Basi

Control

Mayr

Book:

Gene F. Franklin, J. David Powell, Abbas Einami-Naeini:

Feedba k Control of Dynami Systems
ISBN 0201527472

1
In uen ing te hnologi al pro esses by the means of the feedba k prin iple.
History of ontrol te hnology:
300 before Chr. Alexandria
water meter based on a swimmer ontrol
18th entury James Watt:
steam engine with entrifugal for e pendular
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19th entury o urren e of rst instability problems at

ontrol of water turbines.
stability approa hes !of Routh and Hurwitz.
1920 dis overing feedba k stru tures in natural organisms,
e.g. the permanen e of the body temperature,
indierent, whether summer or winter
1948 setting-up of the \ Cyberneti s" by N. Wiener,
as the ombining bridge between the s ien es
2nd half of the appli ation in the eld of automatization
20th entury realized by
 analog omputers (in the early days)
 digital omputers (today)
by the appli ation of fast hardware and realtime-
as well as multitasking- apable operating systems

2
Coheren es in ontrol te hnology

ontrol system ontrolled system

( entrifugal pendulum) (steam engine)
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blo k diagram model design

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ow diagram
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........
.
......
............. ...............

Elements of a ow diagram

reason ee t
.............
.......... element .............
..........

dire tion of a tion ..............

...........

The elements of a ow diagram are based on the ausal onne tions between
reason and ee t.
The elements of a ow diagram
 normally orrespond to their mathemati al des riptions of the fun tio-
nal intera tions
 they are free of feedba k.
 The dire tion of intera tion is assigned by the arrows of the input
signals and output signals.
The ow diagram is based on the graphi al representation of omplex ma-
themati al intera tions.

3
Stategy for ontrol loop design

 Modeling of the ontrolled (te hni al) system ....

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.... .

 Design of a suitable ontroller .....

..
.....

 Analysis of stability ...........

 Simulation examinations hanges ..

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... .
..
..

 Implementiation of the ontrol systems .

..
..

Conne tion to the ontrolled system

..
....

 Implementing tests adaptations

Continous operation
Distin tion between open loop te hnology and losed loop ontrol

open loop te hnology: forwardly dire ted ontrol signals

losed loop ontrol: losed signal loop with feed-ba k ee t

Example: Heater

..
room
heater
.....
..
...
... .....

temperature outside
... ......
.....
.... .....
.....

energy
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.......................................................................................................................................................
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.
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.....

valve
..... ...
....
...
..
....

Open loop te hnology:

The feeding of heat is in uen ed by the valve.
The adjustment of the
................................
.........

old
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.....
....
.... ....
....
....

valve is rst assigned

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22 Æ C 3 1
.
.
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to abstra t numbers.
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.

2 16 ÆC The assignment to
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20 ÆC
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temperatures is based
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.....................................

18 ÆC on experien e values.
4
Disadvantages:
 no exa t adjustment of the temperature possible
 the in uen e of the outside temperature is not taken into onsideration.
Closed loop ontrol:
The valve is not manually tuned, but it is automati ally adjusted depending
on the temperature
room
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....
....
... heater
....

temperature outside
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.... .....

energy
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temperature-
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sensor
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ÆC
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21 Æ C
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In the ontrol module a permanent omparison between the adjusted and the
measured temperatures is performed. Dependent on the deviation between
these two signals the valve is set autmati ally.
Advantages:
 Possibility of exa t adjustment of the temperature.
 The in uen e of the temperature outside an also be onsidered indi-
re tly.
Examples for ontrol ir uits

 biologi al ir uits e.g. organ of equilibrium

 e onomi ir uits e.g. pri e eort ratio for onsumer goods
 te hni al loops e.g. automati ontrol of the temperature
 human being inside the loop e.g. motorist in traÆ
5
The stru ture of a ontrol loop

d
.....
......
.

w ..............
.... ...
......
...... .......

.... .....
..........
.
......
...
..
e ..........
.... ontroller u .......
........ ontrolled system y .......
........

.
.. ..

w : nominal value (adjusted temperature); also: desired value

y: a tual value (measured temperature)
e : ontrol deviation (deviation of the temperature)
u: ontrol signal (energy supply)
d : disturban e ( u tuation of the outside temperature)
A feedba k ontrol system is distinguished by its signal feedba k and a by
the omparison between the nominal and the a tual values. This results in
the feedba k stu ture in ontrol ir uits.
The elements of a blo k diagram
x
- signal (physi al variable)
e.g. temperature
- - blo k (te hnologi al equipment)
e.g. thermostat
x2

x1
-? x3 - addition: x3 =x +x 1 2

x1
- x3 -
6
x2
subtra tion: x3 =x 1 x2

x1 x3 -
bran hing: x3 =x =x
?x
2 1
2

6
The signals are dimensioned variables. However, for simpli ation in ontrol
engineering they are handled as dimensionless sizes.
The blo ks are onsidered as free of feedba k (internally). This means that the
input variable will not be in uen ed by any output variable of the onsidered
blo k.

Signal behavior within a simple ontrol ir uit

Denition by ases:
tenden y
y<w ! e> 0 ! in resing of u
y>w ! e< 0 ! de reasing of u
y =
w ! e= 0 ! keeping u onstant

Requirement on a ontrol ir uit

Good nominal value behaviour: Adaptation of the a tual value to the desired
value.
Low disturban e behaviour: Small in uen e of disturban es on the a tual va-
lue.
Stability: The a tual value is not pursuing to 1, e.g. wrong poled signal
rea tion (positive feedba k).
Qui kness: Short duration of the transient behaviour.
No steady state ontrol error: Exa t adaptation of the a tual value to its de-
sired value in steady state.
Free of overshoot: The ontroller shall not run beyond its aim.
Robustness against deviations of parameters: Small in uen e of the opera-
ting onditions.

7
Stability of a ontrol ir uit
Desired value
w .....
......

1
...
....
..
....

ts t

A tual value
 Stable losed loop
y ....
....

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stable
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..

ts t

 Closed loop with unique overshoot (aperiodi borderline ase)

y ....
....
ymax ................

1
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pppp pppppppp
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ts t

 Closed loop with de reasing os illations

y ....
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ymax ................
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1
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ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp pppp
ppp

stable
ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp p
ppp ppp ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
p pppppp pppppppp
....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ...p.p.pp.p.ppppppp.p.p.ppp.p.p.p.pppppppp.p.p.pp.pp.p.p.pppppppp..p.pp.p.p.p.pppppppp.p.p.pp.p.pp.p.pppppppp.pp.p.pp.p.pp.p.ppppppppp.ppp
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ts t

 Closed loop with onstant os illations

ppppp
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ymax ................ ppp
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y
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....
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borderline
p p
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1
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p
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stable
pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp
ppp pp pp
p p pp
p
pp
pp ppp
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..
ppppppppppppp pppppp

ts t

8
 Closed loop with in reasing os illations
pp
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p

y
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ppp
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pp pp
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ppp
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pp pp p pp pp
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ppp pp pp pp pp
p
p p
p p pp p
p
pp p

1
pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp
pp pp pp ppp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
ppp
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unstable
pp pp
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pp pp pp pp pp
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pp pp pp pp pp
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pp
....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..
p
ppp
p
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pp p
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p
p pp
p ppp
p p p p pp
p
p
p pp p pp pp pp p
ppp ppp pp pp pp pp
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ppp ppp ppp pp pp pp
pp pp
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pp pp
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ppp ppppp p
pppp pp pp
....
.....
....
pppppppppp
ppppppppp ppp pppp pp pp
ppppppppppppp p pp
pp pp
pp pp
p

ts t
pp p
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp ppp
pp pp
pp ppp
pp pp
p
pp pp
ppp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp
pp
pp pp
pp p
pp ppp
pp pp
pp pp
pp
ppp pppp
pp pp
pppppp

 Aperiodi unstable losed loop

pp
pp
pppp
ppp
ppp
ppp
ppp

y .....
ppp
ppp
ppp
.... p
p
pppp
p
ppp
ppp
ppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppp

1
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
p
pppppp
pp

unstable
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppppp
....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .. ppppp
ppppp
ppppp
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p
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...
....
..
....
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ppppppppppppppppppp
pp

ts t

9
The ow diagram

 The ow diagram results from the blo k diagram by a more pre ise
determination of the te hni al elements.
 The mathemati al ohere es must be re ognizable here.
Example: Simple uid level ontrol
sonar-
w y sensor
............
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pump valve base a

.... ... . .... ... ..
.
.
..
.....
.
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.
. .
.. . . .
.
. .
. ..........
.. ... ....
.
... .
. .. ....
.
. ... .

w : desired value for the water level

y: a tual value for the water level (measured value)
u: ow-in per time-unit ( ontrol variable)
d: ow-out per time-unit (disturban e)
Blo k diagram:

ontrol system .
.
.
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. d
.
..
...
..
....
.......

ontr.d system
.

w e
ontroller u y
.................
....

for level
... ...
.............. .. ............. ........... .............
..
............. ... .......... ........... .........
...
..... ........
...........
..
.....
... ..

10
Flow diagram:

ontrolled system for level

.
.
d
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..

1
.....
. ..
...
....
R
w e u
(:)dt y
....... ..........
....... ......... ...... .........
.... ... ..
KR
...
................ . ............. .............. .. ............. ............. .............
a
.............. .. .......... .............. .. .......... .......... ..........
.. ... ..
....
...... ......... ..... ....
......... ................
...
.
..
... ..

Components of a ow diagram

Linear omponents:

x1 x2
 gain .............
.........
K
...........
.......... ( ) = K x (t)
x2 t 1

t
 integator x1 .............
..........
R x2 ............
.......... ( ) = R x ( )d
x2 t 1
0

x1 ...
...... ........
................. ...
x3 .............
.............. . ...........
.................

 addition .
.......
.
.. ...
.
( ) = x (t)+x (t)
x3 t 1 2
x2

x1 ..
...... .........
................ ..
x3 .............
............... . ...........
..

 subtra tion ( ) = x (t) ()

................
......
.
x3 t x2 t
.
.. ..
1

x2

 time shift ( ) = x (t
x2 t 1 Tt )

11
Nonlinear omponents:

x1 x3
.............
.........
 ............
.........

 multipli ation .
....
....
.. ..
( ) = x (t)
x (t)
x3 t 1 2

x2

x1 x3
.............
 ............

( ) = xx ((tt))
.......... ..........

 division ....
......
.. ..
x3 t 1

x2

 hara teristi x1 x2 x2
saturation
p
pppppp
ppppppp
pppppp

lines
............. pppppp
pppppp
ppppppp .............
......... pppppp
pppppp
pppppp ..........

x1
pppppp
pppppp
ppp
pppppppp
pppppp

x1 x2 x2
.............
..........

x1
.............
........... hysteresis

x1 x2 x2
dead zone
pp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppp
pppp
............. pppp
pppp .............
.......... ...........
p ppp
pppp
pppp

x1
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppp
ppp

 sin, os, tan, p , quadrat

 a.m.m.
double frame marks nonlinearity.

12
The time shift
The time shift element belongs to the group of the linear omponents. It
represents the temporal shift of a signal.
Example: Conveyor belt

v
q1

q2

The time shift Tt orresponds to the elapse time of the materials on the
onveyor belt.
It is omputed by
Tt = vl

The value for Tt here is presupposed as not variable; it is onstant.

Consequently it is valid
2q (t) = q (t Tt )
1
...
......
... ...
q1 .
......
.............
.......
...... ......
......
..... ....
.....
..
...... ......
.... .......
..........
... ......... .. ...
....
... ...........
...
.... ......
..... ............
.........

....
t
....
.. ...
q2 . ..
.......
............
........
. ...... .....
. ... ...... ....
.............
.......... Tt .................
. .... .......
.
.
.
.
....
.
.... .....
.....
......
........
..........
. .... ... .. ........
. ........ ......
. ...
..
.... ... ............
.........

13
Properties of linear time invariant transfer elements
Homogenity:

If it is valid: systems identi al . ..

... ..
... ...
. .
... ...
. ..

() ()
.. ..
..
.
.
x1 t x2 t
time invariant linear system
.
...
.
........... .. ...........
........... ..
. ............
.
.
...
..
..
..
..
...

it also applies:
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
...
.
...
.
..

() ()
.
..

x1 t x2 t
............
......... time invariant linear system .............
..........

Superposition:

If it is valid: systems identi al .

. .
... ... ...
.
.
... ... ...
..
.. .... .
...

() ()
.
... .. .
.. ..
x1 t ... .
.
x2 t
time invariant linear system
. ..
.. ..
............. .. .. .............
.......... .
.. . ..........
..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
..
. ..
... .
..
.
.. ...

() ()
.
.. .
...
x3 t x4 t
time invariant linear system
.
...
........... ..
. ...........
.
............ .............
..
..
..
..
.
..
.
..

it also applies:
..
..
..
..
..
.
..
..
.
..

()
x1 t
..
..
.
..
.
..

...
.
...
.
...

( ) + x (t)
..
.
.
.. .. .
....
x2 t
time invariant linear system
....
......... 4
..... .......
.
.... ... ............. .............
... ...
.. .......... .........
.... ...
................
....
.
.
......
.
.

()
x3 t

14
Analysis of a simple linear time invariant ontrol ir uit

w ...
.....
................
... e u R y
KR
...
............... .. ............. ............. .............
.............. ... .......... ........... ..........
...
..... .
....
................
. .
......
.. ..

...............

?
.....
..... .........
..... ...... ..
..... ......
...... . ......
..... .... .
...
.. ......
. ..... ..
...... ...... ..... ....
....... ....... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... ......

ontrolled (te hni al) system: integrator

ontroller: gain (fa tor KR)
pro edure: as ertaining of the signals from \right" to the \left"
t
ontrolled system: y(t)=R u( )d (1)
o

ontroller: ( ) = KR
e(t)
u t (2)
omparator: e(t) = w (t) y (t) (3)

By dierentiating (1) in terms of time t one re eives

y_ (t) = u(t)

Inserting of (2) shows

y_ (t) = KR
e(t)

With (3) e(t) an be eliminated

y_ (t) = KR (w (t) y (t))

Consequently, it results in the dierential equation of 1st order

_ ( ) + KR y(t) = KR w(t)
y t

By this dierential equation the input-/output-behaviour of the losed loop

is des ribed.
15
Frequently o urring input signals
 Step fun tion:
...
w ....
.. ..

1 pp
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
e.g. swit hing a power button on
p
p
p
pp
p
p
p
p
.......
..........
p
p

( ) = 0 for t < 0  w(t) = (t)

t
w t
( ) = 1 for t  0
w t

 Ramp fun tion:

..
.....
w .. ...

1
ppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppp

e.g. tra ing a teles ope

ppppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
ppppppppppp
pppppppppppppp

a
pppppppppppp

1
pppppppppppp
ppp
pppp
pppppppppppppppp
p
ppppppppp
pppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppppp
ppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp .......
..........
pppppppppppp

t
( ) = 0 for t < 0
w t
( ) = a
t for t  0
w t

 Dira impulse fun tion:

e.g. short-term stimulation
...
w ....
.. ..

1 of the ontrol ir uit

r
rr
r
r
rr
r
r
r
r
r
rr
r
r
rr
r
rr
r
rr
r r
r
rr
r r
r
r
r
rr
r r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
rr
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r ...........
......
r
r

t
9
()=0 for t 6= 0
...
....
w .. ...
w t >
>
()=1 for t = 0
q
q
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
q

=
qq
qq
q
qq
q q
q
q qq
q q
q
q qq
q q
q q
qq

( ) = Æ(t)
q

w t
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

R1
q

w t
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

w (t)dt = 1
q

+
q

>
q
q
q
q
q
q

>
q
q
q
q
q
q

;
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

1
q
q
q
q
......
q
q

...........
q
q

The Æ-impulse is \1" slim, \1" high and it onsists of an \area" of the size 1.
 Sine fun tion:
...
w ......
.. ..
...............

e.g. test or referen e signal

.... ..............
...
.... .... ......
...
.... ... ...
... .... ... ...
... ... ....
. .... ... ..........
... .
...
.... ... .......
... ... .... ...
.... .
. ... ...
. .... .....
t
... .
.... ...... .. .
.......
.
.......

w t ()=0 for t < 0

w t ( ) = sin(!t) for t  0
16
The step response

If the step fun tion is sent to the system input w, the rea tion of the system
output y is alled the step response.
system input: w (t) =  (t)
system behaviour: y_ (t) + KR
y(t) = KR
w(t)
seeked !system output y(t)

prerequisite: y (0) = yo = 0 initial value

solution: y (t) = 1 e KR t

test: y_ (t) = KR e KR t inserted in the dierential equation

KR e KR t
+ KR (1 e KR t ) = KR
1

.....
.....
... ...
w

1 p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
pp
p
p
p
p
p
step fun tion (t)
p
p
p
pp
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
pp .............
..........

.....
t
.....
.. ...
y

1 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pppppp.ppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.ppppppp
...
...
..
. . pppppppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
.pppppp. .pppp.pp .pppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.ppppppp.ppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.pppppp.pppppp.pppppp.ppp.pppppp.pppp.pppp.pppp.pp

step response
. p.
ppp ..
p
pppppp
pppp
ppppp
p
.........
ppppp
pppp ... .
pppp
pppp .. ..
ppp
ppp
ppp
.................
ppp
pp . . . .. . ............ . . .. . . . . ............ ..........
pp ..... ..........
..

t
It results in a system behaviour of 1st order.

17
Analysis in the frequen y domain
The Lapla e tranformation
Strategy:

time domain frequen y domain

.........................................................
............. Lapla e- Lapla e-
Di.eq.
.......
........ ......
..... ....
.... ... ............

Transformed
..
.
... .. ...........

Transformation
... ..
..... .
.....
......
.......... .
............
.............................................................

al ulations
... ..
.....
....

......................
...................................
Inverse Lapla e- solution in the
Solution
.......... ..........
......
...... .....
..... ....
... .......................

frequen y domain
. ..

transformation
.
.. ..
... ...
.....
...... .....
.......... .....
.......
..................... .....
....................................

Advantage:
Operations arried out in frequen y domain are easier than the equivalent
operations arried out in time domain.
Introdu tion of the omplex frequen y:
..
...
....
.....

Im
... ....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .................
.
.
. .... ..
...
s
.
. . ..
.
. .
... .
.
. .... ..
. ..
.
.
. ................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

=  + j!
.
.
.
.
.
! .
.
. .... ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . .............
s .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .....
.
.

p
.
.
. .
.
. .
.
.
. .
.

j= 1
.
....................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................
.
.
. .

Re
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

real part:  (des ribes the fading behaviour of a signal)

imaginary part: ! (des ribes the periodi al os illating behaviour of a signal)

18
Lapla e transformed F (s) of a time fun tion:
1
F s( ) = $ ff (t)g = R f (t)
e st dt
o

Example:
Lapla e tranformed F (s) of the step fun tion f (t) = (t)
The time fun tion f (t) = 1 results in
R1 h it=1
( )= 1

F s e st dt = e st
s t=0 = 1s
o

Theorems of the Lapla e Transformation:

 Theorem of linearity:

$fa
f1 (t) + b
f2 (t)g = a
$ff1 (t)g + b
$ff2 (t)g

 Theorem of time shift:

$ff (t Tt )g = e sTt
$ff (t)g

 Theorem of attenuation:

$ff (t)e at g = F (s + a)

 Theorem of onvolution:
t
( )  f (t) = R f ( )
f (t  )d
f1 t 2 1 2
0

$ff (t)  f (t)g = F (s)
F (s)

1 2 1 2

19
Limit value theorems of the Lapla e Transformation:

 Initial value theorem:

fun tional value near the zero point

x(t ! 0 ) = lim s
X (s)
+
s!1

Prerequisite: tlim!+
x(t) exists
0

 Final value theorem:

fun tional value in the innite

x(t ! 1) = lim s
X (s)
s! 0

Prerequisite: tlim!1
x(t) exists

Simple example of the nal value theorem:

step fun tion: X (s) = 1s

for t ! 1 the following is valid:
x(t ! 1) = lim s
1
s = slim 1=1
s! 0 ! 0

As expe ted, the step fun tion

onsists also at t ! 1 of the value 1.

