Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 1

Ideal Models of Engine Cycles

Operating cycle of an ICE has 5 separate processes,

1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Combustion
4. Expansion
5. Exhaust

Ideal models of engine processes

Processes Assumptions
Compression (1-2) • Adiabatic and reversible (S = C)
Combustion (2-3) • Adiabatic
• Combustion occurs at
 V=C
 p=C
 part at V = C and part at p = C
• Complete combustion (ηc = 1)
Expansion (3-4) • Adiabatic and reversible (S = C)
Exhaust (4-5-6) • Adiabatic
and • Valve events occur at top and bottom
Intake (6-7-1) center.
• No change in cylinder volume as pressure
differences across open valves drop to zero.
• Inlet and exhaust pressures constant.
• Velocity effects negligible.

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 2

Unthrottled operation (pi = pe)

p 3

V=C

2
4
6 1, 5

V
p 2 3

p=C

4
6 1, 5

V
p 3a 3b

V=C
p=C
2

4
6 1, 5

V
Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 3

Throttled operation (pi < pe)

3
p

V=C

2
4
6 5
7 1
V

Supercharged operation (pi > pe)

3
p

V=C

2
4
7 1
6 5

Thermodynamic relations for engine processes

Let, mf = fuel supplied in one cycle, kg
QLHV = lower heating value, J/kg
WC,i = indicated work per cycle, J
WC = compression stroke work, J
WE = expansion stroke work, J
Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 4

WC,i = WC + WE
WC, i
Indicated fuel conversion efficiency, ηf, i =
m f Q LHV
Compression process/stroke (1-2):
v
rc = 1 , s2 = s1 Q-W = U2-U1
v2 Adiabatic, Q = 0
Compression work, WC = U1 – U2 = m(u1-u2) W = U1-U2
U= mu

Combustion process (2-3)

For constant-volume (v=C) cycle, Q-W = U3–U2
Adiabatic, Q = 0
v3 = v2 Constant volume, W=0
u3 = u2 0 = U3 – U2
For constant-pressure (p=C) cycle, Q-W = U3–U2
p3 = p2 Adiabatic, Q = 0
h3 = h2 –W = U3 – U2
–p2(v3 – v2) = U3–U2
For limited-pressure (v=C, p=C) cycle, –p2v3 + p2v2 = U3–U2
v3a = v2, p3b = p3a –p3v3 + p2v2 = U3–U2
u3a = u2, h3b = h3a U2 + p2v2 = U3 + p3v3
H2 = H3

v (m3/kg), V (m3), U (J), u (J/kg).

Expansion process/stroke
For constant-volume (v=C) cycle, (3—4)
v
rc = 4 , s4 = s3
v3
Expansion work, WE = U3–U4 = m(u3-u4)
For constant-pressure (p=C) cycle, (2—4)
v
p3 = p2, rc = 4 , s4 = s3
v2
Expansion work, WE = p2(V3-V2) + U3-U4
= m[p2(v3-v2) + (u3-u4)]
= m[u3 + p2v3- u4 - p4v4 + p4v4 - p2v2] (p2 = p3)
Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 5

= m[h3 - h4 + p4v4 - p2v2]

For limited pressure (v=C, p=C) cycle, (3—4)

v
rc = 4 , p3b = p3a, s4 = s3b
v 3a
Expansion work, WE = p3a(V3b-V3a) + U3b-U4
= m[(u3b-u4) + p3a(v3b-v3a)] (p3a=p3b)

= m[(u3b+p3av3b) – u4 – p4v4 + p4v4 –p3av3a]

= m[(h3b-h4) + p4v4 – p3av3a]

The indicated fuel conversion efficiency

For constant volume cycle
W + WC
ηf, i = E
m f ⋅ Q LHV
m[(u 3 − u 4 ) + (u1 − u 2 )]
=
m f ⋅ Q LHV

For constant pressure cycle,

W + WC
ηf, i = E
m f ⋅ Q LHV
m[(h 3 − h 4 ) + p 4 v 4 − p 2 v 2 + (u1 − u 2 )]
=
m f ⋅ Q LHV

For limited pressure cycle,

W + WC
ηf, i = E
m f ⋅ Q LHV
m[(h 3b − h 4 ) + p 4 v 4 − p 3a v 3a + (u1 − u 2 )]
=
m f ⋅ Q LHV

