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Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes - Nervous System Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes - Nervous System
Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes - Nervous System Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes - Nervous System
Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes - Nervous System Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes - Nervous System
Nervous system
Neural tissue
Contains two kinds of cells
- Neurons:
o Cells that send and receive signals
Structure of a neuron
Information always goes in one direction (neurons are uni-directional) because the neurons are
polarised
Ion channels allow sodium to come in and potassium to leave, this changes the polarity of a section of
the neuron. This stimulates adjacent area, domino effect. This chemical change generates a voltage
across the cells.
- Astrocytes: most tumours in brain are produced by these because they are the most abundant
cells.
o Functions include biochemical support
of endothelial cells that form the blood
brain barrier
o Provide nutrients to nervous tissue
o Maintain ion balance outside of cells
o Repair brain and spinal cord following
traumatic injuries
o Anchor neurons to blood supply and
govern the exchange of nutrients
between neurons and capillaries
Myelination:
- Process of wrapping Glycoproteins around cells. Within that are the sodium potassium channels.
- Astrocytes monitor neuron axons for activity.
o Lots of repeated signals from one axon triggers the astrocyte to release chemicals
o The chemical stimulate oligodendrocytes to produce myelin which wraps around the
axon
o So with more neuron stimulation, you get more myelinated, and your signal processing
becomes faster
- Myelin sheath is produced by Schwann cells in the PNS and by oligodendrocytes in the CNS
- The myelin sheath electrically insulates the axon and increases the speed of nerve impulse
conduction
- Unmyelinated sheaths need to activate every part of the nerve fibre so speed is much slower
- Myelinated ones have gaps between cells, the signals can just jump the gaps, so it’s faster
Ion channels
Gated channels
- Responsible for moving electrical signal down the axon. Open and close in response to a
stimulus. They open when they are activated, then they close.
- Results in neuron excitability
- Higher potassium concentration gives rise to the -70mV membrane potential (means more
negative inside the cell).
- Leakage channels cause – 70.
Normally there is more potassium in inside cell and more sodium outside
Negative ions along the inside of the cell and positive ions outside
Depolarisation: more positive inside the cell sodium ions are coming in
Repolarisation: coming back to normal channels shut, potassium is leaving, becomes more negative
within cell
- Goes a bit lower than -70 after repolarisation because the potassium channels take long to shut
- Hyperpolarisation: lower than -70 before the potassium gates close
- Down stroke: potassium leaving – repolarisation
- +30mV back to -70mv
Refractory period: time where you cannot stimulate nerve because it’s already stimulated
3. the sodium
channels open
5. sodium
channels close,
potassium
channels open
6. potassium
channels are a
bit sluggish
and take time
to close
8. potassium
channels close
Stimulus intensity:
Difference setween light and hard touch
- Frequency of impulses
o Firm pressure generates impulses at a higher frequency
- Number of sensory neurons activated
o Firm pressure stimulates more neurons than does a light touch
- As sodium flows into the cell during depolarisation, the voltage of adjacent areas is affected and
their voltage gated sodium channels open.
- Local currents depolarise adjacent membrane areas in a forward direction
- A travelling action potential is called a nerve impulse
- Sodium and potassium channels are only found in the unmyelinated sections of the myelinated
sheathed axon, i.e. the Nodes of Ranvier
Saltatory conduction: jumping from node to node, no ions coming in where the myelin sheaths are
- Depolarisation only at nodes of Ranvier where there is high density of voltage gated ion channels
- The current carried by ions flows through extracellular fluid from node to node, not passing
through myelin
Why is the movement one way? Requires more energy to activate the area that the stimulus has
come from. Less energy is required to propagate down ‘concentration gradient’. The area you have come
from is already stimulated, so it takes more energy to make a significant change to it, they’re hard to
impress, whereas all the areas not yet stimulated are sort of easily impressed, easier to stimulate.
Impulse triggers calcium ions to move through channels, they bind to vesicles that contain
neurotransmitters. The vesicles join to the membrane and spit out neurotransmitters and they jump
across the synapse (gap).
