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Feasibility of using low-sulphide mining waste rocks and tailings as aggregates in concrete. Mineralogical, environmental and durability study View project
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ERRATUM
Due to a regrettable error, a very important correction The first author’s name is inadvertently displayed
in the author name was not properly carried out in the as Tikov Belem while the correct name should be
last stage of the publication process of the above- Tikou Belem.
mentioned paper. The publisher apologizes for this unfortunate mistake.
M. Benzaazoua
Department of Applied Sciences, CRC on Integrated
Management of Sulphidic Mine Tailings by Backfilling,
UQAT, Rouyn-Noranda, Canada
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
DOI 10.1007/s10706-007-9154-3
ORIGINAL PAPER
Received: 15 September 2005 / Accepted: 22 August 2007 / Published online: 13 October 2007
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007
Abstract This paper reviews the design and appli- reticulation. The governing elements of paste backfill
cation of paste backfill in underground hard rock transport are rheological factors such as shear yield
mines used as ground support for pillars and walls, to stress, viscosity, and slump height (consistency).
help prevent caving and roof falls, and to enhance Different models (analytical, semi-empirical, and
pillar recovery for improved productivity. Arching empirical) are given to predict the rheological factors
after stope filling reduces vertical stress and increases of paste backfill (shear yield stress and viscosity).
horizontal stress distribution within the fill mass. It is Following backfill placement underground, self-
therefore important to determine horizontal stress on weight consolidation settlement, internal pressure
stope sidewalls using various predictive models in the build-up, the arching effect, shrinkage, stope volume,
design of paste backfill. Required uniaxial compres- and wall convergence against backfill affect mechan-
sive strength (UCS) for paste backfill depends on the ical integrity.
intended function, such as vertical roof support,
development opening within the backfill, pillar Keywords Paste backfill Mix design
recovery, ground or pillar support, and working Arching effect Backfill strength
platform. UCS design models for these functions Backfill rheology
are given. Laboratory and backfill plant scale designs
for paste backfill mix design and optimization are
presented, with emphasis on initial tailings density 1 Introduction
control to prevent under-proportioning of binder
content. Once prepared, paste backfill is transported Underground cemented paste backfill (CPB) is an
(or pumped) and placed underground by pipeline important component of underground stope extrac-
tion, and is commonly used in many cut-and-fill
mines in Canada (e.g., Landriault et al. 1997; Naylor
T. Belem (&) M. Benzaazoua et al. 1997; Nantel 1998). As mining operations
Department of Applied Sciences, Université du Québec en
progress, paste backfill is placed into previously
Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT), 445, boul. de
l’Université, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada J9X 5E4 mined stopes to provide a stable platform for miners
e-mail: tikou.belem@uqat.ca to work on and ground support for the walls of the
adjacent adits by reducing the amount of open space
M. Benzaazoua
that could potentially be filled by a collapse of the
Department of Applied Sciences, CRC on Integrated
Management of Sulphidic Mine Tailings by Backfilling, surrounding pillars (Barret et al. 1978). Underground
UQAT, Rouyn-Noranda, Canada paste backfill provides not only ground support to
123
148 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
pillars and walls, but also helps prevent caving and design (to reduce costs and improve fill strength) is
roof falls and enhances pillar recovery, thereby discussed, followed by a discussion on the rheolog-
improving productivity (Mitchell 1989a, b; Coates ical properties of CPB. Finally, CPB delivery systems
1981). Thus, the placement of paste backfill provides and underground placement are discussed.
an extremely flexible system for coping with changes
in ore body geometry that result in changes in stope
width, dip, and length (Wayment 1978). The fill 2 Design of Horizontal Pressure on Filled Stope
delivery method depends on the amount of energy Sidewalls
required to deliver the backfill material underground,
which in turn depends on the distribution cone In general, since self-weight stresses govern backfill
(Arioglu 1983). Paste backfill is usually transported design, the traditional design has been a free-
underground through reticulated pipelines. standing wall requiring a uniaxial compressive
Paste backfill is composed of mill tailings gener- strength (UCS) equal to the overburden stress at
ated during mineral processing, mixed with additives the bottom of the filled stope. In many cases,
such as Portland cements, lime, pulverized fly ash, however, the adjacent rock walls actually help
and smelter blast furnace slag, which react as binding support the fill through boundary shear and arching
agents. Binding agents develop cohesive strength effects. Therefore, backfill and rock walls may be
within CPB so that exposed fill faces become self- mutually supporting (Mitchell 1989a). In backfilled
supporting when adjacent stopes are extracted. With stopes, when arching occurs (which is the case in
the current fluctuations in metal prices, the survival of many mines, depending on stope dimensions), the
many mines depends on their ability to maximize vertical pressure at the bottom of the filled stope is
productivity while minimizing costs. Backfilling less than the weight of the overlying fill (overburden
costs in underground mining operations must be weight) due to horizontal pressure transfer, some-
critically examined to identify potential cost savings what like a trap door (Martson 1930; Terzaghi
(Stone 1993). Although paste backfilling is somewhat 1943). This pressure transfer is due to frictional and/
expensive, it is indispensable for most underground or cohesive interaction between fill and wall rock.
mines as it provides crucial ground support for mine When the pillars or stope walls begin to deform into
safety and mining operations. Therefore, the fill the filled opening, the fill mass provides lateral
should be cost-effective and capable of achieving the passive resistance. Passive resistance is defined as
desired ground support and stability. the state of maximum resistance mobilized when
An analysis of fill stability must consider the force pushes against a fill mass and the mass exerts
geometric boundaries of the fill in terms of optimal resistance to the force (Hunt 1986).
economic use of CPB. Mine openings and exposed The pressure transferred horizontally to the side-
fill faces in large underground mines vary in shape walls should be included in the required fill strength
from high and narrow to low and wide. Additionally, design. Horizontal pressures affected by fill arching
wall rock next to the backfill may be either steeply are determined by five analytical or semi-analytical
dipping or relatively flat-lying. The extraction solutions that account for cohesion at the fill-sidewall
sequence can be modified to reduce the number of interface and/or frictional sliding along the sidewalls.
