No.1 Print (CH 1 To 7 & 13) PDF

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 1 ] ...............................................
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CHAPTER ( 1 )
THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF ATOMS, PERIODIC TABLE
AND CHEMICAL BONDS
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;jzpfwJYDalton's atomic theory (7)csu f?Matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
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Arrangement of Fundamental Particles
Fundamental particles t ajccH u sao mt r Iefr sm;

All matter is made up of atoms. Atoms consist of three fundamental particles.
They are protons, neutrons and electrons.
Fundamental particles and their masses and charges
Particles Mass Charge
Proton 1amu positive vQ

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Neutron 1amu neutral vQ

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Electron 1/1840amu negative vQ

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* Electron is lightest particles.Therefore its mass is negligible.
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Arrangment of the fundamental particles in the atom
←empty space
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* The atom has a small, dense, positively charged center called nucleus. ↑
nucleus
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* The hydrogen atom is without neutron.

* The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
* Outside and around the nucleus, electron move in circular or near circular orbits called shells.
* The negative charge of the electrons balances the positive charge of the nucleus.
The atom as a whole is neutral.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 2 ] ..............................................." mwk&wemo d
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Atom
An atom is the basic unit of the element and it can enter into chemical combination.
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It consists of three fundamental particles called protons, electrons and neutrons.
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Protons
Protons are positively charged particles reside in the nucleus of the atom.
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Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles move outside and around the nucleus in circular orbits.
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Neutrons
Neutrons are uncharged particles of the nucleus of the atom.

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Nucleus is small, dense and positively charged centre of the atom. It contains protons and neutrons.
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The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number of that element.
Atomic number (Z) = no; of protons = no; of electrons
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............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

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IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0
1 1H 1H 2 He
2 3 Li 4 Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 1 0 Ne
Transition Elements
3 1 1 Na 12 M g 13 Al 1 4 Si 1 5P 16 S 1 7 Cl 18 Ar
4 1 9K 20 Ca
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The mass number of an element is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom of that element.
Mass number (A) = no; of protons + no; of neutrons
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Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
are called isotopes. or
Atoms of the same element with different masses are called isotopes.
35 37
eg., 17 Cl and 17 Cl are isotopes.
A
Notation For Isotopes ------------ X
Z
Z = atomic number ( p+ ) X = element, A = mass number ( p+ and n0 )
eg. Determine the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom of 27 13 Al ?
Write down its possible isotopes.
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possible isotopes = 28 29
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............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 4 ] ..............................................." mwk&wemo d ku f
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Electronic structure
The distribution of electrons in an atom of an element is known as the electronic structure of that element.
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There are three types of electronic structure
(i) Complete Electronic Structure [ CES ]
(ii) Integer Electronic Structure [ IES ]
(iii) Diagram Electronic Structure.[ DES ]
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Diagram Electronic Structure.[ DES ]
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2 K L M N
Maximum number of electrons »
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1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d ....... Complete .E.S
2 8 8 2 ----- Integer E.S
1s 2 2s 2 2p6 3s 2 3p6 4s 2
(i) Shells (n)
Maximum number of electrons in each shell is 2n2, n is shell number.
Shell Maximum number of electrons
K, n = 1, 2n2 = 2 x 12 =2 K shell r S
melectron 2 v kH
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L , n = 2, 2n2 = 2 x 22 =8 L shell r S
melectron 8 v kH
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M, n = 3, 2n2 = 2 x 32 = 18 M shell r Smelectron 18 v kH
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N, n = 4, 2n2 = 2 x 42 = 32 and so on... N shell r S
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............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

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( ii ) Sub shells Maximum number of electrons

s (sharp) 2 ,p (principal) 6 , d (diffuse) 10 , f (fundamental) 14
K shell (1) r S
msub-shell (t cG uG
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d = 2 = 2
L shell (2) r S
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d 2 6
= 2+6 = 8
M shell (3) r S
msub-shell (t cG uG
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;ckk&S
d
r , f = 3s2 3p6 3d10 = 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
N shell (4) r S
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2 6 10 14
= 32
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(iii) Order of filling up sub shells with electrons

Order of occupancy of sub-shells »»» 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p 3d ----»»
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Complete electronic structure [ CES ]

The arrangement of all the electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate sub-shells is called the
complete electronic structure of that element.
Example, 20Ca = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 IES á 2.8.8.2
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m&SwJYelectron t m;v ;kH
d udko i fh
av smf&msub-shell t o D
;o D
;r S
m&S
o r Qelectron awG
d t m;v kH
;jzn fh
pG
uf
0i fa&mu fae&m, ljci f;u dkN
yD;jyn fh
pkH
ao mt D
v u fx &G
efwn faq mu fykH
vdac:ygw, f/ Integer eJY
kY azmfjy&i f2.8.8.2 jzpfygw, f?
Essential electronic structure [ EES ]

The arrangement of valence electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate sub-shells is called the
essential electronic structure of that element.
Example, 20Ca = 4s2 [ Don't write Integer. ]
j' yfpi ft u fwr fwpfckrS
m&SwJYvalence electron (aygi f;pn f;u d
d ef;jy electron)awG ud kyJsub-shell r S
maz:jyx m;wmu kd
vd kt yft Dv u fx &Gefwn faq mu fykH vdac:w, f/ aemu fq kH
kY ;r S
melectron b , fav mu f&S w, fq d
d kwmu dko d
Ed
kifo v dkaAv i fpD
ud kv J&S
mEd
kifw, f essential electronic structure u d kInteger electronic structure eJY a&;o m;az:jyv d kU
r &ygb l;/
u Ji gwd u su fr S
kY wfx m;wJYj' yfpi f 20 t wG
u ft D
v u fx &G efwn faq mu fykH
udka&;M
u n fh
M
u wmaygU /
[Order of occupancy of sub-shells ------1s, 2s, 2p, 3s 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p....]
H &J Ut u fwr ft r SwfpOfu (1) ' gY aMu mifhp+ u 1v kH ;q d
k&i f?e v J1v kH
;aygU
/ ( p+ eJUe wlwmu d
ko d
w, faemfr ar Y
eJY
)
u Jjzn fh
N
yDqw k meJYyx r q kH
d ; e jzn fh
0i fykH
t pD
t pOft & 1s u d kp0i fw, f?
H rS m&Swmu e (1)v kH
d ; s - shell r S
mjzn fh0i fEd
kiw
f mu e 2 v kH;?
' gaMu mifh' D
vdka&;r , f/ á 1H = 1s1 IES á 1
He &J U
t u fwr ft r SwfpOfu (2) ' gY aMu mifhp+ u 2 v kH ;q dk&i f?e v J2 v kH
;aygU /
yx r q kH; e jzn fh
0i fykH
t pDt pOft & 1s u d kp0i fr , f?He r Sm&Swmu e 2 v kH
d ; s shell r Smjzn fhEd
kifwmu e 2 v kH;?
' gq d
k' D
vd ka&;r , f/ á 2He = 1s 2
IES á 2
Li &J Ut u fwr ft r S wfpOfu (3) ' gYaMu mifhp+ u 3 v kH ;q d
k&i f?e v J3 v kH
;aygU / e jzn fh
0i fykH
t pDt pOft & 1s u d kp0i fr , f?
Li r Sm&Swmu e 3 v kH
d ; s shell r S
mjzn fh
Ed
kifwmu e 2 v kH ; ?(1)v kH;yd
kaew, f' gq d k1s aemu fu 2s x Ju d kq u f0i fr , f
'Dvdka&;r , f/ á 3Li = 1s2 2s1 IES á 2.1
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Be &J Ut u fwr ft r S
wfpOfu (4) ' gYaMu mifhp+ u 4 v kH ;q d
k&i f?e v J4 v kH
;aygU
/ e jzn fh
0i fykH
t pD
t pOft & 1s u d kp0i fr , f?
Be r Sm&Swmu e 4 v kH
d ; s shell r S
mjzn fh
Ed
kifwmu e 2 v kH ; ?(2)v kH
;yd
kaew, f' gq d
k1s aemu fu 2s x Ju d kq u f0i fr , f
'D
vd ka&;r , f/ á 4Be = 1s2 2s2 IES á 2.2
B &J Ut u fwr ft r S wfpOfu (5) ' gYaMu mifhp+ u 5 v kH ;q d

k&i f?e v J5 v kH ;aygU / e jzn fh0i fykH
t pDt pOft & 1s u d kp0i fr , f?
B rS m&Swmu e 5 v kH
d ; s-shell r S
mjzn fh
Edkifwmu e 2 v kH ; ?(3)v kH;u sefao ;w, f-' gq d k1s r S m(2) v kH
; 2s r S
m(2 ) v kH
;-
yd
kaewJY (1)v kH;u d
k?2s aemu fu 2p r S m0i fr , f/ ( p r S
mu 6v kH ;x dr jyn fhr csi f;jzn fh
Ed
kifygw, f/)
p rSm6v kH ;x d jyn fh
oGm;&i faemu fx yfp aemu fu shell u d kq u fu l;r , f/
'Dvdka&;r , f/ á 5B = 1s 2s 2p 2 2 1
IES á 2.3
6
C = 1s2 2s2 2p2 [IES á 2.4] / 7
N = 1s2 2s2 2p3 [IES á 2.5] /
8
O = 1s 2
2s 2
2p 4
[IES á 2.6] / 9
F = 1s 2
2s 2
2p 5
[IES á 2.7] /
10
Ne = 1s 2s 2p [IES á 2.8]
2 2 6
/ 11
Na = 1s 2s 2p 3s [IES á 2.8.1] /
2 2 6 1
so on ........
Valence of an element
Valence of the element can be obtained from the essential electronic structure of the elements.
valence (aygi f;pn f;u d ef;jy)q d

kwmj' yfpi fwpfckwn fN r Japzd' gr S
kY r [ kwfj' yfaygi f;wpfckzG pn f;jzpfwn fzd
JY kU
t wG u fazmfjy electron
t a&t wG u fyJjzpfygw, f?(electrons ay;csi fay;r , f?, lcsi f, lr , f)o wfr S wfcsu fwpfckawmh &Sygw, f/ j' yfpi fawG
d rS m&S wJY
d
aygi f;pn f;u d
ef;u d k
odcsi fw, fq d k
&i f
o lwd
&JU
kY t D
v u fx &G efwn faq mu fykHaemu fq kH ;t yd
kif;r S
m&S wJYelectrons t a&t wG
d u fu 4 eJY4at mu fq d k&i f' D
t wd kif;, lr , f
4x u fau smf&i fawmh8 x Ju aejyefEIwfay;&r , f?( 8 v kH ;x u fau smf&i fr wn fN r Jawmh vd jzpfw, f)
kY
Valence of the element= in the outermost shell of the atom 4 or less than 4 number of electrons.
Valence of the element= is greater than 4, 8 minus the number of electrons in the outermost shell
u Jaemu fx yfpdwf0i fpm;p&mau mif;wJYt aM u mif;wpfckq u fMu &at mif. . . . . t J'gu b mv Jq d kawmht v S n fr S
efZ, m;
Periodic Table t aM u mif;yg/ awG&S
Y v mwJY
d j' yfpi fawG
u r sm;v mawmh pkpkpn f;pn f;av h
v m&v G
, fu lr Swfo m;Ed
kifat mif
t D
v u fx &e
Gfwn faq mu fykHwlwmawG ?t r sK
;t pm;wlawG
d ?*kP fo wÅwlwmawG
d ud
kwl&mwl&mpkt kyfpkawGt yd kif;awG cJN
G
yD;
az:jyzGJU
pn f;ay;x m;wJY
Z, m;u dkt v S
n fh
u sZ, m;?t v S n fh
rS
efZ, m;v d
ac:w, f/
kY
The Periodic Table

The electronic structures of elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers, so that elements with
similar electronic structures or similar properties fall under one another in a column. In this arrangement,
elements with similar electronic structures or similar properties occur at certain periodic intervals.
Hence the table is called the Periodic table.
The Groups and the Periods

In modern periodic table, there are arranged in 18 vertical columns and 7 horizontal rows.
t vSn fh
rS
efZ, m;r S
m18 vertical columns ax mifv d ku fau mfv H(18) ckygN
yD
; groups number t kyfpkv d
ac:ygw, f/
kY
7 horizontal rows a&n D jyi fr sOf;yd
kif; (7)yd
kif;ygN
yD
; periods number t yd kif;t r S
wfv d
kU
ac:w, f/
Group
In the periodic table, the vertical columns are called groups.
Period
In the periodic table, the horizontal rows are called periods.
Group number = number of electrons in the outermost shell (t jyi fb u fq k
; e t a&t wG
H u faygi f;u *½kt r Swf)
Period number = number of shells (s awG , p awG
a&SUuuG r fwr fu d
ef;o n ft ydkif;t r S
wfyg/)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0
1 1H 1H 2 He
2 3 Li 4 Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 1 0 Ne
Transition Elements
3 1 1 Na 12 M g 1 3 Al 14 Si 1 5P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
4 1 9K 2 0 Ca
Type of Elements
Alkali metals (s-block element v d kU

ac:w, f/ s - q d
kwJY
t ydkif;av ;eJYt q kH
;o wfx m;v d
kU
ygyJ/)
The elements in the Group IA with the exception of hydrogen are called alkali metals. eg. Li, Na, K
( Hydrogen u v G J&i fu sefwJY
o wÅ
K
awG
ud
kt , fu mv D
o wÅ K
awG vdkUac:M u w, f/ Hydrogen u " mwfai G U
qdkawmh
r ygb l;)
Alkaline earth metals (s-block element v d kU

ac:w, f/o lv Js - eJY
q kH
;v d
kU
yg/)
The elements (Be, Mg, Ca) in the Group IIA are called the alkaline earth metals.
t kyfpk(2) u awmh
&S
i f;ygw, f/ o lwd
ud
kY kt , fu mv D
ajr o wÅ
K
awGvd kU
ac:M u ygw, f/
Halogens ( p - eJ q kH
Y ;v d
kUp-block element v d kU
ac:w, f/ )
The elements in the Group VIIB again with the exception of hydrogen are called the halogens.
eg., F, Cl, Br, I ( Hydrogen u v G J&i fu sefwJY
j' yfpi fawG
udkhalogens (q m;jzpfapo lr sm;) v d
kU
ac:M
u ygw, f/
Noble gases or inert gases ( p - eJ q kH

Y ;v d
kUp-block element v d
kU
ac:w, f/ )
The elements in the Group 0 are called noble gases or inert gases. eg., He, Ne, Ar,
Transition Element ( d - eJ q kH
Y ;v dkUd-block element v d kU
ac:w, f/)
The elements in the central section of the periodic table are known as the transition elements.
t kyfpkIIA eJUIIIB Mu m;&S
dj' yfpi fr sm;u d
kawmhtransition elements M u m;q u fj' yfpi fr sm;(o d
) (r sK
kY ;jyj' yfpi fr sm;)
d
vd ac:ygw, f/ o lwd
kY [ mAlkali awG
kY &JUt &G
, ft pm;x u fi , fM
u w, f/
Periodic Properties
Elements change in properties from metals to non-metals or go from left to right across the periodic
table. The division of metals and non-metals in the periodic table is indicated by the dark line.
t vSn fh
u sZ, m;wpfck&JU*kP fo wÅ u b mawG
d v Jq d
k&i fZ, m;\ b , fu aen mb u fu d ko G
m;v d
ku f&i fmetal&JU*kP fo wÅ u ae
d
non-metal &J U
*kP fo wÅb u fo d
d u l;ajymif;o G
kY m;w, f/ t J'Do wÅKeJY
o wÅ K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fawGud kt eu fa&mifr sOf;v d
kif;eJYyd
ki;fjcm;x m;
w, f/ t J'D
r sOf;&JU
ab ;0J, mrS
m&SwJYj' yfpi fawG
d u ka
dwmho wÅ K
a, mifj' yfpi fawG vd ac:w, f/ (*kP fo wÅ
kY d2 r sK
;pv kH
d ;&Svd
d kU
yg)
Metals and non-metals

The elements to the left of dark line in the periodic table are metals and those to the right are non-metals.
Dark line &J
Ub , fzu fu awmho wÅ Kr sm;jzpfM
uNyD
; n mb u fu awmho wÅ
K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fr sm;jzpfygw, f/
Metalloid
For along each side of the dark line are elements that have properties of both metals and non-metals.
These elements except Al are called metalloids. eg., B, Si
Dark line wav Q mu fAl u v G J&i fb , feJU
n mrS
m&S
wJYB eJUSi u awmho wÅ
d K
a, mifr sm;jzpfM
uNyD
; o wÅ
K
&JU
*kP fo wÅ
v J&S
d ov d
d k
o wÅK
r [ kwo
f n fh*kP fo wÅ
v J&S
d ygw, f/ ( Al u *kP fo wÅ
d (2)r sK
d ;&S
d ao mfv n f;yJo wÅ
d Ka, mifr [ kwfyg/ o wÅ
Kjzpfygw, /f)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Electropositive elements
In general, metals are electropositive elements. They tend to lose electrons and form positive ions.
a, b l, st m;jzi fho wÅ
K
awG
[ mv Q yfzdkaq mifj' yfpi fawGjzpfM
u w, f?electron q kH ;½IH
;v G
, fN
yD; t aygi f;v Q
yfzd
kt d
kif, G
ef;awG
jzpfo G
m;M
u w, f/ ( t v u m;ay;v d ku fwmr [ kwfb l;aemfwn fN r JwJY
j' yfpi fjzpfcsi fv d
kYay;v dku fwm)
eg, Na Na+ + e 2.8.1 2.8 + 1e
Electropositivity ( E.P )
The electropositivity decreases from left to right across a period in the periodic table.
' gaM
u mifhZ, m;&JUb , fzu fu aen mb u fu d ka&mu fo G
m;&i fo wÅ K
awG
[ mv Q
yfzd
ko wÅ
wjzn f;jzn f;av smh
d en f;o G
m;w, f?
(av smh
rS
maygYav o lu v Q yfr j' yfpi fawG
M
u m;a&mu fo Gm;wmu d k;)
E.P left to right decrease
Electronegative elements
In general, non-metals are electronegative elements. They tend to gain electrons and form negative ions.
'D
vd kygyJo wÅ
Kr [ kwfj' yfpi fawG
u vQyfr aq mifj' yfpi fawG
jzpfM
u w, f?electron u d
k&, lN
yD
;v Q
yfr j' yfpi ft d
kif, G
ef;awG
jzpfo m
G;M
u w, f/
eg, Cl + e Cl- 2.8.7 + e 2.8.8
Electronegativity (E.N)
Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period in the periodic table.
' gaM
u mifhZ, m;&JUb , fzu fu aen mb u fu d
ka&mu fo G
m;&i fo wÅ
K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fawG
[ mv Q
yfr o wÅ
awGyd
d kwd
k;v mw, f/
E.N left to right increase
Noble gases or inert gases

The noble gases or inert gases are neither electropositive nor electronegative because they have very
stable electronic structure and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. (t aM u mif;jycsu far ;r S ajzyg))
The elements in the group (0) are known as noble gases or inert gases . (' gu d ku su fyg)
Z, m;&JU aemu fq kH ;r S
mt kyfpko kn jzpfw JYawmf0i f" mwfai G U (t pG r f;r JY
) awG u vQ yfzd
kj' yfpi fv Jr [ kwfo v d kv Q yfr j' yfpi fv Jr [ kw fwJh
" mwfai G U
awG jzpfM
u w, f?o lwd kY
&JU
t Dv u fx &G efw n faq mu fykH u wn fN r JM
u wJY t wG u f b , fo lY qD u r St D v u fx &G ef u d k &, lcsi fwmv J
r &S
ov d
d kay;csi fpd
w fv Jr&S d
ygb l;? (o wd x m;&r S mu o wÅ K
j' yfpi f?o wÅ Kr [ kwfj' yfpi f v d kY
ajymwmr[ kwfb l;aemf-v Q yfzd k? v Qyfr j' yfpi f
r [ kwfb l;v d
kY
ajymwm?o lu o wÅ K
r [ kw fj' yfpi fjzpfw, f) u J'D wcgu awmht J'D j' yfpi ft u fw r fawG &JUt &G , ft pm;Ed Ii f;, S
Ofcsu fawG aygY
/
t &G , ft pm;b , fo lB uD;w, f b , fo li , fw, fq d kwmu d kt M u r f;t m;jzi fht kyfpk&, f t yd kif;&, fq dkN
yD; 2r sK
;cG
d Jjcm;x m;w, f/
yx r q kH;t ydkif;wlwpfckt wG i f;r S
m&Sd
wJYj' yfpi ft csi f;csi f;Ed Ii f;, S Ofr , fq d k&i ft kyfpkIA u ae t kyfpkVIIB x d Atomic size [ m
i , fo G
m;av h&S w, f?' D
d vd kb maM u mifhi , fo G m;o v Jq d k&i f b , fzu fu ae n mb u fu d ko G m;r , fq dk&i f Atomic number
(no; of protons) awGr sm;v mwmaygU ?' gaM u mifho lY ud k0d
kif;&Hv S n fh
ywfaewJY(electrons) t a&t wG u f u v Jr sm;v mr, ? f
nucleus x JrS m&SwJYproton u t J'Delectron u d
d kq G Jaq mifv d ku fawmhr lv t u fwr f t &G , ft pm;[ mu sK U
HoG m;r , fwen f;ajym&&i f
(ykH
ysu fo Gm;w, f)? ' D vd kykHysu fo G m;jci f;u dkyJt u fwr ft &G , ft pm;i , fo G m;w, fv d kY
ajymM u wmjzpfw , f/
aemu ft kyfpkw lwpfckt wG i f; t ay:u aeat mu fu o kG
d m;r , fq d k&i f nucleus u d kywfaewJYelectron t a&t wG u fawG r sm;v mr, f
electron t a&t wG u fr sm;v mwJY t wG u f shell awG yd krsm;v mw, f?nucleus eJYyd ka0;u G mv mr, f?electron t csi f;csi f;
wG ef;u efaeMu wJY t wG u f aemu fq kH ;awmhshell [ mu s, fjyefY oG m;w, f?' gaM u mifht u fw r ft &G , ft pm;u v Jrlv x u fyd kB
uD ;v mr, f/
t u fwr ft &G , fb , fn mi, f?t ay:at mu fq d kB
uD ;o G m;w, fq d kN
yD ; t vG , fr S
wfav h &S M
d
u w, f/
Atomic Sizes (Atomic Radii )

1. Atomic sizes decrease from left to right across a period in the periodic table. (same period)
2. Atomic sizes increase from top to bottom down a group in the periodic table. (same group)
Example (1 ) C, N , O Example ( 2) F , Cl , Br
They are in same period. They are in same group.
Atomic number C<N<O Atomic number F < Cl < Br
Nuclear charges C<N<O Number of shell F < Cl < Br
Nuclear attractive force to electron C < N < O Number of electrons F < Cl < Br
Therefore, size C>N>O Electrons repulsion F < Cl < Br
Therefore, size F < Cl < Br
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Another method Example (1 ) C, N , O
They are same period.
Atomic sizes decrease from left to right across a period in the periodic table.
Therefore, atomic size C > N > O
Example ( 2) Na , Li , K
They are same group.
Atomic sizes increase from top to bottom down a grou in the periodic table.
Therefore, atomic size K > Na > Li
Ionic sizes
t dkif, Gef;t &G, ft pm;Ed
Ii f;, S
Ofr , fq d
k&i fr lv t u wf r fwpfcku ae electron awG xG u fo G
m;r , f(t aygi f;v u © P mjzpfay:r , f)
' gr Sr [ kwfjyi fyu ae0i fv mr, f(t EIwfv u © P may:r n f) jzpfay:v mwJYions t &G , ft pm;EId i f;, S
Ofcsu fjzpfw, f/
ud k, fh
qDu ae electronawG xG u fo G
m;r , fq dk&i felectron t csi f;csi f;wG
ef;u eft m;u r lv wG ef;u eft m;x u fav smh oG m;r , f/
' gu positive ion awG rS
mjzpfav h&S w, f/ b mv d
d jzpfwmv Jb , fo lr q d
kY kwn fNr Jcsi fM
u wmu d k;?
' gaM u mifh o lwd
u electron awG
kY udkay;av h &SM
d
u w, f/
(a) Size of positive ion (cation) t zd

kt d
kif, G
ef;awG
&JUt &G
, ft pm;Ed
Ii f;, S
Ofjci f;
A positive ion is always smaller than its parents atom. M >M+ >M+ + >.........
Example (1) Na , Na +
( Na jzpfwmu t D
+
v u fx &G
efx Gu fo G
m;v dkYu sefcJY
wmá electropositive element def;)
They are same nuclear charges. nucleus x JrS m&SwJYprotons t a&t wG
d u fu awmht wlwlygyJ(x G u fv d
kY
rS
r &wmu d
k;)
Number of electrons Na > Na+ electron t a&t wG u fu r lv t u fwr fx u fen f;o G
m;w, f/
Electrons repulsion Na > Na+ electron t a&t wG u fu r lv x u fen f;wJY t wGu f wGef;u eft m;u v Jen f;w, f/
Therefore, size Na > Na+ ' gaMu mifYionic size u r lv t u fwr fat mu f i , fo G m;wmaygU /
(b) Size of negative ions (Anions ) t r t d kif, G
ef;awG&JUt &G, ft pm;Ed Ii f;, S
Ofjci f;
A negative ion is always smaller than its parents atom. A< A- <A= <.........
Example (2) Cl , Cl -
( Cl jzpfwmu t D
-
v u fx &G efu d
k, lx m;v dkYjzpfwmá electronegative element def;)
They are same nuclear charges. nucleus x J rS
m&SwJYprotons t a&t wG
d u fu awmh t wlwlygyJ/
Number of electrons Cl < Cl- electron t a&t wG u fu r lv x u fyd krsm;v mw, f/
Electrons repulsion Cl < Cl- electron t a&t wG u fu r lv x u fr sm;av av wG ef;u eft m;u v Jrsm;av av aygU
Therefore, size Cl < Cl-
' gaM
u mifYionic size u r lv t u fwr fx u fB uD;o G
m;wmaygU /
Negative ion awG M

u awmhelectron u d kv u fcH
&, lM
u w, f?b mjzpfv d v J-wn fN
kY r Jcsi fv d
kU
ygyJ?o lwd
u awmhr lv t u fwr fawG
kY x uf
electron awG
yrd
ksm;w, f?electron yd
krsm;awmh wGef;u eft m;u v Jrsm;v mw, f?' gaMu mifh t &G, ft pm;u r lv t u fwr fx u fM
uD;w, f/
Ionization energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is called
the ionization energy.
eg., Na (g) + energy á Na+(g) + e
2.8.1 á 2.8
" mwfai GUt oG i f&S
ao mt u fwr fwpfckrS" mwfai G
d Ut oG i f&Sao mt d
d kif;, Gef;av ;jzpfap&eft wG u ft D v u fx &G
efawG xGu fzdkY
vd kt yfw, f?t J'D vdkt yfao mpG r f;t i fu d
kt dkif, G
ef;jzpfpG
r f;t i fv d
kU
ac:M u w, f/ b mjzpfv d xG
kY u fcsi f&wmv J&S i f;ygw, fwn fN r JwJY
t D v u fx &e
Gfwn faq mu fykH ud k&csi fv daygY
kY / ' gaMu mifho lY&JU
aemu fq kH ; shell r S
m&SaewJYelectron awG
d ud kwG
ef;z, fM
u r , f?' gq dk
Z, m;&JUb , fu aen mb u fu d ko Gm;av av aemu fq kH ; shell r S melectron t a&t wG u fawG r sm;av av jzpfwJYt wG uf
ionization energy awG r sm;v mw, f/ ' gaM u mifht r sm;q kH ;v d
kt yfwJYionization energy u awmht kyfpko kn jzpfwJYnoble
gases awG yJjzpfw, f/
á Ionization energy increase from left to right across the period in the periodic table.
Ionization energy decrease from top to bottom in a group.
Oyr m---1st IE q d
kwmyx r t B
udr felectron u d
kwG
ef;z, fv d
ku fwJYyx r q kH
;pG
r f;t i fu d
kajymwmaemf?x yfz, f&i fawm
2hnd IEaygU
...
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 10 ]..............................................." mwk&wemo d
ku f
Example (1) Explain why the noble gases have the highest first ionization energies.
á Noble gasesawG &JUyx r t d kif, G
ef;jzpfpG
r f;t i fawG [ mb maM
u mifh
t r sm;q kH
;(t jr i fh
q kH
;) jzpfae&o v J?&S
i f;jyyg/
The noble gases have the highest first ionization energies because the noble gases are known to have
the closed electronic structures (the octet) which resist the removal of electrons.
&S
i f;&S
i f;av ;yg?noble gases awG &JUt jyi fb u fq kH ; shell awG rSmelectron (8)v kH;jyn fh
0pG
mjzn fh
pG
u fN
yD
;jzpfv d
kUo lq D
u ae
electron u d kz, f&S
m;wG
ef;x kwfzd
&mt wG
kY u fpG r f;t i fr sm;pG
mv d
kt yfv d
kY
yJjzpfygw, f/
Example (2) Explain why the alkali metals have the lowest first ionization energy.
á Alkali metals awG &JUyx r t d
kif, G
ef;jzpfpG
r f;t i fawG
[ mb maM
u mifh
t en f;q kH
; jzpfae&o v J?&S
i f;jyyg/
The alkali metals have the lowest first ionization energy because alkali metals have only one electron
outside of a noble gas structure, which is very easy to remove.
Alkali metals awG &JUt jyi fb u fq kH

