Energy Transformations

An energy transformation is the change of energy from one form to

another. Energy transformations occur everywhere every second of the day.
There are many different forms of energy such as electrical, thermal, nuclear,
mechanical, electromagnetic, sound, and chemical. Because the law of
conservation of energy states that energy is always conserved in the universe
and simply changes from one form to another, many energy
transformations are taking place constantly.
Examples of Energy Transformations:
1. A toaster transforms electrical energy into thermal energy.
2. A blender transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy.
3. The sun transforms nuclear energy into ultraviolet, infrared, and gamma
energy all forms of electromagnetic energy.
4. Our bodies convert chemical energy from food into mechanical and electrical
energy to allow us to move.
5. A natural gas stove converts chemical energy from burning into thermal
energy used to cook food.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is often referred to as heat. The thermal energy of matter
depends on how fast the atoms or molecules are moving. The faster they are
moving, the more thermal energy they possess. Therefore, the temperature of
the matter would be higher. Thermal energy is a form of kinetic energy.
Examples of Thermal Energy:
1. A 12 ounce glass of water at 70 degrees has more thermal energy than a 12
ounce glass of water at 60 degrees.
2. Adding ice to a glass of water causes the temperature of the water to
decrease because the thermal energy in the water causes the ice to melt.
3. A grill gives off thermal energy by burning propane.
4. The sun's thermal energy heats our atmosphere.
5. Thermal energy from a hot stove is transferred to a metal pot and causes the
water molecules to move faster increasing the temperature of the water.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of objects. Although
there are many forms of kinetic energy, this type of energy is often associated
with the movement of larger objects. For example, thermal energy exists
because of the movement of atoms or molecules, thus thermal energy is a
variation of kinetic energy. However, most of the time, kinetic energy refers to
the energy associated with the movement of larger objects. Therefore, if an
object is not moving, it is said to have zero kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of
an object depends on both its mass and velocity, with its velocity playing a
much greater role.
Examples of Kinetic Energy:
1. An airplane has a large amount of kinetic energy in flight due to its large
mass and fast velocity.
2. A baseball thrown by a pitcher, although having a small mass, can have a
large amount of kinetic energy due to its fast velocity.
3. A downhill skier traveling down a hill has a large amount of kinetic energy
because of their mass and high velocity.
4. A golf ball sitting on a tee before it is struck has zero kinetic energy because
its velocity is zero.
5. An asteroid falling to earth at incredible speeds has an enormous amount of
kinetic energy.
6. A car traveling down the road has less kinetic energy than a semi-truck
traveling at the same speed because the car's mass is much less than the
truck's.
7. A river flowing at a certain speed possesses kinetic energy because the water
has a certain mass and it also has velocity.
8. An insect flying has a small amount of kinetic energy because its mass and
velocity are relatively small.
Triplex Wire

Baerbel Schmidt/Photodisc/Getty Images

Triplex is an aerial cable that the utility company uses to feed the power pole. This wire ties to the
wires sticking out of the weather head.

02of 05

Main Feeder Wires

Feeder Wires. Tim Thiele

These wires are usually typed THHN wire and are rated for 125% of the load required.
These are usually black insulated wires coming out of the service weather head.
 03of 05

Panel Feed Wires

Panel Feed Wires. Tim Thiele

These wires are also typed THHN, like the main feeders. A typical 100-amp service
would have a #2 THHN set of wires. They would then be rated at 125 amps. This
would protect the wires if the amperage was a full 100 amps.

04of 05

Non-Metallic Sheathed Wire (NM)

Photo of Non-Metallic Sheathed Wire (NM). Tim Thiele

This wire, commonly called Romex, is a plastic coated wire that has either two or
three conductors and a bare ground wire. This is the typical wiring used in most homes.
The rating for this wire is either 15 amps, 20 amps, or 30 amps, depending on the
installation.

5of 05

Single Strand Wire

Photo of Single Strand Wire. Tim Thiele

When your home is piped, you’ll have to have another type of wire. Single strand wire
is insulated and many of these can be pulled into the same pipe. Normally, you’ll be
using THHN wire for this installation.
 Fuse and Types of Fuses
What is a Fuse:
The fuse is an electronic device, which is used to protect circuits from over current, overload
and make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many types of fuses available in the
market, but function of all these fuses is same.

Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non combustible material.
Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load connection occurs, then the thin wire
inside the fuse melts because of the heat generated by the heavy current flowing through it.
Therefore, it disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In normal operation of
the circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and does not affect the normal
operation of the system connected to the power supply.

Types of Fuses:
There are different types of fuses available in the market and they can be categories on the
basis of Different aspects.Good to know: Fuses are used in AC as well as DC circuits.

Fuses can be divided into two main categories according to the type of input supply
voltage.

1. AC fuses
2. DC fuses

AC and DC Fuses
There is a little difference between AC and DC Fuses used in the AC and DC Systems.
In a DC system, when the metallic wire Melts because of the heat generated by the over
current, then Arc is produced and it is very difficult to extinct this arc because of DC constant
value. So in order to minimize the fuse arcing, DC fuse are little bigger than an AC fuse which
increase the distance between the electrodes to reduce the arc in the Fuse. On the other hand,
i.e. in the AC system, voltage with 60Hz or 50Hz frequency changes it amplitude from zero to 60
times every second, so arc can be extinct easily as compared to DC. Therefore, AC fuses are
little bit small in sizes as compared to DC fuses.
Fuses can also be categorized based on one time or multiple Operations.

1) One time use only Fuse 2) Resettable Fuses

One time use only Fuse

 One time use fuses contain a metallic wire, which burns out, when an over current, over load or
mismatched load connect event occur, user has to manually replace these fuses, switch fuses
are cheap and widely used in almost all the electronics and electrical systems.
Such types of fuses can be categories on the following basis.

 Current carrying Capacity of Fuse

 Breaking capacity
 I2t value of Fuse
 Response Characteristic
 Rated voltage of Fuse
 Packaging Size
below is the brief explanation of the above categories.

Fuse Current Carrying Capacity:

Current carrying capacity is the amount of current which a fuse can easily conduct without
interrupting the circuit.

Breaking capacity:
The value of maximum current that can safely be interrupted by the Fuse is called Breaking
Capacity and should be higher than the prospective short circuit current.

I2t value of Fuse

The I2t terms related to fuse normally used in short circuit condition. it is the amount of
energy which carry the fuse element when the electrical fault is cleared by fuse element.

Response Characteristic:
The speed at which fuse blows, depend on the amount of current flowing through its wire. The
higher the current flowing through the wire, faster will be the response time.
Response characteristic shows the response time for over current event. Fuses which respond
rapidly to the over current situation is called ultra fast fuses or Fast fuses. They are used in
Many semiconductor devices because semiconductor devices damaged by over current very
rapidly.
There is another fuse which Is called Slow burn fuse, switch fuses do not respond rapidly to the
over current event, but blow after several seconds of over current occurrence. Such fuses found
their application in motor control electronics systems because motor takes a lot more current at
starting than running.
Rated Voltage of Fuse:
Each fuse has maximum allowed voltage rating, for example, if a fuse is designed for 32 volts it
cannot be used with 220 volts, different amount of isolation is required in different fuses working
on different voltage levels.

Packaging size:
As we have mentioned above that AC and DC fuses, have a little bit different packaging type, in
the same way different application requires different packages to be used accurately in the
circuit.

other factors and parameters are marking, temperature derating, voltage drop and speed etc.
THE NATURAL AND
SYNTHETIC NATURE OF
FOOD ADDITIVES

RELATED BOOK
Nutrition For Dummies, 6th Edition

By Carol Ann Rinzler

Food additives may be natural or synthetic. For example, vitamin C is
a natural preservative. Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) are synthetic preservatives. To ensure your
safety, both the natural and synthetic food additives used in the United
States come only from the group of substances known as the
generally recognized as safe (GRAS) list.

All additives on the GRAS list

 Are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA),

meaning that agency is satisfied that the additive is safe and
effective

 Must be used only in specifically limited amounts

 Must be used to satisfy a specific need in food products, such as

protection against molds

 Must be effective, meaning that they must actually maintain

freshness and safety

 Must be listed accurately on the label

NUTRIENT ADDITIVES
Vitamin D, which is added to virtually all milk sold in the United States,
is one example of a clearly beneficial food additive. Most U.S. bread
and grain products are fortified with added B vitamins, plus iron and
other essential minerals to replace what’s lost when whole grains are
milled into white flour for white bread. Some people say that people
would be better off simply sticking to whole grains, but adding vitamins
and minerals to white flours enhances a product that many people
prefer.