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 6

Cycle analysis with ideal gas working fluid with cv and cp constant
Working fluid: ideal gas
Cycle: ideal cycle
cp, cv constant
Constant volume cycle:
Compression work, WC = mcv(T1-T2)
Expansion work, WE = mcv(T3-T4) p 3
Heat addition = mcv(T3-T2)

Indicated fuel conversion efficiency, 2 4

WE + WC
ηf, i = 1
m ⋅ c v (T3 − T2 ) V
mc v (T1 − T2 ) + mc v (T3 − T4 )
=
mc v (T3 − T2 )
T 
T1  4 − 1
(T − T2 ) + (T3 − T4 ) = 1 − T4 − T1 = 1 −  T1 
= 1
T3 − T2 T3 − T2 T 
T2  3 − 1
 T2 
1-2(s=C), 3-4(s=C)
λ −1 λ −1
T1  v1  v  T3
=  =  4  =
T2  v 2   v3  T3
T T
∴ 4= 3
T1 T2
λ −1
T v  1 cp v1
ηf, i = 1 − 1 = 1 −  2  = 1− λ −1
λ= , = rc
T2  v1  rc cv v2

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 7

0.9 γ=1.4

1.3

1.25

ηf,i

0
0 rc 28

Limited and constant pressure cycle

2 3 3
p T
2
4
4
1 1
v s
3a 3b 3b
p T 3a
2
4
2 4
1 1
s
v
WC = mcv(T1-T2)
Constant pressure cycle = Limited-pressure cycle with p2 = p3a
WE = m[(u3b-u4) + p3a(v3b-v3a)] = m[cv(T3b-T4) + p3a(v3b-v3a)]

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 8

For the combustion process,

mf,2-3aQLHV = mcv(T3a-T2)
mf,3a-3bQLHV = mcp(T3b-T3a)
or, mfQLHV = m[cv(T3a-T2) + cp(T3b-T3a)]

WC, i W + WE
ηf, i = = C
m f Q LHV m f Q LHV
/ [c v (T1 − T2 ) + c v (T3b − T4 ) + p 3a (v 3b − v 3a )]
m
=
m/ [c v (T3a − T2 ) + c p (T3b − T3a )]

3a-3b, p=C Δu
cv = , ⇒ Δu = c vΔT
cp(T3b-T3a) = cv(T3b-T3a) + p3(v3b-v3a) ΔT
» p3(v3b-v3a) = cp(T3b-T3a) – cv(T3b-T3a) Δh
cp = , ⇒ Δh = cpΔT
ΔT
Δh = Δu + pΔv
cpΔT = c vΔT + pΔv

ηf,i =
[c (T − T ) + c (T − T ) + c (T − T ) − c (T
v 1 2 v 3b 4 p 3b 3a v 3b − T3a )]
[c (T − T ) + c (T − T )]
v 3a 2 p 3b 3a

c v (T1 − T2 ) + c/ vT/ 3b − c vT4 + cp (T3b − T3a ) − c/ vT/ 3b + c vT3a

=
c v (T3a − T2 ) + c p (T3b − T3a )
c v (T3a − T2 ) − c v (T4 − T1 ) + cp (T3b − T3a )
=
c v (T3a − T2 ) + c p (T3b − T3a )
c v (T4 − T1 )
=1−
c v (T3a − T2 ) + c p (T3b − T3a )

=1−
(T4 − T1 )
(T3a − T2 ) + γ(T3b − T3a )
p3
Explosion ratio, α =
p2
Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 9

v 3b
Isobaric expansion or cut off ratio, β = , 1 − 2, 3b − 4 ⇒ s = C
v 3a
1  αβ γ − 1 
ηf,i = 1 − γ −1  
rc  α γ(β − 1) + α − 1
1
β = 1 ⇒ ηf,i = 1 − γ −1
rc
1  βγ − 1 
α = 1 ⇒ ηf,i = 1 − γ −1  
rc  γ(β − 1)

Fuel-air cycle
A cycle where the properties of the working fluid inside the engine
cylinder treat the unburned mixture as frozen in composition and the
burned gas mixture as in equilibrium and when these working fluid
models are combined with the ideal engine process models is called
fuel-air cycle.