; shell awG
rS
melectron u (1)v kH ; yJ&S
w, f' gaM
d u mifho lwd
qD
kY u ae electron u kd
z, f&S
m;wG
ef;x kwfzd
kYt wG u fu noble gases av mu fpG r f;t i fr sm;pG
mrv d
kt yfv d
yJjzpfygw, f/
kY
Example (3) Describe the trend in ionization energy in the periodic table.
á In general, ionization energies increase from left to right across a period and ionization energies decrease
down a group.
Periodic table awG &JUa, b k, sr S

efu efcsu fu period t yd kif;r S
mb , fb u fu ae n mb u fu d
ko G
m;r , fq d k&i fpG
r f;t i fyr mP r sm;v mN yD
;
group r S
mq d
k&i fawmht ay:u aeat mu fzu fu d kq i f;o G
m;&i fe, lu v d, yfeJYa0;u G
mo G
m;wJY
t wG u fpGr f;t i fyr mP en f;o G m;ygr ,f/
Example (4) Explain why Be has higher ionization energy than that of B. [ Be u B x u fb m aM
u mifhIE r sm;ae&wmv ]J
2 2
4
Be = 1s , 2s (fully-filled sub-shell electronic structure)
5
B = 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
Ionization energies depend on the electronic structure. 1s 2 2s 2
Difficult to remove an electron Be (2s2) > B (2p1)
More energy is required Be > B I.E u t D v u fx &G efwn faq mu fykH
So, Be has higher ionization energy than that of B. t ay:r S mrlwn fN yD;ajymif;v Jygw, f/
1s 2 2s 2 2p1 o lU &JUaemu fq kH ; shell r Smt jyn fh
Example (5) Explain why N has higher ionization energy than that of O. ' gr S
r [ kwfwpf0u feJYjyn fh 0aer , f
[ N u O x u fb maM u mifhIE r sm;ae&wmv ]J qd k&i felectron z, f&S m;zdkY
7
N = 1s 2
, 2s 2
, 2p 3
(half-filled sub-shell electronic structure) pGr ;
ft i r
f s
m ;pG
m v t
k
d yf
v mw, f/
2 2 4
8
O = 1s , 2s , 2p ' gY
aMu mifho wfr S wfcsu fawG ud k
Ionization energies depend on the electronic structure. ao G zD oG m;Mu jci f;jzpfw, f/
Difficult to remove an electron N (2p3) > O (2p4)
More energy is required N > O
So, N has higher ionization energy than that of O. 1s 2 2s 2 2p3
Example (6) Explain which of the following groups has the largest ionization energy.
(i) 2.8.1 (ii) 2.8.5 (iii) 2.8.7 ' gu awmhykH
rSefar ;cG
ef;r sK
;ygyJ/
d
They are same period.
Size (i) 2.8.1 > (ii) 2.8.5 > (iii) 2.8.7
Difficult to remove an electron (i) 2.8.1 < (ii) 2.8.5 < (iii) 2.8.7
More energy required (i) 2.8.1 < (ii) 2.8.5 < (iii) 2.8.7
Therefore, (iii) 2.8.7 has the largest ionization energy.
(az:jyx m ;wJ Yt ay:at m u fjrm ;awG u electron awG &J

Ushell awGrS
m0i fa&mu fykH
ud k
azm fjyx m ;jci f;jzpfw, f/)
(q , fwef;t q i fh
rS
mq G
J
jyp&m rv d
k
yg/)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Electron Affinity [ EA ]
The electron affinity of an element is the energy released when an electron is added to a gaseous atom
to form a gaseous ions.
eg., Cl (g) + e á Cl-(g) + energy
2.8.7 2.8.8
" mwfai G Ut oG i f&S
ao mt u fwr fwpfcku d
d k" mwfai G Ut oG i f&S
ao mt d
d kif, G
ef;av ;jzpfap&eft wG u ft Dv u fx &G efaygi f;x n h af y;zd kY
vd kt yfw, f?t J'D vdkaygi f;x n fh
ay;&wJY t wG u fr lv &S N
dyD
;o m;pG r f;t i fu x G u fay;&r , f/' gu dkt D v u fx &G
efu dkci fwG, af o mpG r ;ft i f
vd ac:M
kY u w, f/b mjzpfv d kYelectron u d k, lcsi f&wmv J&S i f;ygw, fwn fN r JwJYt D
v u fx &G efwn faq mu fykH ud k&csi fv d
yg/
kY
' gaM u mifh o lY
&JU
aemu fq kH; shell r S mv d kaewJYelectron (8)v kH ;r jyn fh r csi f; jyn fh
at mif, lM u w, f/ Z, m;&JU b , fu aen mb u fu d k
oG m;av av electron &, lv d krIawG r sm;av av jzpfr , f?' gaM u mifht yd kif;wlawG qdk&i ft ydkif;&JU
aemu fq kH
;jzpfwJYnoble gas
uv G J&i ft kyfpkVIIB u electron t v d kcsi fq kH
;jzpfw, f/ o lY aemu fq kH ; shell r Smelectron (7)v kH ;awmifr S &S
wmu d
d k;?
aemu fwpfv kH ;&cJY&i fo lu wn fN r Jo G
m;NyD
av r [ kwfb l;v m;u G m/
Oyr má ÓP fpr f;t csK

U
d
udkx yfav h
v mM
u n fh
M
u r , f/
Example (1) Explain why the halogen have the highest electron affinities.
b maMu mifh
a[ v d
k*si fawG
u t D
v u fx &G
efci fwG
, fr I(v d
kcsi fr I) t r sm;q kH
;jzpfae&wmv J&S
i f;jyay;yg/
The halogens have the highest electron affinities because they form stable anions with noble gas
electronic structures, ns2 np6 by gaining on electron.
halogen awG &JU

aemu fq kH; shellawG rS
melectron (7)v kH ;pD
&S
M
d
u w, f?jyi fyu ae electron wpfv kH;&cJY
r , fq d
k&i fnoble gas
awGvdkyJwn fN
r JwJYelectron wn faq mu fykH ud k&&S
oG
d m;r S
mjzpfw, f/ ' gaM
u mifha[ v d
k*si fawG
u electron awG ud kwjcm;t kyfpkawG
x u fydkN
yD
;awmh&v d krIq Ej́yi f;jywmyJjzpfw, f/
Example (2) Explain why the alkali metals have very low electron affinities.
b maM u mifhalkali metals awG u electron affinities ci fwG , fr It en f;q kH
; jzpfae&o v J&S i f;jyay;yg/
The alkali metals have very low electron affinities because they do not bind their outermost electron
very strongly.
AlkaliawG &JU
aemu fq kH
; shellawG rS
m electron(1)v k ;(o d
H ) (2)v kH
kY ; &S
w, f?jyi fyu aeelectron u d
d k, l&r , fq d
k&i f(6)v kH
;(o d
kY
)(7)v kH
;
av mu f, l&r , f/t Jh
vd k, lzd
u v Jo lwd
kY kY
&JU
aemu fq kH ;shell u electron u d kq G
Jaq mifr Iu v Jav smh &Jaejyefw, f?' gaM u mifhelectron
ud k&, lcsi fwmx u f ay;v d ku fwmu r S
wn fNr JrIjzpfwmyd kjr efr , f(t jyi fr S
mu e wpfv kH ;?ES
pfv kH
;yJ&Swmu d
d k;)/
' gY
aMu mifhv Jo wÅ K
awG u , lzdx u fpm&i fay;zd
kY ud
kY kyJt m;o efM u w, f/
Example (3) Describe the trend in electron affinity in the periodic table.
In general, electron affinities decrease down a group and electron affinities increase from left to right
across a period.
a, b k, sr S efu efcsu ft & (period) t yd kif;r S
mq d
k&i fb , fu aen mb u fu d ko G
m;r , fq d k&i felectron &v d krIr sm;v mNyD; group
rS
mq d k&i fawmht ay:u aeat mu fzu fu d kq i f;o G
m;&i felectron &v d krIen f;o Gm;ygr , f/
wln D wJYt kyfpkwpfckt wG i f;r S
mt ay:u aeat mu fu d ko G
m;r , fq d
k&i fr sm;ao mt m;jzi fhelectron affinity av smh en f;o Gm;w, f/
t kyfpkVIIB jzpfwJYhalogen r S mx l;jcm;wJY jzpfpOfav ;wpfck&S w, f/
d
Fluorine atom u chlorine atom at mu flower electron affinity jzpfae&wmv J wJY
/ en f; csi f; en f; chlorine
atom u en f;&r S mu d
kFluorine atom u b mjzpfv d kU
en f;o Gm;&o v J&S i f;jyay;yg/ cR i f;csu far ;cGef;wpfckaygY /
Example (4), Fluorine atom is lower electron affinity than chlorine.

The fluorine atom is lower electron affinity than chlorine atom because the anomalous behavior of fluorine
atom is so small that the incoming electron is affected by comparatively strong repulsion from the nine electrons
already around the nucleus, so diminishing the overall amount of energy released by the process.
Fluorine au mchlorine au maem u fq kH
; shell r S
melectron wpfv kH ;pD
vd kaeM
u w, f?' gayr , fht &G, ft pm;csi f;EId
i f;, S
Ofv d
ku f&i f
Fluorine u chlorine at mu fi , fw, f?wen f;ajym &&i fae&mu sOf;wmaygY?' gY aMu mifh
0i fa&mu fv mr, electron
fh ud kv u cf H zdkY
&mu dk
Fluorine u ji i f;q efw, f?ajym&&i fchlorine av mu fv d kcsi fr Ir &S
b l;?' gaM
d u mifhv Jchlorine u electron affinity yd krsm;w, f/
b , fav mu fawmifv d kcsi fo wÅ
en f;v Jq d
d k&i fbromine x u fawmifav smh en f;ygao ;w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Example (5) The order of increasing electron affinities for halogens I < F < Br < Cl
Because of the variations in electron affinities are not regular across a period.
Type of Bonds
u Jpn f;t r sK
;t pm;r sm;t aM
d u mif;a&mu fygN
yD
/ t "d
u pn f;t r sK
;t pm;u (3)r sK
d ;&S
d ygw, f/
d
' gayr , fhCovalent bond &JUspecial type jzpfwJY(coordinate bond) eJYaygi f;v d ku f&i fawmh(4)r sK
;v d
d qd
kY k&r S
maygU
/
There are three main types of chemical bonds

( 1 ) Ionic bond ( or ) electrovalent bond
( 2 ) Covalent bond ( special type of covalent bond -- co-ordinate bond or dative bond)
( 3 ) Metallic bond
Ionic bond ( or ) electrovalent bond (t d kif;, G

ef;jzpfay:r Ipn f;(o d
kU
)v Q
yfppfpn f;)
An ionic bond is formed when there is a complete transfer of an electron or electrons from one atom to
another resulting in the formation of cations and anions. These oppositely charged ions are held together
by an electrostatic attration is known as ionic bond.
t u fwr fwpfckeJY wpfckM u m;electron awG t NyD;t yd

kifa&G
Uajymif;ay;jci f;aM
u mifhq efY
u si fzu ft zdkt r t d
kif, G
ef;awG
jzpfay:v mM
u w, f?
t JY
'D
q efY
u si zf u ft d
kif, G
ef;awG &JUwn fN id
r fv Qyfppfq GJaq mift m;awG aMu mifhjzpfv mwJYpn f;jzpfv d
kU
ionic bond or electrovalent
bond v d ac:M
kY u w, f/ t M u r f;t m;jzi fhMetal IA, IIA eJYnon-metal VIB, VIIB M u m;r S m'Dbond jzpfay:w, fv d kY
od x m;zd
vd
kY kw, f/
Metal + Non-metals Ionic compound dot-cross formula(structure)

( IA or IIA ) (VIB or VIIB )
Because of the electron transfer. eg., NaCl ** _
Na+ [ Cl*• ]
**
Na =2.8.1 (IA; metal ) Cl =2.8.7 ( VIIB; non-metal ) **
11 17
dot-cross structure q G
Jo m;jci f;
1. yx r q k ; Integer en f;eJUo lwd

H &JU
kYt kyfpku k&
dS
myg/ t kyfpku d
ko d&i fpn f;t r sK ;t pm;u d
d ko d
N
yD/ aAv i fpDu d
kv Jo dN
yD
aygU
/
2. aAv i fpD wl&i fawmh' Dt wd kif;a&;?r wl&i fawmh ajymif;jyefcsdef;r , f/ ' gq d
kykH
ao en f;u d
k&N
yD
aygU /er lemM
u n fh
yg/
12
A = 2.8.2 aAv i p
f u
D 2 ?t y
k p
f kII A (metal )
8
B = 2.6 aAv i fpD u 2 ?t kyfpkVIB (non-metal)
' gq d
kbond u ionic bond, Formula u AB aygY
dot-cross structure q G Jr, fq d
kawmh 2.8.2 q d
kawmh
aemu fq kH
;r S
m2 v kH
;eJY
q kH
;awmh2pu f0d kif;r , f
2.6 q dkawmhaemu fq kH
;r S
m6 v kH
;q kH
;awmh6ck0dkif;(Mu u fajc)
**
•A• + **
B*  A2+ [ • B *• ]2- ionic bond,q d
kawmhv u ©
P mx n fh
az:jyay;&r , f?
*
*
** **
ay;wJY
o lu t aygi f;jzpfr , f?, lwo
JY lu t EIwfaygU(electropositive,negative def; u d
ko wd
&v d
ku fyg)
Covalent bond (zu fpyfpn f;)

Covalent compounds are formed when non-metals react with one another. In covalent bonding actual
molecules are produced, not ions. Each electrons of the shared pair passes from an orbit controlled by
the nucleus of one atom into an orbit controlled by the nuclei of both atoms.
o wÅ K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fawG wpfckeJY wpfckMu m;electron awG udka0r Q
o kH ;pG
Jjci f;aM
u mifht d
kif, G
ef;awG
jzpfay:jci f;r &S
yJar mfv D
d u sL;j' yfaygi f;awG
jzpfv mMu w, f?o lwd kY
t csi f;csi f;electrons awG udkq G
Jaq mifB
uNyD ;x d ef;csK
yfx m;M
u w, f/t J'Dvdkjzpfay:v mwJY pn f;u dkawm h
covalent
bond v d ac:M
kY u w, f/ t M u r f;t m;jzi fhnon-metal t csi f;csi f;Mu m;r S m'Dbond jzpfay:w, fv d od
kY x m;zdvd
kY kw, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Non-metal + Non-metals covalent compound dot-cross structure (formula)

Because of the sharing of electrons eg., CH4 H
*•
C = 2.4 (non -metal )
6 H *• C *• H
H=1 (non -metal )
*•
1
electron u d
ksharev kyfw, f H
dot-cross structure q G Jo m;jci f;

1. cket wd kif;yx r q kH
; Integer en f;eJUo lwd &JU
kYt kyfpku dk&Smyg/ t kyfpku d
ko d
&i fpn f;t r sK;t pm;u d
d ko dN
yD/ aAv i fpDu d
kv Jo d
N
yD
2. aAv i fpDwl&i fawmh' D t wd kif;a&;?r wl&i fajymif;jyefcsd
ef;/ ' gq d
kykH
ao en f;u d k&N
yD
aygU /er lemM
u n fh
yg/
13
X = 2.8.3 aAv i fpD u 3 ?t kyfpkIII B (non-metal)
17
Y = 2.8.7 aAv i fpD u 1 ?t kyfpkVIIB (non-metal)
o lv Jnon -metal u d k, fv Jnon -metal ' gq d kbond u covalent bond, Formula u XY3 aygY
dot-cross structure q G Jr, fq d
k&i f
2.8.3 q d kawmhaemu fq kH ;r S
m3 v kH ;q kH
;awmh(3) pu f0d kif;aygU/ X Y
2.8.7 q d kawmh
aemu fq kH ;r S
m7 v kH ;q kH
;awmhMu u fajc (7) ckaygU 3 1
xx
Y b , fo lu Mu u fajc?b , fo lu t pu f&, fv d
kY
oD;jcm;o wfr S
wfwm
xx
xx
• xx • x
xx
•X• + Y r &S
ygb l;?t q i fajyo v d
d kq GJEd
kifygw, f/
xx

xx
Y X Y
xx
x
xx
xx
x
•
xx xx
covalent bond,q d
kawmhv u ©
P mx n fh
ay;p&mrv d
kb l;av / o lwd
u share v kyfay;x m;&wmu d
kY k;/
Coordinate bond (or )Dative bond (ay;r Q pn f;)

Coordinate bond is a special type of covalent bond.
A coordinate bond is formed when one of the participant atoms possess lone pair of electrons.
This lone pair is donated to an atom needing them to build up or complete electron octet or duplet of
great stability. + +
H H H
* *
• •
* *
H*• N •• + H+
• •
eg., NH3 + H+ = NH4 H*•N •• H H-N •• H

H H H
zu fpyfpn f;&JU t x l;pn f;wpfckjzpfwJYpn f;u d kay;r Q
pn f;v d ac:w, f/
kY co-ordinate bond
'Day;r Q pn f;jzpfapzd kYt o kH;r jyK
&ao ;ao mlone pair electron pkH &S &r , f/
d
xx
o lu electron pkH vd kt yfaewJYo lu d kay;r QcG
Ja0o kH
;pG
Jjci f;jzi fh
Y
xx
xx
wn fN r Jao mzG JU
pn f;wn faq mu fykH ud k&&S apw, f/
d •
H x
aemu fx yfOyr mt aeeJYt ay:u j' yfaygi f;wpfcku d ka&;q G Jjyygr , f/

xx
* *
• •
• N •• X Y
xx
x
H *
•
X eJ Y aygi f;wJY t cgjr i fwJY t wdkif;X &JU ywfv n rf S

m electrons (6)v kH ;yJ&S
w, f/
d • xx
jyn fh
0zd t wG
kY u fq d
k&i faemu fx yf2v kH ;v dkaew, f/ ' gaM u mifhelectrons wpfpH kyd
kwJY
j' yfaygi f;eJY H x
Y
xx
xx
aygi f;v dku fwJY

t cgco-ordinate bond or (dative bond) jzpfv mw, f/ (dative bond) xx
Different between Ionic Compound and Covalent Compound u G

Jjym;jcm;em;csu fawG
ud
ko d
x m;r S
jzpfr , f/
Molecules
Ionic compounds do not contain molecules. vQyfppfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
rS
mar mfv D
u sL;awG r yg0i fM
u b l;/
Covalent compounds contain molecules. zu fpyfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
u awmhar mfv Du sL;awGyg0i fM
u w, f/
Ions
Ionic compounds contain oppositely charged ions. vQ yfppfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
rSmq efY
u si fzu f
zd
k^r t d
kif, G
ef;awG yg0i fMuNyD
;
Covalent compounds do not contain ions. zu fpyfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awGrS
mt dkif;, G
ef;awG v kH
;0r &S
M
d
u b ;l/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 14 ]..............................................." mwk&wemo d ku f
Electrical conductivity
Ionic compound conduct electricity when melt or dissolve in water. They are electrolytes.
vQ yfppfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awGrS
mo wÅ
K
awGyg0i fwmjzpfv d kY&n faysmfjzpfap a&r S maysmf0i faeo n fjzpfap v Q yfppfpD
;Edkifao m
vQ yfv d
ku fypön f;awG jzpfN
yD
;
Covalent compound do not conduct electricity. They are non-electrolytes.
zu fpyfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awGu awmho wÅK
yg0i fr Ir &S
wmaM
d u mifhv Q yfppfpD
;u l;Ed
kifpG
r f;r &S
wJYv Q
d yfr v d
ku fypö
n ;fawGjzpfM u w, f/
Volatility
Ionic compounds are usually solid and do not vaporize easily.
vQyfppfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
[ mt N
r Jwr f;t pd kift cJawG
jzpfaeM
uv d kYt v G
, fwu lt ai GU
ysH
vG, fpG
r f;r &S
M
d
u b l;/
Covalent compounds are usually gases or volatile liquids.
zu fpyfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
u awmht Nr Jwr f;t ai G U
awGt &n fr sm;o mjzpfaeMuv d kYt v G
, fwu lt ai G U
ysH
vG, fMu w, f/
Melting point and Boling points

Ionic compounds have high melting point and high boiling point.
vQyfppfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
[ mt &n faysmfrS
wft &n fq lr S
wfawGjr i fh
r m;M
uN yD
;
Covalent compounds have low melting point and low boiling point.
zu fpyfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG
u awmht &n faysmfrS
wft &n fq lr S
wfawG edr fh
M
u w, f/
Solubility
Ionic compounds are soluble in water but cannot dissolve in organic solvent.
vQ yfppfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awGu a&r S
t vG, fwu laysmf0i fEd
kifM
u ayr , fhat mf*Jepfazsmf&n fawGrSm(Oyr mt &u f?t D o m?q D
)
r aysmf0i fEd
kifM
u b l;/
Covalent compounds are insoluble in water but can dissolve in organic solvent.
zu fpyfpn f;j' yfaygi f;awG u awmha&r S
mt en f;i , fr Q
o maysmf0i fav h&SwwfN
d yD
;at mf*Jepfazsmf&n fr sK
;r S
d myd
kaysm
0
f i fav h
&S
M
d
u w, f/
( t ay:u t csu fawG udkao csmpG
mzwfyg?2csu f av mu fu d kwG
JN
yD;ar ;wwfygw, f)
Octet Rule
In forming a chemical bond, atoms gain, lose or share electrons in such a way to attain the stable electronic
structures of the noble gases, i.e., to have eight electrons in the outermost shell.
This is known as the octet rule.
" mwk"mwfpn f;awG jzpfay:Mu wJY
t cgr S
mt u fwr fawG u electrons awG udk, lr , f?q kH
;½IH
;cH
r , f' gr S
r [ kwft wlwla0r Q o kH
;pGJM
u r, f
po jzi fhnoble gas awG &JU
wn faq mu fykH
t wdkif; wn fN
r Jat mifjyKv kyfMu w, f/q d kv d
kwmu o lwd &JU
kY t jyi fzu ft u sq kH
; ywfv r f;awGrS
m
t Dv u fx &e
Gf8v kH
;jyn fh
0at mifv kyf, lM
u w, f/ ' gu d
k&Spfckpkpn f;r sOf; ac:M
u w, f/
Exception to the Octet Rule (&S pfckpkpn f;r sOf; r Sao G

zD
jci f;) er lemt csK
U
d
qGJjyay;x m;w, f?
u sefwmu d
ku d
k, fwd
kifv kyfM
u n fh
yg/
electron rich <
u , f0jci f; (8v kH
;x u yf d
kw, f)
There are some exceptions to the octet rule.
1. BeCl2 2. BCl3 3. ClF3 4. PF5 5. SF6
1. BeCl2 3. ClF3
** ** electron rich <

u , f0jci f; (8v kH
;x u fyd
kw, f)
**
**
Cl * Be * Cl **
**
**
F
•
•
** ** ** • • • ** ** •**
**
**
F * Cl * F
**
*
**
F
*
F
** •
electron deficientcsK
U
d
wJY
jci f;(8v kH
;x u fav smh
w, f)
** * •
•
•
** **
•
** S ** **
F ** *** •
**
• •
**
F F
10 valence electrons. ** * * **
**
F
**
1. Why did the BeCl2 is deviated the octet rule? **

In BeCl2 , the Be atom is surrounded by 4 valence electrons. 12 valence electrons.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Metallic Bond
A metallic bond is observed in metals. In a metallic bond, the valence electrons of the atoms are very
loosely held, foming a common electrons cloud. Electrons move freely within this electron cloud.
These electrons are descrided as a sea of electrons.
o wÅ K
awGt csi f;csi f;M
u m;wG i fjzpfay:aeo n fh pn f;u dko wÅ K
pn f;v d kYt v G , fwu lac:v d ku fM
u w, f/
o wÅ K
awGrS
m&S daygi f;pn f;u d ef;t D v u fx &G
efr sm;o n ft csi f;csi f;av smh&JpG
mjzi fh
csd
wfq u fN
yD;t D
v u fx &Gefwd r fwd
ku fr sm;jzpfay:apw, f/
4i f;t D
v u fx &Gefwd r fwd
ku fr sm;M u m;wGi ft D
v u fx &G efr sm;u v Gwfv yfpG mjzi fh
pD
;ar smaejyefo jzi fht D
v u fx &G efyi fv , fv d vw
kY J i fpm;
ac:a0:M u jyefygw, f/ t J'gu d kyJo wÅ Kpn f;v dkYt v G, fwu lac:v d ku fM
u w, f/
Ion
An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that is electrically charged as the result of the loss or gain
of electrons.
t dkif, G
ef;q w
kd mv Q
yfppfaq mift r IefawG
jzpfw, felectrons awG , ljci f; ay;jci f;awG
jzpfwJY
t cg
ay;&i ft aygi f;o au Fw (electrons awG q kH
;&;IH
N
yD; protons awGr sm;v m)eJU(_) azmfjyay;&w, f/ positive ion
, l&i ft EIwo f au F
w (electrons awG &&S
v mN
d yD; protons awG en f;v m) eJY(-) azmfjyw, f/ negative ion
Type of Bond
1. Ionic bond is formed when a metal (electropositive element) reacts with non-metal
(electronegative element).
2. Covalent compounds are formed when a non-metal (electronegative element) reacts with one another.
3. Metallic bond is observed in metal.
4. Ionic compound do not contain molecules.
5. Covalent compounds consist of molecules.
6. Coordinate bond is a special type of covalent bond.
7. Transfer of electron - ionic bond
Sharing of electron - covalent bond
Lone pair of electrons -coordinative (or) dative bond
Sea or mobile of electron (solid metal ) - metallic bond
Note
Be Cl2 = covalent bond (metal (IIA) ES
i fhnon-metal (VIIB) ionic bond jzpfo i fh
ao mfv n f;
covalent bond jzpfaejci f;t wG
u f>ci f;csu fjzpfo n f/)
** **
**
**
Cl * Be * Cl
•
•
** **
Al Cl3 = covalent bond (Al o n fmetal jzpfo n f?o d
ao mfv n f; >ci f;csu ft jzpfo wfr S
kY wfo n f/)
** ** covalent bond jzpfjci f;u Al eJ UCl B

u m;electronagativity jcm;em;csu f
**
**
Cl * Al * Cl
** •
** *•
•
** ** en f;v jd
kY
zpfw, fq d
kwmo d
, kH
ygyJ/
Cl **
Al F3 = ionic bond (F o n fCl x u fv Q

yfr t m;o wÅ
dyd
krsm;o n f/)
**
•
**
Al3+ 3[ Cl* ]-
**
( F o n fCl x u fv Qyfr o wÅ
t m;yd
d kau mi;fwJY
t wG u felectrons r sm;u d
kAl q Dr St NyD;q G
J, laygi f;pyfu m
ionic bond u d
kjzpfapw, f/' D
vdkjzpfjci f;u electronagativity jcm;em;csu fr sm;v dqd
kY kwmu d ko d
x m;av mu f, kH
ygyJ/)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
CHAPTER(2)
THE GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS
What are the measure quantities of gases?

