BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

BATTERY TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION: A battery is a compact device consisting of two or

more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or both. It stores
chemical energy in the form of active materials and on demand
converts it into electrical energy through redox reactions. Thus, a
battery acts as portable source of electrical energy. Battery technology
has acquired importance in view of development in microelectronics
and increased demand for portable gadgets. The trend of
miniaturization has been challenging to the battery manufacturers.

The size of a battery ranges from a fraction of a cubic centimeter to

several cubic decimeters. Batteries are used in calculators, digital
watches, pace makers, hearing aids, portable computers, electronically
controlled cameras, car engines, stand-by power supplies, emergency
lighting and electroplating, industrial traction, telecommunication and
military and space applications.

Battery technology has made possible replacement of petrol driven

automobiles by electrically powered ones. Electronic gadgets have
become more reliable with the use of rechargeable batteries. A battery
is designed and manufactured for a specific performance such as, to
power a torch, to start a car engine, to supply emergency power to a
hospital or to generate a very precise voltage to maintain heartbeats.

COMPONENTS OF A BATTERY :

The basic electrochemical unit in a battery is the galvanic cell. The

major components of a battery are described below.
1. Anode or negative electrode : It releases electrons to the
external circuit by undergoing oxidation during electrochemical
reaction.
2. Cathode or positive electrode : It accepts electrons from the
external circuit and reduction of an active species occurs.
3. Electrolyte : It is the active mass in the anode and cathode
compartments. A solution of an acid, alkali or salt having high
ionic conductivity is commonly used as electrolyte. Solid
 electrolytes with appreciable ionic conductivity at the operating
temperature of the cell are also used.

Separator : It separates the anode and the cathode in a battery to

prevent internal short-circuiting. It is permeable to the electrolyte and
maintains the desired ionic conductivity. The main function of the
separator is to transport ions from the anode compartment to the
cathode compartment and vice versa. Fibrous forms of regenerated
cellulose, vinyl polymers and polyolefins, cellophane and nafion
membranes are used as separators.
CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES
Batteries are classified into:
1. Primary Batteries
2. Secondary Batteries
3. Reserve Batteries

Primary Batteries
A battery which cannot be recharged and discarded when the battery
has delivered all its electrical energy is called Primary Battery.
They are non- rechargeable because the cell reactions are
irreversible.

1. Example: Zn-MnO2 battery, Li-MnO2 battery

2. Secondary Batteries
A battery which after discharging can be recharged again by passing
the electric current through it in the opposite direction to that of
discharge is known as Secondary Battery.
They are rechargeable because the cell reactions are reversible.
The secondary battery is also called as storage battery as it is the
storage device for electrical energy.

Example: Lead storage battery, Nickel Cadmium Battery, etc.

 3. Reserve Batteries
One of the components is stored separately and incorporated into
the battery when required. Usually, the electrolyte is stored
separately. Such batteries are called Reserve Batteries.
Example: Mg-AgCl and Mg-CuCl batteries both are activated by
adding sea water.
Reserve batteries are used to deliver high power for relatively
short period of time in missiles, torpedoes and other weapon
systems.

Zinc-Air Battery

Zinc- air battery consists of a porous carbon plate as cathode. The

cathode is activated for better reduction of oxygen and treated with
water repellants. The anode consists of rectangular flat plates of zinc
placed on either side of the cathode. The electrolyte is 20% NaOH. The
outer container is made of glass or ebonite.
Zinc-air battery is a primary battery. Its advantage is that air does not
contribute to the mass of the battery, hence offers high energy density.
The cell is represented as,

𝑍𝑛|𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 (5 𝑀)|𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝐶
When air is passed through the cell, zinc is oxidized to ZnO at the
anode, during discharge. The oxygen of the air reacts with water at the
cathode. The half-cell reactions are

2𝑍𝑛 + 4𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 → 4𝑂𝐻 − 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒
The overall reaction is

2𝑍𝑛 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑍𝑛𝑂
Zn-air battery has an energy density of about 100 W h kg-1. This is three
times that of the classical lead acid battery and twice that of Ni-cd
battery.

Advantages:

1.High capacity

2.Low cost

3.Long shelf life

Disadvantages:

1.Limited power out put

2.Short activated life

Application:

It finds applications in hearing aids, electronic pagers ,railroad

signaling, medical devices, remote communications and military radio
receivers. only a few combinations are commercially feasible.

Lead -Acid battery Secondary battery (or) Storage battery

The lead storage battery consists of two electrodes made of flat grids of
lead as shown in Fig. The anode grid is packed with a paste consisting
of spongy lead and additives such as graphite powder (0.25%) lignin
sulphonate (0.2%) and barium sulphate (0.35%).
The graphite improves the conductivity while the other additives
prevent the reduction in the surface area of the lead. The cathode lead
grid is packed with a paste consisting of equal amounts of PbO2 and Pb.
Several such pairs of anode-cathode grids are immersed alternately in
5M(37%) sulphuric acid (specific gravity 1.25) which acts as the
electrolyte. The intercell connectors and terminals are welded into
place and sealed. Separators made of microporous polyethylene or
resin impregnated papers are used in between each set of electrodes to
insulate each plate from its neighbouring counter electrode. The
separators, however, allow acid transport into and out of the plates.
The thickness of the electrodes ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 cm in car
batteries. The battery is encased in a plastic or glass container.