Frozen: When the composition of the mixture does not change, the
mixture is called frozen mixture.

Chemical equilibrium: The chemical reactions, by which individual

species in the burned gases react together, produce and remove each
species at equal rates. No net change in species composition results.
For example, if the temperature of a mass of carbon dioxide gas in a
vessel is increased sufficiently, some of the CO2 molecules dissociate
into CO and O2 molecules. If the mixture of CO2, CO, and O2 is in
equilibrium, then CO2 molecules are dissociating into CO and O2 at
the same rate as CO and O2 molecules are recombining in the
proportions required to satisfy the equation
1
CO + O 2 = CO 2
2
Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam
Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 10

3a 3b 2 3
p 3 p p

2 4 2 4 4
6 1, 5 6 1, 5 6 1, 5
V V V

1—2: Reversible adiabatic compression of a mixture of air, fuel

vapor, and residual gas without change in chemical composition.
2—3: Complete combustion, without heat loss, to burned gases in
chemical equilibrium.
3—4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of the burned gases which
remain in chemical equilibrium.
4—5—6: Ideal adiabatic exhaust blowdown and displacement
processes with the burned gas fixed in chemical composition.
6—1, 6—7—1: Ideal intake process with adiabatic mixing between
residual gas and fresh mixture, both of which are fixed in chemical
composition.

p p

4 4
7 6 5
1
6 5 7 1

V V

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 11

Actual Cycle
3
p
y

b
Exhaust
blowdown
2 loss
a
4
c z
1

V
a → ignition starts
b → end of combustion
c → exhaust valve starts to open
y-z → isentropic line passes point b

Fuel-air cycle: 1—2—3—4

Actual cycle: 1—a—b—c

Possible causes of the differences between the actual and the fuel-air
cycle:
1. Leakage
2. Incomplete combustion
3. Progressive burning
4. Time losses
5. Heat losses
6. Exhaust losses

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 12

Leakage
As the cylinder pressure increases, gas flows into crevices such as the
regions between the piston, piston rings and cylinder wall. This flow
reduces the mass in the volume above the piston crown. Though much
of this gas returns to the cylinder later in expansion, a fraction, from
behind and between the piston rings, flows into the crankcase. These
reduce the cylinder pressure during the latter stages of compression,
during combustion, and during expansion below the value that would
result if crevice and leakage effects were absent.
Leakage <1% of charge.

Incomplete Combustion
Combustion of the cylinder charge is incomplete and the exhaust
gases contain combustible species. Hence the chemical energy of the
fuel which is released in the actual engine is less than the chemical
energy of the fuel supplied. The fuel-air cycle pressures after
combustion will be higher because complete combustion is assumed.
SIE, ηc ≈ 95%, CIE, ηc ≈ 98-99%.

Progressive Burning
In an SIE combustion typically starts 10 to 40 crank angle degrees
before top center, completes 30 to 40o after top center. Peak pressure
occurs at about 15o after top center.
In a diesel engine, the burning process starts shortly before top center.
The pressure rises to a peak some 5 to 10o after top centre,
combustion continues until 40 to 50o after top center.
Thus the peak pressure in the engine is substantially below the fuel-air
cycle peak pressure value, because combustion continues until well
after top center.

Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, CUET 13

Time Losses
It is the loss of work due to piston’s movement during the combustion
process.

Heat Loss
Due to heat loss during combustion the pressure at the end of
combustion in the actual cycle will be lower. During expansion, heat
transfer will cause the gas pressure in the real cycle to fall below an
isentropic expansion line. A decrease in efficiency results from the
heat loss. Heat transfer from the unburned mixture to the cylinder
walls has a negligible effect on the p-V line for the compression
process.

Exhaust Loss
In the actual cycle, the exhaust valve is opened before bottom center
to reduce the pressure during the first part of the exhaust stroke. The
gas pressure at the end of expansion stroke is therefore reduced below
the isentropic line. A decrease in expansion-stroke work transfer
results. Exhaust loss is around 2%.

References
Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, 1988, McGraw-Hill Book
Com., Singapore.
Taylor, C. Fayette and Taylor, Edward S., The Internal-Combustion Engine (Vol. 1), 1966,
International Textbook Company, Pennsylvania.

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Applied Thermodynamics (Ideal model of engine cycles) Dr. Bodius Salam