Measuring quantity of gases are mass, volume, temperature and pressure.
Measuring quantity "mwfai G U
udkw d
kif;wmEd
kifwJY
en f;u awmh4ck&S d
ygw, f/
t J'gawG u Mass, Temperature, Pressure and Volume wd kY
jzpfw, f/
' gayr , fho xd m;&r S
mu á Variable factor " mwfai G U awG ay:r S
majymif;v JaewJY
t csu fu awmh3ck&Sw, f/
d
t J'gawGu Temperature, pressure and Volume wd jzpfw , f/ Massu u d
kY ef;ao aygU
1. Gas pressure
The Force acting on a unit area is the gas pressure. á á gas pressure  Force
Area
wpf, lepf{ &d
, may:o u fa&mu faewJY
t m;u d
kawmhzd
t m;v d
kY
ac:w, f/
2. Boyle’s Law
When the temperature of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the volume of the gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
o wfr Swft av ;csdef&S
" mwfai G
d w pfck\ t ylcsd
Y efu kdu d
ef;ao x m;r , fq dk&i f4i f;" mwfai G
U
&JU
x kx n fu , i f;" mwfai G U
&JUzd
t m;eJY
ajymif;jyeft csK
;q u fpyfaew, f/q d
d kv d
kwmu zd t m;r sm;&i fx kx n feJr, f?zd t m;u dkav Q
mh
vd ku f&i fawmh
x kx n fu r sm;v mw, f/
mathmatical expression v d kY
ar ;cJY
&i fawmhykH ao en f;azmfjycsu f&, fo au F wygt aM u mif;t &mu d k&Si f;ay;&r , f/
1
V ( mass and temperature are kept constant)
P
V = volume of the gas
P = pressure of the gas PV = constant
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2
The volume of certain mass of a gas occupies 968 cm3 at 515 mmHg. What is the volume under
768 mmHg at the same temperature?
ykpä
mwG u f&i a
f wmh' D ykH
ao en f;aygYP1V1=P2V2 eJYwG u fr , f/ ykH
ao en f;r S
mo au F w (4)r sK
;ygw, f?
d
(3)r sK
;awmifay;x m;wmjzpfv d
d kYu sefar ;x m;wJY(1)ck&S
mv dku f&kH
ygyJ/ay;x m;wJU wefzdk;u d
kM
u n fh
vd ku f&i fyx r ay;csu fu d
k
jzpfpOf(1)v d kYo wfr S wfN yD
; ar ;wmu jzpfpOf(2)v d kYo d
x m;&r , f/ Boyle's lawr S ef;b , fv d
ko d
Edkifo v J
3 3
ykpä
mrS mt ylcsd efu u d ef;ao v d ajymr, f?x kx n fvolume (cm , dm ) eJYzd
kY t m;pressure (mmHg) wefzd k;yJ
ay;x m;w, fq d k&i f' gBoyle's law yJaygY /yka
Ho en f;u P1V1 = P2V2 aygU uG m/
jzpfpOf(1) pOD
;t ajct ae jzpfpOf(2) aemu fq kH
;t ajct ae
Initial state Final state
V1 = 968 cm3 V2 = ?
P1 = 515 mmHg P2 = 768 mmHg
by the Boyle's law
P 1V 1 = P 2V 2
P1V1
V2 = o u fq d
kif&mwefzd
k;awG
x n fh
N
yD; wG
u fM
u n fh
vdku fyg
P2
Ans; the volume of the gas = 649.1 cm3
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Absolute Zero Temperature
The volume of the gas will become zero at - 273 ºC. This temperature is taken as the zero point of
a new scale of temperature, ( Kelvin temperature scale) and its known as absolute zero temperature.
absolute zero temperature = -273ºC or 0 K

Relation of Kelvin temperature and Celsius temperature ----» TK = tº C + 273
t ylcsdefawGwjzn f;jzn f;av smhu sv mwmeJYt rQ " mwfai GU
&JU
x kx n fu v Jw jzn f;jzn f;av smh
u sv mw, f?" mwfai GUawG u yl&iyGfr , f
at ;&i fu sKU
Hwwfw mu d k;?' gaM
u mifh
" mwfai G
w pfck\ x kx n fu d
Y kt EIw f' D * &D-273ºC x dwjzn f;jzn f;av Q mh
cso G
m;r , fq &ki f
d
t J'D" mwfai G
U
&JU
x kx n f[ mr &S d
o av mu f(o kn r Sw f)x d
jzpfo G
m;v dr fh
r , f?t J'Dt o pfawG
U
&Sx m;wJY
d t ylcsd
efu d
ku , fvAfi ft ylcsd
ef
vd ac:M
kY u w, f/ ' gaMu mifhr lv t ylcsd
efºC u dk273 aygi f;ay;&jci f;jzpfw , f/ t EIw fq dkw mau mo d
Mu w, faemf/
3. Charles’ Law
When the pressure of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale .
o wfr Sw ft av ;csdefwpfck&Sw JY
d " mwfai G
Y
w pfck\ zd
t m;u d ku d
ef;ao x m;r , fq d k&i ft J'D
" mwfai GU
&JUx kx n f[ mt J'D " mwfai G
U
&JU
t ylcsd
ef(Kelvin temperature scale) eJYwd ku f&kd
u ft csK;u sw , f/q d
d kv dkw mu t ylcsd efr sm;&i fx kx n fr sm;(yG)r , f?
t ylcsd
efu dkav Q
mh
vdku fr , fq d
k&i fawmhx kx n fawG u eJ(u sK U
H
)o G m;r S
maygUem;v n fw , faemf/
' gaM
u mifhWrite down the mathmatical expression v d ar ;v mcJY
kY &i fawmhykH ao en f;azmfjycsu f&, fo au F wyg
t aMu mif;t &mu d k&Si f;ay;&r , f/ ykH
ao en f;wGu fx kwfykHudkajzp&mrv d kb l;?at mu fr S mjyx m;wJY t wd kif;a&;ay;yg/
V  T ( mass and pressure are kept constant)

V = volume of the gas
T = temperature on the Kelvin scale
V1 V 2
ykpä
mwG ao en f;u T  T eJY
u f&i fykH wGu rf , f/ the same pressure jzpfw , fq d
k&i fCharles' aygU
uGm
1 2
Q. A certain mass of the gas occupies 300 cm3 measured at 31ºC. At what temperature in ºC will
the gas occupy 285 cm3 at the same pressure?
ykH
ao en f;u d kM
u n fh
&i fo au F
w(4)v kH
;ygw, f?(3)cku d kay;x m;w, far ;x m;wJY (1)cku d
k&S
may;r , f/
t ylcsdef, lepfºC u d kawmh273 aygi f;ay;&r , f/ u Jay;x m;wJYar ;cG
ef;av ;u dkM
u n fh
&at mif?
3
wG u fr , fq &
ki fyx r ay;wmu jzpfpOf(1) V1 = 300 cm
d at T1= 31ºC
ar ;wmu jzpfpOf(2) V2 = 285 cm3 T2 = ?
V1 = 300 cm 3
V2= 285 cm3
ay;x m;csu fu jzpfpOf(1)
T1 = 31ºC+273 T2 = ºC ?
jzpfN
yD
;
= 304 K by the Charles' law ar ;wmu jzpfpOf(2)v Y kd
V1 V 2 TV1 2 o wfr S
wfr , f
 ---» T2 =
T1 T2 V 1
304 K  285 cm 3
T2 = ---» T2 = 288.8 K
300 K
'D ar ;cGef;r S
mo wd jyK
p&mt csu fu
TK= tº C + 273
ay;x m;wJY t ylcsdefu dk273 aygi f;ay;N yD ;aemu f
the temperature of the gas at ºC= 288.8 - 273 jyef&Smjyefw G u fay;&r Smu ºC jzpfv d kU
TK= tºC +273 ykH ao en f;u d kjyefo kH
;&w, f/
= 15.8 ºC ºC eJU
wd ku f½kd
u fw Gu fv d
kY
r &b l;q d
kw mo wd x m;yg/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Relationship between Temperature and Pressure of Gases
When a volume of a given mass of gas is kept constant, the pressure of the gas is directly proportional
to its temperature on the Kelvin scale.
j' yfx ko d
N
yD;" gwfai GUwpfck\ x kx n fu d ku d
ef;ao t jzpfx m;v Q i fx kd
" gwfai GU\ zd t m;o n fu , fv fAi fpau ;jzi h fazm yfj x m;ao m
, i f;t ylcsdefESih
fwkdu f½kd
u ft csK ;u so n f/
d
A mathematical expression of this statement can be written as -o csF men f;t &azmfjy&ao mf-
P  T ( Mass and volume are kept constant .)
P = pressure of the gas
T = temperature on Kelvin scale
......................................................................................................................................
P = constant  T
P P1 P2
= constant -- 
T T1 T2
Example
The pressure of a gas at 27 °C is 760 mmHg. What is the pressure of the gas at 87 °C
at constant volume?
t ylcsd
ef27 °C wG i f " gwfai G
U
wpfck\ zd t m;o n f760 mmHg jzpfo n f/
x kx n fu d
e;fao ES
ih
ft ylcsdef87°C wG i f" gwfai G
U\ zd
t m;r n fr Q
en f;/

P1 = 760 mmHg P2 = ?
T1 = 27 °C+273 = 300K T2 = 87 °C+273 = 360K
P1 P2
 ay;x m;csu fu jzpfpOf(1)
T1 T2
jzpfNyD
;
P1 T2
P2  ar ;wmu jzpfpOf(2)v d kY
T1
o wfr Swfr , f
760 mmHg  360K
P2 =
300K
P2 = 912 mmHg
the pressure of the gas = 912 mmHg
..................................................................................................................................................
t m;, lepfu mmHg ?x kx n f, lepfu cm3/ dm3 ?t ylcsd

zd ef, lepfu ºC / K
t ylcsd
efw lN
yD
; ?zd
t m;^x kx n fw efzd
k;yJay;x m;&i f- Boyle's Law  P1V1=P2V2
V1 V2
zd
t m;wlN
yD
; ?t ylcsd
ef^x kx n fw efzd
k;yJay;x m;&i f- Charles' Law  
T1 T2
T1 T2
x kx n fw lN
yD
; ?t ylcsd
ef^zd
t m;yJay;x m;&i f- relationship between temperatur and pressure  
P1 P2
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Combination of Boyle's Law and Charles' Law
bdK
Gi f;pfed
, mr ES
ih
fcsm;v fed
, mr u d kaygi f;pyfjci f;
1
Boyle's Law, V (mass and temperature are kept constant)
P
Charles' Law, V T (mass and pressure are kept constant)
By the combination of these Laws,
P
V (mass is kept constant)
T
P
V = constant x
T
PV
T = constant
P1V1 P2 V2

T1 T2
This equation is known as combined gas law equation.x k
d
nDrQ
jci f;u kd"gwfai G
U
ed
, mraygif;pyfjci f;[ kac:o n f/
Standard Temperature and Pressure, STP (pH t ylcsd

efES
ih
f pH
zd
t m;)
STP means standard temperature and pressure. STP o n fpHt ylcsd
efES
ih
fpH
zd
t m;u kd
q kd
v kd
o n f/
Standard Temperature = 0° C or 273 K
Standard Pressure or 1 atmosphere (1 atm)=760 mmHg
Example
At 27 °C and 750 mmHg a gas occupies 380 cm3. What is the volume of the gas at STP?
t ylcsdef27°C ES ihf750 mmHg zd t m;wG Uwpfck\ x kx n fo n f380cm3 ae&m, lo n f/ pH
i f" gwfai G t ylcsd
efES
ih
fpH
zd
t m;ü
, i f;" gwfai U
G
\ x kx n fr n fr Q
en f;/ykpä
mrS
mt ylcsdefw efzd
k;?x kx n fw efzd
k;?zd
t m;wefzd
k;(3)r sK
;ygw, f/ ' gaM
d umifh
....

P1 = 750 mmHg P2 = 760 mmHg
T1 = 27°C+273 = 300K T2 = 0°C+273 = 273K
V1 = 380 cm3 V2 = ?
According to combined gas law equation,
P1V1 P2 V2 ay;x m;csu fu jzpfpOf(1)

T1 T2 jzpfNyD
;
P1V1 T2 ar ;wmu jzpfpOf(2)v Y k
d
V2 
P2 o wfr Swfr , f
750 mmHg  380cm3  273K

V2 =
300K  760mmHg
= 341.3 cm3
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Molar Volume of Gases
One mole of every gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at STP.
pH
t ylcsd
efpzHd
t m;ü (1)r kd
;yr mP &d
ao m" gwfai G
S U
wkdi f;o n f22.4 dm3 ae&m, lo n f/("mwfai G Ut wG u fo m, l&r n f)
The amount of the gas expressed as relative molecular mass in gram is equivalent to one mole
and occupies 22.4 dm3 at STP.
Gay-Lussae's Law of Combining Volumes of Gases (a*v l;q yf\ "gwfai G U

r sm;x kx n faygi f;jci f;ed
, mr)
At the same temperature and pressure, the volume of reacting gases and gaseous products are
in simple ratios of small whole numbers.
wln Dao mt ylcsd efESih fzd t m;wG i f" gwfjyK
aeao m"gwfai G
U
r sm;\ x kx n fES
i fhjzpfv mM
u o n fh
" gwfai G
U
wkdU
\ x kx n ft csK ;o n f
d
t i , fq kH
;u e
df;jyn fh½kd
;½dk;t csd
K
;r sm;o mjzpf&r n f/
Hydrogen + Nitrogen  Ammonia
3H2 + N2  2NH3
3 volumes + 1 volume  2 volumes
Avogadro's Theory
At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules.
V  n (at the same temperature and pressure)
V= volume of the gas n = number of molecules
wln D ao mt ylcsd
efES
ih
f wln D ao mzd t m;wG
i f "gwfai G
U
t m;v kH
;\ x kx n fo n f wln D
pG
myg0i fM
u v si f 4i f;\
ar mfv D
u sL;t a&t wG u fr sm;v n f; wln D
o n f/
Relative Density of Gas

Relative density of a gas can be defined as the ratio of the mass of a volume of gas at a certain temperature
and pressure to the mass of equal volume of hydrogen at the same temperature and pressure.
" gwfai G
U
wpfck\ EId
i f;q o d
yfo n f;jci f;q kd
o n fr S
mo wfr S
wfx m;ao mt ylcsd efES
ihfzd
t m;&S
d"gwfai G
U
wpfck\ x kx nof n f
wln Dao mt ylcsd
efESihfzd
t m;wGi f&S
dwln D ao mx kx n f&do n fh[ kd
S u fN
'd
K
*si f" gwfai GU
\ t av ;csd
eft csK
;yi fjzpfo n f/
d
1
Relative density of a gas =  relative molecular mass
2
Mole concept
r lv j' yfpi ft u fwr fyJjzpfjzpfr lv j' yfaygi f;ar mfv D u sL;yJjzpfjzpfo lw d
&JU
kYr lv t av ;q wefzd k;awGu*&k r f, lepft jzpfajymif;ay;
d
vd ku fr , fq d
k&i f1mole (yr mP )ES i fhn D
rQay;Ed kifo n f/
1mole (yr mP ) &S w , fq d
d k&i fpH
t ylcsd efeJY
pH
zd
t m;r S m22.4dm3 yg0i fo n f/ (" mwfai G UeJY
o mo u fq d kifw , faemf)
23
'Dvd kyJ1mole (yr mP ) &S w , fq d
d k&i fpkpkaygi f;t r Ieft a&t wG u fu 6.02x10 particles &S d
jyefw, f/
t m;v kH ;u t jyeft v Sefcsd
wfq u faew, f/ ar ;wmeJY ay;x m;wmu d kM
u n fh
NyD
; q u fpyfw wfzd
yJv d
kY kw, f/
RAM
in (gram) 1 mole 22.4dm3 at STP
RMM
6.02 x 1023 particles , molecules, atoms

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Relative Density of Gas

Relative density of a gas can be defined as the ratio of the mass of a volume of gas at a certain temperature
and pressure to the mass of equal volume of hydrogen at the same temperature and pressure.
" gwfai G
U
wpfck\ EId
i f;q o dyfo n f;jci f;q kd
o n fr S
mo wfr S
wfx m;ao mt ylcsd efES
ih
fzdt m;&S
d" gwfai G
U
wpfck\ x kx n o f nf
wln Dao mt ylcsd
efES ihfzd
t m;wGi f&Sdwln Dao mx kx n f&do n fh[ kd
S u fN
'd
K
*si f" gwfai G
U\ t av ;csd eft csK
;yi fjzpfo n f/
d
mass of n molecules of the gas
Relative density of a gas =
mass of n molecules of hydrogren
" gwfai GU
wpfck\ EIdi f;q o d
yfo n f;jci f;q kd
o n fr S
mo wfr Swfx m;ao mt ylcsdefESih
fzdt m;r S
m" gwfai G U
wpfck\ ar mfv Du sK
;t a&t wG uf
[ mt aygY q kH
;" mwfai GU
wpfckjzpfwJY[ d ku fN
'd
K
*si far mfv D
u sL;t a&t wGu fwd&JUEd
kY Ii f;& wefzdk;wpfcko mjzpfw, f/ x kx n fwl&i far mf
vD u sL;t a&t wG u fwlr , f?' gY
t jyi fmole t a&t wG u fv Jwlw, f?b , fo lajymwmv Jq d kawmA hvogadro u ajymx m;w, fav /
[ number of molecules = number of volume = number of mole ]
Accroding to Avogadro's theory
mass of a volume of the gas
mass of an equal volume of hydrogren
( Both gases are measured at the same temperature and pressure)
mass of one molecule of the gas
mass of one molecule of hydrogren
' gaM
u mifh[ d
ku fN
'd
K
*si far mfv D
u sL;wpfv kH
;ae&mrS
m[ d
ku fN
'd
K
*si ft u fwr f 2v kH
;t pm;o G
i f;v d
ku fw, f/
mass of one molecule of the gas
=
mass of two atoms of hydrogen
ud
k, fo d
vdkwY
J" mwfai G
U
&JU
ar mfv D
u sL;eJU
[ d
ku fN
'd
K
*si ft u fwr ft a&t wG
u fu d
ka&S
U
rS
mb kH
x kwfv d
ku fr , f/
1 mass of one molecule of the gas
= 
2 mass of one atom of hydrogren
mass of one atom of hydrogen q d
kwmu mAG
eft u fwr f12 &JUEd
Ii f;&wefzd
k;jzpfawmh(9wef;wkef;u o i f&w, f)t pm;o G
i f;r , f/
1 mass of one molecule of the gas

= 2 1 mass of a 12 C atom
12
' gaM
u mifhu ,d
k fo d
vdkwJY" mwfai G
U
ar mfv D
u sL;u d
ku mAG
eft u fwr f12 eJY
EId
i f;, S
Ofwmjzpfv d
kUEd
Ii f;&ar mfv D
u sL;t av ;q v d
kU
ac:w, f/
1
qd kwmu 1 amu 
kv d  the mass of 12 C atom jzpfawmhRelative molecular mass v d
t pm;jyefx d
kY k;wmjzpfw, f/
12
1
Relative density of a gas =  relative molecular mass of the gas
2
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
When the temperature is kept constant, the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of
the partial pressures of different gases.
t ylcsdefu kdu d
ef;ao t jzpfx m;v Q i f "gwfai G
U
a&mrsm; \ pkpkaygi f;zd
t m;o n f r wln D
ao m"gwfai G
U
r sm;\ pkpkaygi f;
t ykd
i ;fzd
t m;r sm; aygi f;v ' fES
ih
f wln Do n f/
Mathematical expression,
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ---
Ptotal = total pressure of gas mixture
P1, P2, P3 = partial pressure of different gases
Example
The pressure of hydrogen collected over water at 27 °C is 776.7 mmHg. The vapour pressure of water
at 27 °C is 26.7 mmHg. What is the pressure of dry hydrogen?
t ylcsd
ef27°C wG i fa&ay:üpkaq mif;x m;ao m[ kd u fN'dK*si f" gwfai G
U
\ zdt m;o n f776.7 mmHg jzpfo n f/
t ylcsd
ef27°C wG i fa&\ zd
t m;o n f26.7 mmHg jzpfo n f/ ajcmu fao G Uao m[ kd u fN
'd K
*si f\ zdt m;o n fr n fr Q
jzpfo en f;/
(t ylcsd
efw laewmu d kau mo wdx m;r d
ygo v m;) (zd
t m;ay;N yD
; zd
t m;u d
kjyefar ;&i f' gDalton' ed , mryJ)
(a&mx m;wJY " mwfai GU
[ mwpfcku d
kwpfckv J"mwfr jyK
&b l;?)("mwfai G U
awG udka&mv d kU
"mwfjyK oG m;r , fq d
k&if
Dalton' ed
, mru d ko kH
;r &b l;)
Ptotal = PH + PH O
2 2
PH = Ptotal - PH O
2 2
= 776.7 mmHg - 26.7 mmHg

= 750 mmHg
Graham's Law of Gaseous Diffusion

At the same temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional
to the square root of the density of the gas.
wln Dao mt ylcsdefES
ih
fwln Dao mzd
t m;wG
i f&S
d" gwfai G
U
wpfck\ ysH
U
ES
EIef; o n fx kd
H " gwfai G
U
\ od
yfo n f;jci f;?ES
pfx yfu d
ef;&i f;ES
ih
f
ajymif;jyeft csK
;u so n f/
d
1
rα ( at the same temperature and pressure)
d
r = rate of diffusion of a gas ( cm3s-1 )

d = density of gas ( gdm-3 )
M = molar mass ( gmol-1 )
r1 d2 r1 M2
 or 
r2 d1 r2 M1
" gwfai G
U
wpfckcsi f;pD
&JUysH
U
ES
U
HEIef;u d
kv d
kcsi fv Q
i f' yDkH
ao en f;u d
ko d
&r , f/ volume (cm 3 )
rate 
times (s)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

1. Which one diffuses faster in each of the following pairs under comparable conditions?
at mu fr S maz:jyay;x m;wJY t wG JawG rS
mb , fo lu b , fo lY x u fysH
UESU
H
EIef;ydkjr efygo v Jw JY
/
CO and NO , H2S and SO2 , N2 and CO [ N = 14 , S = 32 , O = 16 , H =1]
molar mass of CO = 12 + 16 = 28 gmol-1
molar mass of NO = 14 + 16 = 30 gmol-1
MNO > MCO
rCO > rNO
CO gas diffuses faster than that of NO gas
'D
vd kar ;cG
ef;r sK
;u d
d kajzr , fq d
k&i ft csu f2 csu fu d ko d
x m;&r , f/ 1/aygU wJY" mwfai G Uu ysH
U
ES
U
H EIef;ydkjr efw , fq d
kw mo d &r , f/
aygU wmav ;wmb , fv d ko d
r v J2/ o lw d &JUar mfv D
kY u sL;t av ;q u d k&S
may;v d ku f&i fo dN
yD
aygU
t av ;q awG w lae&i fau má v G , fv G, fav ;ygá ysH UES
EIef;v Jw lo G
Y
H m;r S
maygU ?t ajzr S mn D rQjci f; x dk;ay;v d ku fr S
maygU
uG/
N2 and CO
molar mass of N2 = 14 x 2 = 28 gmol-1
molar mass of CO = 12 + 16 = 28 gmol-1
M N2 = MCO
rN 2 = rCO
2. The pressure of oxygen and acetylene gas storage tanks is 7400 mmHg.
The pressure of oxygen is 3400 mmHg. What is the pressure of acetylene gas ?
3. The pressure of hydrogen collected over water at 27ºC is 76.7 mmHg. The vapour pressure
of water at 27ºC is 26.7 mmHg. What is the pressure of dry hydrogen ?
'D
ar ;cG ef;u zdt m;ay;N yD
; zdt m;ar ;wJY t wG u fDalton's Law u d ko kH
;v d ku f&kH
ygyJ/wG u fr jyawmh b l;aemf/
4. What will be the volume of hydrogen chloride gas when 100 cm of hydrogen and 50 cm3 of chlorine 3
are mixed? (All gases are measureed at the same condition)

H2 (g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl (g)
1mol 1mol 2mol
1vol; 1vol; 2vol;
3 3
100cm + 50cm ?
100 cm3 + 50cm3 = 100cm3
The volume of the hydrogen chloride gas = 100 cm3
' gGay-lussac's Law yg/o lY &JUt "dyÜm, fzG i fh
qdkcsu ft &t i , fq kH
;x kx n ft csK d;eJY
aygi f;pyf&r , fwJY ?t J'gq d
kt i , fq kH
;x kx n fu d k
b , fv dk&Smrv J?n D rQjci f;t &azmfjyay;x m;wJY mol eJa Yy;x m;wJYx kx n fu d kpm;Mu n fhvd ku f&i ft eJq kH
;x kx n ft ajzx G u fv mygv d r fY
r , f/
3 3
What will be the volume of ammonia gas when 150 cm of hydrogen and 100 cm of nitrogen gas are
mixed? (All gases are measureed at the same condition)
3H2 (g) + N2(g) 2NH3 (g)
3mol 1mol 2mol
3vol; 1vol; 2vol;
150cm3+ 100cm3 ?
( H2 gas is a limiting substance.)
150 cm3+ 100cm3 = 100cm3
The volume of the ammonia gas = 100 cm3
H2 r Sm&S w mu 150 cm3 , mol u 3 mol pm;v d
d ku fawmh=50cm3 N2 r S m&Sw mu 100 cm3 , mol u 1 mol
d
pm;v d ku fawmh =100cm3 NH3 r S m&Sw JYmol u 2 mol t en f;q kH
d ;x kx n fu 50cm3 aygi f;v d ku fawmh =100cm3
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
mole concept eJY qd kifw JY
ykpä
mawG
jzpfw , f?av h
v mzd
jzpfw , f/
kY
3
5. You are provided with 5.6dm of oxygen gas at STP. Find the amount of oxygen in moles and
in number of molecules.
pH
t ylcsd
efeJY
pH
zd m5.6dm3 &S
t m;r S w JUoxygen [ mmoles yr mP eJUmoleculest a&t wG
d u fb , fav mu f&S ygo v Jw JU
d /
3
22.4 dm of oxygen gas at STP = 1 mol
5.6dm3 of oxygen gas at STP =?
5.6dm3
= 1mol
22.4dm 3
= 0. 25 mol
mole of oxygen = 0.25 mol
1mol of oxygen = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
0.25 mol of oxygen = 0.25 x 6.02 x 1023
= 1.505 x 1023 molecules
6. How many molecules are there in 16 g of sulphur ? ( S = 32 )

'Dykpä
m&JU
x l;jcm;csu fu sulphur &JUmolecules t a&t wG u fu d
k&S
mcd
kif;jci f;jzpfw, f/b mjzpfv d
&S
kYmcdkif;wmx i fo v /J
t rSefu sulphur [ mmolecular element jzpfw , f/r sm;ao mt m;jzi fhsulphur u d katom t jzpft o kH ;jyKayr , fh
'D
ykpä
mrSmsulphur u d kmolecular formula S8 ykH
ao en f;eJY
wGu fay;&w, f/t cef;(11)u d ka&mu f&i fawmh odoG m;r S
myg/
relative molecular mass of S8 = 32 x 8 = 256
256 g of sulphur = 1 mol
16 g of sulphur =?
16
=  1mol
256
mole of sulphur = 0.0625 mol

1mol of sulphur = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
0.0625 mol of sulphur = 0.0625 x 6.02 x 1023
7. A gas with volume of 5.6 dm3 of weighs 7 g. What is the relative molecular mass of the gas?
7 g &S
d [ mx kx n ft m;jzi fh5.6 dm3 &S
w JY" mwfai G
U ydgw, fw JY
?o l&JU
r lv t av ;q jzpfw JY
relative molecular mass u dk&m
SygwJY
/
'Dwpfyk'feJY
at mu fw pfyk'fu d
ku d
k, fw d
kifB
udK
;pm;N
yD ;wGu fM
u n fhyg/t ay:r S
mwG u fjyx m;wmeJU
t wlw lygyJ/
8. What is the mass of hydrogen enclosed in 2.8 dm3 at STP? ( H = 1 )
STP r S
m&w
S [ mx kx n ft m;jzi fh2.8 dm3 &S
d JYhydrogen " mwfai G
U ygw, f?' gq d
d ko l&JU
t av ;csd
efmass(g) u d
k&S
mygwJY
/
Try your self.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

9. Helium gas diffuses 4 times as fast as unknown gas.What is the relative molecular mass of the gas?
Helium " mwfai G
U
u ro d w JY
" mwfai G
x u f4 q jr efat mifysH
Y U
ESU
H
ygw, f?' gq dko l&JUe*d
krlv t av ;q u d k&Smay;ygwJU/
diffuses ysHUESU
Hw, fq dkawmhGraham's law aygU / ' gaMu mifhay;x m;csu fu d
kyx r a&;r , f/
Helium u ysHUES
U
H
EIef; jr efw , fq d
kwmaygU vd kaygY
/ aygh
&i ft ay:r S mae/av ;&i fat mu fx m;?t J'gav ;r S w fx m;
rHe = 4 rX
molar mass of He = 4 gmol-1 MX
4 =
rHe
4
4 square root of the both side
rX
M
by the Graham's Law 16 = X
4
rHe MX MX = 64 gmol-1

rX M He Therefore, the relative molecular mass of the gas = 64
10. Oxygen gas diffuses twice times as slow as unknown gas.What is the molecular mass of the gas?
( O =16 )
11. Helium gas diffuses twice times as fast as a gas X .
What is the molar mass of the gas and relative density of the gas ? ( He = 4 )
12. If it takes 20 minutes for 100 cm3 of SO2 gas to diffuse through a pin hole, how long will it take
for the same volume of helium to diffuse through same hole ? ( He = 4 , S = 32 , O =16)
(or)
3
If it takes 3 minutes for 150 cm of oxygen to diffuse through a pin hole, how long will it take for
the same volume of hydrogen to diffuse through same hole ? ( H = 1 , O =16)
x kx n f150 cm3 &S wJYoxygen [ mpin hole v d
d ac:wJYt yfaygu fu aeysH
kY UES
U
Hwm3 mins M u mygw, f/
wln D
w JY
x kx n f&S
w JY
d hydrogen [ mt JU
'Dt yfaygu fu aeyJysH
U
ES
U
Hr , fq d
k&i fb , fav mu fM
u mygo v J/
volume (cm 3 )
'D
ykH
ao en f;u d x m;&r , f
ko d rate 
times (s)
150cm 3
rO 2 = , molar mass of O2 = 16 x 2 = 32 gmol-1
3  60 s
150 cm 3
rH 2 = tH2 , molar mass of H2 = 1 x 2 = 2 gmol-1
by the Graham's Law ,
rH 2 M O2 150cm 3 180 s 32
  
rO 2 M H2 t H2 150cm 3 2
180
 4
t H2
180 s
t H2 
4
t H 2 = 45s
time taken for hydrogen gas diffuses = 45 s aemu fwpfyk'fu d
k, fw d
kifw G
u fM
u n fh
yg
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