20
Dierentation and Integration:

 Dierentation:

$ff_(t)g = s
F (s)

General rule:
A signal in the frequen y domain an be dierentiated by multi-
pli ation with the omplex frequen y s.

 Integration:
t 
$
R
( ) = 1s F (s)
f  d
0

General rule:
A signal in the frequen y domain an be integrated by division
by the omplex frequen y s.

Initial values would be only then important, if the fun tional value
for t < 0 would be f (t) 6= 0.

21
Appli ation of the Lapla e transformation to linear transfer
elements

Starting point: Dierential equation

( ) + an
y (n) t 1y
(n 1)
(t) + : : : + a y_ (t) + ao y(t) =
1
= bo u(t) + b u_ (t) + : : : + bm u m (t)
1
( )

j
Lapla e transformation
sn Y s( ) + an 1s
n 1
( ) + : : : + a s Y (s) + ao Y (s) =
Y s 1
= bo U (s) + b s U (s) + : : : + bm smU (s)
1

( )
(sn + an
Y s 1s
n 1
+ : : : + a s + ao ) = U (s)
(bm sm + ::: + b s + bo)
1 1

() + + +
bm sm : : : b1 s bo
() = + + + ao = G(s)
Y s
U s sn
+ an 1 sn 1 : : : a1 s

U s () ()
Y s
.............
......... G s () ...........
...........

frequen y domain time domain

system input: U (s) u t ()
system output: Y (s) y t ()
transfer fun tion: G(s) g t ()
It applies to linear systems:
In the frequen y domain the system out-
( ) = G(s)
U (s) put Y (s) is generated by multipli ation of the
Y s
system input U (s) with the omplex transfer
fun tion G(s).

In time domain this multipli ation results in the onvolution.

22
The onvolution:

( )
U (s) = $fg(t)  u(t)g

G s

orresponds to
t
( )  u(t) = R g( ) u(t
g t )
 d
0

Rt
! y ( t) = () (
g  u t )
 d
0

( ) is designated as weight fun tion.

g t

23
Inverse Lapla e transformation into the time domain

The inverse Lapla e transformation yields from the frequen y fun tion F (s)
the orresponding time fun tion f (t)
f (t) = $ fF (s)g
1

Realization of the inverse Lapla e transformation:

 al ulation of the omplex reversal integral of the Lapla e transforma-

tion
+Rj 1
$ 1
fF (s)g = 21 j es t F s ds()
 j1
! for theoreti al studies

 using orresponden e tables

! in pra ti e.

Example:

input fun tion: ( ) o{
1s

 t

transfer fun tion: integration 1s

()
 t .............
..........
R ? ..........
............

output fun tion: ( ) = 1s
1s = s1

Y s 2

inverse Lapla e transformation by he king the orresponden e table

y (t) = t ramp fun tion

24
The most important orresponden es of the Lapla e transformation

time fun tion frequen y fun tion

( ) with t  0
f t ( ) with s =  + j!
F s

()
Æ t 1 impuls fun tion
()
 t 1s step fun tion
t 1 ramp fun tion
s2

tn 1
1
( n 1) ! sn

e at s +1 a fading fun tion

t e at 1 aperiodi borderline ase
(s + a) 2

9
sin(!t) s2
!
+! 2
>
>
=
os illating fun tions
os(!t) s2
s
+! 2
>
>
;

9
e at sin(!t) !
(s + ) + !
a 2 2 >
>
=

s+a
fading os illating fun tions
e at os(!t) (s + a) + !
2 2
>
>
;

25
Pra ti al appli ation of the theorem of linearity

 Addition:
time domain: ( ) + x (t)
x1 t
j
2

X (s) + X (s)
1 2

 Multipli ation with a onstant fa tor:

time domain:
()
k x1 t
j k
X (s)
1

Example: Integrator .
....
.....
... ..

()
..
......
......
y t ..
......
......
.....
......
..
.
......
.....
......
......

gradient 1
......
..
........
.
. ..
...... .
......
......
.....
......
...
......
.
......
......
......
qqq
.qqq.....
.qq.qq
q
q
q
q
q
qq
qq
q qq
q
qq
q q
qqq

plane 3
q
q q
q q
q
qq q
qqq
q

()
q q
q q
q
q q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
.
..
q

u t
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

1s
q
q
q
q
q

U Y
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
............ ........... q
q

.............
q
q
..........
q
q
q
..............................................
q ............
..........
q
q

with: system input: u(t) = (t) + 3
Æ(t)

j
 U (s) = 1s + 3
transfer fun tion: Integrator
G(s) = 1 s
output fun tion: Y (s) = G(s)
U (s)
 
Y (s) = 1
s s
1 + 3 = s1 + 3s 2

Inverse Lapla e transformation via orresponden e table:

1  t2 ramp fun tion
9
>
=
y (t) = t + 3
 (t)
s

3s  3
(t) step fun tion > ;

26
Appli ation of the partial fra tion de omposition
Realization in the ase of ompli ated polynomials
Strategy:

 Find the zeros of the denominator (poles) of the polynomial free of

ommon divisors.
 De omposite the part terms by the rules of the partial fra tion de omp.
 Perform the inverse Lapla e transformation of the partial expressions
into time fun tions based on orresponden e tables.
Realization of the partial fra tion de omposition:

 Starting point: Polynomial with no ommon div. in num. and denomin.

( ) = sn +bn an s sn + :+: :: +: : b+ as +s b+o ao

n 1
1 1
Y s 1
1 1

after lo ating the poles of the polynomial the following possibili-

ties an ome up:
 single real pole at s1 :
A
(s s1 )
 multiple (k-fold) real pole at s2 :
) + (s s )k + : : : + (s s ) + (s s )
Bk Bk B 1 B
(s
2 1
s2 k 1 2
2 2 2

 onjugate omplex single pole:

Cs D +
s2 +p1 s q1 +
 onjugate omplex multiple (l-fold) pole:
El s + Fl
+
( + + ) (s + p s + q )l + : : :
+
El s Fl 1 1
s p2 s q2 l
2 2
2 2
1

E s+F E s+F
:::+ +
(s + p s + q ) (s + p s + q )
2 2 1 1
2 2 2
2 2 2 2

The onstants A; B : : : Bk ; 1 C; D; E1 : : : El ; F1 : : : Fl an be found by the

omparison of oeÆ ients.
27
The hara teristi equation of a polynomial
System:
u x
.............
...........
F s () .............
.........

Dierential equation:
an x(n) t( )+ : : : + a x(t)+ a x_ (t)+ a x(t) =
2 1 0 b0 u t ( )+ b u_ (t)+ : : : + bm u m (t)
1
( )

with n  m  0
j
Lapla e transformation
an sn X s( ) + : : : + a s X (s) + a sX (s) + a X (s) =
2
2
1 0
b U (s) + b sU (s) + : : : + bm sm U (s)
0 1

Complex transfer fun tion:

( ) = XU ((ss)) = denominator(s)
F s
numerator(s) = bm sm
an sn
+:::+b s+b
+:::+a s+a
1
1 0
0

Chara teristi equation:

an sn +:::+a s +a s+a = 0
2
2
1 0

Conversion:
(s s1 ) (s ) (
s2 : : : s sn )=0
with si = i  j !i; i = 1 : : : n
Here s : : : sn are the zeros of the hara teristi equation.
1

 The poles of the omplex transfer polynomial F (s) orrespond to the

zeros s : : : sn of the hara teristi equation.
1

 Taking into a ount the properties of the partial fra tion de ompo-
sition every pole of the omplex transfer fun tion orresponds to a
self-os illation of the dierential equation.
The inferen e of both determinations given above results in:
The zeros s : : : sn of the hara teristi equation
1
(s s ) (s s ) : : : (s sn) = 0
1 2
provide information about the self-os illation behaviour of the
dierential equation.
Therefore, the onstants s : : : sn an also onsist of omplex values.
1

28
Algebra of signal ow

Types of ombinations:
 Serial onne tion
F s ()
U X Y
..........
.............
()
F1 s
...........
............
F2 s () .............
..........

! ( ) = F (s)
F (s)
F s 2 1

It is also valid:
F (s) = F (s)
F (s)
1 2

 Parallel onne tion

F s ()
X1
.............
.........
()
F1 s
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
Y
...
U . .
.
....
.......
.
.... ......
.
...
.
............
...
..... ...... ..........
........
.....
... .....
.... .
X
()
.
.
.
.
2 ......
.............
.......... F2 s .

! ( ) = F (s)+F (s)
F s 1 2

It is also valid:
F (s) = F (s)+F (s)
2 1

29
  Closed loop

F s()
U X2 Y
.................
..............
.............
...
................
.
..
......
... ..
..
.............
..........
()
Fv s
.............
...........

X1
()
Fr s .....................

( ) = Fr (s)
Y (s)
X1 s

X (s) = U (s) X (s)

2 1

( )= Fv (s)
X (s)
Y s 2
= Fv (s)
(U (s) ( ))
X1 s
= Fv (s)
(U (s) ( )
Y (s))
Fr s

( ) = Fv (s)
U (s) Fv (s)
Fr (s)
Y (s)

Y s

(1 + Fv (s)
Fr (s))
Y (s) = Fv (s)
U (s)

Fv (s)
Y (s) =
1 + Fv (s)
Fr (s)
U (s)

( ) = 1 + FvF(vs()s
) Fr (s)
F s

Transfer fun tion of the open loop: Fo s ( ) = Fv (s)
Fr (s)

Fv (s)
F (s) =
1 + Fo (s)

30
Example:

Cal ulation of the transfer fun tion FW (s) of a losed loop:

()
FW s

ontroller ontrolled system

W E U Y
FR (s) FS (s)
...........
................. .... ............ ............ ............
.............. .... ......... .......... .........
...........
...
.....
... ...

FW s( ) = 1 +FRF(Rs()s
)F
SF(Ss()s)

Comparison with the general ir ular stru ture:

In the present example the following is valid

Fv (s) = FR (s)
FS (s)

Fo (s) = FR (s)
FS (s)

onsequently, one an apply here:

Fv (s)
FW (s) =
1 + Fo (s)

31
Displa ing points of addition and points of bran hing

Shift of an additions point:

u1 ...........
...... F s () .............
..............
...... ... ....
..........
..
.....
.. .
.
y ..........
.....
u1
.......
...........
.....
.... ......
.... .
..............
.....
......
..........
..... ()
F s
y
......
.........

1
u2 F s () .
.....
....

u2

u1
....... ... ...
...........
............... ....
...........
.
.....
....
..........
....... ()
F s
y .....
...........
u1 ..........
....... F s () ........ ..
...............
.............. ...
...........
.....
.....
.
y .......
.........

u2 F s ()
....
....
.. ..

u2

Shift of a bran hing point:

u ..........
....... F s () y2 .........
......
u ..........
....... ()
F s
y2 .........
......

....
....
y1
()
...

... ..
F s
......
.

y1 ......
....
.

u ......
........... ()
F s
y2 .......
........
u ......
........... F s () y2 .......
.........

1
... ..
......
y1
.....
....
..
F s ()
......
......
.
y1

Important: Points of addition and points of bran hing may not be shifted
on top of ea h other.
32
Example: Simpli ation of a ow diagram

F2 s () ......
... .
..
... ... .
.. .....
. . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . .. . .. ..................................
.....
.. .... ............. ............ ..... .... ............. ............ ................ ..... ...... ............
....... ............ .......... .......... ......... .......... ............. ............. .............
.....
.... . ....

.. ..
u y
() ()
....
....
.
.......... .......... ...........
..... ... ....
................ ....
...........
.....
........... F1 s ............... .....
........ .
.............
.......
......... F3 s ....... ... ...
............. ....
...........
....
.......
.........
..... ....
.... ... ..
.. ..
.. ............ ........... ........... .......... ........ .........
................................... ..... ... .... .... .... ..... .... ... .... .... ... ....

()
....... ......... ........... ........... ........... ......... ..
.............
.......... F4 s

.............
.......... F2 s ( )
F (s) 3

.. ..
u y
() ()
....
....
........... .
..............
.............. ....
...... .... ...
...........
....
..........
...... F1 s ..........
...... F3 s ....... ..
............. .....
...........
...
. ..........
......

..... .....
... ... ... ..

.............
.......... F1 s ( )
F (s) 4

.............
.......... F2 s ( )
F (s) 3

.. ..
u y
( )
F (s)
....
....
......... ...........
..... .... ....
................ ....
...........
....
..........
...... F1 s 3
............. .....
........... ...
...........
.....
.......
.........

..... ....
... .. .. ..

............
.......... F1 s ( )
F (s) 4

u y
..........
...... ... .....
............... .
.............
..
.....
...........
..... F2 s ( )
F (s) + F (s)
F (s) + F (s)
F (s)
3 1 3 1 4
.........
.......

... ..

u ( )
( )+ ( )
( )+ ( )
( )
F2 s F3 s F1 s F3 s F1 s F4 s y
1+ ( )
( )+ ( )
( )+ ( )
( )
.......... .......
...... .........
F2 s F3 s F1 s F3 s F1 s F4 s

33
The behaviour of linear time-invariant transfer elements

Y s ( ) = F (s)
U (s)

Transfer fun tion:

() = bn 1 sn 1 + ::: + b s + bo
1
F s
s n
+ an 1 sn 1
+ : : : + a s + ao
1

Input test fun tion: -impulse: U (t) = Æ(t)  U (s) = 1

Æ

Y (s) = F (s)
1 = F (s)

Fa torisation of the denominator polynomial:

( ) = (s bn sns)(s +sn::: +) :b: :s(+s bos )
n 1
1 1
F s
1 1

It is valid:
= 1 : : : n are the eigenvalues (poles) of the transfer fun tion F (s).
si ; i

The poles of the transfer fun tion F (s) orrespond to the zeros of
the denominator of the transfer fun tion F (s).

Denition by ases:

 real:
si si = Re(si )

 si omplex: si = Re(si) + j Im(si)

Here ex lusively onjugate omplex pole pairs are possible, i.e. to
any omplex eigenvalue si a further eigenvalue sk ; k 6= i exists, for
whi h is valid
Re(sk ) + j Im(sk ) = Re(si) j Im(si)
34
The omplex s-plane:

() = + 2s 6s + 8 s3 2
F s
s 4
+ 8 + 24s + 32s + 15 s3 2

real onjugate}| omplex {

z }| { z
= (s +(1)s +
(4)s +
(3)s
(1s ++ j2)(+s j )(1s + j2) j )
| {z } | {z } | {z }
real real onjugate omplex

.
....
.....
.. ..
! .....
....
..
...................
....
...
..
...
..
s .
..
..

2
..
..
.... .
...
......
........
...........

pppp
pppp ppppppp
pppppppp
pp
pppppppp
pppp ppppppp
pppp
p

p 1 pp
ppp
pp
ppp
ppppppppp
ppppp pppppp
pp
pp
pppppp ppppppppp
ppp
pp
p

ppppppppppppppppp pppp p pppp p

pppp
pp
pp
pp
pppp ppppppp
pppppppp
pppp ppppppp
pppppppp .............
..........
p pp pp pp
pp
pp pppppppp pppppppp
pppp ppppppp pppp ppppppp

4 3 2 1 1
ppp
pppppp ppppppppp pppp p pppp p
pppp


pppp
pppp ppppppp
pppppppp
pp
pppppppp
pppp ppppppp
pppp
p

p 1 pp
ppp
pp
pppp

ppp
pppppppppppppp
pp
pp
pp
pppppppppppppppppp
pp

Starting point for further al ulations:

( ) = (s + s1)(+s +2s3)(s6s++4s8 + 5)
F s
3 2
2

Partial fra tion de omposition of this expression results in:

15 17 3 (s 6)
F (s) = 4
s+1
4 + 2
s+3
| {z } | {z } s + 4s + 5 2
| {z }
F (s)
1 F (s)
2 F (s) 3

35
One re eives:
F s ( ) = F (s) F (s) + F (s)
1 2 3

j Based on the theorem of linearity of the Lapla e transforma-

tion the orresponding weight fun tion results in:
f (t) = f (t) f (t) + f (t)
1 2 3

i.e. the terms F (s); F (s); F (s) an be seperately inverse Lapla e transfor-
1 2 3
med.
It results in the following stru tured system:
F1 s ()
15
1
4 s+1
............
......
............

() F2 s () .. ..
... ..
()
U s
17
1 Y s
......
......
.................

4 s+3
.
.
............ ............. ... ..
.. .............
...... ..
... .....
............ ............. .... ... .............
.................
.
.......
.
.
.. ..
... ...

F3 s ()
3
(s 6)
2 s +4 s+5
............
......
...........
2

f (t) = f (t) f (t)+ f (t) = 15 e t 17 e t +  3 os(t) 12 sin(t) e 2t

4 4 2
3
1 2 3

f t ( )1 .....
....

p
p
p
p
pp
pp
p
p
p
p
pp
p
p

0.8
p
pp
p
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
p
p
pp
p
pp

0.6
p
p
pp
p
pp
p
p
p
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
pp

0.4
p
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
p
pp
p
pp
p
p
p
pp
p
p
p
pp
pp
p
pp
p pppppppp pppppppppppppppp

0.2
p
p
pp pppppp pppppp
p
p pppp pppppp
pp ppp pppppp
pp ppp pppppp
p
pp ppp pppppp
p pp pppppp
pp pp pppppp
p
pp pp pppppp
pp ppp pppppp
pp ppp pppppp
ppppppp
pp pp ppppppp
p
pp pp ppppppp
pp ppppppppp

0
pp pp ppppppppp
p
pp pp pppppppppp
ppppppppppppppp
pp ppppppppppppppppppp
pp p
..
...
..
..
....
pp p ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
pp p pppppppppppppp pp pp

0 2 4 6 8 10 t
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp
p
p p
pp
ppp pp
ppp
p
p p
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
p

-0.2
p
pp p
p pp
pp ppp
p
pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp pppp
pppp ppp
ppp

-0.4

! f (t) is stable
36
General on lusions:

 Every omplex polynomial an be seperated by partial fra tion de om-

position in terms, where the denominator has the degree 1 or 2 with
respe t to the powers of s.
 Ea h of these terms an be seperately inverse Lapla e transformed.
 In ase that the denominator of a su h a term
{ is of degree 1, it orresponds to a real pole si of the onsidered
system.
{ is of degree 2, it orresponds to a onjugate omplex pole pair
si ; sk of the onsidered system.

Consideration of real poles:

( ) = s i si with the pole si

Fi s

j
Inverse Lapla e transformation

fi (t) = i
esi t

8
0 for < si < 0 stable
lim fi(t) = : i for
t!1
si = 0 stability borderline
1 for si > 0 unstable

. ...................
.....

Im
.... .... ...
.. .. ... ...
...
.
.
...
...
.....
s .....
..
...
..................

Re ppppppppp
pppppppppp
ppppppp p
.. ... pppppppppp

.... ...
....
............. ..... .............
........ ...... .. ....................................
.................... ... ..................... .......... ...... .... ......................
................. ... ... ... ...............................
.......
.... .......... ..... ........................
........

stable unstable
...... .