Some nutrients are also useful preservatives. For example, vitamin C

is an antioxidant that slows food spoilage and prevents destructive
chemical reactions, which is why American food packagers must add
a form of vitamin C (isoascorbic acid or sodium ascorbate) to bacon
and other luncheon meats to prevent the formation of potentially
cancer-causing compounds.

COLOR ADDITIVES
Colors, flavoring agents, and flavor enhancers make food look and
taste better. Like other food additives, these three may be either
natural or synthetic.

NATURAL COLORS
One good example of a natural coloring agent is beta carotene, the
yellow pigment extracted from many fruits and vegetables and used to
turn naturally white margarine to buttery yellow.

Some other natural coloring agents are annatto, a yellow-to-pink

pigment from a tropical tree; chlorophyll, the green pigment in green
plants; carmine, a reddish extract of cochineal (a pigment from
crushed beetles); saffron, a yellow herb; and turmeric, a yellow spice.

SYNTHETIC COLORS
An example of a synthetic coloring agent is FD&C Blue No. 1, a bright
blue pigment made from coal tar and used in soft drinks, gelatin, hair
dyes, and face powders, among other things.

And, yes, as scientists have discovered more about the effects of

coal-tar dyes, including the fact that some are carcinogenic, many of
these coloring agents have been banned from use in food in one
country or another but are still allowed in cosmetics.

FLAVOR ADDITIVES
Every cook worth his or her spice cabinet knows about natural flavor
ingredients, especially salt, sugar, vinegar, wine, and fruit juices.

Artificial flavoring agents reproduce natural flavors. For example, a

teaspoon of fresh lemon juice in the batter lends cheesecake a
certain je ne sais quoi (French for “I don’t know what” — a little
something special), but artificial lemon flavoring works just as well.
You can sweeten your morning coffee with natural sugar or with the
artificial sweetener saccharin.

Flavor enhancers are a slightly different kettle of fish. They intensify a

food’s natural flavor instead of adding a new one. The best-known
flavor enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG), widely used in
Asian foods.

Although it improves flavor, MSG may also trigger short-term,

generally mild reactions, such as headaches, flushing, sweating, facial
numbness and tingling, and rapid heartbeat in people sensitive to the
seasoning.

PRESERVATIVES
Food spoilage is a totally natural phenomenon. Milk sours. Bread
molds. Meat and poultry rot. Vegetables wilt. Fats turn rancid. The first
three kinds of spoilage are caused by microbes (bacteria, mold, and
yeasts). The last two happen when food is exposed to oxygen (air).

Preservative techniques such as cooking, chilling, canning, freezing,

and drying prevent spoilage either by slowing the growth of the
organisms that live on food or by protecting the food from the effects
of oxygen. Chemical preservatives do essentially the same thing:

 Antimicrobials are natural or synthetic preservatives that protect

food by slowing the growth of bacteria, molds, and yeasts.

 Antioxidants are natural or synthetic preservatives that protect

food by preventing food molecules from combining with oxygen
(air).

The table is a representative list of some common preservative

chemicals and the foods in which they’re found.
Preservatives in Food

Preservative Found in …

Ascorbic acid* Sausages, luncheon meats

Preservatives in Food

Preservative Found in …

Benzoic acid Beverages (soft drinks), ice cream, baked goods

BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) Potato chips and other foods

BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) Potato chips and other foods

Calcium propionate Breads, processed cheese

Isoascorbate* Luncheon meats and other foods

Sodium ascorbate* Luncheon meats and other foods

Sodium benzoate Margarine, soft drinks

* A form of vitamin C

OTHER ADDITIVES IN FOOD

Food chemists use a variety of the following types of natural and
chemical additives to improve the texture of food or prevent mixtures
from separating:

 Emulsifiers, such as lecithin and polysorbate, keep liquid-plus-

solids, such as chocolate pudding, from separating into liquid
and solids. They can also keep two unfriendly liquids, such as oil
and water, from divorcing so that your salad dressing stays
smooth.
  Stabilizers, such as the alginates (alginic acid) derived from
seaweed, make food such as ice cream feel smoother, richer, or
creamier in your mouth.

