Powder

Metallurgy
Science, Technology and Applications

P.C. Angelo
R. Subramanian
 Powder Metallurgy
Science, Technology and Applications

P.C. ANGELO
Professor and Head
Metals Testing and Research Centre
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore

R. SUBRAMANIAN
Assistant Professor
Department of Metallurgical Engineering
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore

DELHI-110092
2015
POWDER METALLURGY: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS
P.C. Angelo and R. Subramanian

© 2008 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-3281-2

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Fourth Printing   January, 2015

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
 Chapter
Contents

Foreword ..................................................................................................................................... ix
Preface ......................................................................................................................................... xi
1. Powder Metallurgy: Basic Steps .................................................................................. 1–18
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Historical Background .................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Steps in Powder Metallurgy ......................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Powder Production ............................................................................................ 3
1.3.2 Compaction ........................................................................................................ 4
1.3.3 Sintering ............................................................................................................. 4
1.3.4 Secondary and Other Finishing Operations ..................................................... 5
1.4 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy Process ................................................................. 6
1.4.1 Process Advantages ........................................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Metallurgical Advantages .................................................................................. 7
1.4.3 Commercial Advantages/Special Characteristic of
Powder Metallurgy Parts .................................................................................. 7
1.5 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy Processing over Conventional
Material Processing ...................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Powder Metallurgy: A Unique Manufacturing Process .............................................. 8
1.7 Applications of Powder Metallurgy ............................................................................. 9
1.8 Limitations of Powder Metallurgy ............................................................................. 15
1.8.1 Technical ......................................................................................................... 15
1.8.2 Economical ...................................................................................................... 16
1.8.3 Psychological ................................................................................................... 17
1.9 Recent Trends ............................................................................................................. 17
1.9.1 Powder Manufacture ....................................................................................... 17
1.9.2 Compaction ...................................................................................................... 17
1.9.3 Manufacturing ................................................................................................. 17

2. Production of Powders ................................................................................................ 19–40

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 19
2.2 Powder Production Methods ...................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 Mechanical Methods ....................................................................................... 20
iii
 iv Contents

2.2.2 Chemical Methods .......................................................................................... 26

2.2.3 Physical Methods ............................................................................................ 34
2.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 36
2.4 Production of Ceramic Powders ................................................................................ 37
2.4.1 Mechanical Methods ....................................................................................... 37
2.4.2 Chemical Methods .......................................................................................... 37
2.5 Alloy Powder Designation ......................................................................................... 39
2.6 Metal Powders and Their Applications ..................................................................... 40

3. Powder Treatment and Handling .............................................................................. 41–49

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 41
3.2 Powder Treatments ..................................................................................................... 41
3.2.1 Cleaning of Powders ....................................................................................... 42
3.2.2 Grinding ........................................................................................................... 42
3.2.3 Powder Classification and Screening ............................................................. 42
3.2.4 Blending and Mixing ...................................................................................... 43
3.3 Coating of Metal Powders ......................................................................................... 48
3.4 Pyrophoricity and Toxicity of Powders ..................................................................... 48
3.4.1 Pyrophoricity ................................................................................................... 48
3.4.2 Toxicity ............................................................................................................ 49

4. Metal Powder Characteristics .................................................................................... 50–83