37
Consideration of onjugate omplex pole pairs:

( ) = s +b sa +s b+ a
Fi s 2
1 0
Cal ulation only suited
1 0 p
in the ase of a 4a 2
1 0 omplex
s + a2 1

Fi s() = b1  2  a 2
s2 + a s+ a2 + a
1
1
0
1

2
r
 a 2
a1 1

+r
b0 b1
2
 a 2
2 a0
 a 2  a 2
2
+ a s+ 2 + a 1 1

{z2
1 s
a0
2
1 0
| {z } | }
(s + a) 2
w2

Substitution:
a=
a
2 1

r  2
! = ao
a1
2 with a21 < 4a 0

( ) = b (s +sa+) a+ ! + bo ! b a
(s + a!) + !
Fi s 1 2 2
1
2 2

j

inverse Lapla e transformation
fi (t) = b e at
os(!t) + o ! e at sin(!t)
b b a 1
1
8
< 0 for a > 0 a > 0 stable 1
lim fi (t) = : undened for a = 0 a = 0 stability borderline
t!1
1
1 for a < 0 a < 0 unstable 1

- with a = 2
a 1

Lo ation of the poles of Fi(s):

Zi (s)
Fi (s) =
Ni (s)
= s +b sa +s b+o ao ! Ni(s) = s + a s + ao = 0
2
1

1
2
1

38
 q
4ao a 2

s1=2 = 2  a1
j
2 }
1
if 4
a21 < a
|{z} | {z
real part imaginary part
It follows:
 8
0 for Re s = < 0 stable < 1 2
lim fi(t) = : undened for Re s = = 0 stability borderline
t!1
1 2
1 for Re s = > 0 unstable 1 2

Im permantent periodi
.
......
....

os illations
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
...........................................
........................................... ..........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
.......................................... r
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
................
..........................................
...........................................
r
r
r
r
r
r
....
r r
........................................... ....
.......................................... r
r r
r
.... ....
s
..........................................
........................................... ...........................................
.......................................... ...
r
r
r
r
r
r
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ..
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
. .. .... ....
...........................................
..........................................
........................................... ..........................................
.
...........................................
...
.......................................... .
. ...
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ..... .......
...........................................
..........................................
........................................... . .... ....
........................................... .......
.......................................... ..
..........................................
........................................... ...........................................
.......................................... .... ....

Re
..........................................
........................................... ...........................................
..........................................
..........................................
........................................... ..............................................
...........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
........................................... ..........................................
..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ....
.......................................... ...........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ..........................................
........................................... .... ppppppp
pppppppp
ppppppp
........................................... ..........................................

no periodi
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
....
p
ppppppp
...........................................
..........................................
..... pppp
pppppppp
..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... .... ....
...........................................
..........................................
........................................... ... .
.....
..........................................
...........................................

os illations
...........................................
.......................................... ..........................................
...........................................
........................................... ..........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
........................................... ..........................................
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
........................................... ..........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
........................................... ..........................................
..........................................
...........................................
.......................................... ...........................................
..........................................
...........................................
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
...........................................
..........................................
........................................... ..........................................
...........................................
..........................................
r
r
rr
r
r
r
r
r
.......................................... ...........................................
r
r
r
........................................... ..........................................
. ...
.... ....
................... .. .. . .. ........ ....... ............................ ..........................
.....

stable unstable
........................... ..
..
..
....
. .
.
.. ..
. .
...
...
. .. .
..
..
...
... .
.
... ....... .... ......
.... ......

Con lusion:
The stability of the transmission behaviour of a polynomial is determined by
its poles.
A system is
 stable if it has ex lusively poles in the left s-semiplane,
 unstable if it has at least one pole in the right s-semiplane.
Annotation:
 A pole in the origin auses integral behaviour.
 Poles ex lusively on the real axis ause aperiodi behaviour
 A onjugated omplex pair of poles on the imaginary axis auses
onstant periodi os illations.
 A system with periodi behaviour ( onjugated omplex pole pair) is
depending on the kind of the real parts
- fading away with Re < 0 stable
- un hanging with Re = 0 onstant os illations
- in reasing with Re > 0 unstable
39
The ontrolled system and its transfer fun tions
des ription of a transfer element:
 dierential equation
 omplex transfer fun tion
 ow diagram
 typi al system response
Analysis of the step response:

()
u t y t ()
.............
.......... transfer element ............
.........

Choi e of the unit step fun tion for u(t):


u(t) =  (t) mit  (t) =
0 for t  0
1 for t > 0
! y(t) is that step response of the transfer element
(Other denotation: transient fun tion)
P-system without delay:
Dierental equation: K : onstant ampli ation fa tor

y (t) = K
u(t) (degenerated)

omplex transfer fun tion:
F (s) = K (degenerated)
Step response:
u ....
......

u t( ) = (t) 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

.........
..

....
t
.....
y
y t( ) = K (t) .
.....
.....
.
.
. K
. .........
. ..

Pole-/zero-distribution: no pole, no zero

40
Controlled P-system with delay of 1st order (PT1 -element)
Dierential equation:
T y_ (t) + y (t) = K
u(t)

Complex transfer fun tion

T
sY (s) + Y (s) = K U (s)
9
K >
> K
=
F s() = K
+1 = s+ 1
T ! 1 T !
s+
sT >
>
;
T T

Pole-/zero-distribution: one pole, no zero

Im .
.....
.....

s+ 1 =0
..................
.... ...
... ...
s ...
..
...
..... .....
..
.
...

T
s = 1
.............

!
pppp p
pppp ppppppp
......

Re
........
pppppp
ppppppp
pppp ppppppp
pppp
... p
.
... ..
... 1
stable T
........ ................
...... .............. .. ............

1
......

Step response: partial fra tion de omposition

Y (s) = K
1 = 1 KT
sT + 1 s
1
+ sT + s = K
s K s + 1
K 1
j T

Inverse Lapla e transformation via lookup table
t
Y (t) = K
 (t) K
e T

Consideration only of the range t  0:

 
t
y t ()=K 1 e T

....
y ........
.
...
... .
... ....
....
... ... .......
K .
.
.
... .
.... .
. ..
....
............ ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ............. .... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... .... ....qq.qq.q..qqqqqq.qqq.q..qq q.q.q.qq.qqq.q.q.q.qqq ...q.qqqqq....qqqq...q.qq....qqq....qqq
q
qqqqqqqqqq q
qqqq q
qqq qqqqq qqqq
..q.. q.... ..q... q..... ..q... q...
.... ..
qq
qq
qq
q
qqq
qq
qq
qqqqq
qqq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
....
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q

... ..
qq
q
q
qqq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
qqq
q
qqq
q
q
q

....
q
qq
qq
q
qqq
q
q

... qq
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q

.... . qq
q
qq
qq
q
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
...
q
q
..
. .
..qqqqqqqqqqq qqq
q
qqqq
q
qq
qq
q
q

....
qq
qq
q
qq
q
q

.... .... qq
q
qq
qq
.
.... qqqqqqqqqq ..
q
qq
q
qq
qq
...
q

.... qqqqqqqqq
... .... qqqqqqqqqq ...
... .. ....qqqqqqqqqqqqq ...
.... .. ...q.qqqqqqqqqqqq
...qqqqqq ...
... ...qq.q.qq.qq.qqqqqqqq
.... ..qq.q.qq.qq.qqqqq ...
......qq.qqqqq .

0
...............qq.qq............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
....
... .

T t

41
Controlled P-system with delay of 2nd order (PT2 -element)

Dierential equation:
( ) + 2D !o y_ (t) + !o Y (t) =
y t 2
K!o2 U t ()
It means: !0: hara teristi angular frequen y !0 > 0
D: damping fa tor

Complex transfer fun tion: j
s2 Y s ( ) + 2 D !o s Y (s) + !o Y (s) =
2
K !o2 U s ()

( ) = s + 2KD!
!oso + !
2
F s 2 2
o

Pole-/zero-distribution and step response:

 no zero,

 pole:
hara teristi equation s2 + 2 D !o s + !o = 0
2

p
= 2D!o  42 D !o 4!o
2 2 2
s1=2

p
s1=2 = !o D  D2 1

42
Denition by ases:
p
1. D > 1 : Re s = = !o D  !o D 1 2
2
1<0
Im s = = 0 1 2

....
......
.. ..
Im ....
..................
...
y
.......
.....

... ...
.....
... s ..
..

aperiodi
...
..... ...
.

ppp p ppp p
...............
K ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .....pp.p.pppppppp.p.pp.p.pp.p.pp.pppppppp.pp.p.p.p.pp.p.pppppp .p.p.pp.p...ppppp .pp.p.p.... ..
pppppp
ppppppppp
pppppp
pppppppppppp
ppppppppp

stable
ppp ppp ppp ppp pppppp
pppp pppppp pppp pppppp
............ ppppp

Re
pppp pppp pppp pppp ppppp
..........
pppppp pppppp pppp
pppppp pppppp pppp
pppp pppppp pppp pppppp pppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp pppp
pppp pp pppp pp ppppppp
ppp
pppp
pppp
ppppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppp
ppppp
p
pppppp
pppppp
pppp
pppppppp
ppppppp
pppppppp
ppppppppppp .......
..........
pppppppppp
ppppppppppp


2. D = 1 : Re s = = !o < 0 1 2
Im s = = 0 1 2

double- Im ...
.....
... ..
y
...
....
....

pole ....
..
.....
....... .........
...

s
aperiodi
...
.. ....
..
.. ... ...
.. ... ...
..... .......
........ ..........
K ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .....p.p.pppppppp.pp.p.p.p.pp.p.pppppppp.pp.p.p.p.pp.p.ppppppp.p.p.pp.p.p.. ....... ....... .pp..p.p... ....... ....... ..

borderline
.........
...
pppppp
pppppppppp
ppp ppp. ppp ppp
pppppp
ppppp
pppp
pp pp pp pp
pppp pppppppp pppp pppp
............ ppp

Re
pppp ppppppp pppp pppp
..........
pppppp pppppp ppp
pp pp
pppppppppppppppp ppp
ppp
pppp pppppp pppp pp

ase
ppp ppp ppp ppp pp
p
pppp pppp pppp pppp pp
pp
pp
pp
ppp
pp
pp
pp
pp
pp
pp
pp
ppp
pp
ppp
pp
ppp
pppp
ppppp
pppppp
ppppppppppppppppppp
ppppppppppp ...........
pppppppppppppppppppppp
......

3. 0 < D < 1 : Re s = = !o Dp < 0 1 2

Im s = = !o 1 D 1 2
2

.....
.....
... ..
Im y
......
.....
....

periodi
.. ..
....... ........... ..
.... ..
ppp p
pppp pppp
...
..
ppp ppppp
...
s
pppp pppp
...
... ..ppp.p.
pppppp
pppppp
pppp pppppp . p pp .
ppp pppp ...
.. ...
pppp pppp

fading away
pp ....
pppp pp
.. ..
pp
pp
pp
.....
.... ..
. pp
pp
pp
................. pp pp
......
pp
ppp
pp
pp ..ppp ....
ppppppppp..
p
p
pp
pp
pp ppp
ppp
ppp
ppp ............
ppp.....
ppp
pp
ppppp pppppppppp ..... .....p.....
ppp pppp

os illations
p ppp

K
ppppp
pppppppppppppp .
pp
....... ....... .p.ppp..... ....... p.ppp...... .......ppppppppp....... .......pppppp.ppp...... .......pppppp.ppp.p.pp.... ....... pppp.ppp.p.pp.p.p.p.pppp .......pppppppp.p.p.pp.p.pp.p.ppp .......ppppppp..p..p...... ..
p pp
pp ppp pp pp ppp
............ p

Re
pp
p p

.......... p
p
pp p
p
pp
p ppp
ppp ppp
pppp......
pppp ............... ppppppppppp ......
pppp...
p pp
ppp
..
ppp
pp
..
pp
ppp pppppppp
.......
pp
p ppp p
ppp ....
pp
pp p
pp

(stable)
ppp
ppp ppp...
pp
p pp p
.ppp..
p

....
pp ppp
pp

....
ppp
pp

....
pp
pp
...
ppp p pp
ppp ppp
pppp pppppp pp
pp ..
pppp pppp ppp
pppp
pppp
pppp pppp ppp .
p
p .
pp.
ppp.
pppp pppppp

.p.pp.ppp.p
ppp ppp
ppp p
pppp ...........
ppppp
......

43
 
4. D = 0 : Re s = = 0
Im s = = !o
1 2

1 2

Im
..
. .....
...... .....
....
.. .. y
ppp
pppp pp
ppp
....
.....................
...
2K
borderline stable
pppp pppppp
.. ....... ....... .......ppppppp.pp...... ....... ....... .......ppppp.pp.pp..... ....... ....... ......p.pppppppppp....... ....... ....... ...pp.p.p.p.ppp ....... ....... ..
s
pppp pppp
pppppp
.... ... p pp ppp pp pp pp pp
ppp ppp
pppp pppppp . ppp pp pp ppp ppp pp pp pp

..
pppp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pppp
... pp pp pp pp pp pp ppp

..
pp
ppp p pp pp ppp pp pp ppp
pp pp
... pp
pp pp
..... ........
p pp pp
pp
pp
pp pp pp pp ppp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp ppp pp
pp
.......... pp pp pp

( onstant)
ppp pp
pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp
p
pp
pp ppp pp p
p pp p
p pp
pp p pp
pp pp pp
pp
pp
pp
pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp
............

Re os illations K
pp pp pp
pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp
.......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..
pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
ppp pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp
p pp pp
p pp
pp p pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
ppp pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp pp
ppp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp
pp pp
pp
pp pp
pp
ppp
pp
ppp pp pp pp pp pp
ppp
ppp ppp
ppp
pp pp
pp pp pp ppp
pp pp
pp pp pp pp
p
ppp pp
ppp ppp
pp
pp pp pp pp pp
pp
pppp
pppp pppppp pp pp pp ppp pp p
p
pp pp ppp pppp pp
pppp pppp ppp pp ppp ppp
p
ppp pp
pppp
ppp pp pppp ppp ppp
pp pp
.......
..........
pppppppp pppp pppppp ppp pppppp
pppp pppppp pppp
ppp ppp
pppp pp

5. 1 < D < 0 : Re s = = !oDp > 0 1 2

Im s = = !o 1 D 1 2
2

.
..... pppp

.....
pp ppp

Im y
pp pp
ppp ppp
pp pppp
. ppp
....
pp
pp pp

....
pp
pp

2K
.. ..
ppp pp
pp
pp pp
pp p
pp pp p pp
pp pp pp
pp ppp pp
p
pp
pp
p
pp pp p
ppppp pp p pp
pp pp pp pp
....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..
pp
.......
pp

...... .........
pp pppp ppp pp p
p
p
pp
pp
pp pp
....
pppp pp pp pp
pppp
ppp
pp
ppp ppp pp pp pp pp pp pp
ppp
pppp pppppp
.. .. p
p ppp
pp
p
pp
p
pp p
pp
p
pp p
pp
pp

s
pppp pppp
.. pp
ppp
pp pp
pp

...
pppp ppp pp p pp pp
p
p
pp
p p pp
p
pppppppp p
..
p pp p pp
pppp pppppp pp pp pp pp pp
pp
pp
pp pp
... pp pp pp
ppp pp pp pp
..
ppp pp p pp
pppp p

periodi
pp pp p p p p p
pp pp
pp ppp
... p pp pp

....
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp
..... p pp p p pp
...............
p pp p p pp p
pp pp p
pp
pp p
pp pp pp
pp
pp pp pp
pp pp
pp
pp pp
p p p pp p pp
pp pp p pp p pp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp
pp pp pp

K
p pp p p p p
p pp
pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp
....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..
pp pp pp
pp
pp
pp pp pp

unstable
pp pp ppp pp p pp p
p
............ pp pp pp

Re
p pp p
ppp
pp
pp
pp pp pp pp pp
..........
pp pp p
p pp pp
p
pp
p
pp
p pp
pp pp pp
pp pp pp pp pp pp ppp pp
pp
p p ppp pp
p pp pp pp
pp p p p p
p
pp p pp
pp ppp pp
pp pp pp pp
pp pp pp
pp
p pp pp
p pp p
pp
p pp
p pp
p pp p pp pp
ppp
pp
pp pp pp pp
pp
pp pp
ppp pp pp
p
pp pp
p p pp
p
pp
pp
p
ppp
pp
pp pp pp
pp pp
pp
pp
p
pp
ppp p ppp p pp
p pp pp
p
p p
ppp pp p
pp ppp pp
pp
pp
ppp pp
pp pp
pp
pp
ppp pp
ppp p
pppp pp pp
pp p
p pp p
.......
..........
p p pp
pppp
ppp ppppp pppp pp
pp p pp pp pp
pppp pppp pppp pp ppp ppp ppp pp pp
pppppp pp ppp pp ppp pp
p p
p
ppp ppp pp p pp
pppppppp ppp
pp
pppp pppppp pppp ppp
pp ppp
pp pp
p
ppp ppp pp p
pppp pp ppp p ppp pp

t
ppp ppp pp pp
pppp pp pp
pp pppp
pp pp
pp pp
pppppp

p
6. D  1 : Re s = = !oD  !o 1 2 D2 1>0
Im s = = 0 1 2

....
.....
.. ...
Im .....
................
....
y
...
.....
.....

pp
pp
pp
ppp
ppp
pp
pp
pp

...
pp
... pp

...
s
pppp

.. .. ppp

...
ppp
pp
...

aperiodi
...
pp
pp
.... ppp
................... ppp

K
ppp
ppp
....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .. ppp
pppp
pppp
p
pp
ppp
ppp p ppp p ppp
pppp pppp ppp

unstable
pppp pppp
pppp pppppp pppp pppppp ppp
............

Re
ppp
ppp ppp ppp ppp pppp
.........
pppppp pppppp pppp
pppppppp pppppppp pppp
pppp pppppp pppp pppppp pppp
ppp ppp ppp ppp pppp
pppp pp pppp pp pppp
pppp
p
pppppp
p
pp
pppp
ppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppppp
ppppp
ppppp
ppppp
pppppp
ppppppp
ppppppp
pppppp
ppp
ppppppppp
p
ppp
ppppppp
pppppppp
pppppppppp
ppppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppp ...........
pppppppppppppppppppppp
......

44
Integrator as ontrolled system (I-element)

Dierential equation:
1 y_ (t) = u(t)
K

j
omplex transfer fun tion
1 s Y (s) = U (s)
K

Y (s) = K
1 s U (s) F (s) = K

s

Pole-/zero-distribution:

1 pole Im
=0
.
......
.... ........
..... .........
..
...
s
...
s
in the =0
.
.. ..
..
...
.... ...
.................
s1
origin Re
pppp p
pppp ppppppp
.....
......
..
...
ppppppp
ppppppp
pppp ppppppp
pppp p

Step response: y ...

...
..
.
.
.
.
.

gradient K
.
. q
qq
qq
qq
qq

. q
qq
qq
qq
q
. qq
qq
qqq

1 1
.
. qq
qq
qq
qqq
qq

.
. qqq
qq
qq
qq
q

Y (s) = Ks
s =K
s
q
.
.
. q
qq
qq
qq
qqq
qq
qq
q

.
. qq
qq
qq
q
qq
qq

.
. .... q
q
qq
qq
qq
qqq

.
. .... q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

.
q

............. qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
q
qq
q
q
.
.
.
q
q
qq

2 .
.
.
. q
qq
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
qq

j
q
q
.
. q
q qq
qq qq q
qqq

. q
qqq
q
q
. q
qq
q
.
. qq
qq
qq
qq
q q
q

.
. q
qq
qq
q

inverse Lapl. transf. via lookup table

q
qqq
q
.
. qq
qq
qq
qq
qq
q

.
. qq
qq
qq
qqq
qq
qq

.
.
. q
qqq
qq
qq
qq
qqq

. q

0
q
qq
qq
q

.
. q
qqq
qq
qq
qq
q

.
. q
qq
qqq
qq
qq
q

. qqq
q
q
qq
. qq
qq
q
q
.
.
. qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
q
qqq
qq
qq
qq

.
. qqqqqqqqqqq
.

y (t) = K
t (ramp fun tion)

.......qq.qq.q.qq.qq.q............................................................................................................................................................................................
.

Example:
q
uid level in a re epta le
............
..........
.........................
........................ .....
.........................
........................
.........................
........................
.
.......
. .
.
....
.... .
.
....
.... .
R
. . ....