 Thickeners are natural gums and starches, such as apple pectin

or cornstarch, that add body to foods.

 Texturizers, such as calcium chloride, keep foods such as

canned apples, tomatoes, or potatoes from turning mushy.

Although many of these additives are derived from foods, their benefit
is aesthetic (the food looks better and tastes better), not nutritional.

b
How Does Biogas Work?
Biogas is a clean and renewable fuel (similar to LPG) that you can make yourself. You will be able to cook all
of your normal meals with it.
Biogas is made in a biogas digester. We call it a digester because it is a large tank filled with bacteria that eats (or
digests) organic waste and gives a flammable gas, called biogas. The bacteria in the Gesi550 biogas digester need to
be cared for like you would care for an animal. If the bacteria have too much or too little food they get sick. You
must feed the bacteria every day with a mixture of food waste and water. In addition to biogas, the Gesi systems
make waste water that is rich in nutrients. This water may be poured over your plants to help them grow.

Biogas systems make use of a relatively simple, well-known, and mature technology. The main part of a biogas
system is a large tank, or digester. Inside this tank, bacteria convert organic waste into methane gas through the
process of anaerobic digestion. Each day, the operator of a biogas system feeds the the digester with household by-
products such as market waste, kitchen waste, and manure from livestock. The methane gas produced inside biogas
system may be used for cooking, lighting, and other energy needs. Waste that has been fully digested exits the
biogas system in the form of organic fertiliser.
 Buy now
 Fin
Artificial food coloring makes your foods more appealing and desirable. While the safety
of these dyes has been called into question, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
maintains that the artificial food coloring currently permitted for use meet strict safety
requirements. Consumer advocacy groups and recent scientific research, however,
have linked these food dyes to a number of potential health problems, most notably
certain types of cancer in animals and attention-deficit disorder and hyperactivity in
children.

Safety Restrictions and Rare Allergic Reactions

According to FoodSafety.gov, the FDA uses the best science available to determine
whether food additives are safe. When artificial food colors are approved for use, a
number of restrictions are specified, including the types of foods they can be used in,
the maximum amounts in which they can be used and how the dyes should be identified
on food labels. In addition, all approved food colors are subject to ongoing review, as
testing methods continue to improve. FoodSafety.gov does note that while it is rare,
some individuals can have allergic reactions to particular food colors. As an example,
the FDA found that approximately 1 in 10,000 people could experience hives and itching
after consuming the artificial food coloring Yellow No. 5 -- a coloring used widely in
beverages, desserts, candies and other products.

Links to Cancer

According to the consumer advocacy group Center for Science in the Public Interest,
artificial food coloring and food dyes present many risks to consumers. A report
published by the center notes that many commonly used artificial food colors have been
found to cause damage to DNA, or genotoxicity, in more studies than they were found
to be safe. But the research on artificial food coloring is limited to animal studies,
including mice and rats. While bladder tumors and other forms of cancer were linked to
certain artificial coloring in these studies, no human trials have found links between
cancer and the dyes in humans. The center still contends they are dangerous to
consumers and has urged many large manufacturers to discontinue their use.

The Artificial Food Coloring-ADHD Link

A 2012 paper published in "Neurotherapeutics" examined the controversial topic of

artificial food coloring and hyperactivity in children. The article notes a 2011 FDA
advisory committee convened for the purpose of evaluating evidence regarding the
colors' effects on ADHD in children. The authors note that while artificial food colors are
not a major cause of ADHD, they do seem to affect both children with and without
ADHD. A 2009 paper published in "Prescrire International" noted that a meta-analysis of
15 double-blind clinical trials found that artificial food coloring increased hyperactive
behavior in already hyperactive children. The paper concluded that it is best for children
to avoid artificial food colors.