CPB-filled stopes, or the stope geometries could be These solutions are Martson’s model and its modified
modified to reduce the required strength for CPB version, Terzaghi’s model, Van Horn’s model and
exposure (Mitchell 1989a, b; Stone 1993). our proposed model.
This paper reviews the design and application of
paste backfill for underground ground support in
mining operations, from preparation to placement 2.1 Martson’s Cohesionless Model
underground. First, arching effects and their impor-
tance in filled stopes stability analysis is briefly Martson (1930) developed a two-dimensional arch
introduced. This is followed by an overview of the solution to predict horizontal pressure (rh) at the
design of required fill strength, from a review of bottom of an excavated trench (in kPa) along the
current design methods. Next, optimal CPB-mix excavation sidewalls, as follows:
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 149
123
150 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
2.4 Three-dimensional Predictive Models commonly adopted as the liquefaction potential limit
(Grice 2001; le Roux et al. 2002). Required static
Van Horn (1963) proposed a theoretical 3D solution strength for paste without exposures may be arbi-
for vertical stress at a depth h below the surface in a trarily selected at 200 kPa (e.g., Li et al. 2002).
box of width B and breath L, in which the interface Previous work indicates that fill mass UCS varies
friction angle between backfill and walls d is from 0.2 MPa to 4 MPa, while surrounding rock
estimated by following equation: mass UCS varies from 5 MPa to 240 MPa (e.g.,
Grice 1998; Revell 2000).
c BL 2hðBþLÞ
rv ¼ 1exp 2kr tand
2kr tand BþL BL
ð11Þ 3.1 Vertical Backfill Support
3
where c = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m ); h = fill
height in the stope below the surface (m); B = stope The mechanical effects of fill differ from those of
width; L = stope strike length (m); and kr = rh/rv; primary ore pillars. Research and in situ testing have
d = interface friction angle () between backfill and shown that fill is incapable of supporting the total
stope wall. weight of overburden (rv = cH), and acts as a
Belem et al. (2004) proposed a three-dimensional secondary support system only (Cai 1983). The fill
model that implicitly takes into account arching modulus of elasticity varies from 0.1 GPa to 1.2 GPa,
effects to predict horizontal pressures at the stope while the surrounding rock mass elasticity varies
floor (rh): both longitudinal pressure rx (across ore from 20 GPa to 100 GPa. As discussed by Donavan
body) and transverse pressures ry (along ore body). (1999), we may assume that any vertical loading is a
The model is given as follows: result of roof deformation (Fig. 1), and that design
UCS can be estimated by the following relationship:
H 2H
rh ¼ xcH 1 exp ð12Þ DHp
BþL B UCSdesign ¼ ðEp ep ÞFS ¼ Ep FS ð14Þ
Hp
Corresponding vertical pressure rv(= rz) at the
stope bottom is given as follows: where Ep = rock mass or pillar elastic modulus;
ep = pillar axial strain; DHp ¼ strata deformation
H 2H
rv ¼ 0:185cH 1 exp ¼ rz
BþL B
ð13Þ
where c = fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3); H = fill
height in the stope (m); B = stope width; L = strike
Pillar Open
length of stope (m); and x = directional constant, stope
which is 1 for pressure across ore body (rh = rx) and
0.185 for pressure along ore body (rh = ry). Open
H (pillar) stope σv
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 151
Fill mass
weight of the deformed overlying strata (Donavan
1999), and design UCS can be estimated by the
following relationship: allery
New g
UCSdesign ¼ k cp Hp FS ð15Þ stope
Filled
To maximize ore recovery, it is very common to Fig. 3 Fill mass failure mechanism during secondary stope
recycle mine pillar ore after primary ore recovery. extraction
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152 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
B
(γHe)LB Wall shear resistance
= block weight = cBHe (kN)
He
B
He = H − tan β
ce 2
Expo sed fa H
sed
face Expo
H
σv σv
φ
β= 45°+
2
Fig. 4 Schematic of a fill mass showing three exposed vertical Fig. 6 Confined block with shear resistance mechanism (from
faces Mitchell et al. 1982)
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 153
L
No wall shear
(γ He)LB resistance
B = block weight
B
He = H − tan β
2
σ h_pillar
He
σh_fill
φ ss ss pillar
β= 45° + Fill ma Fill ma
2
123
154 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 155
4.1 Laboratory Optimization of CPB Mix Typical binder content Bw% ð¼ 100 Mbinder =
Designs Mdrytailings Þ varies from 3 wt.% to 7 wt.% (by dry
mass of tailings). Solids mass concentration
Optimizing CPB mix designs reduces binder usage Cw%(wt.%) is given as follows:
and offers significant cost savings (e.g., Benzaazoua
100 Msolid
and Belem 2000; Benzaazoua et al. 2002; Fall and Cw% ¼
Mwater þ Msolid
Benzaazoua 2003). Figure 10 shows the main com- ð27Þ
ponents affecting the final quality of paste backfill 100 Mdrytailings þ Mdrybinder
¼
such as binding agents, tailings characteristics (spe- Mwater þ Mdrytailings þ Mdrybinder
cific gravity, mineralogy, particle size distribution), where M = mass of the substance (in g, kg, or tonne).
and finally, mixing water chemistry and geochemistry Corresponding volumetric binder content Bv% (v/
(sulphate concentration, pH, Eh, Electrical conduc- v%) and solids concentration Cv% (v/v%) are given as
tivity). Each component plays an important role in follows:
backfill transportation and delivery, placement, and
long-term hardening (Benzaazoua et al. 2002). Vbinder qst
Bv% ¼ 100 ¼ Bw% ð28Þ
Vtailings qsb
and
4.1.1 Binder Types and Content
Vsolid q
Cv% ¼ 100 ¼ df 100 ð29Þ
Hardening of CPB occurs as bonds are formed Vbulk qsf
between fill particles at grain contact points. Several
where Vbinder = volume of binder; Vtailings = volume
types of binding agents are used, but the most
of dry tailings; Vsolid = volume of dry tailings and
common is ordinary Portland cement (CEM I, OPC,
binder; Vbulk = volume of pastefill; Bw% = binder
Type 10, or Type I). Sulphate resistant Portland
content (wt.%); qs-t = specific density of tailing
cement (SRPC, Type 50, or Type V) is sometimes
grains; qs-b = specific density of binder grains; qd-
used, although it is much more expensive than OPC.