A h(t) = q (t)dt
....
. .
.
... .
.. .
. .. ..
.. . . ..
. . ..
.. .. . ..
.. .. ....
.. . . ..
.. .
. .. ..
. . .
.. .. ..

A : footpoint .....
....
............................
.............................
............................
.............................

h : uid level
............................
.............................
.. .. ............................
.............................
............................
h
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................

q : in ow
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................
............................
.............................

45
The time shift element as ontrolled system (Tt -element)

Equation in the time domain:

( ) = Ku(t Tt)
y t

j
omplex transfer fun tion
Y (s) = Ke sTt U (s)

( )=K
e
F s sTt

no poles and no zeros in the nite.

Step response:
.
.....
y ........
..
.....
..
..
...
K ............ .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ..
.
...
..
..
...
..
....
...
...

0
...
....
...
....
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. .

t
.. ..

Tt
............. .
............ ........................
... ...

Example: pure transport systems without own dynami s

( onveyor belt)

The signal is only shifted by the time Tt ,

however, it remains stru turally un hanged.

46
Compounded ontrolled systems

Example: Integrator and PT1 -element , IT1-element

u x y
K1 K2
+1
............. .............. .............
.. .. ...
............ .............. ............
sT s

Dierential equation:
1st element: _ ( ) + x(t) = K u(t)
T x t 1

2nd element: y_ (t) = K x(t)

2

( ) = K1 y_ (t)
x t
2

_ ( ) = K1 y(t)
x t
2

( ) + K1 y_ (t) = K u(t)
2
T y t
K2 1
omplex transfer fun tion 3
2 6 7
4 5
T y t ( ) + y_ (t) = K
K u(t)
1 2
F s ( )= s
K K
(s T + 1)
1 2

Pole-/zero-distribution:

Im ...
......
.. ..
..
....
...................
...
...
..
s
1 pole in the origin =0 1
..
.. ...
... ..
...
.....
.................
s1
1 pole on the neg. real axis = T
pppp p pppp p
pppp ppppppp pppp ppppppp
.......

Re
.........
pppppppp pppppppp

s2
pp pp
pppppppp pppppppp
pppp ppppppp pppp ppppppp
...
...
pppp p pppp p
...
....... .............. ...
...... .............. ..............

1
.......

47
Step response:
( ) = s
K(s T
K+ 1)
1s
Y s 1 2

partial fra tions de omposition yields:

( ) = K s
K K Ks T + K1 +KsTT
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
Y s 2
| {z } | {z } | {z }
ramp- step- e-
fun tion fun tion fun tion

Initial value theorem of the Lapla e transformation:

 
( ! 0 ) = slim
y t +
!1
s
K1 K2
s2
K1 K2 T
s + 1+ K1 K2 T 2
sT

=0 + K1 K T =0
2
1 2
K1 K2 T

s
+T
.....
.....
y q
q
q
.
....
...
q
.
....
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
.
....
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
q
q
qq
q
qq
.qq

....
qq
q
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
. q

....
q
q
q
q
q
qq
q
q
q
q
qq
. qq

....
q
q
q
qq
q

K1 K2 T
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
. q
q

....
q
q
q
q
... q
q
q
q
q
q
q
... .
q
q
q
q
q
q

....
qq
.... q
q
q
q
q
q
q

.... .
q
q
q
q
q

....
q
q
..... q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

..... ...
q
q
q
q
q
q
..... q

...... .. ..
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
q
q
qq
q
........
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
. q
q

. ............
q
q
qq
q
q
qq

....
qq
q
q
q
........
q
q
q
q
qq

. q
qq
q
............
....
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
q
q
qq
q
.............
.
.
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
qq
....................
.. . qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
q
............................
.
q
qq
qq
qq
qq
qq
........................................
.............................................................................................
q
q

....... .........
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
qq
qq
qq

......
qqq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q
q

.
.
.
.
t
.
.
.
.
.
.

K1 K2 T
.
..............................................

Example:
starting an engine after swit hing on the ele tri al voltage
u(t) = voltage (step fun tion)
x(t) = speed (revolutions per minute)
y (t) = revolutions (rad)

48
The losed loop

u
... ...
w e u y
() ()
......
..
.......... ..............
................. .... .................
......... .... .....
..........
....
.............
......... FR s .............. .....
.........
.. ............
........... FS s ............
...........

......
.. ..

w : desired value ( ): ontroller

FR s
y: a tual value (to be ontrolled) ( ): ontrolled system
FS s
u: ontrol signal, u: input of the ontrolled system
e: ontrol deviation ( ontrol error)
z: disturbane

Transfer fun tions inside a losed loop:

w .................
..............
..............
..
..
...............
.
......
e ...........
............
()
Fv s
y .............
......... E =W


F F E
| v{z }r
.
.
.. ..
Fo

()
Fr s ..
... ..
............... E + Fo E = W
E = 1 +1 Fo W Y = 1 +FvFo W
( ): transfer fun tion in the forward bran h
Fv s
( ): ir ular transfer fun tion (open loop)
Fo s

For the above losed loop it results:

 Nominal value transfer fun tion: Z s ( ) = 0

FW s ( ) = WY ((ss)) = 1 F+RF(sR)(s
)FSF(Ss()s)
 Disturban e transfer fun tion: W s ( ) = 0

FZ s ( ) = YZ ((ss)) = 1 + FFRS(s()s)FS (s)

49
PID- ontrol algorithms

Control algorithm:
 Z 
( ) = KR

u t () e t
|{z}
+ T1 () +
e t dt TV
()
de t
N | {zdt }
Proportinal |
Integral
{z }
Derivative
part part part
(P part) (I part) (D part)

Lapla e transformation:
 
U (s) = KR 1 + 1 + TV s
E (s)
TN s

Complex transfer fun tion of the PID- ontroller:

 
FR s ( ) = KR 1 + TN1 s + TV s

FR s ()
............
........ D-part
w
P-part
... ...
.....
..
ontrolled y
system
......... ...........
............... .....
............. .....
........
.
............
......... KR ............
..........
............... .....
.............. .....
.........
....
..........
...........
............
.........
..... .
.. ... ... ..

............
......... I-part

Spe ial forms:

P- ontroller: ( ) = KR 
FR s  only P-part is available
PI- ontroller: FR (s) = KR 1 + 1 D-part is missing
TN s
PD- ontroller: FR (s) = KR (1 + TV s) I-part is missing
50
Implementation of the ontrol unit at a te hni al PT1 -system:
1. Implementation of a P- ontroller:

u
.. ..
w u .....
....
KS y
+
........... ..............
................. .....
.............. ....
..........
.............
........... KR ................
............... .....
..........
. ............
..........
s a
.............
..........
....
.....
.. ..

 Nominal value transfer dynami s:

KS

() = +a = KR KS
KR
s
s + (a + KR KS )
FW s
1 + KR s + a
Ks

shift of the pole of the ontrolled system onto a new pole lo ation
Im .
......
.....
....
..
..........
..... ........
..
s
..
..
. .
...
... ...
..... ..
...
...............

non- ontrolled: =
pppp p pppp p
pppp ppppppp q pppp ppppppp
......

Re
q
qq
q

.......
q
...
ppppppppq q
qq
q
qq
q
q pppppppp
pp q q
qq
qq pp

s1 a
q
q
pppppppp q q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q pppppppp
pppp ppppppp q
q pppp ppppppp
...
qq
.
q
pppp pppp
...... ........... ... .............
p p

ontrolled: = (a + KR KS )
.........
.

s1;ger a
... .
... ..
........ ............... ...
..... .............. ...............

(a + KR KS )
.......

The nominal value transfer fun tion FW (s) onsists itself of a

PT1 system, however with varied dynami s.
The dynami s of the losed loop an be in uen ed via the ontrol
gain KR.
Examination of the step response with Y (s) = FW (s)
W (s):
Initial value theorem: ( ! 0 ) = slim
y t + KR KS

1 =0
!1 s + (a + KR KS ) s
s

Final value theorem: ( ! 1) = slim

y t
KR KS

1 = KR KS
! s + (a + KR KS ) s a + KR KS
s
0

51
 )
( ! 1) = 1
w t
i.e. y (t ! 1) = KR KS ( ! 1) 6= y (t ! 1)
w t
a + KR KS

In steady state a
permanent ontrol error ( ontrol deviation) remains !

Example: steady-state
1 ontrol deviation
.
.......
....

()
.
.
.
.
.
.

Steady state ontrol error

.
. ......
w t
.
. ....
.
.

()
. .

3/4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
y t
.
9
.
.

KR = 3 =
...
.. . . . . . . . . qq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqq.qqqq.qqqq. .qqqq.qqqq. . .qqq.q . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . .
.
.
. qq
q
....
.
.
. q
q
q
q
q
q
qq
q
qq

3
qq
.
. q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
qq
q

.
.
q
q
qq

KS = 1 =
qq
.
. qq
q
q
q
q
q
. q

KR KS
q
.
.
q
q
q
q
q

4
q
.

+
q
q
.
. q
q
q
q
. q

0
. qqqqqqq
.
.

=1 ; a K K
. qqqqqq
.
R S
.
.
.
q
q
q
q
. q

0 1 2
q
.
.qqqq
q
q

a
q
q
.
. ......
.
. .......
....
q
.q
t

 Disturban e transfer dynami s:

KS

( )= s +a = s + (a K S
FZ s
1 + KR s + aKS + KR KS )
Disturban e step fun tion:
Initial value theorem: y t ( !0 )=0
+

Final value theorem: y t ( ! 1) = slim s

0
KS

1 = KS
! s + (a + KR KS ) s a + KR KS
= 14

In this ase, for the desired ...

...
...
.
. ..

(nominal) value it was 1 ontrol deviation

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

based on
.

presupposed w(t) = 0.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

disturban e
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

()
.

in steady state disturban- 1/4

.
.
.
.
.
.
. ....
.
.. . . . . . . . . . .qq.qqqqq.qqqqq.qqqq.qqqq.qqqq.qqqq.qqqq. q.qqq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .
y t
.
..
.
.
. q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q

es will not be ompletely

q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
. qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
.
.

0 1 2
.
. q
q
q
q
q
q
q
.qqqqqqqqq
.
q
q
qq
.....
.
. . ......
....
....
....
t
ompensated !

52
2. Implementation of a PD- ontroller:

u
... ..
w
(1 + TV s) u y
......
KS
+
...
........... ...........
............... ....
................ ....
...........
.............
........... KR ................. ....
.............. ...
..........
...........
...........
s a
.............
..........
..
.....
... ..

 Nominal value transfer dynami s:

(1 + TV s) sK+Sa
= s +Ka R+(1K+R (1TV+s)T
VKsS) KS
KR
FW (s) =
1 + KR (1 + TV s) s + a
Ks

= (1 + KRKKRSKTVS )(Ts V+s (+a +1) KRKS )

The pole is shifted to a new pole lo ation on the negative real axis.
Furthermore, a zero will ome up
pole: sP ol = 1 a++KKRKR KS TSV Im ..
.....
.....

..
....
........
...... .........
..
s
..
..
.. .
.. ..
.... ..
.....................

zero: sNSt = T1V

pppppppppppp
pppp p ppppp
pppp ppppppp ppp
.......

Re
pp pp
.........
pppppppp ppp p
pp pp
pppppppp pp
pp
pppp ppppppp pppp
pppppppppppppppp
pppp p

The dynami s of the losed loop is in uen ed by KR and TV .

Examination of the step response:
Initial value theorem: y (t ! 0 ) = slim s F (s)
1s = 1 + KR KS TV
KR KS TV +
!1 W
As KR, KS , TV > 0, it yields: 0  y(t ! 0 ) < 1 +

Final value theorem: y (t ! 1) = slim s FW (s)
1

s = a + KR KS
KR KS
! 0

In the steady state a permanent ontrol error remains !

53
 Example:
Steady state ontrol error steady-state
ontrol deviation
...
...
.
....
....
.

1 ()
.
.
..
.
.
9
KR = 3 >
.
. .....
. ......
w t
1
.
.
.
. .

( ! 0 ) = 3/4 ()
.
.
.
.
.

2
.
>
KS = 1 =
.
+
y t
.
Y t ..
.
.
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . q.qqqqqq.qqqq.qq.qqqq.qqqqqq. q.qqq.qqq.q .qqqq.qqqq.qqqq.qqq.q. . . . .qqqq. . . .qqqq. . . . .
.
.
. q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qqq
q
qq .
.....

1/2
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q
.
. qq
q
qq
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
.....
.
.
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq

=1 >
qq
qq
q
qq
q
. q
qq
qq
q
q
. q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
qq
.
.
. qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq

3
q
q
.
.
q
qq
q
q

a .
.

; Y (t ! 1) =
TV = 1
.
.
>
.
.

4
.
.
.

0
.
..

3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

0 1 2
.
. .........
.
.
. .......

 Disturban e transfer dynami s:

KS

() =
FZ s s+a
1 + KR (1 + TV s) sK+Sa
= (1 + KR KS TV )KsS+ (a + KR KS )

Disturban e step fun tion:

Initial value theorem: y (t ! 0 ) = 0
+

Final value theorem: y (t ! 1) = a + KKSRKS

the same dynami al behavior as with a P- ontroller,

however a slower time onstant.
In staedy state disturban es are not ompletely ompensated !
Result:
The ontrolled system of 1st order, whi h is ontrolled by a PD-
ontroller be omes \step enabled". The \adaptation" of the a tual va-
lue to its desired value is performed faster.

54
3. Implementation of a PI- ontroller:

u
(1 + TN1 s )
... ..
w u ......
KS y
+
...
........... ...........
............... ....
................ ....
...........
.............
........... KR ................. ....
.............. ...
..........
...........
...........
s a
.............
..........
..
.....
... ..

 Nominal value transfer dynami s:

 
KR 1 +
1 KS
s+a
FW (s) =  TN s 
1 + KR 1 + T1 s sK+Sa
N

= TN s (s +KRa)(T+NKs R+(1)TNKs S+ 1) KS

= TN s + TKNR(a(T+N Ks +RK1)S K S
) s + KRKS 2

For the losed loop in the left s-semi plane 2 poles ome up, whi h an
also be omplex.
Furthermore: 1 zero on the negative real axis

Im .
.....
......
...
..................
.... ...
Im .
.....
.....
...
....
..................
..
Im .
.....
.....
...
....
................
..
..
s s s
.. ... .... ....
.... .. ..
.... .. ..
....
. ..
....
..
.
...
... ... .. .... .... ... ...
....
................... ....... ......... ...... .........
...... ......
.... .... .... .... ........... .................. ........... ..........

Re Re Re
...... ........ .. .. ........... ....... ..
.... .....
....
.....
..
.... .... ....
. ....
.....
..
....
..
.... .... .... .... ............ ... ..............
.... ..... .........

.... ...
......
.... ....

or or
The dynami s of the losed loop in luding the periodi and/or aperiodi
behaviour is in uen ed by KR and TN .
Attention:
Overshoot an o ur when a PI- ontroller is implemented.

55
 Examination of the step response:
Initial value theorem: y (t ! 0 ) = slim s
FW (s)
1
s = 0
+
!1
Final value theorem: y (t ! 1) = slim s
FW (s)
1
s = KR KS = 1
KR KS
! 0

In the steady state, no permenent ontrol error o urs !

 Disturban e transfer dynami s:
KS

() = s +a 
1 + T1 s sK+Sa
FZ s
1 + KR
N

= TN s 2
+
TN KS s
TN a KR KS s ( + ) + KR KS
Initial value theorem: y (t ! 0 ) = 0 +

Final value theorem: y (t ! 1) = 0

Disturban es are ompletely ompensated in the steady state !
Result:
The system ontrolled with the PI- ontroller is robust against distur-
ban es. In the steady state there are no permanent ontrol deviations.

Spe ial ase:

Dynami balan e: Choi e: TN = a1 Im .
......
......

pole of ontr. syst.s

.........
...... .........
... ..
.. ..
..
.... ..
... .... ..

FW (s) =
.. ..... ....
................
KR KS ...

s + KR KS
..
pppp p pp ppppppppppp pp
pppp pppppp ppppppp
pppp
pppp ppppppp ..........

Re
pp
pp pppp ppppppp
ppp ppppppppppppp ppp
....
ppppppp
pppppp pp pppp pppp p
pppp ppppppp pppp pppppp
pppp pppp pppppppp pppppppppp
pppp p
.... pp ppppppp
.....
..... ....

by ontroller
..... ..

pole of the ontrolled system is ompen-

. .

sated by the zero of the ontroller.

nominal value step w(t) 1 disturb. step an ellation
........ ...
......... ....
.. ..

1
..
..
..
...

y (t) of disturban e
.. ..
..
....
q
qq
qqq
q
q q
q
qq
qqq
q
qq
q
qq
q q
qq
q qq
q q
qqq
q
q q
q
q q
qqq q
q
qq q
q
qq
qq
.. qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q q
q
qq

....
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q q
q
qq
q
.. qq
q
qq
qq
q q
q
q
qq
q q

...
q
qq
q
q q
... q
qq
q
qq
qq q
q
q

...
q
qq
q
q q
q
.. q
q
q
q
q q
q

...
q
q
qq q
q
.. q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q q
q
q
q
.. ..
.. q
q
q
q
q
q
q q
q
q
q
.........
..
..........
q
qq q
q
qq
q q
q
... q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q q
q
q
q
.....
.. q
q q
q
q
qq q
q
q

z (t) y (t)
.. q
q q
q
q
q q
q
q
.. qq q
q
q
q
q q
q
... qqqqqqqq
q
q
q
q
q
.. qqqq q
q
q
q

0
.. qqqq q
q

0
q
q
.. qqq q
q
q
q

.... qqqqqq
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

.... qqqqq
qq
q
qqq
q
q q
q
q
q q
qq
q
q q
q
qq qq
qq q
q

0 1 2
q
q q
q
qq
q q
q
..qqqqq
q qq
q
q q
q q
qq
q q
q
q
q qq
q q
..... q

...qqq .........
q qq
qq
q q
q

......
q
q
....
qq

12 t
q

............
q q
q
q q

0
q q
qqq
q
qq
qq
qq
qq
qqq
q q
q
q q
q
qq
qq
qqq
q q
q q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
qqq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qqq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qqq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
q
q
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q q
qq
qqq
qqq
q
q

t
q qq
qq
qq
qq
q q
q
qq
qq
q
q qq
q

6
q
q qq
q
qq
q q
q
qq
qq
q q
qq
q
q q
q
qq
q
qq
q q
qq
q
qq
qq
q

56
4. Implementation of a PID- ontroller:

u
(1 + TN1 s + TV s)
... ...
w e u ....
....
KS y
+
........... ..........
................ ..... ................. .....
............... ...
...........
..
.............
........... KR ................ ....
..........
............
..........
s a
.............
..........
.....
.. ...

step response for e(t) = (t) q

q
q
...
......
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
u t () .........
.........
.........
..
.........

.........
q
qq
q
q
q q
qq
q

........
q q
qq
q
q q
qqq
q
q
q
..
..
...
..
...
qq
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q

t
q
q
q
q
q
...
......
q
....................................
q
q
q
....

 Nominal value transfer behavior:

TV s2 + s + T1
() = 
1 +T s  N 
+ K K + 1 s + T1
FW s
2
a
V
K K
R S R S N

Initial value theorem: 1 V + T = 1 +VTV RKRSKS

T T K K
( !0 ) =
Y t +

v
KR KS
system step apable; this results from D-part
Final value theorem: Y (t ! 1) = 11=T =TN
N
=1
no permanent ontrol error in steady state !
 Disturban e transfer dynami s:
1
s
FZ (s) = 
KR
1 + T  s +  a + 1 s + 1 2
V
KR KS KR KS TN
Initial value theorem: Y (t ! 0 ) = 0 +

Final value theorem: Y (t ! 1) = 0

In steady state disturban es are ompletely ompensated !
Result:
The PID- ontroller unites the aÆrmative qualities of the PD- ontroller
(speed) with those of the PI- ontroller (no steady state ontrol deviation,
robustness against disturban es).
57
Survey: Control deviations in steady state

ontrolled system ontroller nominal value disturban e

step ramp step

P yes 1 yes
steady state
P-dynami s PD yes 1 yes
a +:::
KS
b +:::
0
0
PI no yes no
PID no yes no

Regarding steady state ontrol deviations and robustness against distur-

ban es, it is obvious that for example in the ase of a PT2 ontrolled system
the losed loop behaves similar as in ase of a PT1 ontrolled system.

