CONTENTS

Preface ix
List of Symbols xii

PART 1 ELEMENTARY ELASTICITY AND FRACTURE MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1 STRESS

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Definitions 3
1.3 Stress at a Point 5
1.4 Stress Equations of Equilibrium 7
1.5 Laws of Stress Transformation 8
1.6 Principal Stresses 11
1.7 Maximum Shear Stress 13
1.8 A Two-Dimensional State of Stress 15
1.9 Stresses Relative to a Principal Coordinates 17
1.10 Special States of Stress 17
Exercises 18
Bibliography 22

CHAPTER 2 STRAIN AND THE STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS

2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Definitions of Displacement and Strain 23
2.3 Strain Equations of Transformation 27
2.4 Principal Strains 31
2.5 Compatibility 31
2.6 Stress-Strain Relations 33
2.7 Strain-Transformation Equations and Stress-Strain Relations
for a Two-Dimensional State of Stress 38
2.10 Stress-Strain Relations for Composite Materials 39
Exercises 44
Bibliography 48

CHAPTER 3 BASIC EQUATIONS AND PLANE-ELASTICITY THEORY

3.1 Formulation of the Problem 49

3.2 Field Equations 50
3.3 The Plane Elastic Problem 52
3.4 The Plane-Strain Approach 52
3.5 Plane Stress 54
3.6 Airy's Stress Function 56
3.7 Airy's Stress Function in Cartesian Coordinates 57
3.8 Example Problem 59
3.9 Two-Dimensional Problems in Polar Coordinates 62
3.10 Transformation of the Equation ∇4 φ = 0 into Polar Coordinates 63
3.11 Polar Components of Stress in Terms of Airy's Stress Function 65
3.12 Forms of Airy's Stress Function in Polar Coordinates 65
3.13 Stress Distribution in a Thin, Infinite Plate with a Circular Hole
Subjected to Uniaxial Tensile Loads 68
Exercises 73
Bibliography 76
iii
CHAPTER 4 ELEMENTARY FRACTURE MECHANICS
4.1 Introduction 77
4.2 Stresses Due to an Elliptical Hole in a Uniformly Loaded Plate 78
4.3 The Westergaard Stress Function 80
4.4 Stress Intensity Factors for Select Geometries 82
4.5 The Three Modes of Loading 85
4.6 The Field Equations for the Crack Tip Region 85
4.7 Fracture-Energy Approaches 91
4.8 Criteria for Crack Instability 95
4.9 Growth of Fatigue Cracks Under Cyclic Loading 99
4.10 Fracture Control 102
Exercises 105
Bibliography 108

PART II DISPLACEMENT AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT METHODS

CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCTION TO STRAIN MEASUREMENTS AND DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
5.1 Definition of Strain and its Relation to Measurements 111
5.2 Properties of Strain-Gage Systems 113
5.3 Types of Strain Gages 114
5.4 Mechanical Strain Gages 115
5.5 Optical Strain Gages 115
5.6 Fiber-Optic Strain Gages 118
5.7 Electrical Strain Gages 123
5.8 Acoustical Strain Gages 127
5.9 Semiconductor Strain Gages 129
5.10 Grid Method of Stain Analysis 133
5.11 Eddy Current Sensors 137
5.11 Piezoelectric Sensors 138
5.12 Photoelectric Sensors 141
Exercises 144
Bibliography 147

CHAPTER 6 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAGES

6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Strain Sensitivity in Metallic Alloys 149
6.3 Gage Construction 152
6.4 Strain-Gage Adhesives and Mounting Methods 156
6.5 Gage Sensitivities and Gage Factor 160
6.6 Performance Characteristics of Foil Strain Gages 163
6.7 Environmental Effects 173
6.8 Summary and Future Trends 182
Exercises 184
Bibliography 187

CHAPTER 7 STRAIN GAGE CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTATION

7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 The Wheatstone Bridge 189
7.3 Calibrating Strain-Gage Circuits 199
7.4 Effects of Lead Wires, Switches, and Slip Rings 201
7.5 Electrical Noise 205
7.6 Transducer Applications 207
7.7 Amplifiers 211
7.8 Operational Amplifiers 215
7.9 Filters 220
Exercises 223
Bibliography 228

iv
CHAPTER 8 STRAIN ANALYSIS METHODS
8.1 Introduction 229
8.2 The Three-Element Rectangular Rosette 230
8.3 Corrections for Transverse Strain Effects 233
8.4 The Stress Gage 234
8.5 Plane-Shear or Torque Gage 236
8.6 The Stress Intensity Factor Gage KI 237
8.7 Determining Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors 241
8.8 Overdeterministic Methods of Strain Analysis 243
8.9 Residual Stress Determination 244
Exercises 251
Bibliography 255

PART III OPTICAL METHODS OF STRESS, STRAIN AND DISPLACEMENT ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 9 BASIC OPTICS
9.1 The Nature of Light 259
9.2 The Physics of Light 260
9.3 Wave Theory of Light 263
9.4 Reflection and Refraction 271
9.5 Image Formation by Lenses and Mirrors 274
9.6 Optical Diffraction and Interference 278
Exercises 281
Bibliography 282

CHAPTER 10 PHOTOELASTICITY

10.1 Introduction 283

10.2 The Polariscope 284
10.3 The Stress-Optic Law 289
10.4 The Stress-Optic Law—in Relative Retardation 290
10.5 Effects of a Stressed Model in a Plane Polariscope 292
10.6 Effects of a Stressed Model in a Circular Polariscope
(Dark Field, Arrangement A) 296
10.7 Effects of a Stressed Model in a Circular Polariscope
(Arbitrary Analyzer Position, Tardy Compensation) 301
10.8 Recent Developments in Photoelasticity 304
10.9 Recording Photoelastic Fringe Patterns 307
Exercises 308
Bibliography 309