Voltage activated: channels that open when there is a potential difference e.g. calcium ion channels
outside of nerve cell
Ligand/chemically activated: channels that open when neurotransmitters bind to them e.g. the ion
channels that accept neurotransmitters between each synapse
Graded potentials
EPSP: Excitatory Post Synaptic Potential –
Summation
Is the method of signal transduction between neurons, which determines whether or not an action
potential will be triggered by the combined effects of the Post Synaptic Potentials. It can be temporal or
spatial.
Temporal summation:
- Total effect of neurotransmitters released from 2 or more firings of the same end bulb in rapid
succession onto a second neuron.
- Rapid firing of neurotransmitters from one neuron that is able to give an impulse, even though at
one point in time there aren’t enough neurotransmitters
Spatial summation:
- Total effects of neurotransmitters released from several end bulbs onto one neuron
Comparison:
Neurotoxins (not
examinable)
- Block sodium
potassium
channels kills
- Botox: stops exocytosis. Wrinkles are caused by
muscle contractions when you frown. Botox
therefore blocks exocytosis so that muscle do not get the nerve impulse needed for contraction.
Brain
Lateral view: from the side
The brain has no sensory receptors – nerves –you can’t feel someone touching your brain
The central sulcus can be identified in the centre of the super view, or the lateral view, based because it
is between two relatively straight gyri running vertically down to the temporal lobe.
Sulci: “means furrows” grooves of the brain, gaps between the spaghetti
When deep grooves are present they separate large regions of the brain and are known as “fissures”
Meninges
- Meninges also cover the spinal cord
- Three membranes that envelope the brain and spinal cord
- Dura Mater
- Mater (arachnoid)—blood vessels, nerves and the CSF fluid
- Pia Mater – soft mater that lies on the brain itself
- The primary function of the meninges and the CSF (Cerebrospinal fluid) is to protect the CNS
(central nervous system)
- Meningitis: inflammation of the meninges due to bacterial infection
Ventricles
- - Contain ependymal cells, surrounding the choroid plexuses, which produce the CSF
- Choroid plexuses: cauliflower-like growths of network capillaries in the walls of the ventricles
- Capillaries covered by ependymal cells that produce
CSF from blood plasma (by filtration and secretion).
o Ependymal cells possess cilia on their
surfaces facing the open space of the
ventricle cavities they line.
o Cilia circulate CSF in one direction around
the brain
o Ependymal cells form tights junctions with
adjoining cells – so the only way for things
to go into the brain is through these cells,
through pumps
o Ependymal cells actively transport
metabolic products (glucose) via protein pumps into the brain
- Ventricles have ion pumps that allow them to alter ion concentrations of the CSF
- Ventricles help cleanse CSF by removing waste
- Circulation – allows exchange of nutrients and wastes between blood and brain
Reabsorption of CSF:
- CSF is reabsorbed into the blood stream
through arachnoid granulations which act as
one way valves, and empty into large veins.
- Arachnoid granulations: small protrusions of
the arachnoid layer, through to the dura mater.
They protrude into the venous sinuses of the
brain and allow CSF to exit subarachnoid space
and enter blood stream.
- Pressure of CSF is higher than pressure of
venous system.
o CSF flows through the villi and granulations into the blood
- Arterial blood flows into ventricles, CSF forms in ventricles, CSF flows around brain, into sinuses
(granulations), these feed into venous system, back into normal blood and back to heart
Hydrocephalus
- Blockage of drainage of CSF causing increase in intracranial pressure too much fluid on the
brain
- Blockage caused by tumours, inflammation, meningitis etc
- Formation of CSF is greater than reabsorption, so pressure continues to rise.