58
The stability of ontrol ir uits
Denition of stability:

A system is stable, if it remains in its idle ondition, as long as

it is not stimulated from the outside and if it returns to its idle
ondition in ase that all external stimulations are an elled.
Methods for determinig stability:

 Hurwitz riterion
(algebrai riterion)
 Method of root lo us
(based on the adjustment of the ontrol gain KR of a P- ontroller)
 Geometri al methods
{ Nyquist riterion
{ Bode diagram
Geometri al methods are normally used in the ase of the existen e of
time shift elements in the losed loop

59
Hurwitz riterion
Starting point:
Complex transfer fun tion of the losed loop
bn sn + : : : + bo
FW (s) =
1

an s + an sn + : : : + a s + ao
1
n 1
1 1

Chara teristi equation of the losed loop:

an sn + an sn + : : : + a s + a = 0
1
1
1 0

Hurwitz riterion:

A linear system of nth order ( losed loop) is stable, if all oeÆ-

ients of its hara teristi equation and the following n determi-
nants are of values higher than zero:
D1 > 0
D2 > 0
:
Dn > 0

with
D ..
1 D ....
2 D3 ....
.. ..... .......
.. ..... ........
.......

0
... ..... .. ......
.........
.
. .
.
............ ............
.
a1 a3 a5 a7 :::
a0 a2 a4 a6 ::: 0 (elements ai
= 0 a a a 1 3 5 ::: 0 with i > n
Dn
0 a a a 0 2 4 ::: 0 are set to ai = 0)
: : : : :
0 0 0 0 ::: an

It follows for a ...

 ontrol system of 1st order: 0 = 0:::1
ai > ; i
 ontrol system of 2nd order: ai > 0; i = 0 : : : 2
 ontrol system of 3rd order: ai > 0; i = 0 : : : 3 and a1 a2 ao a3 > 0
in ase of high order systems: large omputation time
) the Hurwitz riterion is suited for ontrol systems of low order.
60
The root lo us pro edure (german: WOK)

Closed loop with P- ontroller:

w ..........
................. ....
.............. ....
...........
....
....
.............
........... KR
u .............
.......... ()
FS s
y ............
..........

.. ..

Task:

Outgoing from the poles and zeros of the open ontrol ir uit,
whi h are determinated by FS (s), as well as from KR , the dyna-
mi al behaviour of the losed loop shall be analyzed.
ontrolled system : FS s( ) = NZ ((ss))

losed loop: FW s( ) = 1K+RK
RFFS S(s()s) = N (sK)R+
KZ R(sZ) (s)

Chara teristi equation of the losed loop:

( ) + KRZ (s) = 0
N s

Spe ial ases:

KR =0 ( )=0
N s

KR ! 1 undened
With KR = 0 (open loop) the hara teristi equation of the
\ losed loop" is determined by the poles of the open loop;
In the ase of KR ! 1 no denite statement an be set.

61
 UNIVERSITY OF SIEGEN
DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL ENGG. AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
Institute for Control Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Mayr
Basi Control
Rules for the Constru tion of the Root Lo us
1. The n bran hes of the root lo us begin for KR = 0 in the n poles of
the open loop.
They end for KR ! 1:
(a) m bran hes end in the m zeros of the open loop
(b) n m bran hes end in innity.
2. The root lo us is symmetri al to the real axis.
3. A point on the real axis belongs to the root lo us, if on its right side
on the real axis an odd number of ru ial points of the open loop are
lo ated.
Su h ru ial points are poles and zeros.
4. The asymptotes of the root lo us bran hes moving to innity meet
themselves in the root fo al point, whi h is lo ated on the real axis. Its
postition is
n
X m
X
Re s Re s
Æ = pole

n m . zero

The in linations of the asymptotes of the root lo us are

'i = (2i + 1) n  m with i = 0; 1; : : : n m 1.
5. One re eives the bran hing points, whi h are dierent from the ru ial
points of the root lo us, from
Pm
s s
1 Pn
s s
1 =0
zero pole

6. If in a bran hing point of the root lo us, on whi h no ru ial point is

lo ated, meet r bran hes (with 2 r urve pie es), then the value of the
utting angle of neighbouring urve pie es is

= r .

62
Example: System of 3rd order with 1 zero
FS (s) = s+1 = (s + 2) (ss ++ 13)(s + 5)
s + 10 s + 31 s + 30
3 2

zero: szero; = 1
1 m=1
poles: spole;l = 2 n=3
spole; = 3
2
spole; = 5
3

Rule 1:
3 bran hes begin in the 3 poles
1 bran h ends in the zero
2 bran hes end in innity.
Rule 2:
Symmetry to the real axis
Rule 3:
Curve pie es on the real axis within

the areas:
2    1; ! = 0 with
5    3; ! = 0 s =  + j!
Rule 4:
Root fo al point:
Æ=
2 3 5 ( 1) = 9 = 4; 5
3 1 2
In lination angle: o
'i = (2i + 1)  ; i = 0; 1 ' =  ' = 3
2 2 0
2 1

Rule 5:
Bran hing point:
1 1 1 1 =0
s+1 s+2 s+3 s+5
9
s  4:07 =
1
s  0; 05
hoi e:
s  4:07
2
s  2:37
; 1
3

(rule 5 often only numeri al solvable!)

Rule 6:
2 bran hes
= 2

63
Constru tion of the root lo us:

..
.. ! .....
.....
... ..
.. ..
q
..qqqqqqq
.qqqqq
....qqqqqq
q
q
q

q
q
q
q

....qqqqqqq
q
q
q

4
q
...qqqqqq
.qqqqq
..qqqqqq
.qqqqq
... qqqqqqq
. qqq
.. qqqqqq
.. qqqq
q
q
. qqqqqq
.. qqqqqqqq

3
... qqqqqqq
. qqq
.. qqqqqq
. qqqq
.... qqqqqq
q
q
q

q
q
q
q

.... qqqqqqqq
q
q
q

q
q
. qqqq .....................
... qqqqqqqq .... ...
.. qqqqqqqq ... ..
... ..

2 s
. qqqqq .
.
... ..
... qqqqqq .. ..
. qqqq .... ..
.. qqqqqqqqq ........ ..........
.....
. qqqqq
... qqqqqq
q
q
q

qq

....
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
.qqqq
... ....qqq.qqq..
. .. qqqqq...
... .... qqqqqqqq....
. .. qqqqqq ...

1
. qqq .
.... qq
q
q
q
q
q
q
... q
q
qq
q
. q
................................qqqq.qq.....
q
qq

.......
.
. .. . ...... ..................................qqqq.qq. ..........
.
..... ...... .....
..... ....
q
... .
q
q
q
q

'
. ...
q
..... ...
....
q
q
q
.... ....
q
q

...
q
q
q
... ...
q

0 ....
q
...
q
qq
q
q
q ... ..
...
q
q

.
qq
q
q .. ..
. ..
q
q
q .. ..
... ..
q
.. ..
q
q
... ...
q

...
q
q
q
q
q
. .. ... .......
q
...... . q
......qqqqq.q......
q
......
...
q
..
. .
. . .... .. .. ....... ...... pppppppp
pppppp pppppppp
pppp
pppp pppppp
...... . .... qqqq...... pppp
pppp pp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp ppppppp
p
pppp
...... pppp
............
....
p pppp ppp
.qqqqqqqqqqqq.q..qq..q.qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqppqppqppppqppqppqpppqppqpppppppppppp
pppp ppppp pp
pppp pppp
. .
. .
.
pppp pppp
ppp
pp pp
...
........... ........ qq....... ............
ppp q ppp
p pq
qq q
qq
qqq qqqqqq
qqq
qq
qq
qq
qq
qq
qqqqq
qqq
qq
qqq
qqq
qq
q
q q
q
qqq
qq qq
q
qq
qq
q
qqqq
q
qq q
q
qq
qq
q
qqq
qqq
qq
qqq
qqq q qq
qqq
qq
qqq
q
qqq
qqq
qq
q
qqqq
q
qqq
q
qqq
q
qq
q
qq
qqq q
q
...... pppppppp
.. ppp
.....
pp p
p
.. pppp
p p
ppp pppppp
q
pp pppp p
pppp
pppp
pppp
pp
pp
. .....
pppp pppp
... pppppp
pppp
ppp .
... .............. ...... pppp
pppp
pp pppp
pppp
p
ppp
pppp ppp
ppppppppppppppppppp
... ..... .. .... .....

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1
..
Æ
... q
q
q
q
q

.. q
q
q
q
... ... q
q
q
q
q


q
.. . q
q
q
.... ... q
q
q
q
.... .
q
q
q
q
.... q
q
q
q
..... .
q
q
q
q
q
..... .
.
q
q
q
...... q
q
q

-1
................ q
q
q
......... q

...............
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
.. q
q
q
q
q
. q

'
q
q
q
qq
q
q
.. q
q

1 ..
qq
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
... q
q
q
q
. .. qqqqqqq ...
q

. q .
.... .... qqqqqqq....
q

.. qqqq..
.. qq.
.... ....qqqqq.q.

-2
q
q
... q
q
q
q
q
q
q
. q
q
q
q
q
q
q
... qq
qq
q
. qqqqqqq
q
.. qqqqqqq
. qqqq
.. qqqqqqq
q

.. qqqq
q
q
. qqqq q
q

.. qqqqqqqq
.. qqqqqqq

-3
.. qqqq
q
.. qqqqqqqq
q

. qqqqq
... qqqqq
q
q
q

q
q
q

... qqqqqqq
q
q
q
q

q
q
. qqq
... qqqqq
q
.. qqqqqqq
. qqqqq

-4
.. qqqqqq
. qqqqq
.. qqqqqqqq
. qqqqqq
... qqqqq
q
q

q
q
q
.. q
q

64
Geometri methods to analyse stability
The Nyquist riterion
The lo us of a omplex system:
Derivation from the omplex transfer fun tion Fo(s) of the open loop
e x
omplex transfer fun tion .............
.........
............
.........
.
.
.
.
.
ppp
pp
pp
ppp
pp
ppp
pppp
ppp ppppp
ppp pp
pp
pp
ppp
ppp
ppp
ppp
pp
pp pppp
ppp
pp
ppp
pp
pp
ppp
ppp
ppp
ppppppppp
ppp pppp
pp
pp
pp
ppp
ppp
ppp
pp
ppp
ppp
?
p
. pp
ppp pp
ppp
pp
p
. pp
ppp pppp
pppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppp . ppppppppppppp
ppppp
ppppppppp
pppp
pp . ppppppppppppppp
pp.
ppppppp pp p
ppppppp
ppppppp ppp
p pppppp
ppppppp pp
pppppppppp.
ppppppppppppp
pppppp .
pppppppppppppp
ppp pppppppppp
ppp
ppp p ppppppp ppp
pppppp pp ppppp
pppppp pppppp
ppppppppp ppp pppppp
ppppp ppp pppppp
pppppppppppppppppp pppppp
pp

input signal e(t): onstant os illation

output signal x(t): onstant os illation with varied
amplitude and phase-delay
 Lo us of a PT1 -element:
Complex transfer fun tion:
Fo (s) = s K+a
Due to the onstant os illation: s = j!
Fo (j! ) = K = j!K+ a
aa j! = K aa +j!
j! + a j! ! 2 2

Separation into real and imaginary

9
part:
Re (Fo(j!)) = a Ka > From this
+! > =
results the lo us 2 2

> with ! as
Im(Fo(j!)) = a K! +!
>
;
independent variable 2 2

! = 0 : Re (Fo(j!)) = Ka Im(Fo(j!)) = 0
! = 1 : Re (Fo (j! )) = 0 Im(Fo(j!)) = 0

65
 By the al ulation of further base points the onsidered lo us results
to a semi ir le:
......................
..... ....
.... ..
... ...

Im
..
.... .. ..
......
... ...
..
...
...
...
Fo ...
..
..
..
..... ..
........................
.

.
.
.................... K .............
...........
.
.
.

a
.
.
.
.
. ...........
...... ... .
.pppp ..
..........

Re
pp
ppp
......
p
pppp
pp .
..
pppp
...... pp .
pp
pp pppp
pp p p
...... .. p .
pp .
...... .........
'o
p pp pp
p pp pp pp .
p
pp pp p
pp ppp ppp
...... .. ...... pp ..
pp pp p
......... pp
p ..
pp
pp ......
p
pp
pp
...
pp
...... ...

!=0
pp pp
pp
...... pp
pp ...

ro
pp
pp ...... p
pp ...
pp
pp ...... pp
p
..
pp
pp ...... p
pp
...
pp
...... pp
pp
p
.
pp
ppp ...... pp
ppp
pp
ppp ...... pp
ppp
ppp
......

lo us
ppp ppp
ppp
pppp ...... ...pppp
ppp
pppp
...... pppp
ppp ..
...... ...
pppp
pppp pppp
ppp
pppp
pppp ...... pppp
ppp ....
pppp
pppp .......... pppp
pppp
pppp ..........
.......................... .
pppp p
pppp pp
p
pppp
ppppp ppppp
ppppp
..
ppppp pppp
....
pppp
ppppp ppppp
ppppp

....
ppppp
ppppp pppppp
pppppp pppppp
. .....
ppppppp pppppp
ppppppp pppppp

..........
ppppppp ppppppp
ppppppppp ppppppp
ppppppppp
....................
ppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppp pppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp

 Lo us of an integrator:

( ) = 1s mit s = j!
Fo s
1
Fo (j! ) = 1 = j !
j!

Re (Fo(j!)) = 0
Im(Fo (j!)) = !1
! = 0 : Im(Fo(j!)) = 1
! = 1 : Im(Fo (j! )) = 0

Im
.......................
. ..... ....
....... .... ...
... .. .. ...
.. .. ...
Fo
.
. ..
.. .
..
...
... ....
.
....
..... ......
.
...................
............
.
..........

Re
ppp
ppp
pp pp
p p
..
pp pp
..

=1
pp ppp
p
pp
pp
pp
pp ..
..
!

....
.....
... ..

lo us
.....
...
.....
.......
.........
..

66
 Lo us of a time shift element:

( ) = e sTt mit s = j!
Fo s
Fo (j! ) = e j!Tt = os !Tt j sin !Tt
| {z } | {z }
Re ) -Im
Re (Fo(j!)) = os !Tt
ir le with radius=1 (unit ir le)
Im(Fo(j!)) = sin !Tt
Im .
......
... .
.. ...

..
..
....
.....
........................
....
..
...
.
.
..
...
...
Fo ..
.
..
...
....
..... ..
....
.....................
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppp ppppppppp
pppppppppp ppppppp
ppppppp ppppppp
pppppp pppppp
pppppp ppppp
ppppp ppppp
pppp
ppppp pppp
ppppp
pppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp

=0
pp
p pppp
ppp pppp
pppp ppp
p
p pppp pppp
pppp
p
ppp ppp
ppp pp
ppp

!
ppp
p pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp .
pp
pp
p
pp .
p
p
pp
pp .
..
pp ppp
pp pp
pp
..
pp
ppp pp
p
ppp pp
ppp ...........
ppp
.
..........

Re
ppp pp
ppp pp
pp pp
p pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp p
pp pp
p
pp pp
pp pp
pp ppp
pp p
pp pp
pp pp
pp pp
pp ppp
pp pp
ppp ppp
.
ppp
..
ppp
pppp
pppp pppp
pppp
pppp
..
pppp

...
pppp
pppp pppp
ppp
p

....
pppp p
p
ppppp ppppp
pppp
........
ppppp
ppppp pppp
ppppp ppppp
ppppp
.
!
ppppp
pppppp
pppppp
ppppp
..
...
.
.................
ppppppp
ppppppp ppppppp
ppppppppp ppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp

 Lo us of a PT1 Tt -element:
(serial onne tion of a PT - and a time shift element) 1

sTt
( ) = Ke
Fo s s+a mit s = j!
Im
..
.
....... .......... ..............
..... ...
... .. ... ...
.. .. .. ...
..
Fo
.
. ..
.
... .
.. ...
... ....
....
...... .......
................

pppp
pppp
pppp
ppppp
pppppp
pppppp
pppppppp
ppppppppp
pppppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppp
pppppp
ppppp
pppp
ppppp
pppp
ppp
pppp
...
.................
...
lo us with time shift element
!=0
pppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppppp ppp
ppp
p
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
pppp
p ppp
p
ppp pp
pp pp
p
ppp pp
pp .
pp
pp ppppppppppppppppppppppppp pp .
pp
pp
pppp
ppppppp
p ppp pp .
..
ppp pp
pppp ppppp
p ppp
p pp
pp ppp pp
ppp
ppp ppp ppp

..
pp
p pppp pp
p p
pp
ppp
pp pp pp
pp pp ppppppppppppppp pp
p
p
pp
p p
pp
p
p p
p pp ppppppp
ppp ppp
............
..........

Re
p p pp
pp
p
pp
p ppp p
pp pp pppppppppp
p
p p
p
p pp pp
p ppp ppp
p
p p ppp ppp pp
pp
pp ppp ppppppp pppp pp
pp pppppppppppppppp p pp ppp
p
p pp pp
p
p
ppp pppp
p ppp
p
ppp p p pp
pppp
p ppp ppp pp
pp p pppp ppp pppp ppp
p
p ppp ppp
p pppp p p
p pppp
p p pp ppppp ppppp
p ppp
pp pp pp ppppppp pppppp pp
pp pp pppp
ppppppppp
pppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppp ppp
p
p p
pp
pp ppp pp
pp pp pp
pp pp pp
p pp pp
pp pp
ppp pp
pp
pp ppp
ppp pp
pp ppp
pp pp
pp
ppp pppp
p
ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp pppp
ppp ppp
pppp .
....
ppp
ppp
ppp pppp
ppp
....
ppp ppp
ppp pppp
....
ppp
pppp p
ppppp
p

....
ppp pp
pppp pppp
pppp
....
ppp
pppp pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp pppp
ppppp
...
..
...........
ppppp

!
ppppp ppppp
ppppp
................
ppppp
ppppppp
....
pppppp
ppppppp pppppp
ppppppppp pppppppp
pppppppppppp pppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppppp ppppppppppppppp
ppppp pppppppppppppppppppppppppppp

67
Examination of stability of the losed loop based on the lo us of the open
ontrol ir uit Fo (s):

Transfer dynami s of the losed loop:

FW s( ) = 1 +FvF(so()s) (Fv = forward bran h)

here Fv (s) = Fo(s)
Chara teristi equation:
1 + Fo (s) = 0 with s = j!

Os illatory ondition: Fo j! ( )= 1

{1
.....
.... .........
................. ................. ................. ................
.... ...
... ...

( )
........
..... .......
... ...
...
..
.... ..
.................
..
.............
.......... Fo j! ...........
............
....
....
.
.
. ..

An os illation maintains itself by the double negation in this

system.
Due to the frequen y dependen y of Fo (j!) this issue applies
normally at the most for one spe i !.
The os illatory ondition an be only fullled for a spe i !, if the lo us of
the open loop Fo passes through the ru ial point -1.

68
Example:

...
.....
... ... Im
rui ial ...
.....
....................
....
..

point
..
Fo
...
..
.
... .
..
...
.... ....
...... ........ .
... ..........
..

=0
..
..
..
!
... ppppp
pppppppp
pp ppppppppppppppppppp
ppp pppppp
.. pp pppp

..
ppp ppp
pppp
.. pppp
ppp
ppp
ppp
.. ppp

..
pppp ppp
ppp ppp
.. pppppppp pp

..
pp
.. ppppp pp
pp
.. pppp .. ............