13. How many grams of zinc will have to be treated with dilute hydrochloric acid to liberate 1.85 dm3
of hydrogen at 27ºC and 750 mmHg? ( Zn = 65)
'Dar ;cG
ef;u dkajzr , fq d
k&i fay;x m;csu feJYar ;x m;wmu d kb , fv dkcsdw fq u fo v Jq dkw mjr i fwwf&r , f/
Zinc eJYhydrochloric acid wd " mwfjyK
kY N
yD; t ylcsd
efu 27ºC zd t m;u 750 mmHg r S m1.85 dm3 x kx n f&S w JY
d
hydrogen " mwfai G U
xG u fv mw, fv kd a
YjymNyD; t J'D
Zinc &JU t av ;csd efu b , fav mu fv Jq d kN
yD;jyefar ;w, f/
' gq d
ko wÅ K
eJUt u fq pf" mwfjyK w, fq d k&i fq m;j' yfaygi f;eJY[ d
ku fN
'dK*si fx G
u fw , fq dkw mo d &r , f/
vd kcsi fw mu Zi fh
&JU
t av ;csd efay;x m;wmu " mwfai G U&JU
x kx n f?' gayr , fh ay;x m;wJY x kx n f[ mo mrefx kx n fq d kawmh
pH t ylcsdefpH
zdt m;r Sm&S wJY
d x kx n fjzpfat mifajymif;v JN yD
;r Sr d
k;eJU
q u fo G, fv d
kY&r , f/
' gaM u mihfCombine gas Law u d ko kH
;N
yD
; pH
x kx n fjzpfat mifajymif;&w, f/' gr S equation eJYjyefcsd wfq u fv d&r , f/
kY
Zn(s) + 2 HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq)

+ H2 (g)
1mol 1mol
initial state final state ( at STP)
P1= 750 mmHg P2= 760 mmHg
V1= 1.85dm3 V2= ?
T1= 27ºC + 273 T2= 0ºC + 273
= 300 K = 273K
by the combine gas law equation
P1V1 P2 V2

T1 T2
P1V1 T2
V2 
T1 P2
750  1.85  273
V2 
300  760
V2 = 1.662 dm3 at STP

by equation
1 mol of hydrogen = 22.4 dm3 at STP
1 mol of Zinc = 65 g
22.4 dm3 at STP of hydrogen = 65 g of Zinc
1.662 dm3 at STP of hydrogen = ?
1.662  65
=
22.4
= 4.818 g of Zn
the mass of Zn = 4.818 g
at mu fr S
may;x m;wJY
ar ;cG
ef;u v JykH
pH
w lygyJ/M
udK
;pm;wG
u fM
unh
fygt kH
;/
14. How many grams of sodium carbonate will have to be treated with dilute hydrochloric acid
to liberate 1.15 dm3 of carbon dioxide at 22ºC and 755 mmHg?( C =12, Na=23, O=16)
15. 10 g of calcium carbonate is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid.The liberate gas measured
at STP is 1.661 dm3. Find the percentage purity of calcium carbonate.( Ca=40,C=12,O=16)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
3
16. 0.2 g of the gas occupies a volume of 185 cm measured over water at 756mmHg and 22ºC.
Vapour pressure of water at 22ºC is 21.3 mmHg.What is the approximate molecular mass of
the gas?
0.2 g &S w JY" mwfai G
d Uud
ka&ay:r S
mpkaq mif;v dku fw mt ylcsd
ef22ºCeJUzdt m;756mmHg r S mx kx n f185 cm3 &S w , fw Jh
d /
t J'D
rS
ma&ai G U
&JU
zd
t m;u 21.3 mmHg &S &i ft J'D
d " mwfai G
U
&JUt eD
;pyfq kH
;jzpfw JYr lv t av ;csdef(1mole r S m&S d
w JY
t av ;csd
ef)
u b , fav mu fv Jw JY/
Ptotal = 756 mmHg
" mwfai G Y
udka&ay:r S mpkaq mif;&wmjzpfv d kU
Pwater = 21.3 mmHg
a&&JUzd t m;u d
kz, f&S
m;ay;&r , f
P gas =?
' gaM
u mifh'D
ae&mrS m
Ptotal = Pwater + P gas
Dalton's Lawu d ko kH
;w, f
P gas = 756 mmHg - 21.3 mmHg
= 734.7 mmHg
P1= 734.7 mmHg P2= 760 mmHg
3
V1= 185cm V2= ?
T1= 22ºC + 273 T2= 0ºC + 273
= 295 K = 273K
by the combine gas law equation
P1V1 P2 V2 0.2 g = 185 cm3 = 165.5 cm3 at STP
 t av ;csd efeJY
ajym&i f0.2 g
T1 T2
&kd
;&kd
;x kx n feJYajym&i 1f 85 cm3
P1V1 T2 pHx kx n feJYajym&i 1f 65.5 cm3 at STP
V2 
T1 P2 t ajzt m;v kH ;t wlw lygyJ/' gayr , fh
pHx kx n fr jzpfao ;ci f1mol eJU
734.7  185  273 csd
w fq u fv d kU
r &yg/ pH x kx n fjzpfr So mv Q
if
V2 
295  760 1mol r S m&SwJY
d t av ;csd efu dk&S
mv d &w, f/
kY
' gaMu mifhykpä mrSmay;x m;wJY x kx n fu kd
pH x kx n fajymif;jci f;jzpfw , f/
V2 = 165.5 cm3 at STP
1mol of the gas = 22.4 dm3 at STP

165.5 x 10-3dm3 at STP = 0.2 g of the gas
22.4 dm3 at STP = ?
22.4  0.2
=
0.1655
= 27.07 g
Ans; approximate molecular mass of the gas = 27 amu
17. The volume of the a certain mass of gas collected over water is 227cm3 at 12ºC and 762mmHg.
Vapour pressure of water at 12ºC is 10.5 mmHg. What would be the volume of dry gas at 15ºC
and 757 mmHg? Try your self.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

-1
18. One mole of a gas occupies 27.0 litres, and its density is 1.41 gl at a particular temperature and
pressure. What is the molecular weighs ? What is the density of the gas at STP?
1 mole r S
m27 litres &Sw , 1f litre r m
d S1.41 g &S w , f/' gq d
d k&i 1f mole r Sm&S
w JY
d t av ;q u b , fav mu fv J?
pH
t ylcsd
efeJY
pH
zd
t m;r Smo l&JUod yfo n f;jci f;u b , fav mu fv Jw JY
/ t ar ;r sm;wJY ar ;cGef;yg/
1mol of gas = 27 litres
1 litre = 1.41 g
27 litres =? 1mol&S d
w JY
" mwfai G U[ m27 v D w meJY
nDw, f/
-1
= 1.41 x 27 1.41 gl q d kw mwpfv D w mrSm1.41 g eJY
nDw , fv d ajymwm?' gaM
kY u mifh27 v D w mrm S
= 38.07 g
b , fav mu f* &r fav ;r v Jq d kawmhwpfv D w mt av ;csd
efeJY
molecular weights = 38.07 amu 27v D w mu d kajr §
mu fv dku fwmaygU /
1 mol of the gas = 22.4 dm3 at STP od yfo n f;jci f;q d kawmht av ;csd efu d
kw n f
x kx n feJY pm;&r S mq dkawmh
mass
density of gas = 1molr S m&S w JY
d t av ;csd efu dk1mol r Sm&Sd
w JY
volume at STP
x kx n feJY jyefpm;ay;&r S maygY
/
38.07g
=
22.4dm3 at STP
= 1.699 g dm-3 at STP
19. 8g of oxygen gas is given. Calculate the moles, molecules, volume in dm3 at STP, and density
of the gas. ( O =16 )
molar mass of O2 gas = 16 x 2 = 32 g mol-1
mass
mol of O2 =
molar mass
8g
=
32 g mol -1
= 0.25 mol
1 mol of oxygen = 6.02 x 1023 molecules
0.25 mol of oxygen = 0.25 x 6.02 x 1023 molecules
1 mol of oxygen = 22.4 dm3 at STP
0.25 mol of oxygen = 0.25 x 22.4 dm3 at STP
= 5.6 dm3 at STP
mass
density of oxygen gas =
volume at STP
8g
=
5.6dm3 at STP
= 1.428 g dm3 at STP
wG
u fx m;wmawG u u l;csb d r [ kw fb l;?av h
kY v mzd
kU
o mjzpfw , f/
t m;v kH
;[ mr d
k;&JU
q u fo G , fcsu fawGygyJ/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

CHAPTER-3
STOICHIOMETRY
A part of chemistry which deals with the quantities of substances taking part in a chemical reaction
is called stoichiometry.
" mwfjyK
jci f;wpfckwG
i f&S
dyg0i fypö
n f;r sm;\ yr mP jci f;q u fpyf(" mwfjyK)r Iu d
kav h
v mao mb mo m&yft pdwft yd kif;ukadc:o n f/
1. Titration
Addition of a standard solution to a specific volume of unknown molarity.
x kx n fo d
N
yD;jyi f;t m;r o d
ao maysmf&n fwG
i f;o d
kYjyi f;t m;o d
(pH
aysmf&n f)x n fh
" gwfjyK
o n fh
v kyfi ef;pOfu d
kpH
, S
Ofjci f;(pH
wdku fjci f;)
[ kac:o n f/
2. Standard solution
The reagent of exactly known concentration that is used in titration is called a standard solution.
jyi f;t m;t wd
t u so d
ao m" mwfjyK
ypö
n f;(aysmf&n f)u d
kpH
aysmf&n f[ kac:o n f/
3. Primary standard
The accuracy of a volumetric analysis depends upon the primary standard.
A primary standard is highly pure and stable compound, used to establish the concentration of the
standard solution.
t rS efpi fppft m;jzi fhx kx n fwdkif;" mwfcG
Jjci f;o n fr lv pH
aysmf&n fay:wG i fr lwn fo n f/ x d
aM
kYu mifhr lv pHaysm &
f n fo n fo efp
Yi fr I
jr i fh
r m;N
yD ;?wn fNr Jao mj' yfaygi f;jzpf&ayr n f/o d kY
rS
o mpHaysmf&n fwpfck\ jyi f;t m;u d
kt wdt u st o kH
;jyKEdkifr nfjzpfo n f/
4. Required for good primary standard r lv pH

aysmf&n fwpfckjzpfzd t wG
kY u fv d
kt yfcsu fr sm;
(i) Highest purity o efUpi fr I&S&r , f
d
(ii) Stability wn fN r JrI&S&r , f
d
(iii) Free from water (or) absence of hydrate water a&yg0i fr Iu i f;pi f&r , f
(iv) Reasonable cost aps;EIef; csKo m&r , f
d
(v) High molecular mass ar mfv Du sL;t av ;q r sm;&r , f
5. Standardization
The process by which the concentration of a standard solution is determined volumetrically by the
use of a primary standard is called standardization .
r lv pHaysmf&n fu d kt o kH
;jyK
í pH
aysmf&n fwpfck\ jyi f;t m;u d
kx kx n fwd
kif;" mwfcG
Jjci f;jzi fh
wGu fcsu fao mv kyfi ef;pOfu d
k
pH aysmf&n fjyK
v kyfjci f;[ kac:o n f/
6. Equivalence point
The point at which the standard solution reacts with an unknown solution in an amount of chemical
equivalence is called the equivalence point.
pH
ro d
ao maysmf&n fwpfckES
i fh
pH
odao maysmf&n fwd
kU
" gwfjyK
í &&S
v mo n fh" gwfjyK
d r Iyr mP &v ' fu d
kn D
rQ
rS
wf[ kac:o n f/
7. End point
The use of an indicator, that exhibits a change in colour as a result of concentration changes near the
equivalence point.
t nT
ef;ypö
n f;u d
kt o kH
;jyK
N
yD
;nD
rQ
rS
wft eD
; ajymi;fv Jo G
m;o n fh
t a&mifu d
kM
u n fh
í q kH
;jzwf&ao m&v ' fu d
kend point [ kac:o n f/
8. Indicator
An indicator indicates the end point by its change of colour.
1. methyl orange » acid is red. » base is yellow » end point is orange.
2. phenolphthalein » acid is colourless. » base is red » end point is pink.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ykpä
myd
kif;q d
kif&mawG ud kt " d
u x m;av h v mrSmjzpfv d 'D
kYt aMu mif;awG em;v n fr S
jzpfr , f/
Titration is the procedure in which a solution of a standard reagent is added to a specific volume of
a solution of unknown molarity.
x kx n f&S d
N
yD;jyi f;t m;t wd t u s&S wJY
d aysmf&n fwpfckwG i f;o d
x kx n f&S
kY jyi f;t m;r o d
d ao ;o n fh aysmf&n fwpfckx n fh
oG i f;ao mv kyif ef;pOf
wpfcku d k(pH
, S Ofjci f;)Titration v d kU
ac:M u w, f/
Standard Solution
The reagent of exactly known concentration that is used in a titration is called standard solution.
In a titration r S mx kx n fv J&S w , f(cm3 or dm3)?jyi f;t m;(M) v J&S
d w , ft J'D
d aysmf&n fu dkpH
aysmf&n fv d ac:w, /f
kY
Molarity (M) of a solution is the quantity in moles of the solute dissolved in one cubic decimetre
(1dm3) of the solution.
jyi f;t m;(M)q d kw maysmf&n fx kx n f(1dm3) wG i faysmf0i faeao maysmf0i fypö n f;r sm;&JU
yr mP (mol)wefzd k;jzpfw , f/
mole of solute (mol)

Molarity  = mol dm-3
volume of solution(dm3 )
Dilution of a solution
When a given aqueous solution is diluted with water the quantity or mole of the solute does not
change but the concentration or molarity does change.
aysmf&n fwpfcku d ka&a&mv d ku fr , fq d k&i faysmf&n fr S
maysmf0i faewJYaysmf0i fypö n f;yr mP awG u v kH
;0 r ajymif;v Jo m
G;yJaysmf&n f
x kx n fu awmh ajymif;v Jo Gm;v d r fh
r , f/aysmf&n fx kx n f(V) ajymif;v Jo G m;wJY t wGu ft J'd
aysmf&n f&JUaysmf0i fo wÅ d(M) u v J
vd ku fN
yD
;ajymif;v JwmaygU / x kx n fr sm;&i fjyi f;t m;eJo Gm;r , f/x kx n feJ&i fjyi f;t m;r sm;v mr, f/
When a solution is diluted, The concentration decreases and the concentration resultant solution
is inversely proportional to its final volume.
1
concentration 
volume
concentration (yg0i fu d ef;) eJY

molarity (jyi f;t m;) wd kY
[ mo ab mw&m;jci f;t wlwlyJjzpfawmh Concentration u d kv J
Molarity eJYwcgwav azmfjyav h &SM
du ygw, f/
' gaM
u mifh ykH
ao en f;u before dilution = after dilution
M1 V1 = M2 V2
M1 u > M2 x u fM uD ;NyD
;á aemu fq kH ;x kx n fV2 u > pOD ;x kx n fV1 x u fr sm;w, f/
x yfx n fhvu kd fwJYa&u d k&csi f&i fau mb mv kyfr v Já aemu fq kH ;x kx n fu ae á yx r x kx n fu d kEIwfv dku fr S
maygU /
added water = V2 - V1
M1V1 u a&r a&mrD t ajct aejzpfN yD;? M2V2 u a&a&mN yD
;t ajct aeu d kazmfjyw, f/
' gaM
u mifh aemu fq kH ;x kx n fu ae pOD ;x kx n fu d
kjcm;em;ay;v d ku f&i fx yfx n fh vd ku fwJha&\ x kx n fu d k&S
may;Ed kifw, f/
Titration u d kw G
u fr , fq dk&i fUnit q u fo G , fcsu feJYMole ykH ao en f;u d kaemaM u ae&r , f/
' gawGr i f;&&i fTitration awG wGu fw wfo Gm;N yD
/' D
vdkt ajccH awG rSr &&i fr i f;wpfESpfem;v d
ku fwmt au mif;q kH ;yJ/
1 mole (mol) = 1000 mili mole(mmol)
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
1 dm3 = 1 litre
mass( g ) g
mole  
molar mass gmol -1
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Titration yk
pä mawG ud kw Gu fr , fq d k&i f ' D
q u fo G
, fcsu f awG
ud kb u faygi f;pkH vS n fh
NyD;o kH
;wwf&r , f/
mol of solute (mol) mol
Molarity(M) 3
moldm- 3
volume of solution (dm ) dm 3
rd
k;yr mP u d
kv d
kcsi f&i f á mol of solute = Molarity x volume ( dm3 ) of solution
mol of solute (mol)

x kx n fu d
kv d
kcsi f&i f á volume of solution (dm 3 )
Molarity(M)
m mol of solute (mmol) mmol

Molarity(M) 3 3
mmolcm- 3
volume of solution (cm ) cm
rD
vDrd
k; yr mP u d
kv d
kcsi f&i f á mmol of solute = Molarity x volume ( cm3 ) of solution
mmol of solute (mmol)
x kx n fu d
kv d
kcsi f&i f á volume of solution (cm 3 )
Molarity(M)
Mole yk
H
ao en f;u ae u d
k, fv d
kcsi fw mu d
k&S
mwwfzd
kYv d
kt yfw JY
en f;v r f;r sm;
mass( g ) g
mole  
molar mass gmol -1
t av ;csd
efu d
kv d
kcsi f&i fá mass(g) = mole x molar mass (g mol-1)
rd
k;yr mP u d
kv d
kcsi f&i fá mole = relative atomic mass in gram
rd
k;yr mP u d
kv d
kcsi f&i fá mole = relative molecular mass in gram
rd
k;yr mP u d
kv d
kcsi f&i fá by equation nD
rQ
jci f;r S
w q i fh
Density u d
kv d
kcsi fw , fq d
k&i f Density unit u á g dm-3 = M x molar mass
= mol dm-3 x g mol-1
Titration yk
pä
mawG
ud
kw G
u fawmh
r , fq d
k&i f ' D
nDrQ
jci f;awG
od
&r , f/
Metal carbonate + Acid Salt + water + carbon dioxide

eg. CaCO 3(s) +2 HCl(aq) CaCl2(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
1mol 2 mol
Acid + Base salt + water
eg. H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO 4 (s) + H2O (l)
1mol 2mol
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
eg. Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) MgCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Formula awG ydkifN
yD v m;a[ h ?yd kifN
yD
qd k&i fExample t ajccH ykpä
mav ;u aepM u n fh
M
u &at mif/
3 3
1. 1.0 dm of sulphuric acid solution required 4.0 dm of 0.1 M potassium hydroxide to neutralize it.
Calculate the molarity of sulphuric acid.
aysmf&n fx kx n f1.0 dm3 &S w JYsulphuric acid [ mpH
d aysmf&n fjzpfw JYpotassium hydroxide eJY " mwfjy, fo Gm;w, f/
' gq d k&i fsulphuric acid &JUjyi f;t m;molarity u d k&S
may;ygwJY /
á t u fq pfeJY aAU" mwfjyK &i fb m&r v J/ áá q m;eJYa&&r , f/
á b m&S mcdkif;o v J áá t u fq pf&JUmolarity
á jyi f;t m;Molarity u d k&csi f&i fb mawG vdko v Ja[ h á á mol &S d
&r , f?Vx kx n f&S d
&r , f/
á t u fq pfr S mb myJ&S ovJ
d áá x kx n fyJ&Sw , f?r d
d k;r &S
b l; ?' gq d
d k&i f??? r dk;u d
k&S
m&r , f/
rdk;u d k&Sm&r , fq d kawmhb may;x m;v Ja[ h áá ykpä
mrSm*&r fr ygb l; / ' gayr , fhpH aysmf&n f&S w , f/
d
á 'D
ykpä m&JUpH aysmf&n fu b , fo lv J ¶¶ potassium hydroxideyg/ á á
pH aysmf&n fr S mb mawG &So v J?molarity &S
d d
w , fvolume &S w, f/ ' gq d
d kt J'D2 cku d
kajr §mu fv d ku fr , fq dk&i f
¶nD r Q?yr mP ?Ed Ii f;, S
Of?o lcd
kfif;wmv kyfá
1/ n D rQjci f;a&;r , f/ r n D &i fn dr , f/
§
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
1 mol 2 mol
2/ yr mP &S mr, f/
mol of KOH = Molarity x volume(dm3) of solution
= 0.1 mol dm-3 x 4 dm3
= 0.4 mol
3/ r dk;yr mP jci f; EId i f;, S
Orf , f/
by equation
2 mol of KOH neutralized 1 mol of H2SO4
0.4 mol of KOH neutralized ?
0.4
= 1 mol
2
= 0.2 mol of H2SO4

4/ o lcd
kif;wmv kyfr , f/
mole of solute
molarity of H 2 SO4
volume of solution
0.2 mol
molarity of H 2 SO4
1 dm 3
= 0.2 moldm-3
Therefore molarity of H2SO4 = 0.2 M
.............................................................................................................................................................
2. 6 g &S w JY
d vinegar wpfcku d ksodium hydroxide q d kw JY
aAYeJYpH
, SOfv d
ku fw JYt cgt u fq pfu d k"mwfjy, fapzd kYjyi f;t m;
3
0.105 M eJY x kx n fr S
w4f 3cm a&mu fw JY t cgr S " mwfjy, fo G m;w, f' gq d k&i fr lv &S mv u maysmf&n fx JrS mygwJY
t u fpD w pf
t u fq pf&JU t av ;csd ef&mcd kifEIef;u d
k&S
may;ygwJY / ajymaeM u mw, fv kyfi ef;pOft wd kif; n D
r Qyr mP Ed Ii f;, S
Of
o lcdkif;wmv kyfM u wmaygU /t &i fq kH ;pHaysmf&n fu k&dSmv dku fr , f?pH
aysmf&n fu ae r d k;yr mP &S mr, f/ N
yD;&i by f equation o kH ;N
yD
;
mol ajymif;r , f?gram &S mr, f?&mcd kifeIef;q u f&Smay;r S maygY
Vinegar contain the organic acid(acetic acid) HC2H3O2 .When 6 g of vinegar was titrated with
0.105 M sodium hydroxide, 43 cm3 of this base had to be added to reach he equivalence point.
What is the percentage by mass of acetic acid in this sample of vinegar. ( C = 12 , O =16 , H=1)
1/ n D rQ jci f;a&;r , f/ r n D
&i fn dr , f/
§
CH3COOH (HC2H3O2)(aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)
1 mmol 1mmol
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
2/ yr mP &S mr, f/
mmol of NaOH = molarity x volume(cm3)of solution
= 0.105 mmol cm-3 x 43 cm3
= 4.515 mmol
3/ r d
k;yr mP jci f; EId
i f;, S
Orf , f/
by equation
1 mmol of NaOH neutralize 1 mmol of CH3COOH
4.515 mmol of NaOH neutralize ?
= 4.515 mmol of CH3COOH
4/ o lcdkif;wmv kyfr , f/
mass ( g ) g
t av ;csd
ef&mcd
kifEIef;u d
k&S kawmhmole 
mygq d  ud
ko kH
;v d
ku fr S
maygU
/
molar mass gmol -1
*&r fu d
kv d
kcsi f&i fmole eJYmolar mass u d
kajr m
§u f&r S
mr[ kw fv m;/ ' gq d
kmolarmass u d
kt &i f&S
mv d
ku fr , fav
molar mass of CH3COOH = (12 x 4) + ( 16 x 2 ) + ( 1 x 4)
= 60 gmol-1
mass of CH3COOH = mol x molar mass
= 4.515 x 10-3 mol x 60 gmol-1
= 0.2709 g of CH3COOH
6 g of vinegar contain 0.2709 g of acetic acid
100 g of vinegar ?
0.2709 100
=
6
= 4.515 % of CH3COOH
.............................................................................................................................................................
ay;x m;wJY ykpämu d kzwfMu n fh N
yD;wmeJYyx r q kH ;pH aysmf&n fu d ko wfr Sw fv dku fyg/jyi f;t m;
(M)v dcm3)x kx n fv J&S
J&(S w mpH
d aysmf&n fyJ/
pHod &i fb mawG &r v Jyr mP &r , f/ n D rQjci f;a&;NyD;r d
k;u d
k&Smv d
ku f&i fjyi f;t m;r o d ao ;wJYaemu fyr mP wpfcku d k&m
S
EdkifN
yD
av /
u J-x kH ;pHt wd kif;aygU /nD r Qyr mP Ed Ii f;, SOfo lcdkif;wmv kyf/
3. 25 cm of 0.2 M sodium carbonate solution required 20 cm3 of sulphuric acid solution .Calculate
3
the molar concentration of sulphuric acid . What volume of water should be added to 20 cm3 of this
sulphuric acid so that the concentration becomes exactly 0.1 M .
1/ n D rQjci f;a&;r , f/ r n D &i fn dr , f/
§
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
1 mmol 1mmol
2/ yr mP &S mr, f/
mmol of Na2CO3 = molarity x volume(cm3)of solution
= 0.2 mmol cm-3 x 25 cm3
= 5 mmol
3/ r d k;yr mP jci f; EIdi f;, S
Orf , f/
by equation
1 mmol of Na2CO3 neutralize 1 mmol of H2SO4
5 mmol of Na2CO3 neutralize ?
= 5 mmol of H2SO4
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
4/ o lcd
kif;wmv kyfr , f/ molar concentrationu d k&S
mygq d
kawmh
m mol of solute (mmol)
Molarity(M ) ud
ko kH
;v d
ku fr S
maygU
/
volume of solution (cm 3 )
Mud kv d
kcsi f&i fmmole u d
kvolume eJYpm;&r S
mr[ kw fv m;/ v G
, fv G
, fav ;yg/
3
t u fq pf&JUyr mP u 5 mmol o lY &JU
x kx n fu 20 cm
m mol of solute
ykH
ao en f;a&;b d
kY
awmh
r ar Y
eJY
/ Molarity(M)
volume of solution (cm 3 )
5 mmol
= 3
20 cm
= 0.25 mmol cm-3
= 0.25 M
aemu fb mx yfcd
kif;x m;v Já r lv x kx n fx Ju d
ka&x yfx n fhvd ku fygwJYá N
yD
;&i fx yfx n fh
vdku fwJYa&&JUx kx n fu b , fav mu f
v JwJYá x yfx n h fv d
ku fwJY
a&u d
kv d
kcsi fr S
awmhaemu fq kH
;x kx n fV2 u ae t &i fx kx n fV1 u d kEIwfay;&r Smr[ kwfv m;
a&a&mawmhdilution ykH ao en f;u M1V1 = M2V2?jyi f;t m;r sm;&i fM1 jyi f;t m;eJw mu M2 q d kw mo d&r , f/
before dilution after dilution