The FDA Says You're Safe

According to the FDA, the studies showing links between artificial food coloring and
ADHD in children have been either inconsistent, inconclusive or hard to evaluate due to
poor study design. The FDA also notes that any color additives that have been linked to
cancer, in either animals or humans, are banned for use in the United States. Therefore,
according to the FDA, all artificial food coloring currently used in the nation have been
evaluated for safety using the best scientific research and found not to be cancer-
causing in either animals and humans.
The Indian poultry feed market is expected to grow by seven to eight per cent in the next few years, a report
released at the Global Grain & Global Feed event said.
The report attributed the poultry sector growth to stronger demand from integrators in regional pockets of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
As the poultry industry has been expanding beyond the boundaries of these states, there is ample opportunity
for standalone feed players.
As an estimate, the current demand for poultry feed in India is around 22 million tonnes.
Poultry feed accounts for 58 per cent of the total feed market in India. The consumption of poultry feed also
increased to 8 per cent during 2012-13, as compared to 7 per cent during 2007-08, the report said.
The report said that boiler industry has been considered the strongest driver behind the development of feed
industry in India, benefiting largely from the presence of integrators (70 per cent of total industry) and a
shorter production cycle. This has brought in feed based efficiencies and rationalisation in the industry.
India is the fourth largest broiler producer and third largest egg producer, with broiler production of 3.5 million
tonnes in 2013 and egg production of 70.24 billion in 2012-13. 90 per cent of the broiler industry uses
compound feed.
The use of the compound feed in the egg layer industry varies from 5 per cent to 25 per cent and is highly
underutilised. Based in the current egg production total feed demand is about 11.6 million tonnes although the
consumption is 2-3 million tonnes. In future the egg laying industry offers a promising potential for the growth
of the feed industry, the report adds.
Considering the egg industry, the total feed demand is expected to be around five to six per cent. In the near
term, significant opportunities exist in the egg industry for compound feed demand. With farms consolidating
and growing in size longer term, egg layer farming will be integrated backward into feed millings.
The report also said that poultry consumption has seen a steady growth over the last few years due to increases
in household incomes.
Growth in income is associated with an increase in animal-based protein intake. Being a white meat, broiler
meat has an advantage of being a healthier choice compared to red meat like mutton, pork and beef, while also
being cheaper than seafood, the report stressed.
As an estimate, India’s per capita consumption of broiler meat grew by a 7.4 per cent compound annual growth
rate (CAGR) from 2009-10 to 2013-14, while egg consumption rose by 3.7 per cent CAGR.
These levels are however, much lower than the National Institute of Nutrition’s per captita consumption
recommendation of 11 kg of meat and 180 eggs per year.
Over 2013-14 to 2017-18, per capita consumption of broiler meat is estimated to continue to grow by a slower
6 per cent CAGR, while eggs will improve slightly to 3.9 per cent CAGR, the report stressed.
Tamil Nadu has the largest poultry feed requirement of 1.38 million tonnes from broiler and 1.97 million
tonnes from layer sector, followed by Andhra Pradesh which require 1.27 million tonnes for broiler and 3.09
million tonnes for layers, whereas, Maharashtra required 1.23 million tonnes for broiler and 360,000 tonnes of
feed for layers.
West Bengal state requires 1.12 million tonnes of feed for broilers and 120,000 tonnes of feed for layers, while
Haryana & Punjab state requires 880,000 tonnes of broiler feed and 1.49 million tonnes of feed for layers.
 Poultry feed in India consists of grains like maize, wheat, sorghum, bajra, ragi and broken rice, grain by-
products like rice polish, de-oiled rice bran and maize gluten meal; oilseed meals from soybeans, mustard,
groundnut and sunflower; animal protein sources like fish meal, whole fish, meat and bone meal, poultry-by-
product meal; vitamins, minerals and various feed additives.
The three day event was organised by Telfa’s and was supported by the Solvent Extractors Association of
India (SEAI) and the Compound Feed Manufacturers Association of India (CLFMA) in Pune recently.

iculture, the production of raw silk by means of raising caterpillars (larvae),

particularly those of the domesticated silkworm (Bombyx mori).
The production of silk generally involves two processes:

1. Care of the silkworm from the egg stage through completion of thecocoon.
2. Production ofmulberry trees that provide leaves upon which the worms feed.
The silkworm caterpillar builds its cocoon by producing and surrounding itself
with a long, continuous fibre, or filament. Liquid secretions from two large
glands within the insect emerge from the spinneret, a single exit tube in the
head, hardening upon exposure to air and forming twin filaments composed
of fibroin, a protein material. A second pair of glands secretes sericin, a gummy
substance that cements the two filaments together. Because an emerging
 moth would break the cocoon filament, the larva is killed in the cocoon by
steam or hot air at the chrysalis stage.
Silk is a continuous filament within each cocoon, having a usable length of
about 600 to 900 metres (2,000 to 3,000 feet). It is freed by softening the
binding sericin and then locating the filament end and unwinding, or reeling,
the filaments from several cocoons at the same time, sometimes with a slight
twist, forming a single strand. Several silk strands, each too thin for most
uses, are twisted together to make thicker, stronger yarn in the process called
throwing, producing various yarns differing according to the amount and
direction of the twist imparted.
Silk containing sericin is called raw silk. The gummy substance, affording
protection during processing, is usually retained until the yarn or fabric stage
and is removed by boiling the silk in soap and water, leaving it soft and
lustrous, with weight reduced by as much as 30 percent. Spun silk is made
from short lengths obtained from damaged cocoons or broken off during
processing, twisted together to make yarn. The thickness of silk filament yarn
is expressed in terms of denier, the number of grams of weight per 9,000
metres (9,846 yards) of length. Silk is sometimes—in a process
called weighting—treated with a finishing substance, such as metallic salts, to
increase weight, add density, and improve draping quality.
SIMILAR TOPICS

 beekeeping
 agribusiness
 fruit farming
 farm management
 draft animal
 farm building
 aquaculture
 equal-field system
 the agricultural sciences
 enclosure
The degumming process leaves silk lustrous and semitransparent, with a
smooth surface that does not readily retain soil. Silk has good strength,
resisting breakage when subjected to weights of about 4 grams (0.5 ounce)
per denier. Wetting reduces strength by about 15–25 percent. A silk filament
can be stretched about 20 percent beyond its original length before breaking
but does not immediately resume its original length when stretched more than
about 2 percent. Silk, lower in density than such fibres as cotton, wool,
and rayon, is moisture-absorbent, retaining as much as a third of its weight in
moisture without feeling damp, and has excellent dyeing properties. It is more
heat-resistant than wool, decomposing at about 170° C (340° F). Silk loses
strength over a long period of time without appropriate storage conditions and
tends to decompose with extensive exposure to sunlight but is rarely attacked
by mildew. It is not harmed by mild alkaline solutions and common dry-
cleaning solvents. Friction imparts a static charge, especially in low humidity.
The rustling sound, or scroop, associated with crisp silk fabrics is not a natural
property of the fibre but is developed by processing treatments, and it does
not indicate quality, as is sometimes believed.
There has long been interest in devising ways to produce silk that is stronger
and more elastic than that produced by silkworms or traditional sericulture
methods. One approach has involved the introduction of spider silk genes into
the silkworm genome; spider silk is known for its remarkable strength and
elasticity, but it cannot be mass produced by farming spiders. Genetically
modified silkworms spin a strong composite silk that has many potential
applications.
Dairy farming

This is the keeping of livestock like cattle and goats for milk production. Milk is
then processed into milk products like cheese, butter, cream, ghee and milk
powder.
Conditions favouring dairy farming
 Climate: Dairy animals do well in cool and wet areas, which have less
tsetse flies.
 Relief: Highland areas are the most suitable
 Pasture: Animals need plenty of pasture in order to survive.
 Water: Animals need water. They are therefore, kept near permanent
streams or rivers.
 Space: There must be enough room for dairy animals to graze.
 Pests and diseases: Farmers avoid areas that have pests like tsetse
flies. They also avoid damp areas where there are cases of diseases
like foot and mouth, anthrax and rinderpest.
  Capital: Farmers need money in order to buy quality animals and
modern equipment for their farms.
Here is an example of a Kenyan Dairy Farm

Below is an image showing the livestock used for dairy farming.