Re
pp
. .
.....p.

-1
pp
.........
p p
pp p
p
p pp
p
p p
pp
p
p ppp
p
p
p pp
pp pp
p
p
p pppp
p
p ppp
p
p
p
pp pp
p
pp pp
p
pp pp
pp pp
pp ppp
pp p
ppp pp
pp pp
ppp pp
ppppp ppp
p
ppppppppp ppp
ppppp ppppp ppp
pp ppp pppp ppp
p ppp ppppppp pp
p pppp
pp ppppp
p pppp pppp
p
p pppp ppp
pp pppp ppppp
p
ppp

!
ppp
ppp pppp
pppp ppp
pppp ppp
ppp ppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp
ppp pppp
pppp pppp
ppppp
pppp
ppppp pppppp
pppppp

lo us
ppppp pppp
pppppp ppppp
pppppppp ppppppppp
pppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppp ppppppppppppppppppppppppppp ..
...
..............
..

Otherwise, one must distinguish between the two following ases:

damping
.. ..
....
.....
... .. Im ...
....................
..... ....
..
ampli ation Im .
. .
.
...
.......
... ..

...
.....
.....................
....
.. .. .. .. .
. .
. ..
..
..
...
.
..
...
.
ppppppppppp

..
pppppppppp
pppppppppp
ppppppppppp
pppppp
ppppppppp
....
...
...
.....
Fo ....
..
.
.. pppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppppp
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
....
..
....
Fo ....
..
...
.. .. ..................... .
. .
. .....
..................
.
... ... .
.
. .
.
.
. . . .

=0 =0
.... .... .
.
.
.
.
.
.
. ppppppp
pppppppppppppp pppppppppppp
pppppp
ppppp
pppppp

! !
ppppp pppp
.. .. .
. . ppppp
.ppppppppp
pppp
ppp
.. .. . .
.. . pppppppppp.
ppp
ppp
ppppppppppppppppppppp ppp
ppppp
... ... pppppppppppp
pppp
pppp
ppp . . pppppppppp .
. .
ppp
pp
.
. . ppppp
pppp
ppp . . pppp .
. . ppp
.
..
pp pp
ppp
pp
pp p pp .
.. ....ppppppp
pp
............ . pp
. pp
. ..........

Re Re
pp pp
..
p ppppppppp .
.ppppppp . .
pp
ppppppp
. ............
pp
.
pp
.........
p pp
pppppppppp pp pppp ppppp
p p p pppppp
p p
p p
p
p p ppp pp
p
p pp pp pp
p
p
p pp ppp
pp
pp p

-1 -1
pp pp
pp p p
p
pp pp pp
pp ppp ppp
pp pp pp pp
p pp pp pppp
pp p
ppp pp p
pp
pp ppp pp
pp
pp pp ppp pp
pp
pp ppp pp pp
pp pp
pp ppp pp pp
pp ppp pp
pp
ppp pp ppp pp
pp
ppp pp ppp pp
ppp pp pp pp
ppp pp pppp pp pp
ppp pp ppppp ppppppp pp
pp pp
ppp ppppppppppppppppppppp pp

!
ppp p pp pp pp
pppp p
ppppp pp pp
pppp pppp pp ppp
ppppp pppp ppp pp
ppppp ppppp ppp ppp
ppppp pppppp pp
ppppppp ppppppppp
pp ppp
pppppppppp pppppppppp
ppp ppp
pppppppppppppp ppppppppppppppppppp pp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp pp pppppp
ppp pp
ppp p ppp
ppp pp pppp
ppp ppp pppppp pppp
ppp p pp p
ppp pp ppp ppppppp
pppppppppppppppp

!
ppp
ppp ppppp
ppp pppp
ppp pppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp
pppp pppp
ppppp pppp
pppp ppppp
ppppp ppppp
ppppp ppppp
pppp
pppp pp
pppppppp
p
p
pppppp ppppppp
ppppppp pppppppp
pppppppppp ppppppppp
pppppppppppppppp ppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppppppppppppp

Thus, on a ount of this graphi explanation the Nyquist Criterion an be

formulated as follows:
The losed loop is pre isely then stable, if the moving beam o-
ming from the ru ial point -1 and going to the lo us Fo(j!)
des ribes an anglular hange of

' = (2nr + ni) 2 ,
while the end point of the beam is moving along the lo us with
0 < ! < 1;
nr : amount of the poles with positive real part
ni : amount of the poles on the imaginary axis

69
Example: stable PT -element for Fo(j!) 3

nr = 0
ni = 0

' al = (2
0 + 0) 2 = 0

low ontrol gain high ontrol gain

.....
.....
... .. Im ...
.....
....................
....
..
......
... .. Im ....
..........
....... .........
...
..
..
.. .. ...
...
.....
Fo Fo

'graph = 2
.. .
... .
.. .. ..
... .. ..
... ...
.... ... .... ...
........ .......... .
....................
..
......

.......p.pp.pp
pppppppppppppppppppp

............pp.p.pp.p.p
..... ..ppppp .......... ...
ppppp
pppp pppp
pp
............pppppppp
............... ppppppp

'graph = 0 .
..
.
..
....
....
.....

ppp.
p ..
pp .
p
pp ..
............ pppppppppppppp.pp..p.. pppppppppppppppppppppp
......... pppppp.pp.pp.p.pp.pp.pp.pp....................
ppp
ppp
ppp

....... ......
pp.
ppp
ppp
pppp

.............. ..........................
.........
.... .....
.
pppppp pppppp

ppp
ppp

............................ ppppppp
ppp

.................ppppppp
pp

pp
! =0 .
.
.
..... ......ppppp.....
pp
pp
... ................ .. ............pp.pppppppp.pppppppp
................................................ppp.pppp.............................................................ppp
p
............ppppppppppppp ............ ............

Re Re
p
p
.
. pp
p
p
. . . ............pppp.ppp
..........pppppppppppp ......... .. . . ................. .......... .......... ppppppp ........
pp
............... .pppp.............. ...
p
p

........ .....ppp. .............. ... ppp

pp
.. . ...................... ..
.. . . .... .........
ppp
........pppppp........ .............. ..
... .. ...... .......... ... .......................
pp pp
pp pp p
.............. ..

-1 -1
ppp
... ...p.ppp. ...... .............
pp
..
pp
... .. ............
pp
.. ...... .............
pp
.... pppp.... ....... .............. ... pp
.... pppp .
p
p. ............
ppp
ppp
... ppp ..... ...... ...... .
pp
.................... pppppppp ..... ppppppp. ........ ....... ............ pp
...... ..... ..pp.p....... .
pp
...ppp .... ........pp...pppppp . ...... ...... ............ ppp
...... ....p.pp........... . pp
...ppppp .... ...... .
........... ... .. . .. . . ..... .. .... ..............
pp
pp
...pppp ..... ......
pp
p pp pp
p
.. ... ...... .............
p
p
pp
.pp. . pp pp
.......p.pp.p..pp.p.p.pp ........
pp pp
...... pp pppp pppp
pp ppp pppppppp
pp .
.. ... ..... ............ pp
pp
...... pppppppppppp
... ..... ............. .
!
pp pp
.......p.ppppp ..... .........
ppppppppp
pppp
pp
pp .. ... ...... ................. pppppppp
pp
..pppppp .... pppp ..
.........................ppppppppppppppp
pp
.......
pppp pp
pp
pp .
.... ...... ...............pp.pp.ppp
pp .. ... ......
pppp
. ppp.. .

lo us
ppppp
ppppp
.. . ...
.......... ppp.. . ... ..... pp
ppppppppppp.
p
...
ppppp p
p p
pp.
p pp p
pppppp pp
ppppppp
pppppppp.
p.
p.
pppppppppp p.p.pp.
.... ...... ppp
.p...pp.pppp
pp pppppppppppppppppppp ppp
... ...... pp ppp
ppp
ppp ... ..... pp ppp
pp pppp
ppp
ppp .... ..... pp pppp
pp pppp pppppp
ppp
... ...... pp pppp pppppppppp

!
ppp ppppppppppppppp
ppp
pppp ... ...... . ppp
pppp
ppp
pppp .... ......... p
pppp
pp
p
pppp
pppp ... ..................ppppppppppppppp
pppp
ppppp ... ppp
ppppp
.. ppppp
..............
pppp ppppp
ppppp ppppp
pppp pppppp
pppppp
ppppp
...... pppppppp
pppppppppppppp.
pppppppp
ppppppppppp
ppp.
ppppppppp
p. ppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppp ppppppppppppppppppppppppppp

onformity no onformity
of the angular relationship of the angular relationship
!stable !unstable

By the the omplian e of the os illatory ondition the stability borderline

ase would be realized.

70
The simplied Nyquist riterion:
Valid only for open loops:
 with ex lusively stable time onstants
 with not more than 2 integrators
Formulation of the simplied Nyquist Criterion:
The losed loop is then stable, if at the passage frequen y !D
through the unit ir le the phase-delay is ' > 180Æ.
Appli ation to the example:
1. Low ontrol gain:
unit ir le Im
..... .........
...... ...... .........
.... ..
.. ...

...................................
....
...
...
.....
Fo .
..
...
.
...
...... ..... ................

=0
..... ....
.... ....
....

180Æ
.. ....
!
. ..
. .. pppppppppp ppppppppppp ..
.. ppppppppppppp ... .
'>
pppp
. ... ..
pppp
. ppppppp ppp

Re ! stable
..
. p
pp
pp
.. .

-1
p
... pppppp ..
p pp
.......pp ...
.........
p
. pp
.
....... ..
pp
.. pppp .. . ..
... pppp ..
. . ...
p

...pppppp .......................
p
.
... .
.
pp
pp
...ppp.ppppp.pppp.pp..... .. ........ ......... .
.
pp
pp
. .... . . pp
.......pp ..
pp
....... . .p.pp.p
p p p
pp
...
'
pp
...... . p.pp.pp.p.pp.. ....
p
p
pp ppp
pp ppp
. ppp. .. .... pppppp pppppp

!D !
ppp .
ppp .
.....
ppppppppppppp
ppp .
....
ppp .
ppppp
ppp . .......... .
........ ppp
ppp

lo us
pppp
pppp
p . .. . ... .. ..
..
...
.. pppp
pppp
pppp
ppppp pppp
ppp
pppppp p
ppppppp
p
ppp
ppppppp
pppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppp
...
pppppp
pppppppp
pppppppppp
..........
.

2.
unit ir le Im
.
.... ...........
...... ..... .........
.... ..
..
Fo
..
.... .
.. ..
... ..
......
............. .................. ..... ...
...... ..... ..................

=0
.... ....
.... ....
....

= 180Æ
.. ...
!
... pppppppppppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppp ...
. .. .
!D ..pppppppppp ..
..
'
pppp

.pppppp . ppp
...

Re
p

! stability borderline
.
pp
.
..
pp
..

-1
..p.ppppppppppppppp
p pp

........pp ......
p pp
..
pp
p.
p
...pppppp .
....
p
.
... .. ......
...ppppp ...... . .. ppp

.ppppp.. .... .
.... ...
.
ppp
pp

'
p.
p.
....... ........ .. pp
pp
pp
p .
pp .
... .. ... .
. pp
pp
ppp .
pp . .. pp
.. ....
pp
pp .
ppp .
p
.. ....
p
pp
pp .
ppp .
p ppp
.... ....
pp pp
pp ppp
pp ..... .....
pp ppp p

!
pppppppppppppp
ppp
ppp ........ ....... ppppppppppppp
ppp
ppp
ppp .
.... . .. . . .. ...
..
..
...
.. ppp
pppp
ppp p pppp
pppp

lo us
pppp
pppp
ppppp p
pppppp
p
ppppp pppp
ppppp pppppp
pppppppp ppppppp
pppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppppppppp ...
...........
..

3. High ontrol gain:

unit ir le Im
.
.... .........
..... ..... .........
.... ..
... ..

..........................
....
..
...
Fo ....
...
.
..
......... ..... .....
................
.....
!D
=0
.....
..... ....
... ....
....

180Æ
........ ...
........ p.p.pp.p.p.ppppppppppppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppppp
.....pp.ppp.pppp.ppppp.p
..
... !
..
'<
ppp
p.. . .. ........ ppp
...
pp.
ppp
..
pp
p
.

Re
pp
..

! unstable
..
..
pp. . . . .
pp
pp . .....................pppppppp

-1
...
p
p p
pp .
pp p
. .. .. .......pp. .....
p .
pp .
p
pp .
... .. .......
p . . ... .. .. p
..
p ppp
p . .
p
....
'
p
. . ..
. .. pp
p . ..... ..... ..
p
p pp
pp .
p
p
p
p .. ..
.. ... ... ...
.. .. pp
pp
pp
pp .. .. pp
p
ppp ... ...
ppp
pp
pp
pp .... ....
p
p
ppp
ppp
pp .... ....
pp
ppp
pp
pp ..... ..... p ppp
ppp
......
.....................................
ppp
pp pp ppppp
ppp
ppp pp ppp
pp ppp ppppp
ppp pp pp pppppp

!
ppp ppppppppppppp
ppp p
ppp pppp
p
p
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
pppp pppp
ppp ppppp

lo us
pppp ppppp
pppp
ppppp pppp
pppppp pppp
ppppppp pppppp
pppppp
ppppppppppp
..
ppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppp pppppppppppppppppppppppp
..........
.. ...
.

71
The Bode diagramm

The frequen y response of a systems:

u x
ppp
pp
pp
ppppppppp
pp
pp pp
ppp
ppp
pppppppp
ppp pppp
pp
pp
...........
............ omplex transfer fun tion ..........
............

pp pp ppp
pp
ppp pp
ppp
pp
ppp ppp
pp
ppp
pp ppp
ppp
ppp
pp ppp pp
pp
ppp
ppp
ppp ppp
p
pp
ppp
p
pp ppp ppp
ppp pp
ppp ppppp
pppppppppp

The omplex transfer fun tion results in

Z (s)
Fo (s) = e sTt
N (s)

At the input onstant os illation: s = j!

Z (j! )
Fo (j! ) = e j!Tt
N (j! )

Nyquist riterion:
Splitting in artesian oordinates of the omplex plane
   
Fo (j! ) = Re Fo (j! ) + j
Im Fo (j! )

Bode diagram:
Splitting in polar oordinates r and ':
Fo (jw ) = r (! ) ej' ! ( )

with
r (! ) : radius
'(! ) : angle

72
Complex plane:

.
......
.. ..
Im
.......................
..... ....
... ...
..
..
.
...
...
...
Fo ...
..
..
..
..... ..
.....................
 
Im Fo (j!) .... .... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... .... .... p.ppp...p.p.p.pp.pp.ppp.pppp.p.
....

ppppp.
pppppp.

pppp pp
pppp
p
p
.
p
p p
... .......
pp.
p.
pp.
pppp pp
pppp ppp .
pppp pp . .
.
.p.....
pppppp . .
.

....
pppp
pppp
pppp
.
.
.
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
.
.
.
pppp
pppp
p
ppp
pppp
p
ppppp .
.
.
ppppp
p
.

( )
p
pppp
pp
p
pppp
pppp .
.
pppp
ppp
pppp .
.
p
ppp
p
p
.
r !
pppp
p
ppp
p
ppppp
.
.
p
pppp
pppp
p .
p
ppp
pppp .
.
p
ppp
pppp
p
ppppp
.
ppppp .
.
p
pppp
pppp
pppp
p
.
p
.

'( ! )
p
p pppp
pppp
p
ppp
p
.
.
p
ppp
pppp .
.
p
pp
.pp.pp..pp.p.ppp.p..
pppp
.
ppp .
p
p
.......... .
.
pppp
p
. .
p
ppppp . .. .
pppp
pppp
p
ppp
.. .
.
...

Re
pp
p
pppp
pppp
pppp
. .
.
p
pppp
pppp
p
p
.. .

 
pppp
p .. .
.
pppp
pppp
p
ppp
.
. . .....

Re Fo(j!)
. . ..........
p
pp
p
pppp .
.

Transformation of the oordinates:

r    
( ) = Re
r ! 2
( ) + Im
Fo j! 2
Fo j! ( )
 
Im Fo(j!)
'(! ) = ar tan
Re Fo (j!)
Other notation:  
amplitude: Fo(j!) = r(!)
phase: \Fo(j!) = '(!)
It results from
amplitude ! amplitude traje tory [dB℄
phase ! phase traje tory [Æ ℄
   
with ( ) [dB℄ = 20
log Fo(j!)
Fo j! 

73
Separate graphi al representation of the amplitude and phase traje tories:

Example: PT -dynami s 1

Fo (j! ) = 1 1
1 + 3 (j!) ! edge frequen y: !E = 3 s
1

Amplitude traje tory:

jFo (j!)j = jjNZ ((j! )j = p 1
j! )j 1+9 ! 2

Phase traje tory:

\Fo(j!) = \Z (j!) \N (j!) = ar tan(3 !)
Logarithmi graphi al representation:

.
....
....
.. .. jFo(j!)j [dB℄ .
.
.
.
.
.

0 dB
. . .
. . .

-3 dB
. . .
. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .qqqqqq...qq.qqqq.qqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq. . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
.
.
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq ...
. . . .
.qq.q.qq.q.qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
. q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
. .
. q
qq
qq
q
qq
q . .
. q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q . .
. . .
q
q
qq
qq

-10 dB
q
qq
q
qq
q
q

20 dB
q
q
qq
. q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq.qqqq .
. .qqqqqqqqqqqqqq .
q
qq
q

. . qqqqqqqqqqqqqq .
. . q
qq .

de ade
q
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .qqq.qqqqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .
. . q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq .
. . q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q .
. . .
q
qq
q
q
..
q
q
qq
. .
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
. ..
. .
.qq.qq.q.qqqqq
q
q
qq
q
. . .
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
.
q

-20 dB
q
. . q
qq .
. . .
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q
q
. . q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq .
. . .
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .
q
qq

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
q
qq
q
q
.
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q.
q
q
qq
q
q
. . . . . . . . . . .
q
q
. . qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q .
. . q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q .
. . qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q .
. . qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q .
. . q
q
qq
.q

-30 dB
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
. . q
q
qq
q
q
.qqqqqqqqqqq
q
. . . qqqqqqq
. . .
. . . ..........
.
.
.
.
.
. ........

10 1
!E 10 0
10 ![s ℄ 1 1

.
....
....
.. .. \F (j!) [Æ℄ o .
.
.
.
.
.

0Æ
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. .qqq.qqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqq.qqqqqqq.qqqqqq.qq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .
.
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq . . .
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q . . .
q
. . .

-45 Æ
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q . . .
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q.qq
q . .
.qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq . .
. .. . .

45Æ
.
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
.. . .
q

appr. de ade
. q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q . .
. q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q . .
. qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq . .

45Æ
qq
q
qq
. qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q . .
. q
qq
q
qq
q
q
.
..
..
.. . .
...............
q
qq
q
qq
q
. qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
.. .
..
.. . .
qq
q
qqq
qq
q
qq
q
q.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .qqqqqqq.qqqqqq. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .
q
q

. q
q
qq
q
qq
q . .
. qq
qqq
qq
q
qqq
qqqq . .
. qqq
qqq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q . .
. q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq . .
. q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q.qqqqqq .
. . qqqqqq
q
q
q
q
q .
. . qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq .

90Æ
. . q
qq
qq
q
qq .
. . qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
q .
. . q
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q .
. . q
q
qq
q
qq
.

90Æ
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
. . qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq .
. . q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q .
. . q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q .
. . qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq .qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq .........
.........
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
. . .
. . .

10 1
!E 10 0
10 ![s ℄ 1 1

74
Approximation by straight lines:

....
.....
... .. jFo(j!)j [dB℄ .
.
.
.
.
.