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 50
4.2 Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 50
4.3 Metal Powder Characterization .................................................................................. 52
4.3.1 Chemical Composition Analysis ..................................................................... 52
4.3.2 Particle Shape Analysis .................................................................................. 55
4.3.3 Particle Size ..................................................................................................... 57
4.3.4 Microscopic Method ....................................................................................... 64
4.3.5 Sedimentation .................................................................................................. 65
4.3.6 Elutriation ........................................................................................................ 68
4.3.7 Fischer Subsieve Sizer .................................................................................... 69
4.3.8 Coulter Counter ............................................................................................... 71
4.4 Surface Area (Specific Surface) ................................................................................ 72
4.4.1 Gas Adsorption Method .................................................................................. 73
4.5 Laser Light Scattering ................................................................................................ 74
4.6 Microstructural Features ............................................................................................. 75
4.7 Packing and flow Characteristics of Powders ........................................................... 76
4.7.1 Angle of Repose ............................................................................................. 76
4.7.2 Flow Rate ........................................................................................................ 77
4.8 Density ........................................................................................................................ 79
4.8.1 Apparent Density of the Metal Powder ......................................................... 79
4.8.2 Tap Density ..................................................................................................... 80
4.9 Porosity ....................................................................................................................... 80
4.10 Compressibility of Metal Powder .............................................................................. 81
4.11 Strength Properties ..................................................................................................... 82
4.11.1 Green Strength ................................................................................................ 82
4.11.2 Properties of Sintered Compact ...................................................................... 83
 Contents v
5. Compaction of Metal Powders ................................................................................ 84–117
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 84
5.2 Powder Pressing ......................................................................................................... 84
5.2.1 Powder Shaping and Compaction .................................................................. 85
5.2.2 Binders ............................................................................................................. 85
5.3 Powder Compaction Methods .................................................................................... 87
5.3.1 Pressureless Compaction Techniques ............................................................. 88
5.3.2 Pressure Compaction Techniques ................................................................... 93
5.4 Classification of P/M Parts ...................................................................................... 101
5.4.1 P/M Parts: Die Pressing Design Considerations .......................................... 103
5.5 Cold Isostatic Compaction ....................................................................................... 105
5.5.1 Process ........................................................................................................... 106
5.5.2 Types of Cold Isostatic Pressing .................................................................. 108
5.5.3 Advantages of Cold Isostatic Pressing ......................................................... 109
5.5.4 Applications of Cold Isostatic Pressing ....................................................... 109
5.6 Powder Rolling ......................................................................................................... 110
5.6.1 Steps in Powder Rolling ............................................................................... 111
5.6.2 Advantages of Powder Rolling ..................................................................... 113
5.6.3 Disadvantages of Powder Rolling ................................................................ 113
5.6.4 Influence of Powder Characteristics on Powder Rolling ............................ 114
5.6.5 Applications of Powder Rolling ................................................................... 114
5.7 Miscellaneous Compaction Techniques ................................................................... 115
5.7.1 Continuous Compaction ................................................................................ 115
5.7.2 Explosive Compaction .................................................................................. 116
5.7.3 Forming of Ceramic Powders ....................................................................... 117

6. High-Temperature Compaction .............................................................................. 118–125

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 118
6.2 Principles of Pressure Sintering ............................................................................... 118
6.2.1 Uniaxial Hot Pressing ................................................................................... 119
6.2.2 Hot Extrusion ................................................................................................ 120
6.2.3 Spark Sintering .............................................................................................. 121
6.2.4 Hot Isostatic Pressing .................................................................................... 121
6.2.5 Injection Moulding ........................................................................................ 125

7. Sintering ................................................................................................................... 126–174

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 126
7.1.1 Historical Development ................................................................................. 127
7.2 Types of Sintering .................................................................................................... 128
7.2.1 Solid State Sintering ..................................................................................... 128
7.2.2 Liquid Phase Sintering .................................................................................. 129
7.2.3 Activated Sintering ........................................................................................ 129
7.2.4 Reaction Sintering ......................................................................................... 129
7.2.5 Rate-controlled Sintering .............................................................................. 130
7.2.6 Microwave Sintering ..................................................................................... 130
7.2.7 Self-propagating High-temperature Synthesis .............................................. 130
7.2.8 Gas Plasma Sintering .................................................................................... 130
7.2.9 Spark Plasma Sintering ................................................................................. 131
 vi Contents

7.3 Sintering Theory ....................................................................................................... 131

7.3.1 Thermodynamics of Solid State Sintering Process ...................................... 131
7.3.2 Stages in Solid State Sintering ..................................................................... 132
7.3.3 Driving Force for Sintering .......................................................................... 133
7.3.4 Sintering Mechanisms ................................................................................... 134
7.3.5 Development of Kinetic Theories of Sintering ............................................ 141
7.3.6 Sintering Mechanism Maps and Computer Modeling ................................. 143
7.3.7 Structure and Property Changes during Sintering ....................................... 143
7.4 Sintering of Multicomponent Systems ..................................................................... 144
7.4.1 Sintering of Powder Aggregates with No Liquid Phase Formation ........... 145
7.4.2 Liquid Phase Sintering .................................................................................. 145
7.4.3 Advantages of Liquid Phase Sintering ......................................................... 148
7.5 Variables ................................................................................................................... 149
7.5.1 Process Variables .......................................................................................... 149
7.5.2 Material Variables ......................................................................................... 149
7.6 Effects of Sintering................................................................................................... 150
7.6.1 Dimensional Changes .................................................................................... 150
7.6.2 Microstructural Changes ............................................................................... 150
7.7 Porosity in Sintered P/M Parts ................................................................................ 151
7.8 Sintering Atmospheres .............................................................................................. 152
7.8.1 Need for Sintering Atmospheres .................................................................. 153
7.8.2 Functions of a Sintering Atmosphere ........................................................... 153
7.8.3 Hydrogen ....................................................................................................... 156
7.8.4 Reformed Hydrocarbon Gases ...................................................................... 157
7.8.5 Nitrogen-based Mixtures ............................................................................... 160
7.8.6 Dissociated Ammonia ................................................................................... 162
7.8.7 Inert Gases ..................................................................................................... 163
7.8.8 Vacuum .......................................................................................................... 163
7.9 Sintering Practice ...................................................................................................... 164
7.9.1 Sintering Atmosphere Analysis and Control ................................................ 166
7.10 Sintering Furnaces .................................................................................................. 168
7.11 Metallography of P/M Parts ................................................................................... 171
7.11.1 Characterization of Powders ......................................................................... 171
7.11.2 Characterization of P/M Parts Containing Porosity ..................................... 172