f = dry density of pastefill; and qs-f = specific density
Admixtures with pozzolanic materials are often used
of pastefill grains. Volumes are in cm3 or m3;
to curb costs by reducing the amount of Portland
densities are in g/cm3, kg/m3 or tonne/m3.
cement needed for hardening. Pulverized fly ash
From the known solids concentration by mass of
(PFA) and smelter ground granulated blast furnace
paste backfill (Cw%), the corresponding anhydrous
slags (GGBFS) are the most popular pozzolans used
binder concentration (%binder) and tailings grains
as admixtures (e.g., Douglas and Malhotra 1989).
concentration (%tailings) are calculated using the
They can be used alone or blended with OPC
following formulae:
(binding agent = x*OPC + (1 – x)*Admixture) to
activate reactivity. Bw%
%binder ¼ Cw% ð30aÞ
100 þ Bw%
Tailings
and
Sulphides content
Binding agents
Grain size distribution Mixing water
(SiO2+Al2O3)/ Density, specific gravity Cw%
(CaO+MgO) SO42-, pH, Eh %tailings ¼ 100 ¼ Cw% %binder
soluble lime 100 þ Bw%
Solid mass concentration ð30bÞ
Binder % (78% ≤ Cw% ≤ 85%)
Water content
(3 wt.% −7 wt.%) (expected slump 6"−10") where Cw% = solids concentration by mass of CPB
(%); and Bw% = binder content by dry mass of
Paste backfill
Additives (70% ≤ Cw% ≤ 85%) tailings (wt.%).
Numerous laboratory test results have reported
that, for a given curing time, paste backfill strength is
Fig. 10 Schematic diagram of various paste backfill compo- proportional to binder content Bw% (Fig. 11).
nents (adapted from Benzaazoua et al. 2002) However, this relationship is specific to each mine
123
156 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
UCS (kPa)
2500 Key
1000
2000
28−day 800 Tap water
1500
Lake water
1000 600
Mine-A process water
500 14−day 400
0 200
1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5
0
Binder content Bw% (wt.%)
0 7 14 21 28
Curing time (days)
Fig. 11 Typical variation of UCS with binder content at
different curing times (from Benzaazoua et al. 2000) Fig. 12 Effect of mixing water on strength development
within paste backfill mixtures with mine A tailings (from
(e.g., Benzaazoua et al. 1999, 2000; Belem et al. Benzaazoua et al. 2002)
2000; Benzaazoua and Belem 2000; Benzaazoua
et al. 2002, 2004). Recent results have shown that the 4.1.3 Binder Hydration Process
hardening process within paste backfill material is
due not only to binder hydration but also precipitation According to dissolution test data performed on the
of hydrated phases from the paste pore water general use Portland cement (OPC or Type I) and
(Benzaazoua et al. 2004). blast furnace slag binders (Benzaazoua et al. 2004), a
linear regression equation was derived for the calcu-
lation of percentage (by weight, wt.%) of dissolved
4.1.2 Mixing Water and its Quality binder Db as a function of water-to-cement ratio
(w/c): Db(wt.%) = 3.125 · (w/c) + 3.3125 (Belem
Water is required to ensure proper hydration of the et al. 2007). Figure 13 is a schematic illustration of
binding agents. Without adequate binder hydration, the hydration process in cemented paste backfill
the fill cannot meet required strength and stiffness. materials. This figure illustrates that paste backfill
Moreover, since additional water is usually required hardening occurs in two main stages: dissolution/
to pump the paste backfill underground, the volu- hydration, dominated by the dissolution and
metric water content of paste backfill is always far hydration processes, and hydration/precipitation,
in excess of the OPC hydration requirements (as is characterized by the precipitation process and direct
the case for blends of OPC with SRPC, PFA or hydration of binding agents (Benzaazoua et al. 2004).
GGBFS). The main concern is therefore the water’s Figure 14 presents a diagram of all possible stages
pH and sulphate salts content. Acidic water and in the hydration process of a paste backfill with
sulphate salts attack cementitious bonds within the tailings containing sulphide minerals (pyrite, pyrrho-
fill, leading to loss of strength, durability, and tite) and the mix solution containing sulphates. It
stability (e.g., Mitchell et al. 1982; Lawrence 1992; reveals that, immediately after paste mixing with the
Wang and Villaescusa 2001; Benzaazoua et al. binding agent, OH– anions are released, which buffer
2002, 2004). the solution at a pH varying between 12 and 13.
Figure 12 illustrates that, when using blended Consequently, the dissolution/hydration and hydra-
Portland cement/GBFS binder with the same tailings tion/precipitation phases take place successively.
sample mixed with three different waters, CPB This hardening process first involves the formation
hardening is slow for all three waters at 14-day of primary ettringite, followed by portlandite forma-
curing. Beyond that curing time and at 28-day curing, tion. At mid- and long-term hydration, C–S–H phases
UCS reaches a maximum value for sulphate-free are formed, which largely contribute to paste backfill
waters (tap and lake water), or 600 kPa higher than a strength development. Depending on initial sulphate
mix with sulphate-rich Mine A process water content, the formed portlandite could possibly react
(Benzaazoua et al. 2002). to gypsum.
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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 157
Bellmann et al. (2006) demonstrated that portlan- paste backfill hydration is likely. For sulphate
dite reacts to gypsum at a minimal sulphate concentrations ranging between 8,000 and
concentration of approximately 1,400 mg/l (pH = 10,000 mg/l, precipitation of secondary gypsum is
12.45). Their results suggest that, at common probable, and contributes to develop paste backfill
moderate concentrations of up to 1,500–3,000 mg/l strength. For sulphate content higher than
of sulphate, gypsum formation is either not possible 10,000 mg/l, sulphate attack, characterized by mas-
or cannot lead to damage, since supersaturation and sive and harmful precipitation of secondary gypsum
swelling pressure are very low. At low sulphate and ettringite (swelling phases), is expected. This
concentrations, minor amounts of alkali ions already excess volume is unable to fill capillary pores, as
present in the pore solution act to protect the gypsum and ettringite crystals become much larger
microstructure from the destructive process of gyp- than the pores, which leads to expansion and
sum formation. microcracking of cured paste backfill. The outcome
Sulphide mineral (pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite) is loss of initially developed strength.