0 dB
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

approximation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pppppp...pp.pppp.pppp.ppppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.pppppp.ppppppp.pppppp.ppp . . . . . . . . .r rrrr.r
r
rrrrr
. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .
. .
ppppppppppppppppp r
rr
. ppppppppppppp
ppppppppppp
ppppppppp
r
rrrr
rrrrr
r
rr . .
. . .
pppppppppp rrrr
r
pppppppp r
rrr
rrrrr
. pppppppp
ppppppp
rr
rr
ppppppp r
rr
rr r
pppppp r
r
rr . .
. r
rrr
pppppp r rrr
rr
ppppppr r
rr . .
. r
pppppppr
rrr
. .

-10 dB
r

20 dB
pppprrr
ppprr
r
pppr
. .pr .
r
r rrr
p rr
pppppr
ppr
pr
pr
pr
pr
r
. .pr
pr pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
r
r
pr .
. . ppr pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
r
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr .
. . pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
r .

de ade
pr
pr
pr
pr
ppr
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .r pr
.pr
pr pr
pr
pr
pr
prp.
prpr
rpr
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
. . pr
pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr
ppr
pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr .
. . .
pr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
pr
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rpr
pr
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pr
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. . pr
pr
rpr
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pr
pr
pr
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pr
pr
pr .
. . .
rpr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
. . pr
pr
p
p
r
rpr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
pr .

-20 dB
pr
pr
. . .
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
r pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
. . pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr
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rppr
pr
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pr
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ppr
pr
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rpr
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pr
rpr
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pr .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .
pr
rpr
pr
pr

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pr
pr
pr
prp.
prpr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
pr.
pr
pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
. . . . . . . . . . .
pr
pr
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pr
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pr
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rpr
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p
r
pr
p
rp
r
pr
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pr .
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pr
pr
pr
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r
pr

-30 dB
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
ppr
pr
r
pr
. . pr
pr
pr
pr
.pr
pr pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
. . . ppr
r
r
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
rr
pp
pr
pr
pr
pr
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. . . ..........
.
.
.
.
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. ........

10 1
!E 10 0
10 ![s ℄ 1 1

.....
....
.. .. \F (j!) [Æ℄ o .
.
.
.
.
.

0Æ
. . .
. . .
. . .

approximation
. . .
.r
r.r
r
r
pr
pr.r
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rrr
r
pppr
pr.pr
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pppppp.
r
rrrrrr
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rrrrrrr
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rrrrrr
pppppp.
rrrr
r r
rrrrrrr
r.r
rrrrr.r
r rr
rrrr.r
rrrrr.r
rrrrr
r
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
.r
rrr
rrr.r
rrrrr.r
rrrrrr.r
r rrrrr.r
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r
r r
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r.r
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rrrr
. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .
.
pppppppppppppppppppp rrr
pppppppppppppp
ppppppppppp
pppppppppp
rrrrr
rrrr
rrrrr
rrr . . .
pppppppppp
pppppppp
rr
r rrr
rrrrr
rr
rrr . . .
ppppppppp
pppppppp r
rrr
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r
ppppppp r
r rr
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ppppppp r rrrr
ppppppppr rr
rrrrr
pppppppprrrr .
ppppppp.r
. .
rrr
rrrrr
pppppr . .

45Æ
r
r
r
rr
rr
.ppppppprrr
pppr
rr
pprrr
pppr
rrrrr
pppppr . .
. r
ppr
prr
ppr
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pr
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pr
pr
pr
pr
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r . .
. pr
pr
pr
r
prrrr
pppppr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr . .
. pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr . .

de ade
pr
pr
pr
pr
rr
pppr
pr
. r
pr
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ppr
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pr
pr
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pr
pr
pr
r
pr
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pr . .
. pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
rr
ppr
pr
pr
pr . .

45Æ
pr
r
pr
pr
pr
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. pr
pr
pr
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pr
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pr
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ppr . .
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ppr . .. . . . . . .
r
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. pr
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pr
rpr
ppr .
. . r pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr .
. . pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr
pr .
. . r pr
pr
rpr
pr
pr
pr
p
p
rp
r
rp
rp
pppppp
r .
. . rrrrr
rppppppp
r
rrrrr
rrpppppppp
rr pppppp .
. . rrrrrr ppppppp
.

90Æ
r
rrrrr
r ppppppp
r
rrr ppppppp
. . rrrr
rrrrrr
rrrr
rrr
p
pppp
ppppppppppp .
. . r
rrrr
rrr
rrr
rrrrrr
pppppppp
pppppppp
p
pp .
. . r
rrrrrr
rrr
rrrr
rr
pp
pppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppp .
. . rrr
rrrrr
rrr
rr
rrr
pppp
ppp
ppp
pppp
ppp
ppppp
pppppppppppppppppppppppppp.
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp pppp .........
r .
........
r
. . rr
rrrrrrr
rrr
rrrrrrrrr
rrrrr
rrrr
rrrrrrrrr
rrr
rrr
rrrr
rrr
rrr
rrrr
rrr
r
rrrrr
rrrrrrrrrrrrr
r rr
r rr
r rr
r r
.r
r r
rr r
rr r
rrrrrrrrrr
rrrrrrrrrrr
r r
rrrr
r
rrrr
rrr
rr
r
r
rr
r
. . .

10 1
!E 10 0
10 ![s ℄ 1 1

75
Serial onne tion of elements in ontrol ir uits:
( ) = F (j!)
F (j!)
Fo j! 1 2

jFo (j!)j ej \Fo(j!) = jF (j!)j ej \F (j!) jF (j!)j ej \F (j!) 1

1
2
2

j \F (j! ) + \F (j! )


= jF (j!)j
jF (j!)j e 1 2
1 2

Amplitude traje tory:

jFo (j!)j = jF (j!)j
jF (j!)j 1 2

log jFo(j!)j = log jF (j!)j + log jF (j!)j 1 2

Phase traje tory:

\Fo(j!) = \F (j!)+\F (j!) 1 2

Example: Serial onne tion of 2 PT -elements 1

!E; = 1 [s ℄
1 !E; = 10 [s ℄ 1
2
1

.
......
.... jFo(j!)j [dB℄
0 dB
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .

jF (j!)j
.
. ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps.
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
.
ps
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.ppppppppppppppppppp
ppp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ps ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps . ppp
p ppppppp .
. . . .
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps ppppppp
ps
ps
ps
ps

-10 dB
ps
ps
sps
ps
ps
ps ppppppp
. . ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
ps
ps
s
pps
ps
ps . pppppppppp
pppppp .
. . ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
s
pps
. pppppp
.
2
ps
ps
ps
ps pp
p

20 dB
ps
ps
ps
ps pppppppp
. . ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
s ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
s ps . ppppppp
ppppppp .
. . . .
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
s pppp
p
ps
pps
s ps
ps
ps pppppp
ps
ps
pps
s pppppp
. .
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ps
ps
pps
s ps
p.
.
.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ppppp.ppppppp.ppppp. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
ppppppp

.. . . . . .
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
s p
ps
p
sps
ps
ps p
pp
ps
ps
sps
ps
ps
spps
ps

de ade
ps
ps
s ps
sps pppppp
. . ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps . ppppppp
pppppp .
. . . .
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps ppppppp

-20 dB
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps p
ppp
ps
ps
ps ppppppp
. . ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
ps
ps
ps
ps . ppppppp
ppppppp .
. . . .
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps p p
p ppppppp
ps
pps
s ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps ppppppp
. . s pps
s ps
sps
ps
p
p
sp
sp
s
p
sps
pps
s ps
ps . pppppp
pppppppppp .
. . ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
s ps . pppppp
pppppp .

jF (j!)j
ps
ps
sps
ps
ps
ps pp
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ps p.
pppppp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
ps p
pppp. pppppp.
p ....
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps ppppppppp
ps
sps
ps
ps
. . . s . pppppppppppppppppppppppp
sss
s s
ss ppppp
ss ppppppp
. . . s s
ss
sss
ss
ppppppp
ppppppp . pppppp
. . . s .
s p

-30 dB
sss p
pppppp
ss
ss pppppp
s pppppp
. . . s
s s
ssss pppp
ppppppp .
1
s
s
. . . .
sss
s ppppppp
ssss ppppppp
s
s p
. . . ss
sss
ss
pp
pppppp
pppppp .

jFo(j!)j
s
s pppppp
. . . .
s
sss p
s
ss p
pppppp
s
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .s s
ssss
s.s
sss . . . . . . .ppppppp.pppppppp.ppppppp.pp . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .
. . . .
s
sss
s s
ss pppppp
s
s pppppp
. . . s
ssss
sss
s
pppppp
ppppp
ppppppp .
. . . .
ss

-40 dB
sss
s ppppppp
ss
ss ppppppp
. . . ss
ss
sssss
ppppppp
pppppp .

40 dB
. . . .
s
sss pppppp
ssss ppp
pppppp
ss pppppp
. . . sssss
ss
ss
pppppp
pppp .
. . . pppppp .
ssss p
ppppppp
s
sss
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s s
sssss
s.s
ss
s
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..ppp.ppppppp.pppppp. . . . pppppp

de ade
. . . s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
s . ppppppppppppppppppp
. . . ss
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s .
. . . s
s
.

-50 dB
sss
ssss
. . . s
ssss
sssss .
. . . ssss
sssss .
. . . ssss
sssss
s .
. . . sss
. .......
......
ss

10 10 10 10 ![s ℄
...
sss
s
. . . sss
sssss
ss .
. . . ss
sssss
ssssss
s
.
1 0 1 2 1
s s
s
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
ss

\F (j!) [Æ℄
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
ss
. s
s
s
s
s
....
o
s
ss
s
s
s
s
s
s
....
s
s
s
s
s
s

0Æ
s
s

. . . .

\F (j!)
. . . .
. . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . ...ps
.ps
s
p
s
ps
ps
ps
p
s
p.ps
s
p
s
ps
pps
ps.ps
ps ps
.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..pppppp.ppppppp.pppppppp.ppppppp.pppp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .
.

45Æ
ps
.
ps
ps
. ps
pspps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
s
pps
ps
ps
ps
ps
s
pps
ps . pppppppp
pppppppppp .
.
ps
. . .
ps
s
pps
ps
ps
ps
ps
s
pps pp
s
pps
p
s
s
pps
ps
ps
ps pp
p ppppppppppp
s
ps
pps
ps
ps
.
ps
s
pps ppppppppp
. ps
ps
ps
s
ps
pps
ps
ps
ps
s
ps
pps
s
pps . pppppppp
.
2
s
ps
pps
ps
ps
ps
s
ps ppppppppp
.
pps
. ps
ps
s
ps
pps
ps
ps
ps
s
ps
pps
ps
ps
s
ps
pps
ps
ps
s
ps . ppppppppp
pppppppp
ppppppppp .

de ade
ps
pps
.
ps
ps
s
ps
. . .

45Æ
ps
pps
ps
s
ps
ps
pps ppp
p ppp
ps
ps
s
ps
ps
pps
ps
s
ps pppppppp
ps
pps
ps pppppppppp
.
ps
s
ps
ps
pps
ps
s
ps
ps
pps
ps
ps
s
ps
ps
pps
ps
s
ps
ps
ps
pps
s . pppppppp
ppppppppp . .
.
ps p

\F (j!)
ps ppppppppp
. ps
pps
ps
s
ps
ps
ps
pps
s
ps
ps
ps
pps
ps
s
ps
ps
ps
pps
s
ps
ps . ppppppppp
ppppppppp .
.
ps
. . .
pps
ps
s
ps
ps
ps
pps
s p
p ppp
ps
ps
ps
ps
pps
s
ps
ps
ps ppppppppppp
pps
s
ps
ps
ps pppppppp
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..ppp.ppppppp.ppppppp.ppppppp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
ps
pps
.
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...s
s
ps
ps
ps
pps
s
ps
ps
ps
. .ps
pppppp.ppppppp.
ppppppppp
pppp.
.. . . . . .
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps pp
p
p
sp
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps
ps pp
ssssss ppppppppp
.
s ppppppppp
. . s sssss ss s
sss
pppp
ppppppppppp
pppppppppp . pppppppppppp
ppppppppp
. . ssss s
ssss
sss
pppppppp
pppppppp . pppppppp
ppppppppp .
.
s ppppppppp ppppppppp
. . ss
ssssssss
ppppppppp
pppppppp . pppppppp
ppppppppp

1
ss
.
s
. . .
ssss
s pppppp
p pppp
ppp
ssss ppppppppp ppppppppp

90Æ
sss ppppppppp ppppppppp
.
s
. . s
sssssssssss
pppppppp
pppppppp
ppppppppppp . pppppppp
ppppppppp
pppppppppp
.
s
. . sssss ppppppppp
. pppppppppp

90Æ
sssss pppppppp pppppppp
ss
. .
sssss
sssssss
s
pppppp
pppppppppp
pppppppp . pppp
ppp
ppppppppp
pppppppp .
pppppppp .
s
. . ssssssss
ss
ss
pppppppppp
pppppppp
pppppppp . ppppppppp
ppppppppp
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .s
s sss
ssss.s
s ss .s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ppppppppp
p.pp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pp. .ppp. . . . . .
ppp pppp

. . s
sss
. .

de ade
s
ssssss
.
s
. . ssssss
sssssss .
. . sss
ssssssss
s . .
.
s
. . sssssss
sssss .
.
s
. . sss
s
.

135Æ
sssss
sss
. .
sssssssss
ssss . .
.
s
. . sss
ss
.

45Æ
sssssss
. .
s
ssssssss . .

\F (j!)
s s
ss
. . ssssss
sssss . .
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .s ssss
s sss.ss
sss
ss.s.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .
.
s
. . .
s
s
s
s
sss
s
s

de ade
s
ss
s
ss
s
s
ss
ss
.
sss
. . . ssss
ssssssssssss
ssssss
.
s
. . .
ss
ssssssss
sssssssss
ssss
.
ss
. . . sss
sssssss

o
ss
sssssssss
ss
.
s
. . .
ssss
ssss

180Æ
ssss
ssssssssss
s
.
s s
. . . ssssss
sss ss
ssssss
ss sss
s
.
s
. . .
ssss
s sss
ssssss
s s
ss
sssss
s
.
s
. . . sssssss
ssssssss
s sssssss
.s
s
s
. . . ssssssss
ssss
s ......
.....
sss
....
s
sss
ssss

10 10 10
.s
s
. . . s

10 ![s ℄
ss
ss
s
s
ss
s
ss
s
ss
s
s
ss
s
ss
s
ss
s
s
ss
s
ss
s
ss
s
s
ss
ss
s
s
s
ss
s
s
s
s
ss
s
s
ss
s
s
s
ss

1 0 1 2 1

76
The ee t of poles and zeros on the Bode diagramm:

... \F o ... \F o
!= 1
...... ......
.. .. .. ..
pppppp
pppppp
pppppp
pppppp
.
.
ppppp
pppppp
.
. pppppp
pppppp
ppppp
pppppp
pppppp

T
p
pppppp
pppppp
pp
p
.
.

!= 1
pppppp
pppppp .
.
. ......... pppppp
pppppp
. .........
ppppp .
. .......
ppppp
pppppp
.
. ......
pppppp
pppppp .
! !
pppppp
ppppp
pppppp .
.
pppppp
pppppp .
pppppp .
ppppp
.pppppppppppppppppppppp
.
T
.
. pppppppppppppppppp
pppppp
pppppp
ppppp
p

PT -element 1 Unstable !!
Fo (s) = 1 Fo (s) = 1
...
jFoj 1 + sT 1 sT
= T1
......
.. ..

!
Im Im
..... ................... ... .................
....
.... .... .. ..... ...
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppp
pppppp
...........
.......
... ... ..
.
.
..
... s
....... ........
..
...
... .. ...
.
...
... s
...................
..
...
.

!
pppppp
pppppp
ppppppp
pppppp
..... .
pppppp
pppppp
ppppppp
pppppp
pppppp
pppppp
ppppppp
pppppp
pppppp pppp
pppppp pp pppp pp
ppppppp pppp pppp pppp pppp
pppppp pppp ppp

Re
............

Re
pppppp
p
pppp
ppp pppppp
pppp
pppp pppppp ............
...........
pppppppp pppppppp
..........
pppppp p
pppp pppppp ppppppp
pppp pppp ppppppp
pppp pppp pppp pppp
pppp
pppp
... pppp
.. ppp .
pp pppp

........ .. . ........ ..... .... ... .........

ppp

.......... .....

1 1
T T

Part of allpass PD- ontroller

Fo (s) = 1 sT Fo (s) = 1 + sT
.
......
......
jFoj ppppppp
pppppp
pppp
ppppppp

Im Im
pppppp
pppppp
ppppppp
. .......... ..........
pppppp
pppppp
.... ..... ....... ..... ..... .......
.... ... .... ...
pppppp

s s
ppppppp
ppppppp .. ...
.. .. . .. .. ....
p
ppp
p
pppppp
p
. .

!= 1
...
... .
pppppp
..
ppppppp
pppppp
........... ... ...
...... ........ ...... ........
pppppp
pppppp
pppppp
...... ...... ......
!
T ppp
pppppppp
pppppp pppppppp ppp
pppppppp
pppppp pppppppp

Re Re
pp
pp
p ............ pp
ppp
............
...........
pp
ppp ppp
.........
pp p
pp pp pp p
ppp pp ppp pp
ppp pppp pppp ppp
pppppppppppppppppp
... .ppppp
pppppp pppppp
...
..... ..... .... ......... ........ ... ... ........
......
....
1 1
T T

 Additional: De rement of phase by 180Æ

 Additional: In rement of phase by +180Æ
The fun tion of several poles and/or zeros in a transfer element an be de-
termined by the means of the rule for serial onne tions.
77
Further ontrol ir uit elements in the Bode Diagramm

 Integrator:
Fo s ( ) = 1s s = j! Fo j!( ) = j!1 = jj
j!1 = j
!
9
>
>
j ( )j = !1
>
>
>
> Fo j!
Re (Fo (j!)) = 0 >
>
= F j! j ( )j = 20 log !1 = 20 log !
Im (Fo (j!)) = !1 >
o dB

>
>
>
> 1=! = 90Æ
\ F (j!) = ar tan |{z}
>
>
>
;
0
o
1

.
.....
.....
jFo(j!)j [dB℄
. . .
.
.....
.....
\F (j!) [Æ℄
.
o
. .

20 90
. pppp . . . . .
. pppp
pppp . . . . .
. pppp
ppppp . . . . .
. ppppp
pppp .
pppp . . . .
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pppp
pppp . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . pppp
ppppp
pppp . . . .
. . pppp
pppp . . . .
. . pppp
pppp.
ppppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . ppppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
ppppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp . . .
. . . . . .
pppp
pppp
pppp
. . . ppppp
pppp . . .
. . . ...........
pppp
pppp
pppp . . . ...........
. . . ......
pppp
. . . ......

10 10 10 [s ℄ 10 10 10 [s ℄
ppppp
. . . pppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp . . .
. . . ppppp
. . .
. 1 . 0 . 1 1 . 1 . 0 . 1 1
pppp

! !
pppp
pppp
pppp
. . . pppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp . . .
. . . ppppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . . . .

-20 -90
pppp
pppp
. . . pppp
ppppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp . . .
.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .
. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ppppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . . pppp
ppppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pp
. . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

 Dierentiator:
Fo s ( )=s s = j! Fo j!( ) = j!
9
>
>
Re (Fo (j!)) = 0
>
>
= Fo j! j ( )j = ! jFo(j!)j = 20 log ! dB

Im (Fo (j!)) = ! > \ F (j!) = ar tan |{z}

! = 90Æ
>
>
>
; 0 o
1

.
......
....
jFo(j!)j [dB℄ . . .
....
.
...... \F (j!) [Æ℄
.
o
. .