CHAPTER 11 APPLIED PHOTOELASTICITY

11.1 Introduction 311

11.2 Two-Dimensional Photoelastic Stress Analysis 311
11.3 Materials for Two-Dimensional Photoelasticity 323
11.4 Properties of Commonly Employed Photoelastic Materials 327
11.5 Three Dimensional Photoelasticity—Stress Freezing 329
11.6 Materials for Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity 332
11.7 Slicing the Model and Interpreting the Results 334
11.8 Effective Stresses 339
11.9 Application of the Frozen-Stress Method 341
11.10 Birefringent Coatings 343
Exercises 358
Bibliography 361
v
CHAPTER 12 INTERFEROMETRY AND HOLOGRAPHY
12.1 Introduction 363
12.2 Interference of Two Plane Collinear Waves 363
12.3 The Interferometer 366
12.4 Interference of Two Plane Waves at Oblique Incidence 370
12.5 Holographic Interferometry 372
Exercises 384
Bibliography 385

CHAPTER 13 MOIRÉ AND MOIRÉ INTERFEROMETRY

13.1 Introduction 387
13.2 Moiré Fringes Produced by Mechanical Interference 387
13.3 The Displacement-Field Approach to Moiré-Fringe Analysis 390
13.4 Out-of Plane Displacement Measurements 393
13.5 Out-of-Plane Slope Measurements 394
13.6 Experimental Procedure and Technique 396
13.7 Moiré Interferometry 396
13.8 Advanced Applications of Moiré Interferometry 402
Exercises 411
Bibliography 413

CHAPTER 14 SPECKLE METHODS

14.1 Introduction 415
14.2 Forming and Sizing Speckles 415
14.3 Intensity Distributions 417
14.4 Speckle Decorrelation 417
14.5 Speckle Photography 419
14.6 Speckle Interferometry 424
14.7 Digital Acquisition and Processing of Speckle Images 428
14.8 Phase Stepping 432
14.9 Three Dimensional Speckle Methods 434
Exercises 436
Bibliography 438

CHAPTER 15 DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION

15.1 Introduction 439
15.2 Identification of Features and Feature Matching 440
15.3 Patterning of Specimens 442
15.4 Imaging Patterned Specimens 444
15.5 Theory for of Digital Image Correlation 445
15.6 Two-Dimensional of Digital Image Correlation (2D-DIC) 450
15.7 Three-Dimensional Digital Image Correlation (3D-DIC) 457
15.8 Volumetric of Digital Image Correlation (V-DIC) 466
15.9 Recent Developments – Global Methods 469
Exercises 470
Bibliography 472

CHAPTER 16 OPTICAL METHODS FOR DETERMINING FRACTURE PARAMETERS

16.1 Introduction 475
16.2 Review of Irwin's Method to Determine KI 476
16.3 Higher-Parameter Methods for Determining KI 477
16.4 An Overdeterministic Method to Solve Nonlinear Equations 479
16.5 Determining KI from Isopachic Fringe Patterns 482
16.6 Determining KI from Moiré Fringe Patterns 484
vi
 16.7 Determining KI from Method of Caustics 485
16.8 Determining KI from Coherent Gradient Sensing 492
16.9 Combining DGS and DIC Methods 497
16.10 Methods to Determine KI in Three-Dimensional Bodies 500
16.11 Mixed-Mode Stress Intensity Factors KI and KII 502
Exercises 507
Bibliography 509

PART IV MEASUREMENTS UNDER HIGH STRAIN RATES AND SMALL LENGTH

SCALES
CHAPTER 17 DYNAMIC MEASUREMENTS
17.1 Introduction 513
17.2 High Speed MTS Systems 514
17.3 Drop Weight Impact Tests 518
17.4 The Double Pendulum 521
17.5 Pendulum Impact Test 523
17.6 Taylor Impact Tests 526
17.7 Split Hopkinson (Kolsky) Bar Technique 532
17.8 Plate Impact Tests 546
17.9 Optical Methods 549
Exercises 554
Bibliography 555

CHAPTER 18 NANOSCALE MEASUREMENTS

18.1 Introduction 559
18.2 The Optical Microscope 559
18.3 Scanning Electron Microscope 567
18.4 e-Beam Moiré 570
18.5 SEM Imaging Issues 576
18.6 Transmission Electron Microscope 577
18.7 Atomic Force Microscope 579
18.8 Nanoindentation Measurements 585
18.9 Nanoindentation Measurements with an AFM 593
18.10 Thin Film Tensile Testing 596
Exercises 599
Bibliography 600

PART V MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS METHODS

CHAPTER 19 DIGITAL RECORDING SYSTEMS

19.1 Introduction 605

19.2 Digital Codes 605
19.3 Conversion Processes 607
19.4 Digital to Analog Converters 609
19.5 Analog to Digital Converters 610
19.6 Digital Voltmeters 615
19.7 Data Logging Systems 617
19.8 PC Based Data-Acquisition Systems 618
19.9 Systems for Measuring Rapidly Varying Signals 620
19.10 Aliasing 626
19.11 Summary 628
Exercises 629
Bibliography 631

vii
CHAPTER 20 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

20.1 Introduction 633

20.2 Characterizing Statistical Distributions 633
20.3 Statistical Distribution Functions 637
20.4 Confidence Intervals for Predictions 643
20.5 Comparison of Means 647
20.6 Safety Factor 648
20.7 Statistical Conditioning of Data 649
20.8 Regression Analysis 650
20.9 Chi-Square Testing 657
20.10 Error Propagation 659
20.11 Summary 661
Exercises 662
Bibliography 665

INDEX 666

viii