oxidation has been shown to produce increased acidity
(pH drops), metal remobilisation, sulphate ions
release, and dissolution of formed hydrates. For 4.1.4 Paste Backfill Mixing Procedure
example, when pH \ 12 (stability limit of portlan-
dite), potential outcomes are partial or total dissolution As mentioned above, a quantity of water is added to
of portlandite (Ca(OH)2), release of calcium from the the tailings and binding agent and mixed for approx-
formed hydrates (decalcification of C–S–H phases), imately 5–7 min in a concrete mixer. Due to the wide
and increased micro and mesoporosity. variety of tailings types, the resultant paste backfill
The presence of sulphates in the mixture plays mixture typically contains between 63 wt.% and
various other roles, depending on concentration 85 wt.% solids concentration by mass Cw%, depend-
(Benzaazoua et al. 2004). When sulphate content is ing on initial tailings solid particles density
between 200 and 8,000 mg/l, an inhibition stage of ð2:8 qst 4:7Þ; binder content (Bw%), and
Fig. 14 Schematic diagram Fresh mixture of sulphide-rich
and sulphate-rich
of paste backfill hydration cemented paste backfill
process
OH − ions release
12 ≤ pH ≤ 13
Dissolution / hydration
Hydration / precipitation
If sulphides
C-S-H phases oxide
Portlandite dary
primary
Gypsum secon
Ca(OH)2
CaSO4.2H2O
If pH < 12
Ettringite secondary
Silica gels formation
Portlandite 3CaSO4.3CaO.Al2O3.32H2O
(C-S-H decalcification)
Ca(OH)22
123
158 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
10
6 Bw% = 7 wt.%
4
2
63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85
Solid mass concentration Cw% (wt.%)
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 159
55–60 wt.% by mass. Flocculent is added to aid tailings grain density qs-t produces an excess or loss-
filtration. The thickened tailings are then pumped of-profit in binder proportioning. This variation of qs-t
from the thickener to a high-capacity holding tank may be due to mineralogical changes in the ore body
(after cyanide destruction). From the surge tank, the during stope extraction. Using a regression analysis
thickened tailings are gravity-fed to disc filters on data taken from Benzaazoua and Bussière (1999)
operating alone or in parallel to produce filter cake and Benzaazoua et al. (2000), and knowing total
with a solids concentration of approximately 70– sulphur content %S (in percent), tailings grains
82 wt.%. The filter cake is then discharged onto a belt specific density qs-t (in g/cm3) is estimated using
(or reversible) conveyor and fed to a screw feeder for the following regression equation:
weighing. Finally, filter cake batches are mixed in a
19:5674
spiral (or screw) mixer with binder and water added qst ¼ R ¼ 0:9999
1 þ 6:0094 expð0:0072 %SÞ
for about 45 s to produce a paste with a specified
consistency or slump height value S. ð34Þ
where qs-t is in g/cm3; %S = tailings total sulphur
content (wt.%).
4.3 Importance of Controlling Tailings Density For a given constant binder content Bw% (wt.%),
increase in qs-t produces an increase in volumetric
Since binder proportion Bw% in the mix is calculated binder content Bv% (v/v%), and a reduction in qs-t
from tailings dry mass, the slightest variation in produces a reduction in Bv% , as described by Eq. 28.
123
160 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
4.3.1 Calculation of Adjusted Binder Content damage of reducing paste backfill strength development,
while over-proportioning affects profits alone.
To take into account the variation in tailings solid
grains specific density qs-t in the mix design, adjusted 4.3.2 Calculation of Differential Binder Contents
binder content Bw%-adj (i.e., actual binder proportion and Economic Implications
used, not constant binder content, Bw%init ) must be
calculated using the following formula: If adjusted binder content Bw%-adj is not considered,
the result may be erroneous interpretation of the
q Bw%init ðqst Þinit
Bw%adj ¼ Bv%init sb ¼ hypothetical influence of tailings solid grains density
qst qst
qs-t on paste backfill compressive strength develop-
ð35Þ ment (e.g., Fall et al. 2004, 2005). Differential binder
where Bv%init ¼ initial constant volumetric binder content ðDBw% Þ due to variations in tailings grains
content (v/v%), corresponding to initial constant initial density qs-t (increase or decrease) is calculated
binder content by dry mass of tailings ðBw%init Þ; with the following formula:
Bw%init ¼ initial constant binder content by dry
DBw% ¼ Bw%init Bw%adj
mass (wt.%); qs-t = current tailings solid particles
qst ðqst Þinit ð36Þ
density; qs-b = anhydrous binder particles density; ¼ Bw%init
and ðqst Þinit ¼ initial tailings solid particles density. qst
Densities are in g/cm3, kg/m3 or tonne/m3. where Bw%-init = initial binder content (wt.%);
Figure 18 presents a typical variation in adjusted qs-t = current tailings solid particles density; and
binder content Bw%-adj with tailings grains density qs-t, (qs-t)init = initial tailings solid particles density.
varying from the initial assumed value ((qs-t)init = Densities are in g/cm3, kg/m3 or tonne/m3.
3.85 g/cm3). It shows that a decrease in tailings solid From Eq. 35, note that DBw% may be positive
grains initial density qs-t produces a lack of binder ðDBw% [ 0Þ or negative ðDBw% \0Þ; depending on
content (loss-of-profit) with respect to adjusted binder current tailings grains density qs-t:
content (Bw%-adj), which leads in turn to under-propor- (
tioning of the binding agent in the final paste backfill DBw% ð [ 0Þ ¼ Bw%excess if qst [ ðqst Þinit
mix. In contrast, an increase in qs-t produces excess DBw% ð\0Þ ¼ Bw%lack if qst \ðqst Þinit
binder content with respect to the adjusted binder
ð37Þ
content, which leads to over-proportioning of the binding
agent, and therefore cost inefficiencies. However, under- where Bw%-excess = excess binder content (wt.%);
proportioning of the binding agent causes the greater Bw%-lack = lack of binder or loss-of-profit binder
B w% -a d j ( w t . % )
123
Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 161
content, i.e., under-proportioned binding agent in the (i.e., qs-t = 4,050 kg/m3), savings would amount to
final mix. about $211k/year. With an approximately 16%
Figure 19 presents typical variations in differential increase (i.e., qs-t = 4,400 kg/m3), savings would
binder content ðDBw% Þ with tailings grains density amount to about $466k/year (Fig. 20).