20 90
. . . . . .
. . . pp
pppp
pppp . . .
. . . pppppppppppppppp . . .
. . . ppppppp . . .
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .ppppp.ppppppppp.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ppppp . . . .
. . p
pppp
p
ppppp . . . .
. . pppp
ppppp . . . .
. . pppp
pppp
pppp
. . . .
. . pppp
pppp . . . .
. . ppppp
pppp . . . .
. . pppp
pppp
pppp . . . .
. . p
pppp
p
ppppp . . . .
. . pppp
pppp . . . .
. . ppppppppppppp
pp
. . . .
. . ppppppppppp . . . .
. .pppppppppp . ...... . . . ............
. pp. . ........... . . . .....

10 10 10 [s ℄ 10 10 10 [s ℄
ppp
. pp .
pp
ppppp
p . . . .
. ppppp
ppppp . . . . .
. p
pppp
pp
. . . . .
. 1
. 0 . 1 1 . 1 . 0 . 1 1
! !
pppp
. p
pppp
p
ppppp
. . .
pppp
pppp
p . .
. p
ppp
pppp
pppp
p
. . . . .
. pppp
pppp . . . . .
. pppp
. . . . .

-20 -90
pppp
pppp
. pppp
pppp . . . . .
. ppp p
pppppp
. . . . .
. pppppppppppppppp . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .ppp.ppp..pppppp.pppp . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pppp . . . . . .
p
ppppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
. . . . . .
p
ppppp
p
pp
. . . . . .
pppp . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

78
 Time shift element:
Fo s ( )=e = j! sTt s

Theorem of Euler
Fo (j! ) = e j!Tt = os !Tt j
sin !Tt
9 p
= jFo (j! )j = os !Tt + sin !Tt = 1
> 2 2

Re (Fo (j!)) = os !Tt

Im (Fo (j!)) = sin !Tt > ; \ F (j! ) = ar tan sin !Tt = !T
o os !Tt t

.
......
.. ..
jFo(j!)j [dB℄
. . .
.
.....
.....
\F (j!) [Æ℄
.
o
. .

20
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . ......
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ppp ppppp .pppp pppp pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp . . .......
....

10 10 10 [s ℄
. . . . pppppppppp
ppppppp . .
. . . . pp.
ppppppp
pppp .
. . . . .pppppppppppppppppppp .
. 2 . 1pppppppppp . 0 1
!
. . .
. . . . . p
pppp .
. . . . . pppp
pppp
pppp .
. . . . . ppp
pppp .
. . . . . pppp
pppp .

-45
pppp
. . . . . pppp
pppp .
. . . . . pppp
pppp .
. . . . . pppp
ppp .
pppp
. . . ....... . . ppp .
pppp
. . . .......... . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .pppp.ppppppppp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 10 10 [s ℄
. . . . . . ppppppp
. . . . . . pppppppp

= 1[s℄
. . . . . . ppppppp
. 2 . 1 . 0 1
. . .
! . . . ppp
ppp
. . . ppp

Tt
ppp
. . . . . . ppp
ppp
. . . . . . ppp
ppp
. . . . . . ppp

-20 -90
ppp
. . . . . . pp
pp
pp
. . . . . . pp
pp
. . . . . . pp
pp
. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . p

.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .pppppppp. . . . . . . .

. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. . . . ppp
pp
pp
. . . . pp
pp
. . . . pp
pp
. . . . pp
pp
. . . . pp
pp
pp
. . . . pp
pp
. . . pp

-135
pp
. . . pp
. . . pp
pp
pp
. . . pp
. . . pp
pp
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ppppppp . . . .
. . . pp
. . . pp
. . .
pp
pp
. . . pp
pp
p
. . .

 Gain:
( )=K
Fo s s = j!
Fo (j! ) = K
jFo(j!)j = K
\F (j!) = 0 [Æ℄
o

An ampli
ation with the faktor K
auses an elevation of the amplitude
traje
tory by 20 log K [dB℄.
...
....
....
jFo(j!)j [dB℄
. .
20
. .
. .
. .
. .
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
10 10
. .
. .
. .
. 1 . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
-20
. .
. .
. .
. . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
...
....
....
\F (j!) [Æ℄
. .
o
.
90
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. ....... . . . ..........
. .......... . . . ......
10 [s ℄ 10 10 10 [s ℄
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. 1 1 . 1 . 0 . 1 1
.
.
.
! .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
!
. . . .
-90
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
.. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
79
Stability examination by the analysis of the simplied Nyquist
riterion in
the Bode diagramm:

1 Im 1 Im
.... ...
..... ......
.. ... .. .
. ... ..
.. ...................
.
. .....................
............... ....................... ..... .... ............. ...... ..... ....
............. ... ... .......... .
.
. ... .. ..
.. ........ ... ...
.. ..
AR AR
..
...
.
..
.....
...
...
Fo ..
..
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
Fo ..
...
..
... ..
.
..
....

!DA
.... .. . ...... ...
.. ....................... .
. . ..
.. ........
..... .........
... ppppppppp
ppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppp .
.
. .... pppppppppppppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppppp
ppppppppp
pppppppppp
. pppppp
pppppp
ppppp
pppppp
pppppp
ppppp . .... pppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppp
pppppp
ppppp
ppppp ppppp
....ppppppppppppppp ppppp

.... ppppppppppppppp .
pppp pppp pppp
pppp
pppp .
. .ppppqp.pqpp. pppp
pppp
p.
ppp ppq
pppp
pppp
ppp
ppp . q qqq qqqqqqqq qq
pppp ppp.
qq q q qq
q
....qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
pp q
pppp
ppp
ppp
.
q
qq pppp
pppp
.
qq
q pppp
..ppppppppppp pppp
pp .
. qq
qqqqqqqq
pp
p
ppp
..... q
qqq
q
ppp
ppp
.pppp
.
ppp
.
. qqqqqqqqqqqqq
qqq
pp
pp
. ..
qq
qqqq
pp
pp

................ qqqqqqq
qqqqqqqqqqqqqqq pp pp qq
q q q qq q qq q pp p qq pp
p q q p
.
q
pp
. q
q qq pp
. q pp
.
pp

!DP
q q q

!DP
pp. .
q q
.
qq q q pp

.... ....... qqqqqqqq

q

R
q pp
pp . q
p q
q
q
q
q qq q
q
pp
pp . qqq qq
qq
p pp
pp . q .
q q q
q
q q pp
q
q q q q q qqq
pp
pp q pp
.. .... qqq
pp
p
.
p q qq p pp
pp .q .
p
.
p
.
q q q
. q
............ . pp
.
pp
............

Re Re
q q p q
p pp. . .
p
pp ppp.
p pp q
pq
pppppppppppppppppppppp.
q
.p.ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp.pp.pp.p.pp.p.pp.ppppqqp
qq p pppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp.
p q
ppq
q
q
pp ppp
.
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp. p.
q p
pp ppppp
pppp ppp
..........
p p q
.........
p q p p pp p pp
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
p ppppppppppq q pppppppppp ppq
pqq pppq
pq
q
ppppp
pp ppqppp pp ppppppppp
pp q
ppqq
q ... .... . q pp
p
p q
q ppp
q
q
q
q
pp
pp
p
pp q
q
pp q
pp q
q
q
q
q ...
............ . .. . q
q
q
q
q
pp
pp
p
q
q
q
q
q
pp
pp
pp pp
pp
pp
q
q
q
q
q
.
pp q
pp q q
. ..
. . q
q pp q
q
q pp p
pp
q
qq

R
q q pp q
....
pp q q q q pp pp q
q
pp q q q p
p q p p q
q
. q q pp
pp pp q
pp q
ppq
q
q .
.. q
q
q
q pp
q
q
q ppp
pp qq
q

..
q q ppp q
q .
ppq q
q pp q pp q
pppp.
ppq q q pp q

.ppppp..pqpqqpq.pq.ppppp
q p q q

!DA
pq pq q
q ppp
q
q
q ppp p
pp
q
q
q
q ppp q ppp q

.....pppppqppqqpqpppp
qq q pppp q
q
pppp
q q pppp pp
p q
q pppp q
pppp
q q q

.... qqqqpqpqpqpqpqpqppppppppp
q
q q pppp q
qq
q pppp q
q pppp pppp q
q
pppp pppp
.....
p q qq q pppp q
pp q q q
pppp
q
q pppp pppp q
q
pp q q
ppppp
q pppp q

....
q pppp q
q pppp pp q
q
ppppp
qq pppp pppp q
qq
q ppppp ppq
qq
pppppp
q q ppppp ppppp q
q
qqq q pppppp ppppp
pq qq p
pppppppp
q
q pppppp ppppp q
q
q pppppp pp ppq qq
pppppppp q pppppp pppppp q
q
q pppppp pppppp

!
q q
q
q
q ppppppppp
pppppppppppppp pppppppp ppq
pq
q pppppppp
pq q
q ppppppppp
pppppppppppppp pppppppp qq
q
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
q
q
q q
qq
q q
q ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp q
q
q
q
q
q q
qq q
q qq
q
q
q
qqq qq
q
q q
q q
q
q
qqq
q q
q
qq q q
q
qqqq q
q
qq
q q
q q
q
q qqq
q q qq
qq
q
qq
q q
q q
q
q
qqqqq qq qq
qq
qq
qq
q q
q q
qq
qq
qqqqqqqqqq qqq qqqqq q q
qqqq
qq
qq
qq q
q qq
q
qqqqq q qqq q
q qqq
q
q p q
q
qq
q pp q qqqq
q
q
qq pp q qq
q
q
qq pp q q
qq
q
q pp q qq
qq pp q q ppppp
q
q pq q
q
q pppppppp
q pppppppp

!
q
q
qq pppq
pq pq
q pq
ppq
q
qq pq
q
q
qqq q
q
q
q
qq
q q
q
q
qqq qq
q
q
qq
qq q
qq
q
qq
qq q
q
qq
q
q qq q
qq
q
qqq
q qq
q
qq
qq
qq q
qq
q
q
qqq qq
q
q
qqqqq qq
q
qq
q
qq
q qq q
qq
qq
q
qqqq q
qq
qq
qqqq qq q
q
qq
qq
q
q
qqqq qqqq qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq qqqqqqq qq qq q qqq
q
qq
qq
qqqqqqqqqqq q
q qqq qqqq qq qqq qqqqqq
qqq q
q qqqqqq qqqqq q qq qq
q qqq
q qqqq q
q

...
...... jFo(j!)j ...
......
q
q
qqq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
jFo(j!)j
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q

20 log A1R
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
qq
qqq
qq
qqq
pq
pq
pq
ppppq
q
qq
pp p q
.
qq
p pp q
.
q
p ppp q q

!DA !DA
.
q
q
pp ppp q
.
qq
q
pp q
pp q q

0 dB 0 dB
q
pp p q
q
.
.
q
q
q
qq
q
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
.
.
q
qq
q
q
q
qq
q
qq
q
... .
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q q
qq

20 log A1R
.
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq q
.
qq
q
qq q
qq
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q .
qq
q
q
q .
.
.
qq
qq
q
qq qq
q
qq q
.
q
q q
q
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q... ...
ppppppppp
pppppppp
pp
q
q
q
q
qq
q
.
ppppppppp
pppppppp
pp
qq
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
q . .
.
q
qq
q
q
q .
.
.
! !
q q
...
q
qq
q
q
qq
q
q .
.
q
q
q
qq
q
q
q
q
qq
q
qq
ppp
pp pp ... q
qq
q
q
q
.
.
q
q pp ppp
.
q q
...
q
q
qq
q
q
qq pp pp . .
q
q
qq
q
q .
.
qqq
qq
qpp pp
q
qpq
q p
pq
... .
.
q
qq
q
qq
q
q
... q
qq
qq
qq
. .
q
qq
q
qq .
.
.
qq
qq
qq .
.
q
q
.
...
q
q
qq
q
... .
q
qq
q
q
qq
. . .
.
.
...
q
q
qq
q
q .
. .
qq
q
q
q
... .
..
q
q
q
qq
q
q
. . .
.
.
.
q
qq
q
q
q .
. .
q
q
q
qq ... .
..
q
q
qq
q
q
. . .
.
.
. q
qq
q
q
qq
q .
. .
..
q
qq
q
q ... .
.
q
qq
q
qq
. . .
.
.
.
q
..
q
qq
q
q
. .
.
q
q
.
q
q
q
qq
q ... .
..
q
q
qq
q
q
qq . .
. .
.
.
.
q
q
qq
q
q
... .
.
.. . . .
.
.
. .
. .
.. ... .
.
..
.
..
!DP > !DA .
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
!DP < !DA .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. pppppppp.
ppppppp .
.ppppppppppppppppppppp

\F (j!) \F (j!)
.. pppppppp.
.pppp .
.
. ppppppp . . ppppppppppppp
. .
.
.. ... .
.
. . . .
.
.
.. .
. .
... .
..... . ..... .
o o
. .
.... ..
.
. ... .
.
.
.
.

0Æ 0Æ
... .
.. . . .
.
.
. .
. .
.. ... .
. . . .
.
.
q
qq
qq
q
qq
qq
q
qq
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.
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stable unstable

For this method of stability examination the restri tions of the simplied
Nyquist riterion apply:
 ex lusively stable time onstants
 not more than 2 integrators
80
Denition of the passage frequenzies:

 Amplitude passage frequen y: !DA

jFo(j!DA)j = 1
 Phase passage frequen y: !DP
\F (j! ) = 180Æ
o DP

Phase reserve and amplitude reserve:

 Phase reserve R
= \Fo(j!DA) + 180Æ
R

 Amplitude reserve AR
1 = jFo(j!DP )j AR = jFo (j!1 DP )j
AR

It follows from the simplied Nyquist riterion:

R AR 1
AR

stable !DP > !DA >0 >1 <1

borderline of stability !DP = !DA =0 =1 =1
unstable !DP < !DA <0 <1 >1

81
Optimal adjustment of ontrol parameters

Goals:

 good nominal value dynami s

{short transient time
{small overshoot
{good damping
 small rea tion on disturban es

In pra tise:
A ompromise often must be found between these qualiers.

Adjustment rules of Ziegler and Ni hols:

Appli ation at PT T - ontrolled systems

1 t
(espe ially appropriate with strongly delayed, aperiodi behavior
of the ontrolled system)
Adjustment of the ontrol parameters based on the behaviour at
that Stability borderline.
Pro edure for the design of the ontroller:

1. Temporary \installation" of a P- ontroller with a variabel, at rst small

ontrol gain KR .
2. In rease of the ontrol gain KR as long, until the losed loop performs
a ontinous os illation with a onstant amplitude.

82
 3. Reading KR;krit (s ale for ontrol ampli ation) and Tkrit (duration for
the exe ution of one sine-wave os illation (2))

KR;krit
pppp
ppppppppppp
ppppppppppppp
ppppp ppppp
pppppppppppppppppp
p
pppp ppp
ppppp pppp
pppp
pppp

ontroller
pppp

w u y
ontr. system
pp
p
pppp
.......... pppp
..... ........
pppp
pppp
...
pppp
pppp
.. pppp
............... .. ............ ppppp
pppp
ppppp ............. .............
............. . .......... .......... ..........
pppp
...
pppp
pppp
.. ..
pp
ppppp
.... ppp
....................
pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp
ppppp
..
......
pppp
pppp
pppp
. pppp
.. .. pppp
pppp
pppp
pppp

.
....
....
y
.. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . ........
.. ... ... ... ... ..
....... .. .. .. .. .. ....
.. ... ... ... .. .... .. ...
... .. ... ... .. ..
..
... .. .
... ....
. ..
.
. ... ..
.
...
... .
. .
. ..
.
.
. ... ... ... .
... .. .. ..
... .. .. ... ..
... ... ... ..
..
.
.... ... .
. ... .
.
... ..
.
. .
. .
. .............
. ... .. .. .. .. .. . ..........
... ... .. .. ... ... .. ...
.. .... ...
... ... ... ... ..
.. ...
t
... .. .. ... ..
.. .. .. .. ... ... .. ..
....... ..
... ... ... ...
. . ....
. ... .
.. ... .. .. ... .....
... ...
..... .. .... ... ..
. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . .

.............
........... Tkrit .....
.. ......
..
.. .....

4. Installation of the nal ontrol system.

5. Adjustment of the ontrol parameters a ording to the ajustment rules.

ontroller KR TN TV

P 0; 5 KR;krit - -
PI 0; 45 KR;krit 0; 85 Tkrit -
PID 0; 6 KR;krit 0; 5 Tkrit 0; 12 Tkrit

Disadvantage:
For test purposes the system must be run on the stability bor-
derline for a short time.

83
The stru ture of ontrol systems
Dire t ompensation of disturban es:
Prerequisite:
The disturban e must be measurable.

z
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .... .. ..
...
........ ....
....
.... .

FRZ s () FZ 1 s ()
... .. ... ..
w u ..... .....
x y
() ()
.... ....

()
............... ............... ...............
............... .. ............. ............... ........... ................ ............ ............
FR s FS 2 s
..
.............. .. .......... ..
... ..... . .. ........... ....
.... .... . .. ........... .........
...............
.
....
.....
pppppppp
pppppp
pppppppppp
...............
pppp
ppppppppppp
FS 1 s ...............
ppppppppp
ppppp
ppp pppp
pppp
pppp
pp
ppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp

.
..
ppp
pppppppppppppp ppppppppp
ppp
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp pppppppppppppp pppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppp
ppppppp
pppppppppppp

() =
X s ( )
U (s)
FS 1 s

+ FZ (s)
Z (s) 1 FRZ s ( )
FS (s)
Z (s) 1

Goal:
( ) shall have no in uen e on the intermediate variable X (s).
Z s

0 1
B
FZ 1 s
|
() ( )
FS (s})C
FRZ s
{z
A
Z (s) = 0 1

=0

FRZ s ( ) = FFZS ((ss)) 1

84
Cas ade ontrol:
Advantage:
Due to improved learness the ontrol design is more simple to
arry out.
e.g.: ontrol ir uit for position: x : engine speed
y : position

z
.. ..
....
....
.

FZ s ()
.. ..
w wi u ....
x y
() () () ()
....
............... .............. ...............
................ ............ ................. .. ............. ............. ................. .. ............. ............
FRA s FRi s FS 1 s FS 2 s
.
............... ... ........... .............. .. ........... .......... .
.............. .. .......... ...........
............... ............... ...............
... ...
......
. .......
.. .. .
.. .
.
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. .
. .
. ... .. .
. ... ... .
. ........... ...
. ............ ..................... ..................... ................... .
.
. ... ... .
. ..... .
. .. .
. .

() ()
. .
. .
. .
.
.
.
.
Gi s ; GiZ s .
.
.
.
. .
. .
.
.....
....... ...
.....
...................... .
......
............. .... .... ................................... . ... ....................................
..... ..............................
.... ......
......

GA s ()

Design of the inner ontrol loop:

( ) = 1F+RiF(Ris)(
sF)FS S(s()s) Wi(s) + 1 + FRiFZ(s(s)F) S (s) Z (s)

X s 1

1 1
| {z } | {z }
Gi (s) GiZ (s)

X (s) = Gi (s) Wi (s) + GiZ (s) Z (s)

85
The \substitute ontrol ir uit" results as follows:

z
.. ..
....
....
.

GiZ s ()
... ..
w wi .....
x y
() () ()
...
.............. ................
............... ... ............. ............. ............... ........... ...........
FRA s Gi s FS 2 s
..
............. . .......... .......... . .
. ........ .
. . ........... ...........
................ ................
.
......
... ....
.
.

Strategy:
Step 1: Design of the inner loop, i.e. al ulation of FRi (s).
Already here robustness against disturban es must be taken into on-
sideration.
often a ontroller with I-part is well suited
Repla ement of the inner ontrol loop by the transfer elements (Gi(s),
GiZ (s))

Step 2: Design of the outer ontrol loop, i.e. al ulation of FRA (s).

Suboptimal Method:
If the disturban e is already well ompensated by the inner on-
trol ir uit, it an be probably negle ted during the design of the
outer loop.
(e.g. if slim
!
s GiZ (s)
Z (s) = 0)
0

86