(x)] dx = e x f (x)dx + e x f ' (x) dx + P (En) P(A | En)
Bayes' theorem: If E1, E2, ..., En are events which constitute
= ex f (x) – e x f '(x) dx + e x f' (x) a partition of sample space S, i.e. E1, E2, ..., En are pairwise
(on integrating by parts) = ex f (x) + c disjoint and E1 E2 ... En = S and A be any event with
Table shows the partial fractions corresponding to different nonzero probability, then
type of rational functions :
S. Form of rational Form of partial P(E i ) P (A | E i )
P (E i | A) n
No. function fraction
P(E j ) P(A | E j )
px q A B j 1
1. (x a) (x b) (x a) (x b) Let X be a random variable whose possible values x 1, x2, x3,
..., xn occur with probabilities p1, p2, p3, ... pn respectively.
px 2 qx r A B C n
2. 2 (x a) 2 (x b)
(x a) (x b) (x a) The mean of X, denoted by µ, is the number x i pi
i 1
px 2 qx r A Bx C The mean of a random variable X is also called the
3. 2 2 expectation of X, denoted by E (X).
(x a) (x bx c) (x a) x bx C
23
Lagrange's identity :
a.c a.d DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(a b).( c d) (a.c)(b.d) (a.d)(b.c)
b.c b.d Methods of solving a first order first degree differential
equation :
Reciprocal system of vectors : If a, b, c be any three non dy
coplanar vectors so that (a) Differential equation of the form f (x)
dx
[a b c] 0 then the three vectors a ' b 'c ' defined by the dy
f (x) dy = f (x) dx
dx
b c c a a b Integrating both sides we obtain
equations a ' , b' , c'
are called
[a b c] [a b c]
[a b c] dy f (x) dx c or y = f (x) dx c
the reciprocal system of vectors to the given vectors a, b, c dy
(b) Differential equation of the form f (x) g(y)
dx
STATISTICS dy dy
f (x) g(y) f (x) dx c
Relation between A.M., G.M. and H.M. dx g (y)
A.M. G.M. H.M. dy
(c) Differential equation of the form of f (ax by c) :
Equality sign holds only when all the observations in the dx
series are same. To solve this type of differential equations, we put
Relationship between mean, mode and median : dy 1 dv
ax + by + c = v and dx a
(i) In symmetrical distribution b dx
Mean = Mode = Median dv
dx
(ii) In skew (moderately symmetrical) distribution a b f (v)