While cattle were domesticated as early as 11,000 years ago as a food source and as beasts of
burden, the earliest evidence of using domesticated cows for dairy production is the seventh
millennium BC - the early Neolithic era - in northwestern Anatolia [2] . Dairy farming developed
elsewhere in the world in subsequent centuries: the sixth millennium BC in eastern Europe, the fifth
millennium BC in Africa, and the fourth millennium BC in Britain and Northern Europe [3] .
In the last century or so larger farms specialising in dairy alone have emerged. Large scale dairy
farming is only viable where either a large amount of milk is required for production of more durable
dairy products such as cheese, butter, etc. or there is a substantial market of people with cash to
buy milk, but no cows of their own. In the 1800's von Thünen argued that there was about a 100 mile
radius surrounding a city where such fresh milk supply was economically viable.
Hand milking[edit]

Woman hand milking a cow.

Centralized dairy farming as we understand it primarily developed around villages and cities, where
residents were unable to have cows of their own due to a lack of grazing land. Near the town,
farmers could make some extra money on the side by having additional animals and selling the milk
in town. The dairy farmers would fill barrels with milk in the morning and bring it to market on a
wagon. Until the late 19th century, the milking of the cow was done by hand. In the United States,
several large dairy operations existed in some northeastern states and in the west, that involved as
many as several hundred cows, but an individual milker could not be expected to milk more than a
dozen cows a day. Smaller operations predominated.
For most herds, milking took place indoors twice a day,[4] in a barn with the cattle tied by the neck
with ropes or held in place by stanchions. Feeding could occur simultaneously with milking in the
barn, although most dairy cattle were pastured during the day between milkings. Such examples of
this method of dairy farming are difficult to locate, but some are preserved as a historic site for a
glimpse into the days gone by. One such instance that is open for this is at Point Reyes National
Seashore.[5]
Dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years. Historically it has been one part of
small, diverse farms. In the last century or so larger farms doing only dairy production have
emerged. Large scale dairy farming is only viable where either a large amount of milk is required for
production of more durable dairy products such as cheese, butter, etc. or there is a substantial
market of people with cash to buy milk, but no cows of their own. Dairy farms were the best way to
meet demand.

Vacuum bucket milking[edit]

Demonstration of a new Soviet milker device. East Germany, 1952

The first milking machines were an extension of the traditional milking pail. The early milker device fit
on top of a regular milk pail and sat on the floor under the cow. Following each cow being milked, the
bucket would be dumped into a holding tank. These were introduced in the early 20th century.
This developed into the Surge hanging milker. Prior to milking a cow, a large wide leather strap
called a surcingle was put around the cow, across the cow's lower back. The milker device and
collection tank hung underneath the cow from the strap. This innovation allowed the cow to move
around naturally during the milking process rather than having to stand perfectly still over a bucket
on the floor.

Milking pipeline[edit]
Main article: milking pipeline

The next innovation in automatic milking was the milk pipeline, introduced in the late 20th century.
This uses a permanent milk-return pipe and a second vacuum pipe that encircles the barn or milking
parlor above the rows of cows, with quick-seal entry ports above each cow. By eliminating the need
for the milk container, the milking device shrank in size and weight to the point where it could hang
under the cow, held up only by the sucking force of the milker nipples on the cow's udder. The milk is
pulled up into the milk-return pipe by the vacuum system, and then flows by gravity to the milkhouse
vacuum-breaker that puts the milk in the storage tank. The pipeline system greatly reduced the
physical labor of milking since the farmer no longer needed to carry around huge heavy buckets of
milk from each cow.
The pipeline allowed barn length to keep increasing and expanding, but after a point farmers started
to milk the cows in large groups, filling the barn with one-half to one-third of the herd, milking the
animals, and then emptying and refilling the barn. As herd sizes continued to increase, this evolved
into the more efficient milking parlor.

Milking parlors[edit]

Efficiency of four different milking parlors.

1=Bali-Style 50 cows/h.
2=Swingover 60 cows/h.
3=Herringbone 75 cows/h.
4=Rotary 250 cows/h.