(qs-t), varying from the initial assumed value of
3.85 g/cm3. As shown, increased qs-t produces excess
binder proportioning, while reduced qs-t produces 5 Paste Backfill Transportation
under-proportioned (loss-of-profit) binder in the paste
backfill mix. As defined above, paste backfill consists of the full
Excess binder content (Bw%-excess) may be con- size fraction of the tailings stream prepared as a high
verted into savings (if Bw%-adj is considered in the slurry density. The slurry behaves as a non-Newto-
mix design) or loss (if Bw%-adj is not considered in the nian fluid, meaning that it requires an applied force to
mix design), and annual savings or loss may be commence flowing (Fig. 21). For example, tooth-
calculated as follows: paste, a commonly used non-Newtonian fluid, must
be squeezed (yield stress or applied load) to get the
ð$=yearÞsaved=lost
toothpaste out of the tube (Clark et al. 1995). Since
Mdrytailings ðtonne=yearÞ Bw%excess backfill paste has higher viscosity, it exhibits plug
¼ ð38Þ
100 flow when transported through a pipe. The outer
ð$binder=tonneÞ portions of the slurry shear against the sidewall of the
pipe while the central core travels as a plug (Grice
where ($/year)saved/lost = money saved or lost per year
1998). Paste backfill flow in pipelines is entirely
if initial binder content is lower than the excess
governed by its rheological properties. Rheology is
binder proportion; Mdry-tailings = total mass of dry
the science of the flow and deformation of matter.
tailings used per year (tonne/year); Bw%-excess =
excess binder content (wt.%); and ($binder/
tonne) = current cost of the binding agent. 5.1 Rheological Models for Paste Backfill
To illustrate, consider an underground hard rock
mine that uses 6 · 105 tonnes/year of total dry The main method to achieve paste backfill flow in
tailings having an initial solid grains density (qs-t)init pipelines is the full-fall. Full-pipe occurs when the
of 3,800 kg/m3 (3.8 tonnes/m3). Fixed constant flowing paste forms a continuum with no air-filled
binder content Bw%-init is 4.5 wt.% and solids gaps or discontinuities (vacuum ‘‘holes’’) in the
concentration of the final mixes Cw% is 78%. The pipeline segment under consideration (Li and Moer-
binder type used is a blended OPC-GGBFS at a ratio man 2002). The most fundamental relationship in the
of 70:30 at a cost of 126.5 $/tonne. Assuming a 7% rheology of a non-Newtonian fluid is between shear
increase in tailings solid density over the initial value rate, c_ ðs1 Þ and pipe wall shear stress, sw (Pa). Once
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162 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
this relationship is known, fluid behaviour in all flow defining fluid consistency (Pa s); ðdV=drÞ ¼ c_ ¼
situations can be deduced (e.g., viscosity and yield shear rate ðs1 Þ or velocity ratio V (m/s); a point
stress). The most frequently used fundamental non- on the velocity profile r (m); and a = power-law
Newtonain models to describe simple flow behaviour model constant indicating the degree of non-Newto-
are the power law model, the Bingham model, and nian behaviour (the greater the departure from unity
the Herschel–Bulkley model. the more pronounced the non-Newtonian properties
of the fluid). This model does not account for yield
stress. If a \ 1, a shear-thinning (or pseudoplastic)
5.1.1 Power-law or Ostvald-de Waele Model
fluid is obtained, characterized by a progressively
decreasing apparent viscosity with increasing shear
Many non-Newtonian materials undergo a simple
rate. If a [ 1, a shear-thickening (or dilatant) fluid in
increase or decrease in viscosity as shear rate
which apparent viscosity increases progressively with
increases. One of the most widely used forms of the
increasing shear rate is obtained. When a = 1, a
general non-Newtonian constitutive law is a power-
Newtonian fluid is obtained.
law (or Ostvald-de Waele) model, or two-parameter
model, expressed as:
a 5.1.2 Bingham Plastic Model
dV
sw ¼ gapp ¼ gapp ðc_ Þa ð39Þ
dr Some materials exhibit infinite viscosity until a
where sw = wall shear stress (Pa); sy = shear yield sufficiently high stress is applied to initiate flow
stress (Pa); gapp = non-Newtonian apparent viscosity (yield stress). Above this stress, the material shows
simple Newtonian flow. One of the simplest models
covering viscoplastic fluids exhibiting such yield
Hopper Hopper
response is the ideal Bingham model (Fig. 22),
Pressure
expressed by the following two-parameter model:
400
Pressure
(2 MPa)
400
200 600
(3 MPa)
dV
200 600
s w ¼ s y þ gB ¼ sy þ gB c_ ð40Þ
0 800
0 800
dr
where sy = shear yield stress (Pa); gB = Bingham
(a) No flow (b) Flow plastic viscosity (Pa s); and c_ ¼ shear rate ðs1 Þ:
(Vertical head open (Vertical head Basically, the Bingham model describes the viscosity
= yield stress) > yield stress) Stope
stope
characteristics of a fluid with yield stress when
Fig. 21 Schematic diagram of yield stress in paste backfill viscosity is independent of shear rate (constant).