M1 = 0.25M M2 = 0.1M
V1 = 20 cm3 V2 = ?
M1 V1 = M2 V2
0.25 mmolcm -3 20 cm 3
V2 =
0.1mmolcm -3
V2 = 50 cm3
added water = V2 - V1
= 50cm3 - 20cm3
= 30 cm3
....................................................................................................................................................
4. How many cubic centimeters of 2.00 M HCl must be dilutesd with water to make 2 dm3 of 0.25 M
solution? If 25 .0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide neutralizes with 22.0 cm3 of dilute acid solution, calculate
the concentration of sodium hydroxide in (i) Molarity (ii) gdm-3 .
( H =1 , O=16 , Na = 23 , Cl = 35.5)
ay;x m;wJY ypkä
mu d kzwfM u n fh
NyD
;wmeJYb mar ;wmv J?2. M HCl &S d
w JY
t u fq pf&JUx kx n fu d k&S
mygwJY / must be dilutesd with
water ygv mw, fq d kawmha&a&mx m;jyefN yD/ u J' gq d ka&a&mykpä maygY /
M1 = 2M M2 = 0.25 M
V1 = ? V2 = 2 dm3 ( 2000 cm3)
M1V1 = M2 V2
M 2 V2
V1 = M1
0.25 2000
V1 =
2
the volume of HCl = 250. 00 cm3
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ykpäm&JU ' kw d
, yd
kif;u ?sodium hydroxide &JUjyi f;t m;u d k&S
myg/ N
yD;&i fo d
yfo n f;jci f;u d kq u f&SmygwJY
/ ' gq dkjyi f;t m;(M)u d
k
vd kcsi f&i f(mol)yr mP &S &r , f?(V)x kx n f&S
d d
&r , faygU
?x kH
;pH
t wd kif; n D
r Qyr mP Ed Ii f;, SOfo lcd
kif;wmv kyfr , f/
(i) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ¶ nD
rQ
1mol 1mol
(1mmol) (1mmol)
m mol of HCl = molarity x volume(cm3) of solution ¶ yr mP
= 0.25 mmolcm-3 x 22 cm3
= 5.5 mmol
by equation
1 mmol of HCl neutralizes 1 mmol of NaOH ¶ EId
i f;, S
Of
5.5 mmol of HCl neutralizes 5.5 mmol of NaOH
mmol of solute
molaity of NaOH =
volume (cm 3 )of solution
5.5 mmol
=
25 cm 3
= 0.22 mmol cm-3 (M)
the molarity of NaOH = 0.22 M
molarity &jyDb mq u fv kyfr v J?o d
yfo n f;jci f;density u dk&S
mygwJh' gq d
k' D
ykH
ao en f;aygU /
molarity &S
&i f density &N
d yDr [ kw fv m;/ molar mass u d k&SmN
yD;molarity eJU ajr §
mu fay;v d
ku f&i fb majymau mif;r v J
Density unit u á g dm-3 M x molar mass á mol dm-3 x g mol-1 á = g dm-3
(ii) molar mass of NaOH = 23+16+1 = 40 gmol-1
concentration into gdm-3 = molarity x molar mass
= 0.22 mol dm-3 x 40 g mol-1
= 8.8 g dm-3
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5. 100 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid were diluted to 1 dm3 with distilled water. 27 cm3
of this diluted acid were needed to neutralize 25 cm3 of 0.5 M sodium carbonate solution.
What is the concentration in g dm–3 of the original acid? (H = 1, Cl = 35.5, Na= 23, C = 12, O = 16)
r lv jyi f;t m;concentrated hydrochloric acid u d ka&a&mN
yD; dilute acid jzpfr S titration v kyfr , f/
N
yD ;&i fe*kdr lv t u fq pf&JU
density u d
kjyef&S
may;&r , fwJY
/Density u dkv d
kcsi f&i fMolarity &, fmolar mass &, f&S
&r , f/
d
100cm3 dilute with wate r 1000 cm3 27 cm 3 0.5M , 25 cm3

HCl(conc) HCl (dil) Na2CO3
t m;jyi f; t u fppf&JU 'D
t u fq pfaysmh
eJY pH
aysmf&n fq dkwm
odyfo n f;jci f;u d
k "mwfjyK jyi f;t m;v J&S
d
w, f
vd kcsifw, f/ "mwfjy, fw, f x kx n fv J&Sd
w, f
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) ¶ nD

rQ
jci f;a&;r, f
1mol 2 mol
m mol of Na2CO3 = molarity x volume(cm3) of solution ¶ yrmP &S
mw, f
by equation.EdIif;, S
Ofr , f/' D
t x dwG
u fn fh
yg
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
M1 = ? M2 = 0.9259 M &Si f;v i f;csu f
V1 = 100 cm3 V2 = 1000 cm3
100cm3 HCl(conc)u d k
M1V1 = M2V2
3 3
1000cm (1dm )
M 2 V2
M1 jzpfat mif a&a&mv d ku fr , f/
V1
27 cm , lN
3
yD; Na2CO3eJY
0.9259 1000
M1 titration v k yfr , fx kH ;pHt wd kif;
100
M1= 9.259 M titrationv k yfw meJY
nD rQ ?yr mP ?Ed Ii f;, S Of
molarmass of HCl = 1 + 35.5
o lcd kif;wmv kyfr , f/
= 36.5 gmol-1
concentration into gdm-3 = M x molar mass densityu d kv d kawm h olarity&, f
M
= 9.259 moldm-3 x 36.5 gmol-1 molar mass&, f&S &r , f/
d
= 338 g dm–3
.......................................................................................................................................................
6. 6 g of a mixture of sodium chloride and anhydrous sodium carbonate were made up to500 cm3
of aqueous solution. 25 cm3 of this solution required 20cm3 of 0.1 M sulphuric acid for neutralization.
Calculate the mass of sodium chloride in this solution. (Na = 23, C= 12, O = 16, S = 32)
ykH
pHuG Jav ;wpfyk'fyg?q m;ES pfcku dka&mx m;N yD ;wpfcku " mwfr jyK Ed kifwJY
q m;?aemu fw pfcku " mwfjyK wJUq m;?" mwfjyK
Edkifw JY
q m;u ae
" mwfr jyK Edkiw
f JY
q m;&JU t av ;csd efw efzdk;u d
kjyef&S
mwmyg/ 6g &S w JYNaCl eJYa&r JYanhydrous Na2CO3 u d
d kaysmf&n fx kx n f
3 3 3
500cm jzpfat mifazsmfN yD; t J'D
x Ju 25 cm u d k, lN
yD;&i f20 cm of 0.1 M sulphuric acid eJYtitration
jyefv kyfr , f/ pHaysmf&n fu sulphuric acid q d kawmh/ x kH ;pH
ygyJ/n D rQ?yr mP ?Ed Ii f;, S
OfaygU/
NaCl does not react with acid. (t m;jyi f;t u fq pfeJYt m;jyi f;aAY u aejzpfv mwJY q m;jzpfv d " mwfr jyK
kY Eid
kfb l;)
NaCl +Na2CO3 = 6 g
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
1mol 1 mol
m mol of Na2CO3 = molarity x volume(cm3) of solution
= 0.1 mmol cm3 x 20 cm3
= 2 mmol o wd jyK
&r S
mu " mwfr jyK ci fw kef;u
by equation aysmf&n fx kx n f500cm3v kyf
1 mmol of Na 2CO 3 1 mmol of H2SO4
x m;wmu d kawmh r ar h
eJUaemf/
2 mmol of Na2CO3 2 mmol of H2SO4
molar mass of Na2CO3 = (23x2) + 12 + (16x3) (g) v d kcsi f&i fmol eJYmolar mass ajr § mu f
= 106 g mol-1 ' gq d kNa2CO3 &JU t av ;csd ef&N yD/
mass of Na2CO3 = 2 x 10-3 mol x 106 g mol-1 Na2CO3 &N
yD
qdk&i fa&mx m;wJY
= 0.212 g of Na2CO3 (6)g x Ju EIw fay;v d
ku fr , fq &
ki f
d
3
25 cm of this solution contain 0.212 g of Na2CO3
b , fo lY
t av ;csd
efu d
k&r v J?
500 cm3 of this solution ?
0.212
= 500
25 t av ;csd
ef&S
mygv d
cd
kYkif;x m;wmq d
kawmh
= 4.24 g of Na2CO3
mass of NaCl = 6 g - 4.24 g mass (g) ygwJY
rd
k;ykH
ao en f;u d
ko kH
;r S
maygU
uG m
= 1.76 g of NaCl mass ( g ) g
mole  
molar mass gmol -1
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

3
7. 0.48 g of Magnesium was dissolved in 50 cm of 1 M hydrochloric acid. How many cubic
centimeters of 0.1 M potassium hydroxide solution will be necessary to neutralize the excess acid?
( Mg =24 )
Mg eJUHCl t &i f" mwfjyK r , f?N
yD
;&i fyd
kv Q
aeao mHCl eJYKOH wd
H aemu fx yf" mwfjyefjyK
kY wJYykpämav ;yg/
o wÅ K
eJY
t u fq pf" mwfjyK
&i fsalt eJYH2 &wmawmh od&r , f/t J'D u yd
kv mr, fhHCl eJYKOH x yfw cg" mwfjyefjyK N
yD
;
salt eJYwater jyef&r , f/jyi f;t m;0.1 May;x m;wJYKOH &JUx kx n fV u d kjyef&S
may;&r , f/ ykpämu d
kpOf;pm;v d
ku f&i f
jyi f;t m;M &S w , f/x kx n V
d f ar ;w, f/ t J'D
x kx n f&csi f&i fmol u d k&S
may;&r , f/ Molarity ykH ao en f;u d kt ajccH
x m;wJY ykpä
myJr[ kw fv m;?u Jwq i fh jyD
;wq i fhwG
u fMu wmaygU /
0.48g
mol of Mg = 24gmol 1 ¶ ay;x m;wJY*&r fu d
krd
k;ajymif;r , f
= 0.02 mol of Mg
mol of HCl = Molarity x volume
= 1 mol dm-3 x 50x10-3 dm3
= 0.05 mol ¶ ay;x m;wJY
t u fq pf&JU
rd
k;yr mP
Mg (s) + 2 HCl(aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
1mol 2mol
by equation
1 mol of Mg react with 2 mol of HCl
0.02 mol of Mg react with ?
¶ Mg eJY " mwfjyK N
yD
;o G
m;wJY
= 0.02 x 2 mol
t u fq pf&JU
rd
k;yr mP
= 0.04 mol of HCl
excess acid = 0.05 mol - 0.04 mol
= 0.01 mol of HCl ¶ yd
kv Q
aeao ;wJYt u fq pf&JU
H rd
k;yr mP
KOH + HCl  KCl + H 2O
1mol 1mol
mol of solute
Molarity(M)
volume of solution (dm 3 ) ¶ yd kv Q
t u fq pf&JU
H rd
k;yr mP eJY
mol of KOH " mwfjyKvd ku f&wJYKOH
volume of KOH = molarity of KOH N
yD
;&i fawmhKOH &JU x kx n fu d
k
0.01mol jyef&Smr, faemh
=
0.1 mol dm -3
volume of KOH = 0.1 dm3 = 100 cm3
.......................................................................................................................................................
8. How many grams of sulphur would be precipitated on mixing 7 dm3 of sulphur dioxide with 12 dm3
of hydrogen sulphide , if both gases originally at 756 mmHg pressure and 25ºC ? ( S = 32)
SO2 (g) + 2 H2S(g)  3 S(s) + H2O(l)
1 mol 2 mol 3 mol ' gu awmh t en fu sykpä maygY
H2S is a limiting substance. or (quentity) b mt cu f
t cJ& v
d
S J
q &
k
d i f
limiting substance
initial state final state(STP) b , fo ljzpfo v Jq d kwm&S mwwfzd
ygyJ/
kY
P 1 = 756 mmHg P 2 = 760 mmHg b , fv d k&S mrv J?t v G , fq kH;u
V1 = 12 dm3 V2 = ? o lw d &JU
kYrd k;t a&t wG u feJY
T1 = 25ºC + 273 T2 = 0º C + 273 x x
k n u
f d
p
k m
;M
u n v
h
f ku fyg/
d
= 298 K = 273 K en f;wJ x
h x
k n u
f t ajzygyJ/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
by the combine gas law equation,
P1V1 P2 V2
= t ck'D
ykpä
mrSmSO2 u 7 dm3 &S w , f?o lY
d &JUmol u 1mol &S w , f/
d
T1 T2 3
H2S u 12 dm ?o lY &JUmol u 2 mol &S w , f/
d
P1V1 T2 SO2 u 1 mol = 7dm3
V2 = T1P2 H2S u 2 mol = 12 dm3
1 mol wefzd k;jci f;wlat mif2 eJU
756mmHg 12 dm 3 273 K pm;v d ku f&i fo lY x kx n fu 6dm3 &w, f?
&JU
V2 = 760mmHg 298 K ' gaMu mifho lu x kx n ft en f;q kH ;
= 10.93 dm3 at STP jzpfv d
kUH2S u d klimiting substance v d kY
volume of H2S = 10.93 dm3 at STP o wfr Sw fw mjzpfw , f/
1 mol of H2S = 22.4 dm3 at STP
1 mol of S = 32 g
by the equation aemu fw pfcku b mv d kYSTP u d kajymif;N
yD
;&S
m&o v J
2 mol of H2S give rise 3 mol of S ( deposited) " mwf ai U
G
awG & U
Jr ;
k
dyr mP u aewjcm ;wpf zu fu
2x 22.4 dm3 at STP = 3 x 32 g of S substance &JUgram unit u d kajymif;v J&S may;&v dkY
jzpfw , f/
10.93 dm3 at STP = ? ' gY
t jyi fay;x m;wJY " mwfai G Ux kx n fawG uvJ
10.93 dm 3 96 g o mreft ylcsd ef?o mrefzd t m;r S mwd kif;wmay;x m;wmjzpfv d kY
=
44.8 dm 3 pHt ylcsd
efpHzdt m;t jzpfajymif;v Jay;&w, f/
= 23.42 g of S t '
J D
u wq i fhr d k;t csK d
;u ae
the mass of sulphur = 23. 42 g *&r fu d kajymif;&S may;jci f;jzpfw, f/
........................................................................................................................................................
9. 5 g of a mixture of anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium sulphate decahydrate on heating to
constant mass produces 3.2 g of anhydrous salt. What percentages of anhydrous and hydrated salts
are present in the mixture? (H = 1, Na = 23, S = 32, O = 16)
'Dykpä
mu awmh a&ygwJY q m;eJYa&r ygwJY r sK
;wlq m;2cku d
d ka&mN yD
;t ylw d ku fv d
ku fw mjzpfw , ft JY vd kt ylwd ku fawmha&yg0i fw JYq m;u ae
a&awG q kH
;&IH
;o Gm;w, f< u i f;u sef&pfw JYq m;2ckaygi f;wefzd k;u dkrlv t av ;csd efx Ju aeEIwfv d ku f&i fq kH;&IH ;o G m;wJ
a&t av ;csd
Y efu dk&r , f/
Na2SO4 + Na2SO4 .10H2O= 5 g hydrate t aM u mif;yg/ hydrate q d kw m

after heating a&yg0i fw JY
ykH
aq mifcJyg/a&&JU yg0i fr Iu d kM
u n fh
N
yD;
constant mass residuce = 3.2 g r lv ykH
aq mifcJ&JU
t av ;csd efu d
kwGu f, lEd kifygw, f/
loss of water = 5 g - 3.2 g
= 1.8 g of water ¶ -------t ylaM u mifh
q kH;½IH;o Gm;ao ma&\ t av ;csd ef
Na2SO4 .10H2O Na2SO 4 +10H2O
1 mol 10 mol
relative molecular mass of hydrate salt = (23x2+32+16x4)+10(1x2+16)
= 46+32+64 + 180
= 322 ¶ -------a&yg0i fao mq m;wpfckv kH ;\ t av ;csd ef
by equation
10 mol of water contain from 1 mol of hydrate salt Na2SO4 .10H2O
180 g of water contain from 322 g of hydrate salt
1.8 g of water contain ?
r lv hydrate salt &JU t av ;csd efu 322 g &S w , f/
d
1.8 322
= a&u 180 g yg0i fw , f/' gaM u mifha& 1.8 g ygb d kY
180
r lv hydrate salt u b , fav mu f&S ov J
d
= 3.22 g of hydrate salt
&v mwJY t ajz[ ma&yg0i fw JY q m;&JUt av ;csd efjzpfw, f/
5 g of mixture contain 3.22 g of hydrate salt
t J'Du aewq i fh pkpkaygi f;t av ;csd efu ae
100 g of mixtur contain ?
a&yg0i fw JY
q m;u d kEIw fv d
ku fr , fq dk&i f
100 3.22 a&r ygwJ q
Y m;u &
k
dwm ayg u
Y Gm
/
=
5
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
= 64.4 g
percentage of hydrate salt = 64.4 %
percentage of anhydrous salt = (100- 64.4 )%
= 35.6 %
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
10. How many grams of copper (II)sulphate crystal can you get from 50 g of malachite ore of formula
Cu(OH)2.CuCO3 ? ( Cu =64 , O =16 , C = 12 , H =1)
copper o wÅ K
½d
kif;jzpfw JY
malachite ore u ae copper yg0i fr Iu dkt " d
u x m;&S
may;&wJY
ykpä
mjzpfygw, f/ ar ;cG
ef;u
copper II sulphate ykH aq mifcJt av ;csd
efu r lv malachite ore u aeb , fav mu f&&Sr v Jv d
d kY
ar ;x m;ygw, f
Cu(OH)2.CuCO3 H  CuSO4.5H2O
2SO 4
relative molecular mass ofCu(OH)2.CuCO3 = ( 64 x 2 ) + 16 x 5 + 12 + 1 x 2

= 128 + 80 + 12 + 2
= 222 yx r OD
;q kH
;
malachite ore r S m&S
w JYcopper
d
222 g of malachite ore can you get to 128 g of copper &JU
yg0i fr Iu d
k&Smay;r , f/wcg
50 g of malachite ore can you get to ?
copper II sulphate r S m&S w JYcopper
d
128 50
= &JU
yg0i fr Iu d
kx yf&S mr, f/
222
= 28. 83 g of Cu
relative molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 64 + 32+ 16 x 4 + 5( 1x2+16)
= 64 + 32 + 64 + 90
= 250
64 g of Cu can you get from 250 g of CuSO4.5H2O
28.83 g of Cu can you get from ?
28.83 250
=
64
= 112.6 g of CuSO4.5H2O
........................................................................................................................................................
11. 1.905 g of silver is converted to silver nitrate. This silver nitrate is dissolved in distilled water and to
this solution dilute hydrochloric acid is added in slight excess. The precipitate formed is filtered,
washed and dried. The weight of this dried precipitate is 2.535 g. From this experimental result,
formulate the equation for the precipitation reaction. ( Ag = 108 , Cl = 35.5 , N =14 , O=16)
1.905 g &w S
d JYsilver u d
ksilver nitrate t jzpfajymif;v Jv dku fw , f/NyD;r St J'D silver nitrate u d kacid HCl eJYx yfwcg
" mwfjyefjyKN
yD
; t en fu sv mwJY2.535 g &S w JYsilver chloride u d
d kjyef&w, f/ ' gq d k&i ft en fu sv mwJY
silver chloride &JU
t av ;csd efu aewq i fho lwd &JU
kYzG
JU
pn f;wn faq mu fykH
azmfjr Lv mu d kjyefw Gu fcdkif;x m;w, f/( 9wef;u ykpä mav ;yg)
Ag convert AgNO3 HCl + AgNO3 AgCl + HNO3

1 mol 1 mol 1mol 1mol
precipitate of silver chloride= 2.535 g

mass of silver = 1.905 g
mass of chlorine = ( 2.535 - 1.905 ) = 0.63 g
silver chlorine
weight ratio 1.905 : 0.63
1.905 0.63
atomic ratio :
108 35.5
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
0.017 : 0.017
1 : 1
So, empirical formula of compound = Ag Cl
The formula of silver chloride = AgCl

..........................................................................................................................................................
12. 100 cm3 of iron (III) chloride solution is boiled and ammonium hydroxide is added in slight excess.
The reddish brown precipiate is washed, dried and ignited. The weight of the residue obtained is
0.72 g . How many grams of iron (III) chloride is dissolved in 1dm3 of solution?
( Fe = 56 , Cl = 35.5 , O = 16 , H = 1 , N=14 )
100cm3 &w S
d JhFeCl3 u d kNH4OH eJY t ylay;v d ku fw YJt cgeDnd K
a&mif&S w JYFe(OH)3 awG
d t en fu sv mygw, f/
q u fNyD;t ylw d ku fv d
ku fjyefawmh0.72 g &S w JYFe2O3 awG
d &&Sjyefygw, f/ ' gq d
d k&i fr lv FeCl3 u 1000 cm3r S m
t av ;csd eft m;jzi fh
b , fav mu f&S ygo v Jv d
d kYjyef&S
mcd kif;w, f/ (' gaMu mifhykpä mu dkaemu fu aea&S U
ud kjyefpO;pm
f ;r , f)
FeCl3 + 3 NH4OH Fe(OH)3 + 3 NH4Cl
1mol nd
1mol (reddish brown)eDa&mift jzpft en fu sv mo lFe(OH)3
2 Fe(OH)3 Fe 2O 3 + 3 H2O
2mol 1mol (residue) 0.72 g t jzpft en fu sv mo l
molar mass of FeCl3 = 56 + 35.5x3 = 162.5 g mol-1
molar mass of Fe(OH)3 = 56 + 16x3 + 1 x 3 = 107 g mol-1
molar mass of Fe2O3 = 56 x2 + 16x3 = 160 g mol-1
2 Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 + 3 H2O
2mol 1mol
'D
nDrQ
jci f;u ' D
ykpä
m&JU
t o u fyJ
by equation, FeCl3 + 3 NH4OH Fe(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl
1mol 1mol
1 mol of Fe2O3 react with 2 mol of Fe(OH)3
2 Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 + 3 H2O
160 g of Fe2O3 react with 2 x 107 g of Fe(OH)3 2mol 1mol
0.72 g of Fe2O3 react with ?
2 107 0.72 yx r q kH
;nD rQ jci f;t &
=
160 Fe2O3 &JUt av ;csd efu 160 g &S &i f
d
= 0. 963 g of Fe(OH)3 Fe(OH)3 u 2x107 g &S w , /f
d
0.72 g &Sw JYFe2O3 u Fe(OH)3
d
FeCl3 + 3 NH4OH Fe(OH)3 + 3 NH4Cl b , fav mu f&S
d
r v Jv d
jyefwG
kY u fM
u n fh
r, f
1mol 1mol
by equation,
nDrQjci f;u aewq i fh
1 mol of Fe(OH)3 react with 1mol of FeCl3 Fe(OH)3 u 107 g &S &i f
d
107 g of Fe(OH)3 react with 162 g of FeCl3 FeCl3 u 162 g &S w , f/
d
0.963g of Fe(OH)3 react with ? &v mwJY t ajzu ae
162 0.963 FeCl3 b , fav mu fjyef&r v Jv d kY
= jyefw G u fr , f
107
= 1.462 g of FeCl3 in 100 cm3 of solution
100 cm3 of solution contains 1.462 g of FeCl3

1000 cm3(1dm3) solution contains ?
1.462 1000
= = 14.62 g of FeCl3
100
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

3
13. To 25cm of a solution of sodium hydroxide of unknown concentration,
50cm3 of 0.5 M hydrochloric acid solution was added, and the resulting solution is titrated with
standard 0.25 M sodium hydroxide solution . 22.3 cm3 of 0.25M NaOH was required for
neutralization . Calculate the original concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution in gdm-3.
(Na = 23 , H = 1 , O =16)
Unknown NaOH eJ UHCl t &i f" mwfjyK NyD;r S
yd
kv Q
aewJYHCl u d
H kpHod aysmf&n fjzpfw JY ' kw d
, NaOH wd kU
aemu fx yf " mwfjyKjyefw , f/ aemu fq kH ;"mwfjyK vd
ku fw JYNaOH u d kpH
t jzpfjyefay;N yD;t &i f" mwfjyK vd ku fw JY
NaOHu d k jyefar ;x m;w, f/ ' gq d kUnknown NaOH &JUM u d k&S
m?N yD
;&i f molar mass eJY ajr §
mu fr , f/
' gq d
kv d
kcsi faewJYgdm u d
-3
kr&b l;v m;u G /
standard solution( pH
aysmf&n fNaOH )
NaOH (aq)+ HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) pH
aysmf&n fjzpfw JY' kw d
,
1mol 1mol NaOHu ae mmol
mmol of NaOH = molarity x volume (cm3) of solution
yr mP u d k&S
mr, f
= 0.25 mmolcm-3 x 22.3 cm3
= 5.575 mmol
by equation by equation u ae
1000 mmol of NaOH neutralize with 1000 mmol of HCl acid &J
U
"mwfjyKmmol
5.575 mmol of NaOH neutralize with 5.575 mmol of HCl yr mP u d
kq u f&S
mr, f
Total mmol of HCl = molarity x volume (cm3) of solution
= 0.5 mmolcm-3 x 50 cm3
= 25 mmol of HCl
reacted HCl = (25 - 5.575) mmol
acid &J
U
"mwfjyK
NyD
;yr mP u d
kEIw fr , f
= 19.425 mmol
by equation (unknown solutionNaOH)

1000 mmol (1mol) of reacted HCl neutralize with 1000 mmol(1mol) of NaOH
19.425 mmol of HCl neutralize with ?
= 19.425 mmol of NaOH unknown NaOH &J U
mmol of NaOH mmol yr m
P wefzd
k;u d
k
molarity of unknown NaOH =
volume of NaOH t u fq pfu aeajymif;, lr , f
19.425 mmo l
=
25 cm 3
= 0. 777 mmol cm-3 (M)
molar mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 gmol-1 NyD;&i f M &S mr, f

concentration into gdm-3 = molarity x molar mass g dm u d
-3
kq u fajymif;r , f
= 0. 777 mol dm-3 x 40 gmol-1
= 31.08 gdm-3
xd
kufwefwJY
&if;ES
;rIvJ&S
D &r, f?r, kwfrvG
d efwJY
B
ud K;pm
;rIvJ&S
&r, f
d
ewfpD wJYtdrfrufvSvS av;vG , fvG
, feJY
r&/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
CHAPTER ( 4 ) ELECTROLYSIS
Conductor
A substance which conducts or allows the passage of electricity is called conductor.
vQ yfppfpD
;u l;Ed
kifao m(o d
)v Q
kY yfppfpD
;u l;jci f;u d
kcG
i fh
jyK
ay;wJY
t &m0wÅ
K
awG
udkv Q
yfu l;ypön f;v dkY
ac:w, f/
Conductor are usually solids.

vQ
yfu l;ypö
n f;wd
kif;[ mt pd
kift cJawG
jzpfw , fv kd
a
Yjymayr , fhcR
i f;csu fmercury jy' g;u awmh
t &n fjzpfw , f/
Non-conductor or Insulator
A solid substance which does not conduct electricity is known as a non-conductor or insulator.
vQyfppfr pD
;u l;Ed
kif(o d
kY
)v Q
yfppfpD
;u l;jci f;u d
kcG
i fh
jyK
r ay;Ed
kifwJY
t &m0wÅ
K
awG
udkawmh
vQyfu mypö
n f;v cd
kY
a:w, f/
Oyr m&mb m(rubber)?o pfo m;(wood)?yv yfpwpf(plastic) pwmawG aygU/
Electrolytes
Those substances, other than metals, which in the molten state or as a solution in water, allow the
passage of electricity, are called electrolytes.
o wÅ K
yg0i fwJY
a&r JY
&n faysmfrsm;(molten state)?aysmf&n fr sm;(solution in water)?wen f;t m;jzi fh
vQyfppfjzwfo ef;jci f;u d
k
cG
i fh
jyK
ay;Edkiw
f JY
t &n fawG ud kawmhvQyfv d
ku faysmf&n fawG
vd kY
ac:w, f/
Non-electrolyte
A substance in a solution that does not conduct electric current is called non-electrolyte.
o wÅ K
yg0i fr Ir &S w JY
d &n faysmf&n fr sm;?aysmf&n fr sm;?wen f;t m;jzi fh
vQyfppfjzwfo ef;jci f;u d
kcGi fh
jyKr ay;Ed kiwJ
fY
t &n fawG udkawmh
vQyfr v d
ku faysmf&n fawG vd kY
ac:w, f/ajymr, fq d k&i organic
f solvent awG aygU/alcoholst &u fawG ?oils,q D
awG?heavy
oils,t i f* si f0d
kifawG?solution of sugar, urea pwmawG aygU/t &u fu v Qyfppfr pD ;b l;q d kN
yD
; r pr f;o yfeJY
aemft mrr cH
b l;/' gyJ
Electrolysis
The decomposition of a compound, in solution or in the molten state, brought about by the passage
of an electric current through it, is known as electrolysis.
o wÅKyg0i fao maysmf&n fr sm;?a&r JY

o wÅ K&n faysmf&n fr sm;wG
i f;o d
kYv Q
yfppfjzwfo ef;pD
;q i f;ao mt cg4i f;j' yfaygi f;r sm;
vQyfppfaM
u mifhNyd
K
uGJo G
m;jci f;u d
kv Qyfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cGJjci f;v d
ac:w, f/
kY
Electrical Conductivity of Metals