Innovation in milking focused on mechanizing the milking parlor (known in Australia and New
Zealand as a milking shed) to maximize the number of cows per operator which streamlined the
milking process to permit cows to be milked as if on an assembly line, and to reduce physical
stresses on the farmer by putting the cows on a platform slightly above the person milking the cows
to eliminate having to constantly bend over. Many older and smaller farms still have tie-stall or
stanchion barns, but worldwide a majority of commercial farms have parlors.
Herringbone and parallel parlors[edit]
In herringbone and parallel parlors, the milker generally milks one row at a time. The milker will
move a row of cows from the holding yard into the milking parlor, and milk each cow in that row.
Once all of the milking machines have been removed from the milked row, the milker releases the
cows to their feed. A new group of cows is then loaded into the now vacant side and the process
repeats until all cows are milked. Depending on the size of the milking parlor, which normally is the
bottleneck, these rows of cows can range from four to sixty at a time. The benefits of a herringbone
parlour are easy maintenance, the durability, stability, and improved safety for animals and humans
when compared to tie stall [6]

India has a long tradition of creating space observatories. In the early 19th century, Maharaja Jai
Singh II of Jaipur constructed five Jantar Mantars in total, in New Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura
and Varanasi; they were completed between 1724 and 1735.

Earlier observatories were primarily intended to measure the time of day, correct to half a second
and declination of the Sun and the other heavenly bodies. Later, they evolved with the purpose to
provide support on shipping and Geomagnetism. Just like planetariums, space observatories
indicate the inclination of a country toward astronomy and outer space exploration.

Here we list down 10 such modern day space observatories that showcases India’s quest for
space (in alphabet order).
1: 3.6 m Devasthal Optical Telescope,
Nainital

The 3.6m Devesthal Optical Telescope is a clear aperture Ritchey-Chretien style telescope built
by Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences(ARIES) and is located at the
Devasthal Observatory site near Nainital, India. ARIES operates another 1.3m telescope at the
same location. The telescope was activated remotely on March 31, 2016 by Indian Prime
Minister Narendra Modi and Belgian Prime Minister Charles Michel from Brussels. The
telescope optics has been built in collaboration with the Belgian firm Advanced Mechanical &
Optical System (AMOS).
2: Gauribidanur Radio Observatory,
Gauribidanur

The Gauribidanur Radio Observatory is a radio telescope observatory located at Gauribidanur,

near Bengaluru. It is operated jointly by Raman Research Institute and the Indian Institute of
Astrophysics. The observatory has been in operation since 1976.
3: Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope,
Pune

The Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT), located near Pune in India, is an array of thirty
fully steerable parabolic radio telescopes of 45 metre diameter, observing at metre wavelengths.
It is operated by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics, a part of the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Mumbai. At the time it was built, it was the world’s largest
interferometric array offering a baseline of up to 25 kilometres (16 mi).
4. Girawali Observatory, Pune

IUCAA Girawali Observatory is an optical astronomy observatory run by the Inter-University

Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Pune. The Observatory is located about 80
km from Pune City, off the Pune Nashik Highway.
5: Indian Astronomical Observatory,
Hanle

The Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), located near Leh in Ladakh, India, has one of the
world’s highest sites for optical, infrared and gamma-ray telescopes. It is operated by the Indian
Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore. It is currently the second highest optical telescope in the
world, situated at an elevation of 4,500 meters (14,764 ft).
6: Kodaikanal Solar Observatory,
Kodaikanal

The Kodaikanal Solar Observatory is a solar observatory owned and operated by the Indian
Institute of Astrophysics. It is on the southern tip of the Palni Hills 4 km from Kodaikanal town,
Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu state, South India.

The Evershed effect was first detected at this observatory in January 1909. Solar data collected
by the lab is the oldest continuous series of its kind in India. Precise observations of the
equatorial electrojet are made here due to the unique geography of Kodaikanal.

7: Madras Observatory, Chennai

The Madras Observatory was founded by the British East India Company in 1786 in Chennai
(then Madras). For over a century it was the only astronomical observatory in India that
exclusively worked on the stars. Among the astronomers at the observatory were Norman Robert
Pogson, Michael Topping and John Goldingham. By 1899, it had been relegated to gathering
weather-related data.

8: Ooty Radio Telescope, Ooty

The Ooty Radio Telescope is located in Muthorai near Ootacamund (Ooty), south India. It is part
of the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA) of the well known Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR) which is funded by the Government of India through the
Department of atomic energy. The Ooty Radio Telescope (ORT) is a 530-metre (1,740 ft) long
and 30-metre (98 ft) wide Cylindrical Paraboloid telescope. It operates at a frequency of 326.5
MHz with a maximum bandwidth of 15 MHz at the front-end.