flowing through a pipeline (from Revell 2000) Therefore, the Bingham plastic model cannot account
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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 163
5.1.3 Herschel–Bulkley Model For a Bingham plastic fluid such as pastefill, the
relationship between pseudo shear rate 8V/D and
The Herschel–Bulkley model is a three-parameter shear stress at the pipe wall sw is given by:
model used to describe viscoplastic materials exhib-
iting yield response with a shear-thinning relationship DPD
sw
above yield stress (Fig. 22). This generalized model 4L
" #1
is a combination of the power law (Eq. 39) and 8V 4 4L 1 4L 4
¼ gB 1 sy þ sy
Bingham models (Eq. 40), and is expressed by the D 3 DPD 3 DPD
following relationship:
n ð42Þ
dV
sw ¼ sapp þ gapp ¼ sapp þ gapp ðc_ Þn ð41Þ where sy = shear yield stress (Pa); gB = Bingham
dr
plastic viscosity (Pa s); DP = pressure drop through a
where sapp = constant, interpreted as apparent shear section of circular pipe of length L (Pa); D = pipe
yield stress (Pa); gapp = consistency index or appar- inner diameter (m); L = pipe length (m); and V =
ent viscosity (Pa s); c_ ¼ shear rate ðs1 Þ; and paste laminar velocity (m/s). Effective pipe inner
n = flow parameter indicating the degree of non- diameter (D) for paste backfill transport ranges
Newtonian behaviour (the greater the departure from between 10 cm and 20 cm (4 and 8 inches). Paste
unity the more pronounced the non-Newtonian prop- flow velocity varies from 0.1 m/s to 1 m/s. The
erties of the fluid). When n = 1, the Herschel– practical pumping distance of paste can reach 1,000 m
Bulkley model is reduced to the Bingham model longitudinally (Lh) and is unlimited vertically.
(Eq. 39). If n \ 1, a pseudoplastic (or shear-thinning)
fluid is obtained. If n [ 1, a dilatant (or shear-
thickening) fluid is obtained. The Herschel-Bulkley 5.2 Standard Measurements of CPB Rheological
model is better fitted for many biological fluids, food Factors
products, and cosmetic products. Since this model
tends to more realistically predict flow over a wider In practice, it is not easy to obtain the true rheological
range of conditions than the Bingham model, it is properties of pastes, due to the complexity of the
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164 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
experimental devices (rheometer tests). This makes it two fundamental rheological parameters is not
difficult or even impossible to determine or predict obvious (Ferraris 1999). In most cases, sy and l
paste viscosity, which depends on several factors. cannot be calculated from the measured factor, and
Due to its simplicity, the standard slump test (used in are only assumed to be related. According to
the concrete industry) is widely used to determine Ferraris (1999), slump, penetrating rod, and K-slump
paste backfill consistency. Slump is a measure of the tests are related to shear yield stress (sy), since they
drop in height of a material when released from a measure the paste’s ability to start flowing. The
truncated metal cone that is open at both ends and remoulding test, LCL apparatus, vibrating testing
sitting on a horizontal surface (Fig. 23). Slump apparatus, flow cone, turning tube viscometer, filling
determination allows characterizing the material’s ability, and Orimet apparatus are related to viscosity
consistency in terms of transportability (Clark et al. because they measure the paste’s ability to flow
1995). According to Landriault et al. (1997), the once applied stress (vibration or gravity) exceeds
optimum paste backfill slump to facilitate under- yield stress.
ground pumping is between 150 mm (6 inches) and Slump height, an empirical measure of consis-
250 mm (10 inches). tency, is dependent on both material yield stress
Solids concentration Cw% is often used to compare and density, which are in turn dependent on
mix compositions, particularly batches. To achieve chemical composition, particle specific gravity,
mix consistency across batches, consistency can be and particle size. In the minerals industry, these
measured by monitoring the electrical power used by factors may vary with changes in ore origin and
the motor that turns the mixer paddles. The mixer is processing. As a result, using slump height as the
started and water is added until the power required by single parameter of consistency for paste backfill
the motor reaches target for the mix consistency distribution systems potentially leads to problems
desired (Brackebusch 1994; Landriault and Lidkea (Clayton et al. 2003). Therefore, yield stress, a
1993). The only requirement is that slump must be unique material property, is the preferred indicator
correlated to consistency and consistency correlated of consistency. If slump height can be related to
to power. Once the correlation between slump and yield stress, the slump test offers a simple and ideal
pressure loss has been established, produced pressure technique for on-site yield stress measurement
gradient can be predicted. (Clayton et al. 2003).
5.3 Alternate Methods for Measuring 5.3.1 Direct Measurement of Yield Stress
Rheological Factors
Nguyen and Boger (1983, 1985) have suggested
To accurately define the rheology of paste backfill, adapting the laboratory vane shear test to measure
both shear yield stress (sy) and viscosity (l) must be material yield stress (sy). Test results allow obtaining
measured. Most current tests measure only one a torque-angular deformation curve of material,
rheological factor (i.e., slump height). The relation- where peak corresponds to maximum torque (M0).
ship between the factor measured and either of the Using the peak torque value and vane geometry
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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 165
parameters, yield stress is calculated by the following Equation 45 indicates that yield stress is a
relationship (Nguyen and Boger 1983, 1985): function of the weight and dimensions of the
M0 immersed penetrometer. Thus, yield stress is readily
sy ¼ ð43Þ determined by measuring equilibrium depth in the
pD3 H 1
2 D þ mþ3 fluid for a penetrometer with known weight and
diameter.
where sy = paste yield stress (Pa); M0 = maximum
peak torque (N m); D = vane diameter (m); H = vane
height (m); and m = constant describing stress
5.3.2 Analytical Models of Yield Stress and Slump
distribution over the cylinder (end effect): uniform
distribution (m = 0) and non-uniform distribution (m
A number of analytical models have been devel-
[ 0). Nguyen and Boger (1985) verified that the
oped to relate slump to a corresponding yield stress
assumption of uniform stress distribution (m = 0) is
in order to predict slumping behaviour. The first
valid.
analysis was made by Murata (1984), followed by
Coussot and Boyer (1995) proposed a method to
Christensen (1991), who corrected a simple inte-
determine yield stress from the inclined plane test.
gration error made by Murata. Rajani and
The inclined plane used was a 1-m-long (D) channel
Morgenstern (1991) and Schowalter and Christen-
with width L varying between 5 cm and 25 cm and
sen (1998) further investigated the conical test. The
slope (i) varying between 10 and 30. The bottom
slump test was first adapted to a cylindrical
surface was plywood. The authors demonstrated that
geometry by Chandler (1986) for application to
wall slip is negligible for mud flows on this surface
the aluminium industry. Chandler realised there was
type, and they successfully compared measured
a relationship between slump height and flow
uniform flow depths (h) with theoretical predictions
behaviour of the bauxite residue he was testing,
(based on rheometrical tests). They also observed no
but did not analytically relate the two. Pashias et al.