8. Postsintering Operations ......................................................................................... 175–183

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 175
8.2 Sizing ....................................................................................................................... 175
8.3 Coining...................................................................................................................... 176
8.4 Repressing and Resintering ...................................................................................... 176
8.5 Impregnation ............................................................................................................. 177
8.6 Infiltration ................................................................................................................. 177
8.7 Heat Treatment ......................................................................................................... 179
8.8 Steam Treatment ....................................................................................................... 180
8.9 Machining ................................................................................................................. 181
8.10 Joining ....................................................................................................................... 182
8.11 Plating ....................................................................................................................... 182
8.12 Other Coatings .......................................................................................................... 183
 Contents vii

9. Powder Metallurgy Products ................................................................................. 184–215

9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 184
9.2 Porous P/M Parts ...................................................................................................... 184
9.2.1 Introduction to Porous Materials .................................................................. 184
9.2.2 P/M Porous Bearings .................................................................................... 185
9.2.3 P/M Porous Filters ........................................................................................ 190
9.3 Sintered Carbides ...................................................................................................... 196
9.3.1 Introduction to Sintered Carbides ................................................................. 196
9.3.2 Manufacture of Tungsten Carbides .............................................................. 198
9.3.3 Sintering of WC-TiC-Co Alloys .................................................................. 201
9.3.4 Properties of Sintered Carbides .................................................................... 202
9.3.5 Applications of Carbide Tools...................................................................... 203
9.3.6 Recycling of Tungsten Carbides .................................................................. 203
9.3.7 Titanium Carbide Tools ................................................................................ 203
9.3.8 Other Developments ...................................................................................... 204
9.4 Cermets ..................................................................................................................... 205
9.4.1 Introduction to Cermets ................................................................................ 205
9.4.2 Classification of Cermets .............................................................................. 205
9.4.3 Important Characteristics of Cermets ........................................................... 206
9.4.4 Production of Cermets .................................................................................. 206
9.4.5 Important Cermet Grades .............................................................................. 207
9.5 Dispersion Strengthened Materials........................................................................... 207
9.5.1 Introduction to Dispersion Strengthened Materials ...................................... 207
9.5.2 Manufacturing Methods ................................................................................ 208
9.5.3 Important Dispersion Strengthened Alloys................................................... 209
9.6 Electrical Applications of P/M ................................................................................ 210
9.6.1 Introduction to P/M Electrical Materials ...................................................... 210
9.6.2 P/M Electrical Contacts ................................................................................ 210
9.6.3 Compound Contact Materials ....................................................................... 211
9.6.4 Production of Contact Materials ................................................................... 211
9.6.5 Applications of P/M Electrical Contact Materials ....................................... 212
9.7 Sintered Friction Materials ....................................................................................... 213
9.7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 213
9.7.2 Sintered Friction Material Constituents ....................................................... 214
9.7.3 Production of Sintered Friction Materials ................................................... 215
9.7.4 Application of Sintered Friction Materials .................................................. 215

10. Advanced Powder Metallurgical Processing Techniques ................................... 216–267

10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 216
10.2 Atomization ............................................................................................................... 216
10.2.1 Types of Atomization ................................................................................. 216
10.2.2 Advantages of Atomization ........................................................................ 218
10.2.3 Atomization Unit......................................................................................... 218
10.2.4 Mechanism of Atomization ........................................................................ 221
10.2.5 Process Parameters ...................................................................................... 222
10.2.6 Characteristics of Atomized Powders ........................................................ 224
 viii Contents