- CSF fluid is drained back into body by putting a tube into the brain and down to gut
- Too much fluid in brain causes damage to brain tissue
Brain stem:
The bridge between the brain and spinal cord. Three portions of the brain stem:
Pons
- Links the cerebellum with the cerebrum, medulla oblongata and
spinal cord/
- Affects respiratory rate, depth of breathing etc
- Respiratory centres:
o Pneumotaxic centre: anatagonises the apneustic centre
by cyclically inhibiting inspiration. Inhibition of
Pneumotaxic area leads to increase in depth of
respiration and a decrease in respiratory rate
o Apneustic center: promotes inspiration by stimu lating
the inspiratory centre in medulla
Medulla Sblongata
- Major role is in the cardiovascular system
- Contains ascending sensory tracts and descending motor tracts
- It holds the nuclei of 5 cranial nerves
- The cardiovascular centre of the Medulla
o Controls force and rate of heart beat
o Vasomotor centre sends Sympathetic stimulation to the periphery. Sympathetic nerve
causes vasoconstriction. Constricts smooth muscle cells lining your blood vessels
- Cells that force you to take to inhale and exhale as well
o Dorsal respiratory group (DRG): force you to inhale, upon inhibition you exhale –
involuntary at rest
o Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG): activated for manual ventilation while exercising
- Reflex centres for coughing, sneezing and swallowing
Reticular formation
- Scattered nuclei in medulla, pons and midbrain
- Alerts cerebral cortex to sensory signals in
order to awaken you from sleep
- Nuclei and cells that respond to startling
- Maintains behavioural arousal and
consciousness by using stimuli from ears, eyes,
skin and muscles
- Motor function is involved with maintaining
muscle tone
Cerebellum:
- Located behind the brain stem
- Receives info from ear and muscles
- Responsible for movement, coordination, balance
- Ensures brain knows the position of your limbs in space
Thalamus:
- Receives sensory info from spinal cord and periphery
- Feeds into to the most appropriate receiving station in the
cerebral cortex (top part of brain that controls shit)
- Also registers conscious recognition of pain and temperature.
- Some awareness of light touch and pressure
- Acquisition of knowledge (cognition)
Epithalamus:
- Contains the Pineal gland produces melatonin—controls sleep patterns in conjunction with the
hypothalamus, causes you to sleep
- Contains the Habenular nuclei – involved in Olfaction, especially emotional responses to odours
Hypothalamus:
- Controls ANS (Autonomic Nervous system): the part of the nervous system responsible for
control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and
digestive processes.
- Maintains Homeostasis; Hormones, body temperature, emotion, eating etc
- Regulates circadian rhythms (body clock) and states of consciousness
Cerebrum:
- Largest part of brain,
o Top of it is the cerebral cortex; grey matter, controls
all the shit
o The cortex contains gyri, deep grooves (fissures) and
shallower grooves (sulci)
o Under the cortex is the cerebral white matter. These
are tracts that connect parts of the brain with itself
and other part of the nervous system
- Separated into right and left halves (hemispheres)
o Internally it remains connected by the corpus
callosum; a bundle of transverse white fibres
Cerebral cortex
- Where the conscious mind is find
o Memory, attention, perceptual awareness, thought,
language and consciousness
Boca’s: speech
Basal ganglia:
- Located deep within the cerebral
hemisphere (which just mean under the
masses of gray matter)
- Basal ganglia has 3 nuclei, collectively called
Corpus Striatum
- Nuclei receive input from cerebal cortex and
provide output back to motor parts of cortex
- Major function
o Regulate initiation and termination
of movements
o Damage of basal ganglia leads to
Parkinson disease
Limbic system
- Amygdala
o Anxiety, mood, sexual desire
o Receives info from smell, taste, sound
- Hippocampus:
o Memory
- Fornix
- Cingulate gyrus
Homunculus
In the right cerebral hemisphere
- Lots of
info
goes
to
hand,
face
- Not
much
in
genitals
Cranial nerves
IV) Trochlear Innervates skeletal muscle to move eyeball down and Sensory and MOTOR
laterally
V) Trigeminal Innervates chewing muscles Sensory and motor
VI) Abducens Innervated skeletal muscle that moves the eyeball Sensory and MOTOR
Nerve laterally
VII) Facial Nerve Facial expressions, nose, salivary glands, swallowing.
VIII) Vestibuloco Balance, hearing
chlear
Nerve
IX) Glossophary Swallowing
ngeal Nerve Sensory and motor
X) Vagus nerve Long nerve, wonders down body. From brain to thoracic
cavity, heart, abdomen
Spinal cord
Spinal cord, Spinal nerves and Reflexes
Protective structures
- Vertebral column
- CSF (produced in ventricles, in the coracoid plexuses, within the ependymal cells) is present in
the subarachnoid space around the spinal cord and acts as protective cushion for the spinal
cord as well as brain
- Denticulate ligaments
o Extend from the pia mater through the arachnoid mater to the dura mater.
o The ligaments protect the spinal cord against sudden displacement that could result in
shock
o Saw tooth pattern along the length of the spinal column on both sides prevents lateral
movement and secures it to bony walls of the vertebral column.