flow depth change when using surfaces with different
(1996) developed a model for cylindrical geometry,
roughness. Asymptotic depth (h0), corresponding to
for a favourable comparison of model and static
at rest state (final position or equilibrium), leads to
vane test results. They also investigated slump
the determination of yield stress:
height sensitivity to sample structure, material,
sy ¼ qgh0 sinðiÞ ð44Þ aspect ratio, lift rate, and measurement time, and
found slump measurement to be essentially inde-
where q = material bulk density (kg/m3); g = grav- pendent of these factors.
itational acceleration (m/s2); h0 = final height of These results were successfully validated by
material (m); and i = inclined plane slope angle. Clayton et al. (2003), Iveson and Franks (2003),
Ulherr et al. (2002) developed a novel and simple Gawu and Fourie (2004), and Saak et al. (2004) for
method for measuring yield stress using a cylindrical cylindrical moulds. Recently, Roussel and Coussot
penetrometer. Basically, static equilibrium of a (2005) proposed an analytical correlation between
falling penetrometer in a yield stress fluid (partial spread and yield stress of cement pastes for the
immersion) is measured, and uniform shear stress ASTM mini cone test, based on the work of Coussot
acting on the entire penetrometer surface is assumed. et al. (1996). Roussel et al. (2005) correlated yield
Yield stress is simply determined by a balance of stress to slump or spread over a large range of yield
forces acting on the penetrometer, as follows: stresses for any conical geometry. In addition, they
g mp qpd2 4l þ 12
d quantified the influence of secondary phenomena
sy ¼ ð45Þ such as surface forces, flow inertia, and initial cone
pd l þ pd8
shape on test meaningfulness.
where g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2); mp = Rajani and Morgenstern (1991) proposed a model
total mass of the penetrometer (kg); q = fluid bulk to predict plastic yield stress sy from the ASTM C-
density (kg/m3); and d and l are the diameter (m) and 143 slump cone height, based on both 2D (Tresca
immersed length (m) of the cylindrical section of the criterion) and 3D (von Mises criterion) yield criteria,
penetrometer. as follows:
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166 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 167
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168 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
Ferraris and de Larrard (1998) proposed a semi- recent laboratory research on mineral tailings and paste
empirical model between yield stress and slump backfill samples (Clayton 2003), where the constant
height. From this model, shear yield stress (sy) is b0 was found to vary in the range 0.09 £ b0£ 0.96.
calculated from final slump (S), using the following Clayton (2003) in Grice (2005) proposed a power
semi-empirical equation: law model for paste backfill material made from gold
tailings, as follows:
300 S
sy ¼ q þ 212 ð58Þ
347 sy ¼ aðCw Þb ð61Þ
3 3 4
where q = concrete bulk density (kg/m ); S = final where a (406 · 10 £ a £ 136 · 10 ) and b (20 £ b £
slump height (mm); and 300 = height of the ASTM 25) are experimentally determined material con-
C-143 cone (H = 300 mm). For paste backfill appli- stants; and Cw = backfill solids concentration by
cation, constants 347 and 212 must be calibrated. mass (in decimal).
Roussel (2006) proposed a semi-empirical model
based on three-dimensional numerical simulations
using a computational fluid dynamics Flow3D code. 5.3.5 Determination of Plastic Viscosity from the
However, from the numerically predicted results, a Modified Slump Test
simple linear approximation for slumps between 5
and 25 cm was proposed, as follows: Recently, a modified version of the standard slump
cone test was developed to calculate concrete paste
sy
S ¼ 25:5 17:6 ð59Þ yield stress and viscosity (Ferraris and de Larrard
q 1998). As mentioned above, the standard slump test
where sy = shear yield stress (Pa); q = concrete bulk can only be correlated with shear yield stress (sy).
density (kg/m3); S = final slump height (mm); and H/ The modification consists of measuring not only final
2 = 25.5, or half height of the mini cone slump height (S), but also slumping time for the
(H = 50 mm). For paste backfill application, constant concrete (or CPB). The method consists of measuring
17.6 must be calibrated. the time (T) for a plate resting on the top of the
concrete (or CPB) to slide down with the concrete (or
CPB) a distance of 100 mm (Fig. 24).
5.3.4 Correlation between Yield Stress and Solids For a range of concrete paste slump values (130–
Concentration 250 mm), viscosity is determined from the 100 mm
slumping time (T), using an empirical equation
Gawu and Fourie (2004) determined yield stress developed by Ferraris and de Larrard (1998):
values on four thickened mineral tailings (with Gs-t g ¼ aqT ð62Þ
varying from 2.74 to 2.84) at varying solids concen-
trations by mass Cw% (from 20% to 72%), using the where g = plastic viscosity (Pa s); a = material con-
slump cylinder test proposed by Pashias et al. (1996), stant (= 0.025 for concrete); q = paste bulk density
the rheometer test, and the miniature vane technique. (kg/m3); and T = slumping time (s).
An empirical relation developed from the slump
cylinder test results appears to predict reasonably
5.4 Underground CPB Delivery Systems
accurate yield stresses up to about 200 Pa, compared
to vane and rheometer results. As a first approxima-
According to Thomas et al. (1979), three possible
tion, they proposed a general regression equation
systems may be used to transport material from a
describing change in yield stress (s0) with solids
point on the surface to underground stopes, as shown
concentration by mass (Cw%), represented by the
in Fig. 21: gravity/pumping, gravity, and pumping/
exponential relation:
gravity systems.
s0 ¼ a0 expðb0 Cw% Þ ð60Þ
• The gravity/pumping system has the advantage of
where a0 (Pa) and b0 are experimentally determined being fully contained underground, thus causing
constants. This exponential relation was also found in no disruption to surface activities. Furthermore,
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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 169
Fig. 24 Schematic
diagrams of the modified
slump cone test based on
measured slumping time T
(from Ferraris and de
Larrard 1998)
the vertical to horizontal distance ratio (V/H) is generated require high-pressure pipelines to transport
usually so favourable that little or no pumping the pastefill. Pressure is typically about 5 MPa for
energy is required. this type of laminar flow system. Early systems used
• The gravity system (Fig. 25) has the advantage of high-pressure reciprocating pumps, but experience
progressively converting the vertical head to has shown that pastefill can be readily transported by
horizontal pressure, allowing shorter and lighter gravity alone, provided that the reticulation geometry
pipes to be used. Since take-off point pressures is favourable (Grice 1998).
are moderate, line failures, if any, do not disrupt
the main shaft or main operational level. The
circuit can be developed progressively as the 5.5.1 Paste Backfill Flow-loop Tests
mine expands.