In metals, the atoms are packed tightly together to form what is known as the metallic lattice.
The valence electrons from each atom in the lattice can move freely through the entire lattice.
o wÅ Kt u fw r fawG [ mwpfckeJY w pfcku spfv pfpG

mzGJU
pn f;x m;M
uNyD;o wÅK
cJrsm;jzpfv mM u w, f?'gayr , fho lw d
ud
kY k0d
ki&f;H
vSn fh
ywfaewJY
t D
v u fx &G efawG u o wÅ Kt u fw r fM
u m;ae&mv yfawG u ae v Gwfv yfpG
ma&G U
v sm;Ed kifMuvd kU
o wÅ
K
awG rS
mv Q yfppft v G , fw u l
pD
;u l;Ed
kifjci f;yJjzpfw , f/' gaM
u mifh
t J'DM
u m;u Gu fv yfu dkmetallic lattice o wÅ Kji r f;u G
u fawG
vdkY
ac:M
u wmaygU /
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Battery
In a battery, there is a difference of potential between the two terminals. When the terminal is linked
by a metal wire, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through the wire.
bx Ä&D
eJY
o wÅ K
0g, mu d
kq u fo G
, fv d ku f&i fb x Ä &u
Dx G u fv mwJYcurrent u t zd kb u fu ae t r b u fu d
kv QyfppfpD
;N
yD
;awmh
t D
v u fx &e
GfawGu wzeft r b u fu ae t zd kb u fu d
kajymif;jyefjyefpD
;w, f/( r Q
m;&JU
v m;&mu dkao csmM
u n fh
yg)
'D
2016r Smar ;o Gm;wmykH av ;q GJjyay;&kH ygyJ/
Electron flow and Current flow
A metal like copper, conducts electricity both in its solid and liquid states.
o wÅ K
awG u t pd kift cJyJjzpfjzpfo wÅ K
t &n fyJjzpfjzpfv QyfppfpD
;u l;Ed
kifpG
r f;&S
d
M
u w, f/[eg- mercury(liquid)]
The electrical conductance of a metal is much greater than that of a solution of an electrolyte.
o wÅ K
awG rSmpD
;aewJY vQ yfppfu v Q yfv d
ku faysmf&n fr S
mpD
;wJY
vQ yfppfx u fpD ;u l;Ed
kifpG
r f;yd
krsm;w, f/
One distinctive property of metallic conductance is that it decreases with increase in temperature.
' gayr , fht ylcsd
efjr i fh
w u fv m&i fawmho wÅ K
rSmpD;aewJYvQ yfppfpD;u l;r I[ mwajz;ajz;av smh u so G
m;jyefw , f/
Arrhenius Ionic Theory ( 1880 )

vQyfppfo kH
;N
zdKcGJjci f;eJY
yu fo u fw JY
rS
efu efcsu fawG u Arrhenius
k
d u t apmq kH ;&Si f;jycJY
w , f/
1. Electrolytes contain electrically charged particles called ions.
vQ yfv dku faysmf&n fawG rS
mv Q yfppfaq mift r Iefav ;awG yg&Sd
M
u w, f/
2. Electrolytes can conduct electricity due to the movement of these ions.
t J'D
vQ yfppfaq mift r Iefav ;awG aysmf&n ft wG i f;a½G
U
v sm;Ed
kifr IaM
u mifhaysmf&n fawG rS mv Q
yfppfpD;u l;Edkifjci;jzpf
f w , f/
3. Non-electrolytes do not contain ions and so they cannot conduct electricity.
vQ yfr v dku faysmf&n fawG rSmawmh t J'D
vQ yfppfaq mift r Iefav ;awG yg0i fjci f;r &S
M
duv d kY
vQyfppfr pD
;u l;Edkifb l;/
Cation Cation is an ion with a positive charge. [ hydrogen ions and ions derived from metals]
Anion Anion is an ion with a negative charge. [ hydroxide ions and ions derived from non-metals]
vQ yfppfo kH
;N
yd
K
uG Jjci f;ES
i fh
yu fo u fí o d o i fhp&mrsm;
t J'D vQ yfppfaq mift r Iefav ;&JU ions charge
t a&t wG u f[ mo u fq d kif&mt u fw r f
' gr S
r [ kw ft kyfp(group)r
k m&S
S d
Mu wJYaygi f;pn f;u d ef;
(valence)t a&t wG u fawG eJY
t wlw lygyJ/
The number of electrical charges on an ion is
equal to the valence of the corresponding atom
or group.
b u fx &D t dk;awG rSmv Qyfacgi f;2ck&S w, f/ t zd
d kv Q
yfacgi ;fu d
k
(Anode electrode) v d ac:N
kY yD
;?t r v Q yfacgi f;u dkawmh
(Cathode electrode) v d kYac:w, f/
aysmf&n fwiGf;v QyfppfpD ;q i f;wJY
t cgj' yfaygi f;awG rSmyg0i fw JYj' yfpi f[ mions r sm;t jzpfN ydKuG Jo Gm;MuNyD;t zd kions awG u t r
cathode v Q yfacgi f;b u fu dka&GU
v sm;NyD; t r ions awG u t zd kanode v Q yfacgi f;b u fu dka&G Uv sm;Mu w, f/
' gaM
u mifhpositive ion awG ud kcation v d kY
ac:N
yD
; negative ion awG ud kanion v d ac:M
kY u w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
Electrodes
Electrodes are cathode and anode in the electrolysis.v Q yfppfo kH;N
ydK
uG Jjci f;r S
mt o kH
;jyK
wJY
vQ yfacgi f;awG
jzpfw , f/
Cathode
Cathode is negative electrode in electrolysis. v Q
yfppfo kH
;N
yd
K
uGJjci f;r S
mt o kH
;jyK
wJY
vQyfr acgi f;jzpfw , f/
[Cations (Positive ions) move to negative electrode. This electrode is called cathode.]
Anode
Anode is positive electrode in electrolysis. v Q yfppfo kH
;N
yd
K
uGJjci f;r S
mt o kH
;jyK
wJY
vQyfzd
kacgi f;jzpfw , f/
[Anions (Negative ions) move to positive electrode. This electrode is called anode.]
In the electrolysis, positive terminal in a battery is connected to the anode (positive electrode)
and negative terminal to the cathode (negative electrode).
vQ
yfppfo kH
;N
yd
K
uGJjci f;ES
i fh
yu fo u fí o d
x m;o i fh
o n fh
t csu fr sm;
vQyfppfjzi fhv Q
yfv d
ku faysmf&n fawG t wG i f;jzwfpD
;apwJYt cgr S maysmf&n ft wG i f;r S
m&Sd
w JY
yg0i fj' yfpi fawGu
t kd
i f, G
ef;awGt jzpfN ydK
uGJo G
m;M
u w, f?t J'D t cgo u fq d kif&mv Q
yfw dkift o D ;o D ;r Smu yfw i fMu w, f/' gayr , fh u yfw i fr, fh
t d
kif, Gef;t a&t wG u fu wpfr sK ;x u fyd
d kaer , fq d
k&i ft m;v kH;u yfw i fEdkifpG
r f;r &SyJwpfr sK
d d
;u dko ma&G;cs, fu yfwi fMu ygw, /f
t J'gu d kSelective Discharge of ions v d ac:ygw, f/
kY
Selective Discharge of ions
1. In an aqueous solution of an electrolyte, there are usually more than one species of cations or anions
+ + -
e.g., in an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, there are Na , H and OH ions.
2. When electricity is passed through such a solution, the cations move towards the cathode and
anions move toward the anode but not all the positive ions or all the negative ions are discharged
at the cathode or the anode at the same time.
3. Usually one species of cations or anions is selectively discharged at respective electrodes.
t J'D
vdka&G
;cs, fu yfwi fzd
kY
t wG
u fat mu fygt csu fawG
ay:r lw n fygw, f/
Factors affecting the electrolysis products

(i) Position of the metal or group in the electrochemical series v Q
yfppft m;pOfZ, m;r S
m&S
w JU
d
o wÅ
K
awG
&JUwn fae&m?t kyfpkawG
(wen f;ajym&&i fv Q
yfzd
k^r t d
kif, G
ef;awG
&JU
x u fat mu fw n f&S
ae&m)
d
(ii) Concentration and aysmf&n fawG
&JU
jyi f;t m;t en f;t r sm;awG
(iii) Nature of the electrode. t o kH
;jyK
x m;wJY
vQyfw d
kifawG
&JUo ab mo b m0awG
&S
ygw, f/
d
Electrochemical Series
Cations or anions are arranaged in the order of increasing readiness to be discharged from the solution.
This arrangement is known as the electrochemical series.
vQ yfzdkt d
kif, G
ef;r sm;eJYv Q
yfr t d
kif, G
ef;r sm;u d
kpDpOfx m;wJYae&mrS mv Qyfppfydkw i f&S
, fr sm;&mu aeeJ&mq D okY
pd
pOfx m;N
D yD
; at mu fb u f
a&mu fav av discharge jzpfzd vG
kY , fu lav jzpfN
yD
; q efY
u si fzu fjyefM
u n fh
r , fq dk&i ft ay:u d
kw u fav av discharge
jzpfzd
kY
cu fav av jzpfw , f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
The series obtained by placing the metals in order of decreasing negative potential is known as
electrochemical series.
Element Standard electrode potential (volt )
Potassium -2.92 K+ +e K
Calcium -2.87
Sodium -2.71 o wå K
awG rS
mv Q yfppfydkw i f&S, fr sm;w, fq d kw mu
Magnesium -2.39 o lwd
ut D
kY v u fx &Gefx G u fv d
krIr sm;jci f; (t zdkt d
kif, Gef;yJjzpfcsi fw m)
wen f;t m;jzi fh o lw dkY
u ay;csi faewm, lcsi fw mr[ kw fM u b l;/
Aluminium -1.66
b mjzpfv dv Jq d
kY kawmh t D
v u fx &G efawG aygr sm;aewmu d k;
Zinc -0.76
' gaMu mifht Dv u fx &G efr sm;&mu aeen f;&m
Iron -0.44 at mu fb u fq D oY kpD
d ;o G m;wmjzpfw , f/
Tin -0.14
A high negative electrode potential shows
Lead -0.13
that the metal has
Hydrogen 0.0
a strong tendency to go into solution
Copper +0.34
as positive ions.
Silver +0.8
cations
K+
Ca2+
increasingly easier to discharge
anions
increasingly easier to discharge
zdwf
yd
kw u fu , q f D Na+ SO4 2-
Edku f
qd k'Dr *f Mg2+ NO3- uvd k
v l Zi fht d kifwi f; Al3+ Cl- A&kd
0i fv mawmh Zn2+ to cathode to anode
Br- t kdif
v wf[ d ku fau mheJY Fe2+ q kd'f
I-
aq ;v fAg;u Sn2+ t JEkw f
u wfo kwfq D udk OH-
Pb2+ aemu fu kdv d
ku f
oG m;M u aygU/
H+
Cu2+
Ag+
' Delectrochemical seriesu dkawmh t &u su f&ygv d

r fh
r , f/' gr S
v Jelectrode reaction awG ud ka&;wJY t cg
cathode awG anode awG rS
mb , fo ldischarge jzpfr , fr jzpfb l;q d kw mu d
kt v G
, fw u lq kH
;jzwfEd
kifv d
r fh
r , f/
Electrochemical series u dkv Tr f;r d
k;o u fa&mu faeao mt csu fr sm;
(i) Position of metal or group in electrochemical series
Arrangement of ions in the order of increasing readiness of discharge at electrodes.(for dilution)
aysmf&n faysmh
awG t wG u fo wÅK
awG &JU
wn fae&mradical awG &JU
wn fae&mwen f;t m;jzi fhajym&i fr lv "mwfjyK
Ed
kifpG
r f; t en f;
t r sm;ay:r lwn fN
yD
; at mu fb u fa&mu fav av v Q
yfjy, fr Iu v G, fu lav av jzpfw , f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
(ii ) Concentration
As the concentration of an ion increases, the tendency of the ion to discharge from solution also
increases.
jyi f;t m;r sm;wJY
aysmf&n fo mjzpfr , fq d k&i faysmf&n fr S
myg0i fwions
JY [ mv Jt m;jyi f;ygw, f/t J'D
t cgelectrochemical series
ud kv dku femrSmr[ kw fawmhygb l;?jyi f;t m;r sm;wJY
aysmf&n fr S
myg0i faeao mions u d
ko mOD;pm;ay;a&G;cs, fay;r , f/
For example, in concentrated hydrochloric acid containing OH- and Cl-, the concentration of
Cl- is very much greater than that of OH-. In these circumstances, Cl- is discharged first.
Oyr mt m;jyi f;wJY
t u fq pfjzpfwJY mOH- and Cl- ygw, f/o wd
HCl x JrS /t u fq pfq d
kw ma&ygw, faemf/
kawmht m;jyi f;wJYCl- u OH- x u ft &i fdischarge o G
b , fo lu discharge jzpfv Jq d m;jzpfw , f/
' gY
aM
u mifh anode reaction 2 Cl- Cl2 + 2 e OH
-
But if the acid is very dilute, discharged of OH will also occur. OH
O2 2H2O
- OH
wu , fv d
kY
o mt u fq pfu t m;aysmh
w , fq d
k&i fawmhOH o mx G
u fygv d
r fh
r , f/
OH
4OH- O2 + 2H2O + 4 e
The concentration effect can also be seen when saturated aqueous solution of sodium chloride
(brine) solution is electrolysed.
t v m;wl(brine) sodium chloride v d
kU
ac:wJY
jyn fh mv JOH- eJY
0q m;aysmf&n fr S Cl- ygjyefw , f/' D
t cgr S
mv J
at mu fu OH- u discharge jzpf&r , fh
electrochemical series &JU t pm;Cl-u yJdischarge jzpfo G
m;jyefw , f/
Here the order of discharged stated by the electrochemical series may be reversed by concentration
effect. ' g[ mjyi f;t m;r sm;wJY
aysmf&n fawG
&JUwefjyefo u fa&mu fr IygyJ/ECS u d
kao G
z, fv d
ku fw, f/
(iii) Nature of the electrode

The nature of electrode is the deciding factor in some cases.
wcsK
U
d
ao mu d
pö
awG
rS
mv Q
yfw d
kift o kH
;jyK
wmu d
krlw n fN
yD
;q kH
;jzwfay;&ygw, f/ wen f;t m;jzi fhECS u d
krv d
ku femEd
kifjyefb l;/
The different electrodes may give different products from the same electrolytes.
wln D
ao mv Q
yfv d
ku faysmf&n fu d
kt o kH
;jyK
x m;ayr , fhr wln D
w JY
vQyfw d
kifu d
kt o kH
;jyK
vdku fr , fq d
k&i fr wln D
w JY
" mwfjzpfypö
n f;awG
ud
k&&S
d
apw, f/
The products of the electrolysis of a solution of sodium chloride with mercury cathode are quite
different from those obtained by using the platinum cathode.
With a platinum electrode, H+ is discharged and the cathode product is hydrogen gas
(according to ElectroChemical Series). 2 H+ + 2 e H2
With a mercury electrode, Na+ is discharged and the cathode product is sodium which is dissolve
in the mercury forming sodium amalgam. Na+ + 1e Na
Na + Hg Na / Hg
'D
ae&mrS
mPt & graphite awG
ud
kro kH
;yJmercury u d
ko kH
;v d
ku fw JY
t cgNa ion [ mmercury r S
mu yfji d
oGm;N
yD
;
sodium amalgam jy' g;pyfu d
ko m&&S
v mwmu d
d kawG
U
&w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
' gaM
u mifh
vQyfv d
ku faysmf&n fawG
udkv Q
yfppfo kH
;N
zK
dcG
Jw JY
t cgt ajct aeo kH
;cku d
kpOf;pm;ay;&ygr , f/
1/ yx r t csu ft aeeJYt o kH
;jyK
wJYaysmf&n ft r sK
;t pm;u d
d kM
u n fh
yg/ saturated aqueousv m;?&kd
;&d
k;aqueousv m;/
moltenv m;?saturated aqueous o mjzpfcJY
&i cf oncentration &JU
vTr f;r d
k;jci f;u d
kOD
;pm;ay;&r , f/
2/ ' kwd
, t csu ft aeeJYt o kH
;jyK
w JY
vQyfw d
kift r sK
d
;t pm;/ platinum/graphite v m;other electrode v m;/
platinum/graphiteq d
k&i fv Q
yfwd
kif&JU
vTr f;r kd
;jci f;r &S
yJt &m&mu d
d kECS u yJq kH
;jzwfay;ygr , f/
other electrode (Cu, Ag....) q d
k&i fawmht J'D
vQyfw d
kifu yJaysmf&n fx Ju d
kions t jzpfaysmf0i fo G
m;ygv d
r fh
r , f/
3/ wwd
, t csu ft aeeJYt ay:u t csu fawG
w ln D
aeM
uNyD
qdk&i fECS t wd
kif;q kH
;jzwfv d
ku f, kH
ygyJ/
u JajymaeM
u mygw, f/ v u fawG
U
av h
v mM
u n fh
&at mif/
Electrolysis of Molten Salts
(I ) Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using Pt electrodes
Molten Salts q d kw ma&yg0i fr Ir &SwJY
d o wÅK
&n faysmf&n fjzpfw , f/r sm;ao mt m;jzi fht yl' P fcH
Ed
kift m;au mif;wJ Y
Platinum or
graphite v Q
yfw d
kifr sm;u d
kt o kH
;jyK
av h
&S
d
w , f/t J'D
vQyfw d
kifawGudko kH
;wJYt cgaysmf&n fu dkt aESmu ft , S u fay;jci f;r &
wJ
dY
St wG
uf
t pG
r f;r JYInert electrode v Q
yfwd
kifr sm;v d
ac:M
kY u w, f/
a&r JY
q m;jzpfwJY qd
k'D
, r fu v dk&kd
' f&n faysmf&n fu dkv Q yfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cGJv d
ku fw JY
t cgaysmf&n fx JrS ma&r ygwJY t wGu ft zd kjzpfw JYNa+ eJY
t r jzpfw JYCl - x G u fv mw, f/x G u fv mwJY t zd
kt d kif, G
efu t r jzpfwJY cathode v Q yfw dkifu ae electron u d k&, lNyD;?
t r jzpfw JY
t kd
i f, G
efu t zd kjzpfw JY anode v Q yfw kidfay: electron u d ku yfw i fay;v d
ku fw , f?' D
vd keJY
vQyfppfywfv r f;[ mt aES mu f
t , Su fr &Sdelectron u d kv u fq i fh u r f;o , faq mifo G m;w, f/
+ -
Molten or fused sodium chloride contains Na and Cl ions. On electrolysis, sodium ions move to the
cathode and they accept electrons and are discharged as sodium atoms. The chloride ions move to the
anode and they lose electrons and chlorine gas is evolved.
Reaction at the cathode, Na+ + e Na electrons u d

ko , faq mifw, f/
Reaction at the anode, 2 Cl - Cl2 + 2 e electrons u d
kyd
kY
aq mifw, f/
Note: Solid sodium chloride does not conduct electricity, because in the solid state,
the movment of Na+ and Cl- ions are restricted.
t pd
kift cJjzpfwJYq m;u awmhv Q yfppfN
zwfo ef;pD
;q i f;jci f;v kH
;0r &S
ygb l;?b mjzpfv d
d r pD
kY ;Ed k&i fNa+ eJYCl- ions
kifw mv Jq d
M
u m;r Smwpfcku d kwpfckw i f;M
u yfpG
mpn f;aES
mifx m;Mu wJY electrostatic force v d kY
ac:wJYo Ha, mZOfB udK
;av ;&Saev d
d kY
yg/
aemu fw mygaemhv Q
yfppfpn f;v d
kY
ac:wJY
electrovalent bond or ionic bond &S
aev d
d kU
jzpfygw, f/
ECS = ElectroChemical Series
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
u Jaemu fw pfyk'fq u fav h
v mM
u n fh
ygt kH
;r , f/
aysmf&n u
f molten jzpfv d a&r ygb l;?v syfw d
kY kifu v JPt electrodes jzpfv d aysmf&n fr S
kY mt aES mu ft , Su fr &S
b l;/
d
b , fo lY
udkrS
a&G
;p&mrv d
kyJt zd
kw pfckt r wpfcko m&Svd
d kUo u fq d
kif&mv Q
yfw dkifq D
rS
myJu yfw i fo G
m;ygw, f/
(2) Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide using Pt electrodes

Reaction at the cathode,
Pb2+ + 2e Pb
Reaction at the anode,
2 Br- Br2 + 2e
(3) Electrolysis of saturated aqueous sodium chloride solution (brine) using platinum electrodes
'D
w cgaysmf&n fu jyn fh
0wJY
q m;aysmf&n fjzpfw JYsaturated NaCl u d
kPt v Q
yfw d
kifo kH
;N
yD
;v Q
yfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cGJygr , f/
Aqueous sodium chloride solution contains Na+, Cl-, H+ and OH- ions. On electrolysis,
the cations, Na+ and H+ ions move to cathode.
mNa+, Cl-, H+ and OH- ions awG

aysmf&n fx JrS ku Na+, H+ 2ck?t r u Cl- and OH- 2ck
yg0i fygw, f/ t zd
jzpfaew, f/ v Q yfw d kifu v Jwpfa, mu fq dkw pfa, mu fyd
awmu fq d kyd
awmu fjzpfaeawmhv Q
yfw d
kifr S
mwpfckpD
o mu yfw i f
vd&ygr , f/ u Jr i f; b , fo lY
kY udka&G
;r v J/
In the electrochemical series, sodium is above hydrogen and so hydrogen ions accept electrons more
readily than sodium ions. Hydrogen ion is discharged and hydrogen gas is evolved at cathode.
The anions, OH- and Cl- ions move to anode.
electrochemical series t &t zd kjzpfw JYNa+ eJYH+ r Smhydrogen ion u sodium ion &JU at mu fr S
m&S
w , f/
d
+ +
' gaM u mifhH u Na x u fdischarge t v G , fw u ljzpfv G
, fw , f/t zd kt d
kif, G
efr S
mECS t &ajyv n fayr , fh
- -
t rt d kif, G
efb u fr S
mOH ions u discharge jzpf&r , fh t pm;Cl ions u concentration yd krsm;wmjzpfv d
kY
-
Cl ions is discharged .jzpfo G m;&w, f/' g[ maysmf&n f&JU vT r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fr IygyJ/saturated aqueousjzpfv d kU
aygU
If the amount of OH- ions and Cl- ions are similar in the solution, OH- ions will lose electrons more
readily than Cl- ions. But, in brine (saturated aqueous sodium chloride solution), the concentration of
Cl- ions is very higher than that of OH- ions. Therefore, Cl- ions is discharged and chlorine gas is evolved
at anode.
Reaction at the cathode, 2H+ + 2e H2
Reaction at the anode, 2 Cl - Cl2 + 2 e
(4) Electrolysis of dilute aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution using platinum electrodes
aemu fx yfOyr mwpfyk'fu d kM
u n fh
&at mif/' Dw cgu dilute aqueous aysmf&n ft r sK ;t pm;u aysmf&n faysmh
d ?v Q
yfwd
kifu awmh
x kH
;pH
t wd kif; platinum electrodesq d kawmh ?aysmf&n f&JU
o u fa&mu fr Iv Jr&S
d
b l;?v Q yfw d
kif&JU
pG
u fzu fr Iv Jr&Sawmh
d
electrochemical series t wd kif;pOf;pm;ay;&kH aygY /
copper (II) sulphate aysmf&n fx JrS mt zd kjzpfw JYCu2+, H+ eJYt r jzpfw JYSO42- , OH- wd ygw, f/
kY
electrochemical series t &M u n fh vd ku f&i fH+u t ay: Cu2+ u at mu fq d kawmhdischarge r , fh o lu Cu2+aygU /
2- - 2- - -
t J'DvdkyJt r b u fjzpfw JYSO4 , OH r S mv JSO4 u t ay: OH u at mu fq d kawmdhischarge r , fh o lu OH aygU /
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
2+ 2- + -
Dilute aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution contains Cu , SO4 , H and OH ions. On electrolysis,
The cations, Cu2+ and H+ ions move to cathode. In the electrochemical series, hydrogen is above
copper and so copper ion accepts electrons more readily than hydrogen ions.
Copper ion is discharged and copper is deposited at cathode.
The anions, SO42- and OH- ions move to anode. The concentrations of SO42- and OH- ions are similar.
In the electrochemical series, SO42- is above OH- and so OH- ions accept electrons more readily than
SO42- ions. The OH- ions is discharged and oxygen gas is evolved at anode.
pmar ;yG
JawG
rS
m' D
t yd
kif;u d
ku G
u fN
yD
;ar ;av Y
&S d
ygw, f/t ay:u &S
i f;v i f;csu fawG
ud
kajzzd
rv d
kY kyg/' gayr , fh
odatmifawmh
zwfyg/
Reaction at the cathode, Cu2+ + 2e Cu
-
Reaction at the anode, 4OH 2H2O + O2 + 4 e
(5) Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution using copper electrodes
Figure; Apparatus for electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution using copper electrodes
'D
wpfyk'fu awmhv Q
yfw d
kif&JU
o ab mo b m0u d
kazmfjywmjzpfw, f/
M
u n fh&at mifaemh ?x kH
;pH
t wdkif; aysmf&n ft r sd
K
;t pm;u
aysmf&n faysmh
jzpfw , f/v Qyfw d
kifu au mh yg;v Q yfw d
kif/
t &i fv d
kInert electrode v Q
yfw d
kifr [ kw fawmhaysmf&n fw G
i f;
vQ
yfppfjzwfo ef;wJY
t cgelectrochemical series wd
kif;
xG
u fcsi fo v d
kx G
u fv d
kY
r &awmh
b l;?' g[ mv Q
yfw d
ki&
f JU
o u fa&mu fr IygyJ/
aysmf&n fx JrS
myg0i fw mawG
u t zd
kions 2 ck?t r ions 2 ck&S
w , f/
d
t zdkions 2ckrS mH+ u Cu2+ &JU t ay:r S
m&S
w , f/' D
d awmht zd
kions awG
t wG
u felectrochemical series
&JU
o u fa&mu fr Iu ajymif;v Jjci f;r &S
d
b l;/
' gayr , fht r ions awG w , f/ electrochemical series t & SO42- eJUOH- ions r S
b u fu awmhjyo em&S
d m
xG
u fo i fh
xu ku fw mu OH- ions aygU
Gfx d /o lu electrochemical series &JU
at mu fq kH
;r S
m&S
w , fav / ' gayr , fh
d
t rS
efw u , fx G
u fo G
m;wmu copper electrode u d kifCu2+ ions t jzpfaysmf&n ft wG
k, fw d i f; aysmf0i fo G
m;jci f;ygyJ/
'D
vdkcR
i f;csu fjzpfpOfawG
ud
kawmho wd
x m;o i fh
w , f/
Aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution contains Cu2+, H+, SO42- and OH- ions. On electrolysis,
Cu2+ ions are discharged at the cathode, metallic copper is deposited.
The anions, SO42- and OH- ions move to anode where three different reactions are possible:
(1) SO42- ions can be discharged,
(2) OH- ions can be discharged and
(3) Cu atoms from the anode can be lose electrons forming Cu2+ anions which can dissolved
into solution.
Actually the last process occurs.
Therefore, reaction at cathode Cu2+ + 2 e Cu
reaction at anode Cu Cu2+ + 2 e
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
aemu fq kH;&v ' ft aMu mif;ajym&r , fq d
k&i faysmf&n ft wG i f;&S copper (II) sulphate u ae Cu2+ ions awG
w JY
d u cathode
2+
wdkifr S
mdischarge jzpfo G m;o v d
kcopper electrode u v Jaysmf&n fw G i f;u d
kw ln D
pG
mCu ions t jzpfaysmf0i fv mM u wm
jzpfv dkU
aysmf&n fr S
mb mawG ajymif;v Jv mo v Jq ka dwmhcathode v Q yfw d
kifu x lv mw, fanode v Q yfw d
kifu wajz;ajzyg; o G
m;
w, f?aysmf&n f&JU t a&mifu awmh b mrSajymif;v Jjci f;r &S
d' D
t wd kif;ygyJ/b mjzpfv d kU
t a&mifr ajymif;wmv JpOf;pmM
;u n fh
yg
'D
en f;pOfu t ckv u fawG
u rÇ
Y mrS
mo wÅ
K
udko efY
pi fM
u wJY
v kyfi ef;r S
mt o kH
;jyK
M
u w, f/
The net result of the electrolysis of copper (II) sulphate using copper electrodes is the loss of copper
from the anode and the deposition of copper at the cathode. The colour of solution does not change.
This process is used for purification of crude copper, which is made the anode in the electrolytic process.
' gawG
udkawmh
cRi f;csu ft aeeJY
rS
w fo m;o i fh
ovd
ko wd
v Jx m;apcsi fw , f/
1/ Electrolytes awG
udkv Q
yfppfjzwfo ef;apwJY
t cgr S
mions t jzpfN
yd
K
uGJM
u w, f/
2/ Cation(positive ion)awG
u Cathode (negative electrode)v Q
yfwd
kifu d
ka&G
U
v sm;N
yD
;anion( negative ion)
awGu anode (positive) v Q
yfwd
kifq D
udka&G
U
v sm;M
u w, f/
3/ aysmf&n fw pfckrS
mr wlw JY
cations (o dkY
) anions r sm;yg0i fae&i fo lw d
kY
[ mwN yd
Ki fw n f; discharge r jzpfEd
kifb l;/
ions awG u o u fq d
kif&mv Q
yfw d
kifawG
rSmwpfckpDo mdischarge jzpfcG i fh
&S
w , f/
d
4/ jyn fh
0q m;jzpfw JYNaCl (saturated) aysmf&n fu d kElectrolysis v kyf&i fAnode v Q
yfw d mCl- ion discharge
kifr S
jzpfjci f;/(concentration awG&JUo u fa&mu fr IaM
u mifh
jzpfw , f)
5/ NaCl q m;aysmf&n fu d kplatinum electrode r o kH
;yJmercury electrode o kH h +ion t pm;Na+ion
;&i fawm
H
discharge jzpfjci f; (sodium amalgam Na/Hg)
6/ Copper(II)sulphate aysmf&n fu d kCopper electrode r sm;jzi fhelectrolysis v kyfr , fq dk&i fAnode copper r S
m
r n fo n fhions r Sdischarge r jzpfM
u yJAnode copper o mions t jzpfaysmf0i fo G m;jci f; pwmawG jzpfw , f/
Summary of the Effects of Electrolysis
Electrolytes Cathode of Anode of At cathode At anode
Fused NaCl platinum platinum sodium deposited chlorine evolved
Molten PbBr2solution platinum platinum Lead deposited Bromine evolved
Molten potassium iodideplatinum platinum Potassium deposited Iodine evolved
Saturated NaCl platinum platinum Hydrogen evolved chlorine evolved
NaOH solution platinum platinum hydrogen evolved oxygen evolved
Dilute H2SO4 solution platinum platinum hydrogen evolved oxygen evolved
CuSO4solution platinum platinum copper deposited oxygen evolved
CuSO4 solution copper copper copper deposited copperanode dissolved
Silver nitrate solution platinum platinum Silver deposited Oxygen evolved
Silver nitrate solution silver silver Silver deposited Silver anode dissolved
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution of Alkali and Acid Using Platinum Electrodes
aAYeJYt u fq pfu d
kPlatinum v Q
yfw d
kifo kH
;N
yD
;v Q
yfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cGJw JY
t cgwln D
w JY
t csu fawG
&S
w , f/
d
mygwmu Na+, H+ and OH- ions (yg0i fu d
aysmf&n fx rJS ef;&JU
o u fa&mu fr Ir &S
)o kH
d ;x m;wJY
vQyfw d kifu Platinum
electrode ( v Q yfw d
kif&JUv T
r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fr Iv Jr&S
)' gq d
d kelectrochemical series t wd kif; Na+ u t ay:
H+u at mu fjzpf&i fb , fw d kifr S
mb mx G u fr S
mv Jb , fo lu d
ka&G;cs, f&r v Jq d
kw majymp&mv d kao ;v m;u G m/
vQ
yfw d
kif2 ckv kH
; electrochemical series u d
kyJykH
t yfv d
ku fawmh
r , f/
(6) Electrolysis of aqueous sodium hydroxide solution using platinum electrodes