- Spi
nal
Spinal meninges
Pia mater
- Innermost meningeal layer, stuck
onto brain and spinal cord
- Meshwork of elastic and collagen
fibres
- Bound to underlying nervous
tissue
Arachnoid mater
- Middle meningeal layer
- Made of simple squamous
epithelium called the arachnoid
membrane
- Network of collagen and elastic
fibres connecting to pia mater
- Subarachnoid space
o Contains CSF which acts
of shock absorber
o A spinal tap (lumbar
puncture) withdraws CSF
via a needle from the
subarachnoid space
Dura mater
- Outermost
- Dense collagen
Epidural space
- Between dura and vertebral canal
- Contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves and protective adipose tissue (adipose = fat)
- The fat acts as a protective cushion
- Epidural is injected into the epidural cavity so that the
drug numbs the nerves at the source.
- Because spinal cord ends when the vertebral column becomes extremely narrow (at the point
of cauda Medullaris)
- After Cauda Medullaris, the spinal cord becomes one filament called filum terminale (an
extension of the pia mater) and travels down to pelvic region/ coccyx where it terminates. Filum
Terminale provides longitudinal support to the spinal cord.
- Horses hair shit happens at the point called cauda equina, where all the nerves branch off from
the bottom tip, (not as in the superior swelling around the shoulders where the nerves come
out a bit more organised).
Spinal nerves
Spinal nerve has both sensory neurons and motor neurons. Carries info into spinal cord (where
integration happens) as well as back out to periphery.
- Sensory neurons enter CNS (spinal cord) via DORSAL /Posterior Root
- Motor neurons exit via VENTRAL /anterior Root
- Cervical 8
- Thoracic 12
- Lumber 5
- Sacral 5
- Coccygeal 1
Dorsal root: contains axons of neurons whose cell bodies are in the Dorsal Root Ganglion
Dorsal Root Ganglion: contains sensory neuron cell bodies. Each spinal segment contains one on each
side. When sensory nerves come from periphery there is a bulge just before spinal nerve carries info to
spinal cord. The bulge is a result of the cell bodies of all the sensory neurons.
Ventral root: contains axons of motor neurons extending into periphery to control muscles, glands and
visceral organs
Reflex Arc
Spinal reflex:
- Rapid, automatic response
- Preserve homeostasis by making rapid adjustments
- Do not consult with brain during reflex. Brain is only told about the nerves’ executive decisions
after the decisions have been made
1. Receptor
2. Sensory Neuron
3. Integrating Centre
4. Motor Neuron
5. Effector
An example:
After the reflex, info goes to brain and brain is like, oh wow, thanks spinal cord you saved me, probs
shouldn’t touch that shit again ay.
Stretch Reflex
The stretch reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle length by causing a muscle
contraction via muscle spindles which respond to change in length.
Muscle spindles are like little leaches in muscle fibre that are sensitive to change in length of muscle.
- If you overstretch muscle, you get a reflex to move it back and contract that muscle, so you
don’t pull muscle fibres
- Muscle spindles are small dudes
- Run in the same grain as the big muscle fibres (intrafusal)
- Gamma motor nerves – alter tension in the spindles and control sensitivity of receptor
- Alpha motor Neurons – stimulate big muscle fibres
Tendon Reflex
The tendon reflex operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle tension by causing relaxation.
- If muscle force becomes too great, tendons may be torn off bone.
- Golgi Tendon: if you contract, too much tension in lifting, it makes you relax.
An example:
When you hit the patella, it pulls the muscle forward (quads stretch)
Response is to stop stretching and relax (so muscle moves backward to contract, (quads shorten)
This flings out the knee.
Hamstrings relax, lengthens, (reciprocal inhibition) because mechanics tells you that you can’t contract
both; one contracts while one stretches.