The cell is represented as

𝑃𝑏, 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠)|𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (5𝑀)|𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠), 𝑃𝑏𝑂2 (𝑠), 𝑃𝑏

𝑃𝑏(𝑠) + 𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞 ) ⇌ 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠) + 2𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

𝑃𝑏𝑂2 (𝑠) + 4𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞 ) + 2𝑒 ⇌ 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝐼) 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒
The overall reaction is

𝑃𝑏 (𝑠) + 𝑃𝑏𝑂2 (𝑠) + 4𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞 ) + 2𝑆𝑂42− (𝑎𝑞 ) ⇌ 2𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 (𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝐼)
Thus at 250C and at a concentration of 7.4% sulphuric acid the potential
developed by a pair of electrode is 1.90V;at 21.%,2.0V and at 39.2%
2.14V.

Each pair of electrodes produces 2V and a battery consisting of six such

electrode pairs gives about 12V. Such a battery is used in cars. Note
that the cell potentials are found to be additive when connected in
series.

As the cell discharges, both the electrodes get plated with 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂4 .
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 is consumed liberating water as one of the products that results
in the dilution of the acid. Thus the discharge of the cell can be tested
by finding the specific gravity of sulphuric acid. The life of the battery is
limited because some PbSO4 plated over the electrode falls to the
bottom and hence will be no longer available for charging. This
happens particularly when the cell gets completely discharged.

Application:

It is used in automobilies ,hospitals, laboratories, emergency power

supplies, telephone exchangers.

Limitations:

1.Potential decreases with decrease in con.H2SO4

2.Cell potential reduced at low temperature

3.Excessive discharge &quick charging shortens the life of battery.

Lithium Ion Battery:

Lithium-ion battery is a rechargeable battery best suited to mobile
devices that require small size, light weight and high performance. It
has high energy and high voltage (3.6V).
Construction:
1. Anode: Lithium carbide.
2. Cathode: Lithium intercalated transition metal oxide.

In anode, lithium atoms occupy the position between the graphite

lattice layers.
The electrolyte consists of Li salt in an organic solvent (LiPF6, LiBF4) in
ethylene carbonate.
Microporous polyethylene or polypropylene is used as seperator.
The container is made up of stainless steel or aluminium alloy

In Li-ion battery, lithium ion move between the electrodes, using an

intercalated electrode material. Metal atoms and ions can enter
layered solids reversibly. Such a process is referred as intercalation.

Anode:

LixC6 ⇌ xLi++xe-+6C

Cathode:

Li1-xCoO2 +xLi++xe- ⇌LiCoO2

Net reaction:

LixC6 + Li1-xCoO2⇌ LiCoO2+6C

Both the electrodes are layered solids and can accommodate metal and
their ions in between the layers.

During charging, Li in positive electrode material is ionized and moves

from layer to layer and gets inserted into the negative electrode.
During discharging, Li ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate
across the electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure of host
compound of cathode.
Applications:
Used in: Cameras, Calculators, Pacemakers, Portable radio, TV, Laptops.

Fuel cells
Introduction The principle of the fuel cell was discovered in 1839 by Sir
William Grove, who has been acknowledged as the “Father of the Fuel
Cell ”.
Definition A fuel cell is a galvanic cell in which the chemical energy
contained in a readily available fuel oxidant system is converted directly
into electrical energy by means of electrochemical processes in which
the fuel is oxidized at the anode.
Like any other electrochemical cell, the fuel cell has two electrodes and
an electrolyte. However , the fuel and the oxidizing agents are
continuously and separately supplied to the two electrodes of the cell,
at which they undergo reactions. These cells are capable of supplying
current as long as they are supplied with the reactants.

A fuel cell essentially consists of the following arrangement:

Fuel/electrode/electrolyte/electrode/oxidant

At the anode, fuel under goes oxidation:

Fuel Oxidation product+ ne-
At the cathode, the oxidant gets reduced:
Oxidant+ ne-  Reduction products
The electrons liberated from the oxidation process at the anode can
perform useful work when they pass through the external circuit to the
cathode.
The fuel cell differs from a battery in the following respects.
1) In a fuel cell, the reactants do not form an integral part; they are fed
from outside.
2) Fuel cells do not store chemical energy.
3) Reactants are constantly supplied and the products are constantly
removed from the cell.

Advantages
1) Their power efficiency is high
2) They are eco-friendly since the products of the overall reactions are
not toxic
3) They can produce direct currents for long periods at a low cost.
Fuel cells are about three times more efficient than any other method
of providing electricity on board. Hence they are used as auxiliary
power generators in space vehicles. Fuel cells are used in car engines,
domestic lighting and heating.
Limitations
1. Cost of power is high as a result of the cost of the electrodes
2. Fuels in the form of gases and oxygen need to be stored in tanks
under high pressure.
3. Power output is moderate
4. To have an appreciable voltage, a battery of fuel cells must be
available.
Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell
It is the most common and advanced type of fuel cell. The cell
consist of a porous carbon electrode impregnated with
catalysts such as finely divided platinum or palladium as
anode.The cathode is also a porouscarbon electrode
impregnated with platinum or silver catalyst.The electrolyte is
an aqueous solution of KOH .The hydrogen gas fuel is
continuously supplied at the anode and oxygen gas is supplied
at the cathode.As the hydrogen gas diffuses through the
anode,it is adsorbed on the electrode surface and reacts with
hydroxyl ions to form water. At the cathode oxygen diffusing
through the electrode is adsorbed and reduced to hydroxyl
ions.
 • Anode H2 + 2OH-  2H2O + 2e-

• Cathode ½ O2 + H2O + 2e-  2OH-

Overall reaction H2 + ½ O2  H2O

Water the product of the overall reaction, should be removed at

the same rate as it is formed. Otherwise, water dilutes the KOH
and the cell becomes inoperative. Therefore, the electrolyte is kept
hot so that water evaporates as fast as it is formed. A wick placed
inside the electrolyte helps in maintaining water balance. The cell
produces an emf of 1.23V.

H2-O2 fuel cell is used as an electric power source for space

vehicles , military and mobile power systems. It has been used in
Apollo space programme.