Figure; Hofmann’s voltametre for Electrolysis of aqueous sodium hydroxide solution
using platinum electrodes.
Aqueous sodium hydroxide solution contains Na+, H+ and OH- ions.
On electrolysis, the cations, Na+ and H+ ions move to cathode.
In the electrochemical series, sodium is above hydrogen and
so hydrogen ions accept electrons more readily than sodium ions.
Hydrogen ion is discharged and hydrogen gas is evolved at cathode.
The anions, OH- ions move to the anode. The OH- ions move to the
anode and they lose electrons and oxygen gas is evolved.
OH
Reaction at the cathode, 2H + + 2 e H2 OH
O2 2H2O
Reaction at the anode, 4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4 e OH
OH
(7) Electrolysis of dilute aqueous sulphuric acid solution using platinum electrodes
aAYeJYt u fq pfu d
kPlatinum v Q
yfw d
kifo kH
;N
yD
;v Q
yfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cGJw JY
t cgwln D
w JY
t csu fawG
&S
w , f/
d
mygwmu H+, SO42- and OH- ions (yg0i fu d
aysmf&n fx rJS ef;&JU
o u fa&mu fr Ir &S
)o kH
d ;x m;wJY vQyfwdkifu Platinum
electrode ( v Q yfw d
kif&JU
o u fa&mu fr Iv Jr&S
) ' gq d
d kelectrochemical series t wd kif; SO42- u t ay:
OH- ions u at mu fu Jb , fo lu d
ka&G
;cs, f&r v Jq d
kw majymp&mv d
kr, fr x i fb l;/
Dilute sulphuric acid solution contains H+, SO42- and OH- ions. On electrolysis, the H+ ions move to the
cathode and they accept electrons and hydrogen gas is evolved. Hydrogen ion is discharged and hydrogen
gas is evolved at cathode.
The anions, SO42- and OH-ions move to anode. In the electrochemical series, SO42- is above OH- and
so OH- ions lose electrons more readily than SO42- ions. The OH- ions is discharged and oxygen gas
is evolved at anode.
Reaction at the cathode, 2H+ + 2 e H2
Reaction at the anode, 4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4 e
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Chemical Energy into Electrical Energy
An electric current can be produced from a chemical reaction.
' gu " gwkpG r f;t i fu aev Q yfppfpG r f;t i fu dkajymif;v Jjci f;t aM u mif;jzpfw, f/ emf = electromotive force
pd w f0i fpm;p&mygyJ/' D ae&mrS mrwln D w JYo wÅ KESpfcku d kv Qyfw dkift jzpf
bulb (1.25 V,
t o kH ;jyK x m;w, f/Zi fh vQ yfw dkifeJY
au mh yg;v Q yfw d kiyf g/
vQ yfv d ku faysmf&n ft jzpfdilute sulphuric acid u d kt o kH;jyK
x m;w, f/
ykH
ygt wd kif;0g, mu d kq u fo G, fv d ku fw JYt cgelectron source r sm;wJY
copper foil zinc ribbon
Zi fh
o wÅ K
u ae electron source en f;wJY au mh yg;q D ud kelectrons
dilute sulphuric
ydkY
aq mifay;v d ku fw , f/electronspD ;q i f;r I[ mv Q yfppfpD;q i f;r IeJY
ajymif;jyefjzpfw, f/ t J'D vd kydkY
aq mifEd kifzd
kY
t o kH ;jyK wJY o wÅ K
ESpfck&JUt uG mt a0;u a0;av av au mif;av av ygyJ/
b mjzpfv d v Jq d
kY k&i fo wÅKESpfck&JUa0;u G mjcm;em;csu fr sm;av av emf x G u f&S
d
r IB
uD;av av ygyJ/
At the zinc plate;
Zinc, the more electropositive of the two metals, ionizes by loss of electrons and these electrons pass
from zinc to copper through the wire.
At the copper plate;
At copper surface, the electrons reduce hydrogen ions from the electrolyte which are eventually discharged
as hydrogen gas.
Reaction at zinc plate Zn Zn2+ + 2 e
Reaction at copper plate 2H+ + 2 e H2
Current should continue to flow as long as materials last, but the bubbles of hydrogen adhere to
surface of copper electrode, cutting off these surface areas of the electrode form contact with the
electrolyte.
This phenomenon slows down the reaction at electrode. Therefore, the cell is said to be polarized.
Overe all reaction;
Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2 (g)
Zi fh
u aeau mh yg;q Dod kY
vQ yffppfawG pD ;v mwJYt cgv Q yfppfyd
kw i f&S
, fjr i fh
&mrSedr fU
&mo d pD
kY;v mwmjzpfv d kUyx rOD;q kH
;v Q
yfppfr D
;v kH
;u
v i f;aeao ;ao mfv n f; aemu fyd kif;r S
mv Qyfppfp;D
r Iav smh
oG m;NyD;rD ;u r d efo G
S m;w, f?' gb mjzpfw mv Jq d kawmhaysmf&n xf Jr Sm&S w JY
d
t u fq pfu ae [ d ku fN
'dK
* si f" mwfai GUylaygi f;av ;awG xGu fv mN yD; au mh yg;v Qyfw d
kifr su fES
mjyi fr S
mo Gm;a&mu fu m uG , fw m;q D ;
x m;r IaM
u mifhv QyfppfpD ;u l;aer IaES mu faES;u mrD;v kH;u v i f;ae&mu ae wjzn f;jzn f; r S efo G
d m;w, f?' DjzpfpOfu d
kpolarized
(v Qyfppft pG
ef; + o kd
Y- jzpfjci f;)v dac:M
kY u w, f/
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

These laws express the quantitative results of electrolysis.
'Ded
, mru v Qyfppfo kH
;N
zd
K
cG
Jjci f;&v ' fawG
ud
kyr mP wefzd
k;r sm;jzi fh
az:jyjci f;jzpfw, f/
Faraday’s first laws
The mass of given element liberated during electrolysis is directly proportional:
(1) to the magnitude of the steady current used and (2) to the time for which the current passes.
vQyfppfo kH;N
zdK
cGJrIjyK
v kyfpOfx Gu f&Sv mao mj' yfpi fw pfck\ t av ;q yr mP o n fv Q
d yfv d
ku faysmf&n ft wG
i f;jzwfo ef;oGm;ao m
vQyfppfyr mP (current I )ES i fh
ao mfv n f;au mif;?4i f; v Q
yfppfjzwfo ef;pD
;q i f;&efMu mjr i fh
csd
e(Time)
f ESi fh
ao mfv n f;au mif;
wd
ku f&d
ku ft csK;u sv Q
d u f&So n f/
d
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
(or)
The mass of element liberated is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through
the solution during electrolysis.
Q = It
quantity of electricity (C) = current ( A ) x time (s)
Faraday’s second laws

When the same quantity of electricity is passed through solution of different electrolytes, the relative
numbers of moles of elements deposited are inversely proportional to the charges on the ions of each
of the elements respectively.
wln D
ao mv Qyfppfyr mP wpfcko n f(same quantity) r wln D ao mv Q yfv dku faysmf&n f(different electrolytes)t o D
;o D
;o d
kY
vQyfppfjzwfo ef;o G m;pOfv Qyfv d
ku faysmf&n fwG
i f;&S
d
j' yfpi ft o D;o D;\ r dk;yr mP (number of moles) o n f
4i f;j' yfpi ft o D
;o D
;wG
i f&S
ao m(ions) t a&t wG
d u fr sm;ES
i fh
ajymif;jyeft csK;q u fpyfv Q
d u f&S
o n f/
d
1
number of mole  (same quantity of electricity)
charge on ions
by the Faraday second law mol1 ion1 = mol2 ion2
Faraday as a Unit Quantity of Electricity
One Faraday
The quantity of electricity required to liberate one mole of a univalent element is 96500 coulombs
( One Faraday ).
aAv i fpD
w pf&S
d
ao mj' yfpi fr S
electron wpfv kH
;x G
u f&S
ap&eft wG
d u fv d
kt yfao mv Q
yfppfyr mP o n f96500 coulomb &S
o n f/
d
One faraday = 96500 C One mole electron = 1 F
eg,. M+ (aq) + e M (s)
1 mol 1 mol
1F (96500 C ) 1 mole ( RMM in gram )
Where M is an univalent metal. aAv i fpD
(1) &S
ao mo wÅ
d K/ divalent metal. aAv i fpD
( 2 ) &S
ao mo wÅ
d K/
Electroplating
Electroplating is the electrical precipitation of one metal on another.
o wÅK
wpfckrS t jcm;o wÅ K
wpfckay:o d kYv Q
yfppfu ktd o kH
;jyK
í t en fu su yfw i fjci f;u Electroplating
k
d v kyfw , fv d
ac:w, f/
kY
2
t J'D
vdkjyK
v ykfw JY
en f;v r f;[ mt ckv u fawG Uu rÇ
mrS mt o kH;t wn fh
q kH
;jzpfv d
aeygw, f/ o wÅ
kY K
&n fpd
r fjci f;v d
kU
ac:yg
w, f/
Silver plating
Cathode made- the articles to be electroplate such as spoons or ornaments, made of base alloys,
(eg,. cupronickel)
Anode made - pure silver
Use of electrolytes - Potassium argento cyanide, K Ag (CN )2 solution.
+ + -
Ionic reaction for it, KAg(CN)2 K (aq) + Ag (aq) + 2CN (aq)
Reaction at cathode; Ag +(aq) + e Ag (s)
Reaction at anode Ag (s) Ag +(aq) + e
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Chromium Plating
Steel parts are chromium plated. In chromium plating, a steel object is plated first with nickel or copper,
because chromium does not stick well onto a steel surface.
Cahode made - the aricle to be electroplate (objects) eg; steel
Anode made - lead
Electrolyte - chromium sulphate in sulphuric acid and water
Reaction at cathode ; Cr3+(aq) + 3 e Cr(s)
Reaction at anode ; 4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4 e
Chromium is deposited on the object at the cathode as a bright coherent layer.
This chromium layer resists rusting and gives a bright “silvery” surface.
Questions and Problems

pdw f0i fpm;zdkY
au mif;wJY ykpä
mav ;awG er lemazmfjyjci f;jzpfw , f/
1. A solution of copper (II) sulphate was divided into two portions.
au mh yg;wl;q mv fzdw faysmf&n fu d
kt ydkif;2yd
kif;cGJx m;N
yD
; yx r t ydkif;r Smplatinum v Q yfwd
kift o kH
;jyK
x m;NyD
;?
' kw d
, t ydki;fu d
kawmhcopper v Q yfw d
kift o kH;jyKx m;w, fb , ft yd kif;t a&mifajymif;v JrI&S o v Jv d
d ar ;x m;wJY
kY ar ;cG
ef;av ;yg/
One portionwas electrolysted using platinum electrodes. The other portion was electrolysed using
copper electrodes. What changes in colour of the solution do you except in each case?
Ans: The blue colour of the solution copper (II) sulphate diminished gradually since Cu ions being
deposited on the Pt electrode.
yx r t yd kif;jzpfwJYPt electrodev Q yfwd kifr S
mau mhyg;awG u t en fu su yfwi fr S mjzpfv dkY
aysmf&n f&JU t a&mif[ mwjzn f;jzn f;
av smhu so G m;r , f/
In the other portion of electrolysis, where copper electrodes were used the blue colour remained
uncharged. Because Cu2+ ions formed at the anode dissolve into solution compensating for the
Cu atoms which were being deposited on the cathode.
' kw d, t yd kif;jzpfwJYCu electrodev Q yfw dkifr S maysmf&n fx Ju Cu ions awG cathode r S mt en fu su yfwi fr S mjzpfo v d k
Anode Cu electrode u v Jaysmf&n fw G i f;o d kY
Cu ions awG t jzpfjyefv n faysmf0i fv mwmjzpfv d kYt a&mif[ majymif;v J
oG m;r S
mawmhr [ kwfyg/ Cu ions u x G u fCu ions u jyef0i fjzpfaewmu d k;/
...................................................................................................................................................
2. The apparatus is set up as shown in the following diagram. A current of 0.5A was switched on an
allowed to flow for 15 minutes. r wln D w JY
vQyfv dku faysmf&n fx Ju dk0.5A EIef;eJY15min M u mat mif
vQ yfppfyr mP wpfckjzwfo ef;r , f/
(a) Describe how the electricity is conducted in the copper (II) sulphate solution.
copper (II) sulphate solution.aysmf&n fx Ju d kv Qyfppfjzwfo ef;cJU &i fb mawG jzpfv mrv J&S i f;jyyg/
The electricity is conducted in copper (II) sulphate solution as follows: Aqueous copper (II)
sulphate solution contains Cu2+ and SO 24 ions. On electrolysis the Cu2+ ions move to the cathode
where they are discharged and metallic Cu is deposited.
The SO 24 ions go the anode. Cu atoms from the anode lose electrons forming Cu2+ ions which
dissolve into solution.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
2+
reaction at the cathode Cu + 2 e  Cu
reaction at the anode Cu  Cu2+ + 2 e
(b) Name the products formed during the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution at the electrodes.
The products formed at the electrodes during the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution are
hydrogen and oxygen gases.
(c) State, whether the masses of the copper cathode and the copper anode will increase,
decrease or remain constant during the electrolysis.
The mass of copper cathode will increase.
The mass of copper anode will decrease.
(d) Write equations for the reactions taking place in dilute sulphuric acid at the cathode and anode.
reaction at the cathode 2H+ + 2 e  H2
reaction at the anode 4OH -  2H2O + O2 + 4 e
(e) Calculate the volume of hydrogen which would be released from the dilute sulphuric acid
(at STP) during the electrolysis.
Quantity of electricity(Q) = current (I) x time (t)
= 0.5A × 15 × 60 s
= 450 Coulombs
+
2H + 2 e  H2
2mol 1mol
3
2F 22.4 dm at STP
2x96500 C liberate 1 mole of H2 gas at STP
 450 C ------------ ?
sodium hydroxide
450C  22.4 dm3
= = 0.0522 dm3 at STP
2  96500C
Volume of H2 at STP is 0.0522 dm3 at STP .

..........................................................................................................................................................
(3) When an aqueous solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed with platinum electrodes,
the products at the cathode and anode are two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen
respectively. Also the cathode liqiud becomes alkaline and the anode liquid acidic,
Explain these results.
vQ yfv dku faysmf&n fw pfckjzpfw JY silver nitrate x Ju d kplatinum o kH ;N
yD;v Q yfppfjzwfo ef;pOfcathode electrode r S m
hydrogen x kx n fES pfq ES i fhanode electrode r S moxygen x kx n fw pfq t o D ;o D
;x Gu f&Sygw, f/ ' gq d
d k&i cathode
f
electrode em;r S malkaline aAY aysmf&n fjzpfv mN yD
; anode electrode em;r S mliquid acidicjzpfv m&wJYt aM u mif;&S i f;jyyg/
The aqueous silver nitrate solution contains Ag+, NO3- ions, H+ and OH- ions.
silver nitrateaysmf&n fx JrS mAg+, NO3- ions, H+ and OH- ions. wd yg0i fM
kY u w, f/
+ +
The Ag and H ions both move to the cathode.
Since Ag is lower in the electrochemical series than hydrogen.
Ag is deposited first at the cathode. Then liberation of H2 gas will occur.
Ag+ and H+ ions wd kY
u Cathode v Q yfr wdkifb u fq D udka&GUv sm;MuN yD; Ag+ u H+ x u fv Q yfppfydkw i f&S
, feJawmh
Ag u yx r q kH ;t &i fx Gu fo Gm;w, f/ aemu fr SH2 u wq u fw n f; aemu fu v d ku fx Gu fw , f/
- -
NO3 ions and OH ions both move to the anode.
NO3- ions and OH- ionswd u anode v Q
kY yfzd
kw d
kifb u fq D
ud ka&G Uv sm;MuN yD; NO3- u OH-x u fv Q yfppfydkw i f&S
, f
-
r sm;awmhOH u O2t jzpfx G u fo G
m;w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
-
Since the concentration of these anions are similar and OH occupying lower position in
electrochemical series, OH- ions lose electrons more easily and are discharged at the anode where
oxygen is eventuallyliberated.
At the cathode,
2H+ + 2e H2
Therefore, the increasing of OH- ions occurs at the cathode there by near the cathode liquid alkaline.
Cathode wd kifu ae H2 gas t jzpfx G
u fo G
m;av awmhCathode wd
kift eD mOH- ion awG
;r S u sef&pfaeawm
ahlkaline
solutionjzpfN
yDaygUuG -
m/ OH u aAY pfu dku kd
, fpm;jyK
w, f/
At anode
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4 e
+
Thus the increasing of H ions occurs at the anode, there by near the anode liquid acidic. ' Dvd
kyJAnode
vQ yfw d
kifu ae O2 gas t jzpfx Gu fo G
m;jyefawmhAnode wdkift eD mH+ ion awG
;r S u sef&pfaewmaygU
/
' gaM
u mifhv Qyfw d
kift eD
;r S
macidic solution jzpfNav / H+ u t u fq pfu d
yD ku kd
, fpm;jyKw, f/
....................................................................................................................................................
Q...Write down the reactions at the cathode and anode for the electrolysis of molten lead II bromide
using platnium electrode. ar ;cG
ef;u kzdwfv d
ku fw meY
Jb mu d
kt &i fpM
u n fh
r v J/
1/ ay;x m;wJY aysmf&n ft r sK
d
;t pm;eJY2/v Q yfw d
kift r sK
;t pm;u d
d kM
u n fh
&r , f/ ay;x m;wJYaysmf&n fu molten t r sK d
;t pm;?
(a&r ygwJY&n faysmf&n )fq dkw mo d
&r , f/ v Qyfw d
kifu platnium electrode q d kawmh
vQyfv u
k faysmf&n fu d
d kb mt aES mu ft , S
u fr S
r ay;b l;/ ' gq d
k'Dar ;cG
ef;t wG u ft ajzu wpfaM u mif;wpfr S
w f/ t ydkifaygU
/
reaction at cathode Pb 2+ + 2 e Pb
-
reaction at anode 2Br Br2 + 2 e
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Q...Write down the reactions at the cathode and anode for the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride
solution using Pt electrode.
1/ay;x m;wJY aysmf&n ft r sK;t pm;eJY2/v Q
d yfw d
kift r sK
d
;t pm;u d
kM
u n fh
&r , f/ay;x m;wJYaysmf&n fu aqueous solution
t r sK
;t pm;?(a&yg0i fr I&S
d w JYaysmf&n )fq d
d kw mo d &r , f/a&ygaeawmhaysmf&n fx JrS kjzpfw JYNa+ ion, H+ ion &, f?
mt zd
t r jzpfw JYCl- ion, OH- ion ygw, f/v Q yfw dkifu platnium electrode q d kawmhaysmf&n fu d
kv T
r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fEd
ikfpG
r f;
r &S
x m;b l;/' gq d
d k'D
ar ;cGef;t wG u felectrochemical series u t " d u t q kH;t jzwfay;r , f/ ECS r S mNa+ ion u t ay:
H+ ion u at mu fq d kawmh' gyJav ?b mM unh a
f ewmv Ja&;v d ku fawmh /
reaction at cathode 2H + + 2 e H2
-
reaction at anode 4OH 2 H2O + O2 + 4e
.................................................................................................... .....................................................
Q..Write down the reactions at the copper electrode in the electrolysis of aqueous copper (II)
sulphate solution.
1/ ay;x m;wJY aysmf&n ft r sK
;t pm;eJY
d 2/ v Q
yfw dkift r sK
;t pm;u d
d kM
u n fh
vdku fyg/
ay;x m;wJY aysmf&n fu aqueous copper (II) sulphate t r sK ;t pm;?(a&yg0i fr I&S
d w JY
d aysmf&n )fq d
kw mo d
&r , f/
a&ygaeawmhaysmf&n fx JrS mt zdkjzpfw JYcopper ion, hydrogen ion &, f?t r jzpfw JYsulphate ion, hydroxide
ygw, f/ v Q yfw dkifu Pt r [ kw fyJCu electrode q d kawmhv Q yfv d
ku faysmf&n fx JrSmt ajymif;t v JpNyDaygUAsm/
' gq d
k'D
ar ;cG
ef;t wG u fnature of electrode u v T r f;r dk;o u fa&mu fN yDqdkawmh b , fae&mrSmo u fa&mu fr Iu dkawG&r v J
Y
anode b u fr S maygUcathode b u fu awmhelectrochemical series u t q kH ;t jzwfay;w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

reaction at cathode
Cu 2+ + 2 e Cu [deposited] [ ECS t wd kif; v d ku femw, f?
reaction at anode
Cu Cu 2+ + 2 e [ dissolved] [ ECS u d kr v d ku femzl;/
aysmf&n fr Sm(Cu)ygw, f?v Qyfwd
kifu v J(Cu)' gr sK;q d
d k&i f. . aysmf&n fw l?v Q
yfw d
kifw lCopper plating v d kYajymx m;w, f/
' gr sK
; Silver plating v J&S
d w, f/
d
......................................................................................................................................................
Q. Write down the reactions at the cathode and anode for the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid solution
using platnium electrode.
......................................................................................................................................................
Q. Write down the reactions at the cathode and anode for the electrolysis of aqueous solution of alkali
(NaOH) using platnium electrode.aem
u fq kH
;awmht u fq pfv J'gyJ?/ aAY
v J'gygyJ/ pOf;pm;M
u n fh
&i ft ajzo d
r , f/
reaction at cathode
2H + + 2 e H2 2
reaction at anode
4OH - 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e
.................................................................................................... .................................................
Q. Write dwon the equation for ionization of potassium argento cyanide K Ag(CN)2 solution and
the reaction at the anode for silver plating.
Use of electrolytes - Potassium argentocyanide, KAg (CN )2 solution.
+ + -
Ionic reaction for it, KAg(CN)2 K (aq) + Ag (aq) + 2CN (aq)
Reaction at anode Ag (s) Ag +(aq) + e
....................................................................................................................................................
Q. What is meant by electroplating? Write down the reaction at the cathode for chromium plating.
Reaction at cathode ; Reaction at anode
Cr3+(aq) + 3 e Cr(s) 4OH - 2 H2O + O2 + 4 e
....................................................................................................................................................
Q. Calculate the mass of silver in grams deposited by passing a steady current of 0.8 A for two
hours through an excess of silver nitrate solution. ( Ag = 108 , one Faraday = 96500 coulombs)
ar ;x m;wmu b mv Jt en fu su yfw i fu sefr , h
tf av ;csdefr [ kw fv m;?' gq d
kykpä
mrS
mr lv j' yfpi f&JUwefzdk;&S
d
&r SmaygY
/
ay;x m;csu rf S
m0.8 A &S
d
w , ftwo hours &S w , f/ ' gq d
d kaysmf&n fx Ju dkjzwfo Gm;wJYQ wefzd k;u dk&S
mEd
kifNyD
yJ/
I = 0.8 A t = 2 hours = (2x60x60)s
by the Faraday First Law, &S
mv d&wJYQ wefzd
kY k;u dkM
u n yfhg
Q = It 5760C yJ&S w , f/ eJeJav ;yJaemf
d
Q = 0.8 A x 7200 s ' gq d
kaysmf&n fx Ju dkQ eJeJyJjzwf&i f
Q = 5760 C
gram eJeJyJ&r S maygU /
Ag+ + e  Ag
nD rQjci f;u d
kao csmMu n fhyg/
1mol 1mol
1F (108)g Faraday u wd ku f&d
ku f
96500 C of electricity passed 108 g of Ag t csKd
;u sw, fv d ajymx m;w, f/
kY
5760 C of electricity passed ?
5760  108
= = 6.45g of Ag deposited
96500
.................................................................................................... ...................................................
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
Q. On passing a steady current of 0.5 A for 25 minutes through a metal (I) nitrate solution, 0.839 g of
the metal is deposited. Calculte the relative atomic mass of the metal. ( 1F = 96500C )
ar ;x m;wmu b mv Jr lv o wÅKt av ;csd efr [ kw fv m;?' gq d
kykpä
mrSmt J'D
o wÅ K&JUt en fu swefzd k;ay;u d
kay;&r , f/
ay;x m;csu rf S
m0.5 A &Sw , f?M
d u mcsdef25 minutes &S w , f/ ' gq d
d kaysmf&n fx Ju d
kjzwfo G
m;wJYQ wefzd k;u d
k&S
mEd
kifN
yD
yJ/
I = 0.5 A
t = 25mins (25x60)
by the Faraday First Law, 'D w cgau m
Q = It
&Smv d &wJYQ wefzd
kY k;u d
kM
u n fh
yg
Q = 0.5 A x 1500 s
Q = 750 C 750 C &S w , f/ t en fu swmu
d
M+ + e  M 0.839 g of the metal is deposited
1mol 1mol vd ygw, f/ ' gaM
kY u mifh aysmf&n fx Ju dkQ
1F ? eJeJyJjzwf&i fgram eJeJyJ&r S maygU/
750C of electricity passed 0.839 g of metal
(o lw dkY
ES
pfcku wd ku f&kd
u ft csK ;u sw, fav )
d
ykpä
mu dkao csmM u n fhyg/
96500  0.839
= wefzd k;t x u fat mu f?t x m;t o d k
750
= 107.95 g of metal t rS m;r sm;M
uvG ef;v do wd
kY x m;yg/
the relative atomic mass of the metal = 107.95