10.2.7 Important Atomization Processes ............................................................... 226

10.3 Mechanical Alloying ................................................................................................ 234
10.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 234
10.3.2 History of Mechanical Alloying ................................................................. 234
10.3.3 Process ......................................................................................................... 235
10.3.4 Milling Parameters ...................................................................................... 237
10.3.5 Material Synthesizing Capabilities of Mechanical Alloying ..................... 240
10.3.6 Types of Phases Formed by Mechanical Alloying ................................... 242
10.3.7 Mechanical Alloying of Miscible Systems ................................................ 242
10.3.8 Mechanic Alloying of Immiscible Systems ............................................... 243
10.3.9 Oxide Dispersion Strengthened (ODS) Alloys .......................................... 244
10.3.10 Reactive Milling .......................................................................................... 245
10.3.11 Phase Transitions Induced by Mechanical Alloying ................................. 246
10.4 Metal Injection Moulding ........................................................................................ 250
10.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 250
10.4.2 Steps in MIM .............................................................................................. 250
10.4.3 Advantages of MIM ................................................................................... 252
10.4.4 Requirements for MIM ............................................................................... 252
10.4.5 Materials Processed by MIM ..................................................................... 253
10.4.6 Design for MIM ......................................................................................... 253
10.4.7 Some Important Rules for MIM Design ................................................... 253
10.4.8 Application of MIM Components .............................................................. 254
10.4.9 Comparison of MIM with Conventional P/M ........................................... 254
10.4.10 Defects in MIM Parts ............................................................................... 255
10.5 Microwave Sintering of Metals ............................................................................. 255
10.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 255
10.5.2 Advantages of Microwave Sintering over Conventional Sintering ........... 256
10.6 Self-propagating High-temperature Synthesis .......................................................... 256
10.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 256
10.6.2 Types of SHS Reactions ............................................................................ 257
10.6.3 Classes of SHS Reactions .......................................................................... 257
10.6.4 SHS Physicochemical Mechanisms ............................................................ 258
10.6.5 SHS Terminology ....................................................................................... 259
10.6.6 Advantages of SHS .................................................................................... 259
10.6.7 Process ......................................................................................................... 260
10.6.8 Reaction Mechanisms ................................................................................. 260
10.6.9 SHS Processing ........................................................................................... 261
10.6.10 Experimental Parameters Affecting SHS ................................................... 263
10.6.11 Consolidation during Combustion in SHS ................................................. 263
10.6.12 Combustion-assisted Synthesis of Composites .......................................... 264
10.6.13 Types of Products Synthesized by SHS .................................................... 265
10.6.14 Applications of SHS Materials ................................................................... 265
10.6.15 SHS: An Alternate Technology ................................................................. 266
10.6.16 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................... 267
Appendix: Terminology .................................................................................................. 269–290
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 291–295
Index ................................................................................................................................. 297–300
 Chapter
Foreword

Powder Metallurgy is an ancient materials processing technology, older than the melting and
casting processes. This route enabled solid-state reduction of ores and processing them to
required shapes and sizes when energy was not available for melting and processing. This
technology continues to be in vogue even today in spite of our ability to generate very high
temperatures and desired atmospheres. The attractions of Power Metallurgy are many. The
energy needed for processing and shaping is less and it is possible to introduce desired properties
at different sections of the same part to meet performance requirements. The initial handicap of
not reaching theoretical densities has been overcome.
Thanks to various post-sintering processing and the availability of pressure sintering, it is
possible to control porosity and retain them to desired amounts when required. Such tailoring of
properties and accurate shaping of products are great assets and these have enabled large scale
assembly line production of parts meeting stringent property needs.
There are four main stages in making P/M products: making of powder, compacting into
preforms, sintering to required densities and post-sintering operations to final products. Every
one of these stages is vital for determining the success of the product, and all demand an
understanding of the scientific principles behind them.
Dr. Peter Angelo is distinguished materials scientist and has decades of outstanding
scientific contributions behind him. In addition to being a good researcher, he is also a good
teacher and this is reflected in this volume where knowledge and presentation skills intermingle
synergistically. His co-author, Dr. R. Subramanian in this venture is a well known and
distinguished teacher in materials science. His knowledge of materials science and experience
in teaching have made the collaboration between the authors fruitful. All stages of Powder
Metallurgy are clearly discussed and also a few new areas that are becoming prominent.
This volume will be useful to all students of materials science and engineering and also
to its practitioners. P/M, as Powder Metallurgy is affectionately called, sustains a growth industry
with many new challenges before it. How can nanomaterials be integrated into preforms without
the nanoparticles losing their unique properties? How can composite materials be produced
without the fibres losing their shapes and properties? There are many more such unanswered
questions in this area.

ix
Powder Metallurgy : Science,Technology
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