• The pumping/gravity system (Fig. 25) has the For a given mine, paste backfill flow-loop tests using
advantage of easy installation, inspection, and fully instrumented pipes must be performed to
maintenance, with no special underground level determine paste transport characteristics. Usually,
requirements or disruption of the main shaft. an instrumented, closed-circuit pipeline system pow-
However, the filling operation depends on a ered by a diesel engine positive-displacement pump
pumping operation with a long borehole for is used. The instrumentation on the paste flow-loop
underground fill application, which requires a tests provides essential engineering data such as flow
high-pressure take-off point. rate (Q), friction head loss per unit length of pipe
(j = H/L), shutdown and restart capabilities, and the
power consumption required for full-scale pipeline
5.5 Pipeline Flow of Paste Backfill designs. Figure 26 shows an example of paste flow-
loop tests performed at the USBM’s Spokane
When paste backfill is delivered by pipeline to the Research Center (Clark et al. 1995).
disposal point in the stope, the friction factors Calculation of friction head loss (j) allows deter-
mination of the running pressures of the paste
Backfill plant distribution system: volumetric displacement pump
Pump/gravity
Mixer
Pump system
type, choice of pipe diameter (D), flow rate (Q), and
paste flow velocity (V). For a Bingham plastic fluid
Gravity flowing in laminar regime (paste backfill), friction
Gravity / system
pump system head loss or pressure gradient (j) is given by the
following relationship:
Open stope
Pump ? 32VgB
j¼ 4 ð63Þ
Paste
D2i 1 43 sswy þ 13 sswy
backfill
Fig. 25 Basic configurations for paste backfill distribution where j = friction head loss or pressure gradient (Pa/
systems (adapted from Thomas et al. 1979) m); gB = Bingham plastic viscosity (Pa s); sy = yield
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170 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
stress (Pa); sw = wall shear stress in Pa ðsw 180-mm (7-inch) slump can be gravity fed at a flow
Di DP=4LÞ;Di = pipe diameter (m); and DP ¼ rate of 100 tons/hour in a borehole/pipe system with a
pressure drop (Pa): 150 mm (6 inches) diameter (Landriault et al. 1997).
It was observed that the pressure gradient (j) is
higher for uncemented tailings than for paste backfill.
This behaviour is directly related to tailings particle 5.5.2 Maximum Horizontal Flow Distance
size distribution and pipe diameter. It was also
observed that a decrease of half the D50 value for The horizontal flow distance (Lh) generated by a
initial tailings material could lead to a decrease of standing column of material is obtained by dividing
more than 45% of the pressure gradient (Clark et al. the pressure at the bottom of the standing column
1995). In addition, a substantial change in slump (pbottom) by the frictional pressure gradient or
corresponds to a marginal variation of pastefill solid pressure loss (Clark et al. 1995). The pressure at
mass concentration, especially in the range 78– the bottom of a standing column is obtained by taking
85 wt.%. Clark et al. (1995) observed that an the difference between the pressure imparted by
increase of 45% in slump (increase of 5 cm) involved gravity and pressure lost through the frictional
a decrease of 1% in solid mass concentration Cw% pressure gradient, so that the horizontal transport
and 78 wt.% in pressure gradient. distance (Lh) is given by the following relationship
As a rule of thumb, the pressure gradient for (Fig. 27):
vertical flow or full-fall (jvert) is approximately 66%
of the pressure gradient measured during the flow
loop test (jloop). It is also assumed that the pressure
Paste flowing in the pipe
gradient of a loop test is equal to j during material
pumping. h
The use of rheological models such as Eqs. 39–43
and 63 requires a priori knowledge of apparent
viscosity (gapp) or Bingham plastic viscosity (gB), Lh (horizontal distance)
which is very difficult to predict, since it depends on
several factors. It is therefore important to relate
slump to plastic viscosity, as in Eq. 62 proposed by
Pbottom
Ferraris and de Larrard (1998). Commonly used pipe
diameters vary between 100 mm (4 inches) and Fig. 27 Schematic diagram of calculated horizontal distance
200 mm (8 inches). For example, paste backfill with of paste flow
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Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174 171
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172 Geotech Geol Eng (2008) 26:147–174
influence cone) can be calculated. Once the paste consolidated paste backfill. In: Jewell R, Lawson S,
backfill is transported underground by pipeline to the Newman Ph (eds) Proceedings of 9th international semi-
nar on paste and thickened tailings—paste’06, 3–7 April.
open stopes, it interacts with the stopes and pillar Limerick, Ireland, pp 333–345
walls, and the initial physical and mechanical prop- Belem T, El-Aatar O, Benzaazoua M, Bussière B, Yilmaz E
erties evolve during curing. (2007) Hydro-geotechnical and geochemical character-
ization of column consolidated cemented paste backfill.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by IRSST In: Proceedings of 9th International Symposium in Mining
(Institut de recherche Robert-Sauve´ en sante´ et en se´curite´ du with Backfill, April 29 to May 2, 2007, Montreal, Canada,
travail/Robert-Sauvé research institute for occupational safety CIM, Paper No. 2523, 10 pp
and health, Quebec), with parts funded by NSERC (Natural Belem T, Harvey A, Simon R, Aubertin M (2004) Measure-
Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada) and ment and prediction of internal stresses in an underground
NATEQ (les Fonds de recherche sur la nature et les opening during its filling with cemented fill. In: Villaes-
technologies/Natural science and technologies research fund, cusa E, Potvin Y (eds) Proceedings of the fifth
Quebec). The authors gratefully acknowledge their support. international symposium on ground support in mining and
underground construction, 28–30 September. Perth,
Western Australia, Australia, Tayler & Francis Group,
London, pp 619–630
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