..................................................................................................................................................
On passing a steady current of 0.5 A was switched on and allowed to flow for one hour through a
dilute sulphuric acid. Calculate the volume of oxygen gas which would be liberated at STP during
electrolysis. ( 1F = 96500 C , O =16)
ar ;x m;wmu d kt &i fM
u n fh
yg/ volume of oxygen ' gq d
kykpä
mrS
mx kx n fq u fo G , fcsu fjzpfw JYSTP wefzd k;u d
ko d&r , f/
ay;x m;csu rf S
m0.5 A &S w , f?M
d u mcsd
efone hour &S
w , f/ ' gq d
d kaysmf&n fx Ju d
kjzwfo Gm;wJYQ wefzdk;u d
k&S mEdkifN
yD
/
I = 0.5 A
t = 1hour = (60x60)s
by the Faraday First Law,
'Dw cgau m&S mv d&wJYQ wefzd
kY k;u dkM
u n fh
yg
Q = It
Q = 0.5 A x 3600 s 1800 C &S w , f/
d
Q = 1800 C volume of O2 gas at STP v d ar ; w, f/
kY
' gaM
u mifh1 mol of oxygen [ mSTP r S m
4OH - O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e 22.4 dm3 eJYn D rQw, fq d kw mo d NyD;jzpf&r , f/
1mol 4 mol e (av ;v kH
;)x Gu fv mwmjzpfv d kU4F jzpfw , f/
22.4 dm3 at STP 4F 4 x 96500 C jzpfv d kY22.4 dm3 at STP
jzpfw , fq d
k&i faysmf&n fx Ju d kjzwfv mwJY
4 x96500 C of electricity passed 22.4 dm3 at STP of oxygen 1800 C r S mq d
k&i f ???
1800C
= 22.4dm 3
4 96500C
= 0.1044 dm3 at STP
the volume of oxygen gas = 0.1044 dm3 at STP
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Q. An electric current is passed in turn through solution of silver nitrate and copper II sulphate in series.
If 0. 5 g of silver is deposited at the cathode of the first cell.Calculate the mass of copper deposited
in the second cell. ( Ag = 108 , Cu = 63 )
'D
ykpämrS
mcurrent r &S b l; time r &S
d db l;?' gq d
kFaraday second ed , mryJ?o dx m;&r , fh
t csu fu r wln Dw JY
vQ yfv d
ku f
aysmf&n fx u
Jdkwln Dw JY
vQyfppfyr mP jzwfo G m;w, fq d
kw myJ?t J'Dt csu fu r def;yd
K
G
i fh
yJ/ay;x m;csu fr S
m0.5 g &S
d
w JYAg
t en fu scJY
w , f?' gq d
kaysmf&n fx Ju d
kjzwfo G m;wJYQ wefzdk;u d
k&S
mEdkifN
yD
yJ/p&S
m&at mif/
mass of Ag = 0.5 g
Ag+ + e  Ag yx r t en fu su yfwi fcJY w JY
1mol 1 mol
Ag &JUv Q yfppfyr mP Q wefzd k;u dk
1F 108 g
by the Faraday First law, t &i f&S mv d
ku fygr , f/
108 g of Ag liberated 96500C electricity passed b mv d &S
kYmay;&o v Jq d kawmh
0.5 g of Ag   wln D wJYvQ yfppfyr mP eJY ' kwd,
96500  0.5 vQ
yfv dku faysmf&n fu dkjzwfo G m;v d kY
yg/

108
  C
2+
Cu + 2e  Cu
2 mol 1 mol
t r sm;t m;jzi fh
2F 63 g
by the law, Faraday second Lawykpä mu d
k
2x 96500C electricity passed 63 g of Cu deposited 'DwG u fen f;eJY
a&G;cs, f
446.76 C   wG u fav h&Sd
M
u w, f/
446.76  63 aemu fw en f;u d kM
u n fh
yg/
=
2 x 96500 'Dt ajzyJjyef&ygr , f/
= 0.1458 g of copper is deposited.
Second Method;
deposited mass of Ag = 0.5 g
0.5 'DwGu fen f;u
mol of Ag = x 1 mol
108 Faraday second Law&JU
0.5 t en fu su yfw i fu swJY j' yfpi fr sm;\
= mol
108 rdk;yr mP o n f, i f;j' yfpi ft o D ;o D;\
Ag+ + e  Ag t d
kif;, G ef;t a&t wG u fES
i fhajymif;jyeft csK ;du s
1mol 1 mol
2+
w, fq d kw JY
t csu fu d
kt o kH
;jyK oGm;jci f;jzpfw , f/
Cu + 2e  Cu
2 mol 1 mol
by the Faraday second law,
1
number of mol  0.5
charge on ions = mol
216
molAg ionAg = molCu ionCu
mol Ag  ion Ag 1 mol of Cu = 63 g
molCu =
ion Cu 0.5 0.5
mol of Cu = x 63 g
0.5  1 216 216
= = 0. 1458 g of Cu
108  2
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Chapter 5
Oxidation and Reduction
hydrogen H 1 oxygen O 2
chlorine Cl 1 calcium Ca 2
aluminium Al 3
bromine Br 1 barium Ba 2
phosphorus P 3&5
iodine I 1 magnesium Mg 2
nitrogen N 1 to 5
sodium Na 1 zinc Zn 2
chromium Cr 3&6
potassium K 1 iron Fe 2&3
manganese Mn 2,4,7
silver Ag 1 lead Pb 2&4
mercury Hg 1&2 tin Sn 2&4
copper Cu 1&2 carbon C 2&4

sulphur S 2,4,6
'Dj' yfpi fawG

&JUaAv i fpD
("mwfw d
k;u d
ef;)awGt u fq pfawG t u fq pf&, f' D
u , fawGr r S w fr d
ao ;&i f
jyefu su fx m;OD;a[ h
?t a&;B
uD;w, f/' gawG ud
kr r S
w fr d
&i f r &ao ;&i f v G, fr v d
kv d
keJU
cu fo G
m;v d
r fh
r, f
Acids symbol radical name oxidation no;

hydrochloric acid HCl Cl chloride -1
hydrobromic acid HBr Br bromide -1
hydroiodic acid HI I iodide -1
nitrous acid HNO2 NO2 nitrite -1

nitric acid HNO3 NO3 nitrate -1
carbonic acid H2CO3 HCO3 hydrogen carbonate -1
CO3 carbonate -2
sulphurous acid H2SO3 HSO3 hydrogen sulphite -1
SO3 sulphite -2
sulphuric acid H2SO4 HSO4 hydrogen sulphate -1
SO4 sulphate -2
chloric acid HClO3 ClO3 chlorate -1
phosphoric acid H3PO4 H2PO4 dihydrogen phosphate -1
HPO4 hydrogen phosphate -2
PO4 phosphate -3
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
CLASS(1) Rule of Oxidation number (Oxidation States)
(1) The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers all atoms in a formula is equal to the net charge on the
group of atoms represented by the formula. eg. NaCl must be zero and MnO4- in must be -1.
j' yfaygi f;awG rS
m&S w JYj' yfpi ft o D
d ;o D;&JU "mwfwd k;u def;wefzdk;[ mt J'D j' yfpi fj' yfaygi f;awG &JUt ay:r S m&dwSJY
t o m;wi fwefzd k;
" mwfw d k;u d
ef;t a&t wG u feJYnD w , f/ NaCl ay:r S mb mrS r &S
b l; ?' gq d
d kNa eJU Cl aygi f;jci f;wefzd k;"mwfw d k;u d
ef;[ mo n k eJY
-
nD w , f/ MnO4 ay:r S m(-1)&S w , f?' gq d
d kMn eJU(O4 )4O aygi f;jci f;wefzd k;[ m(-1) eJY nDw maygU /
(2) All elements in the free state (i.e., uncombined with any other elements) have oxidation number
of zero. eg., C = 0 , Al = 0 , H2 = 0 , O2, O3, P4, S8 ........
aygi f;pyfx m;jci f;v Jr&S d?' D
t wd kif;v Gwfv yfpG m&S d
aewJYb , fj' yfpi fr q d ko lw d &JU
kY " mwfw d k;u d
ef;[ mo kn yJ/
(3) In a simple ions, the oxidation number is the same as the charge on the ions.
eg., The ion Al3+ has an oxidation number of +3 and the ions S2- has -2.
j' yfpi ft ay:r S maz:jyyg&S d
aewJUt d kif;, Gef;t a&t wG u f[ mo lw d kY
&JU" mwfw d k;u d
ef;t a&t wG u feJY
t wlw lygyJ/o d x m;&r m Su
vu© P mryg&i fvalence ?v u © P mu d ka&S U
u az:jy&i foxidation number ?v u © P maemu fr S m&S ae&i fions charge.
d
(4) The alkali metals (Group IA metals) always have an oxidation number of + 1, and the alkaline earth
metals ( Group IIA metals ) always have an oxidation number of + 2 in their compounds.
[ eg; Na , K =(+1) Mg ,Ca = ( +2 ) ...etc ] Fixed oxidation number
t kyfpk(1)jzpfw JYt , fu mv D awG u (+1) ?t kyfpk(2)jzpfwJYt , fu mv d kif;u (+2) eJYt jcm;wd u swJY " mwfw d
k;u def;ydkif&S
i fawG u
r lv " mwfw d k;u d
ef;awG t wd kif; t ajymif;t v Jr &S b l;/
d
(5) The oxidation number of oxygen in its compounds is taken to be -2.
( Except in O3 and peroxides H2O2, Na2O2, BaO2 in must be -1)
j' yfaygi f;awG rSmyg0i fw JYat mu fpD * si f[ mt jr Jw r f; ( -2 )jzpfayr , fhyga&mu fq d k'fawG rSmawmh(-1)yJjzpfw , f/
(6) The oxidation number of hydrogen in its compounds is taken to be +1.
[except in H2, and ionic hydrides (metal hydrides ) = -1 ] eg.. NaH , CaH2 (H = -1)
j' yfaygi f;awG rSmyg0i fw JY[ d ku fN
'dK*si fu v Jt jr Jw r f; (+1) jzpfaeayr , fho wÅ K
[ dku f' &dk'fawG rS
mawmh(-1) jzpfo G m;w, f/
(7) The oxidation number of halogens in their halides binary compounds.
(eg., NaCl, HBr, KI, etc.,) have an oxidation number of -1.
binary compoundsq d k&i fawmh( -1 ) jzpfN yD; binary j' yfaygi f;r [ kw fcJY &i fawmh( -1 ) u ae (+7 ) x d &Sw wfygw, f/
d
ClO3- is a binary compound but not halide binary compound and KClO3 is also not.
It may or may not (-1) in these compounds.
yx r q kH
;o i fcef;pmu awmhj' yfaygi f;ykH
pH
t oD
;o D
;r S
m&S
w JY" mwfw d
d k;u d
ef;&S
men f;u d
kav h
v mo i f, lM
u r , f/
1. What is the oxidation number for the underlined elements in each of the following substances?
(a) HNO 3 (b) H2 SO 4 (c) H2 CO 3 (d) H 3 PO 4
(e) AgNO 3 (f) KMnO4 (g) Al2O 3 (h) Cr 2 O 3
" mwfw d
k;u d
ef;t a&t wG
u fu d
kazmfjyay;cd
kif;wmjzpfv d
kYv u ©
P mryg&i ft r S
w fjyK
wfo G
m;v d
r fh
r , f/
(i) HNO 3 (ii) Cr 2 O 7 2- (iv) NH 3
(+1) + N + 3(-2)= 0 2Cr + 7(-2) = -2 N + 3(+1) = 0
(+1) + N + (-6) = 0 2Cr + (-14) = -2 N = -3
N = +5 2Cr = +12
Cr = +6
sodium hypochlorite NaOCl (or) NaClO
'D
vdkj' yfaygi f;r sK
;u awmhcR
d i f;csu fu av ;awG
&S
w, f/ a&S
d U
aygi f;aemu fEIwf v d
kUq d
kayr , fh
NaOCl (or) NaClO
(+1) + O + (+1) = 0 (+1) + Cl + (-2) = 0
O = -2 Cl = +1
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

yx r yd kif; u d kajzwwfN yDqd k&i f" mwfwd k;jci f;ESi fh
" mwfav Q mh
jci f; o i fcef;pmeJY
pwi fr d wfq u fay;ygr , f/
u -J-t &m0wÅ K
awG ud kat mu fpD * si faygi f;ay;&i fjzpfjzpf[ d ku fN
'd
K
*si fz, fay;&i fjzpfjzpf" mwfwd k;w, fv d ac:ygw, f/
kY
j' yfpi f?j' yfaygi f; t dkif, G ef;awG u ae electron q k H
;&IH
;o G m;w, fq k d
&i fv J"m wfwd k
;jyefygw, f/ ' gY t jyi fOxidation
number t a&t wG u f wd k;wmv J" mwfwd k;wmygyJ?(Electropositive element) v Q yfzd kj' yfpi fu d kz, f&i fv J"mwfwdk;o v d
k
(Electronegative element) v Q yfr j' yfpi faygi f;ay;jyef&i fv J"mwfwd k;w, fq dkN
yD
; t "d yÜ m, fo wfr S wfcsu f(6)r sK
;&S
d ygw, f/
d
(Oxidation) u d kq efU u si fzu fjyefv kyfv d ku f&i fawmh(reduction) " mwfav Q mhjci f;awG jzpfv mwmaygY/
addition ae&m rSm removal v d ajymif;r , fá á to ae&mrS
kY m from v d kYajymif;r , f/
Oxidation and Reduction

(1) In terms of Oxygen
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance.
Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance.
0 0 2+ 2- Cu u d
koxygen aygi f;v d
ku fv d
kUá Cu u 0 to+2 jzpfo G
m;w, f
2 Cu (s) + O2 (g) 2CuO (s)
(oxidation)
PbO u ae oxygenz, fv d
ku fv d
kU
á PbO u +2 to 0 jzpfo G
m;w, f
2+ 0 0 +2
PbO + C Pb + CO
(reduction)
(2) In terms of Hydrogen
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a substance.
Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a substance.
H2S u ae hydrogen z, fv d
ku fv d
kU
á H2S u -2 to 0 jzpfo G
m;w, f
2- 0
H 2 S (g ) + C l 2 (g ) 2 H C l (g ) + S ( s )
(oxidation)
CuO u d
khydrogen aygi f;v d
ku fv d
kU
á CuO u +2 to 0 jzpfo G
m;w, f
2+ 0
CuO (s) + H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (l) (reduction)
(3) In terms of Electronegative Element

Oxidation is the addition of electronegative element to a substance.
Reduction is the removal of electronegative element from a substance.
0 3+
2 Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g) 2FeCl3 (s) (oxidation)
2+ 2- 0 0 2+
PbO + C Pb + CO
(reduction)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
(4) In terms of Electropositive Element
Oxidation is the removal of electropositive element from a substance.
Reduction is the addition of electropositive element to a substance.
2- 0
H 2 S (g ) + C l 2 (g ) 2 H C l (g ) + S ( s )
(oxidation)
2+ 0
C u O (s ) + H 2 (g ) C u (s) + H 2 O (l)
(reduction)
(5) In terms of Electron Transfer

Oxidation is the loss of electrons by an element, compound or ion.
Reduction is the gain of electrons by an element, compound or ion.
0 (oxidation)
Na Na+ + e
0 (reduction)
Cl2 + 2e 2 Cl-
(6) In terms of Oxidation Number
Oxidation is an increase in oxidation number.
Reduction is a decrease in oxidation number.
Oxidizing Agent "mwfw d k;ypö
n f;
An oxidizing agent is an acceptor of electrons. (or)
An oxidizing agent causes the oxidation of another species, and in the process it is reduced.
electron donate
2- 0 1- 0
H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) 2 HCl (g) + S (s)
electron accept
Electrons v u fcH o lu dk"mwfwd k;ypö

n f;v dac:w, f/ wen f;ajym&&i ft jcm;j' yfpi fu d
kY k"mwfwd
k;apNyD
;o lu d
k, fw d
kifu " mwfw;ud
kd ef;
t a&t wG u fav smh
u so G
m;wmu d kajymwmyJ/
Cl2 is an oxidizing agent because its oxidation number decrease from (0) in Cl2 to (-1) in HCl.
(o dx m;&r S
mu t EIw fv u © P mjzpfo Gm;w, fq d kw melectron u d kv u fcH&&Sd
vdyJ/)
kY
Reducing Agent
A reducing agent is a donor of electrons. (or)
Reducing agent causes the reduction of another species, and in the process it is oxidized.
Electrons x kwfay;o lu d k"mwfav smh ypö n f;v kY
a
dc:w, f/ t jcm;j' yfpi fu d
kawmh" mwfav smh
apN
yD
; o lu d
k, fw d
kifu "mwfwd k;u d
eawG
f;
wdk;v mw, /f
electron donate
2- 0 1- 0
H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) 2 HCl (g) + S (s)
electron accept
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
H2S is a reducing agent because its oxidation number increase frorm (-2) in H2S to (0) in S.
(o dx m;&r S
mu t aygi f;v u © P mjzpfo G
m;w, fq d kw melectron u d kx kw fay;v d
ku fv d
)
kY
' gaM
u mifhElectropositive element (loss of electrons) awG ud kreducing agent v d kY
ac:M
uNyD
;
Electronegative element (gain of electrons) awG udkawmhoxidizing agent v d kY
ac:Mu w, f/
" mwfw d
k;ypö
n f;r sm;ES
i fh
" mwfav Qmhypön f;r sm;u dkawmh
cG
Jjcm;wwfat mifu su fr Swfx m;yg/
Example of Oxidizing Agent and Reducing Agent
Oxidizing Agent Reducing Agent
1. Oxygen ( O2) 1. Hydrogen ( H2)
2. Chlorine ( Cl2) 2. Carbon (C)
3. Nitric acid ( HNO3) 3. Carbon monoxide ( CO )
4. Potassium permanganate ( KMnO4) 4. Hydrogen sulphide ( H2S)
5. Potassium dichromate ( K2Cr2O7) 5. Sulphur dioxide ( SO2)
6. Sulphuric acid (conc:) ( H2SO4) 6. Iron (II) oxide ( FeO)
7. Hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2) 7. Sodium sulphite ( Na2 SO3)
ykpä
mwG
u fu av ;awG
eJYpr f;ajzM
u n fh
&at mif/
State which recatant is oxidized and which one is reduced in the following reaction
Give reason for your answers.
(i) CuO + H2 Cu + H 2O
(ii) 2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2
(iii) Cu + CuCl2 2CuCl
reduced
eg.(i) Fe3+ + Al Fe + Al3+
oxidized
Yes, this reaction is redox reaction.

Fe3+ is reduced because its oxidation number is decreased from +3 in Fe3+ to 0 in Fe.
Al is oxidized because its oxidation number is increased from 0 in Al to +3 in Al3+.
'D
ar ;cG
ef;r sK
;du t ay:r S
ma&;q G
Jx m;o v d kaz:jycsi fv J&w, f?raz:jyyJw dku f½kd
u fajzv J&w, f/
ay;r S
w fu t wlwlygyJ/t ay:u t wd kif;a&;q GJjyawmh &S
i f;&wmv G
, fo G
m;w, f/
next one
oxidized
+4 +1 -1 +6
SO2 + H2O + NaClO NaCl + H2SO4
reduced
Ans;
Yes, this reaction is redox reaction.
NaClO is reduced because its oxidation number is decreased from +1 in NaClO to -1 in NaCl.
SO2 is oxidized because its oxidation number is increased from +4 in SO2 to +6 in H2SO4..
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Oxidizing agent and Reducing agent
Oxidation is the loss of electrons by an element, compound or ion.
A reducing agent is a donor of electrons.
electrons awG q kH
;&IH
;&i f" mwfw d k;w, f?' gaM u mifho lYudk"mwfav smh ypö n f;v dac:w, f/b mjzpfv d
kY v Jq d
kY kawmho lr sm;u dk
electrons ay;v d ku fw JYt wG u fo lu d k, fw d kifu " mwfwd k;N
yD
;t jcm;wpfcku d k" mwfav smh oG m;apwmu d k;/
Reduction is the gain of electrons by an element, compound or ion.
An oxidizing agent is an acceptor of electrons.
o lr sm;q D u electrons awG &&S awmh" mwfav smh
d w , f?' gaM u mifho lY
ud k"mwfw d k;ypö n f;v dac:jyefw , f/b mjzpfv d
kY v Jq d
kY kawmh
o lr sm;q D u electrons &v d ku fawmh o lu d k, fw kidfu " mwfav smh ayr , fht jcm;wpfcku d k" mwfw d k;o Gm;apwmu d k;/
" mwfw d k;w, fq d
k&i f" mwfav smh ypö n f;v dac:N
kY yD; ( wdk;&i fav smhypö n f;)
" mwfav smh oGm;w, fq d k&i f" mwfw d k;ypö n f;v d kYr S
w fx m;ygr , f/ (av smh&i fwd k;ypö n f;)
Oxidation is the loss of electrons = reducing agent is a donor of electrons
Reduction is the gain of electrons = oxidizing agent is an acceptor of electrons
From the following equations, identity oxidizing agent and reducing agent in each reactions.
Give reasons.
(i) H2S + Cl2 S + 2HCl
(iI) PbO + C Pb + CO
'Dvd kar ;x m;wJYar ;cGef;r sK
;u d
d kajzwJYt cgpd wfx Ju wG u fcsu fNyD
;t ajzu dkw ef;a&;v d kY
v J&o v d kn D
rQ
jci f;eJY
wq N iyD
fh
;wq i fhajzv J&ygw, f/
2
H S rS
m&S
wJYS(-2) u electron
d
-2 0 0 -1 2v kH ;u d kCl2 u d kay;v d ku fN yD
;
H2S + Cl2 S + 2HCl S(0) t jzpf " m wf w ;
k
do m
G ;w, f/
Ans; Cl2 u d k"mwfav Q mh
vd ku fwmjzpfv d kY
H2S u d k
S of H2S donates 2 e- to Cl2 become S. H2S is a reducing agent " mwfav smh ypö n f;v dkY
ac:jci f;jzpfw, f/
Cl2 accepts 2e from H2S become HCl. Cl2 is an oxidizing agent.
C u PbO u d kelectron 2v kH ;ay;N yD
;
+2 0 0 +2 (+2)CO t jzpf " mwfwd k;o G
m;w, f/
PbO + C Pb + CO ' gaM u mifhelectron ay;wJY o lu
-
Ans; C is oxidized to CO. [C donates 2 e to PbO become CO.] " mwf a v smy
h pön ;
f
PbO u electron u d kv u fcH ol
So, C is a reducing agent. jzpfv d kY" mwfwd k;ypön f;jzpfw , f/
PbO is reduced to Pb. [Pb of PbO accepts 2e from C become Pb]
So, PbO is an oxidizing agent.
wdk;&i fav smh
ypö n f;reducing agent ?av smh&i fwd
k;ypö n f;oxidizing agent.
nDrQjci f;x rJS
mt &i fq kH
; H2 free , O2 free &d o
S v m;?H2 , O2 free r &S b l;q d
d k&i fo lw d
ud
kY kcP z, fx m;M u n fh vd ku fyg?
' gq d
kt wdk;t av smh
jzpfw mb , fo lawG
qdkwmri f;wd t vG
kY , fw u ljr i fv dr fh
r , f/
+4 0 -1 +6
SO2 + I2 + 2H2O 2HI + H2SO4
Ans; SO2 is oxidized to H2SO4. [S of SO2 donates 2 e- to I2 become H2SO4 .]

So, SO2 is a reducing agent
I2 is reduced to HI . [I2 accepts 2e from SO2 become HI.]
So, I2 is an oxidizing agent.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

CLASS-4- Balance the equations
(1) Oxidation number method and (2) Ion-electron method(half reaction method)
(1)" mwfw d k;t a&t wG u fjzi fhn D rQ
jci f;r sm;u dkn §
, ljci f;
d
x kH
;pH
t wd kif; n DrQjci f;x JrSmt &i fq kH ; H2 free , O2 free &S o v m;v d
d M
kY
u n fh yg/ H2 , O2 free r &S b l;q d
d k&i fo lw d ud
kY kcP
z, fx m;v d ku f&i ft wd k;t av smh jzpfaewJY j' yfpi fawG udkawG U
&ygr , f/ yx r q kH ; ar ;cGef;u dkESpfcgjyefu l;a&;yg/
rdrdq u fo G , fr n fh
j' yfpi ft a&t wG u fn D &ygr , f/r n D &i fajr §
mu f&ygr , f/ N yD ;&i fcsd
wfq u fr , fh j' yfpi f&JU" mwfwd k;uefd
; r lv wefzd k;u dk
o maz:jyay;&r , f/" mwfw d k;u d
ef;&S
d
NyD;o m;q d k&i fx yfa&;p&mrv d kyg?csdw fq u fw myJjzpfjzpf" mwfw d k;u def;az:jywmyJjzpfjzpf
cJwH ES
i fh
v kH
;0(v kH ;0)r a&;ygES i fh
/ a&SUaygi f;aemu fEw I ft r dk;eD
;, m;r ygq d kw mav ;v Jrar Y eJY
aemf?u J. . pM u r , fa[ h. . . . . . . . .
2- - + 3+
(1) Cr 2O 7 + I + H Cr + I2 + H 2 O
wpfv kH ;pmwpfv kH ;pmv d kY
reduced (+3 e x 2)= +6e
ajymaewm' gaygY uG, f
+6 +3 0 Cr &JUr lv wefzd k;u (+6 )
-1
Cr2O72- + 2I- + H+ 2Cr3+ + I2 + H2O av smh oG m;wJY(Cr) u (+3)
jcm;em;v d ku f&i f(+3)jzpfo G m;r , f?
oxidized (- e x 2)3 = -6e ' gayr , fh2 v kH ;jzpfawmh
(+3e x 2) jzpf&r , f
a&S Uuv u© P mu
Cr 2O 72- + 6I- + 14 H+ 2Cr3+ +3 I2 + 7 H2O
ex G u fv dkY
t aygi f;a&;w, f/
(2) Cl2 + NaOH NaCl + NaClO3 + H2 O
reduced (+e x 2) 5 = +10e
0 0 -1 +5
Cl2 + Cl2 + NaOH 2NaCl + 2NaClO3 + H2O
av smh
&i faygi f; (+) reduced
oxidized (-5e x 2)= - 10e
wd
k;&i fEIw f(-)oxidized
5Cl2 + Cl2 + 12NaOH 10 NaCl + 2NaClO3 + 6 H2O
3Cl2 + 6 NaOH 5 NaCl + NaClO3 + 3 H2O

..........................................................................................................................................................
(3) K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4+ FeSO4  Cr2(SO4)3 + Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4+H2O

oxidized (- e x 2) 3= - 6e
2(+2) (+3)2
+6 +2 +3 +3
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4+ 2FeSO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4+H2O
2(+6) reduced (+3 e x 2)= + 6e 2(+3)
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4+ 6 FeSO4  Cr2(SO4)3 + 3 Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4+ H2O


K2Cr2O7 + 5H2SO4+ 6 FeSO4 

 Cr2(SO4)3 + 3 Fe(SO4)3 + K2SO4+ 5H2O
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
2- +  3+
(4) H2O2 + Cr2 O7 +H Cr + O2 + H2O oxidized awG reduced awG
oxidized (-e x 2)3= - 6e r a&;wmu v u © P mawG

az:jyNyD
;jzpfv d yg/ t aygi f;u
kY
-1 +6 +3 0 electron q k;&IH
H ;jci f;jzpfv d
kY
oxidized
H2O2 + Cr2 O72- +H+ 2Cr 3+ + O2 + H2O t EIw fu electron &, ljci f;jzpfv d kY
reduced (+3e x2)= + 6e reduced jzpfw , f/
3H2O2 + Cr2 O72- + 8 H +  2Cr 3+ + 3O2 + 7H2O

..........................................................................................................................................................
Ion-Electron method or Half reaction method
'D pn f;r sOf;awG ud kt &i fem;v n fat mifv kyf&r , f/
(i) (a) To omit ions which do not change in the reaction.
(To show complete formulae poly atomic ions and molecules that have oxidized and reduced atoms.)
" mwfjyK jci f;r S
m"mwfw d k;u d
ef;r ajymif;v Jw JYj' yfpi fawG
ud kcsefv S
yfay;&r , f/
(ii) (a) To identify the elements oxidized and reduced.
(b) To construct a half-equation for oxidation and reduction separately.
b , fo lu "mwfw d
k;w, f" mwfav smh
w , fq d
kw mu d
kw pf0u fpD
cG
Jjcm;o wfr S
w fr , f/
(iii) (a) To balance the inspection all atoms in the half-reactions except O and H.
O and H.r n d ci fyx r OD
§ ;q kH;j' yfpi fawG ud kn D at mifn d ay;&r , f/
§
(b) To balance O and H, the following chart shows how to balance these elements:
' kw d
, q i fhrS
mO and H u d kn Dzdt wG
kY u fO v d k&i fH2O (or) OH- aygi f;x n fh r , f/
+
Hv d k&i fH aygi f;x n fh N
yD
;ES pfzu fn D at mifn § , l&r , f/
d
(iv) (a) To balance the charges in each half-reaction by adding electrons as; reactant for reduction
reaction (gain of electrons) and product for reduction reaction (lose of electrons).
o au F wawG t m;v kH;n D oG m;N
yD qd k&i felectronst a&t wG u ft wd k;t av smh ud kaz:jyay;&r , f/
(b) To balance the electrons transfer by multiplying the balance half-reactions the same by appropriate
coefficients (integers).
t x u fat mu felectrons t a&t wG u fu dkv d
kt yfo v d kajr §
mu fNyD ;n d §
, lay;r , f/
(vi) To add the resulting half-reactions and eliminate any common terms to obtain the balanced equation.
t m;v H k;n D
oGm;NyD
qd k&i facso i fh wmacs?aygi f;o i fh w maygi f;N yD;n D
rQ jci f;u d kw pfaygi f;wpn f;wn f;jzpfat mif
jyi fq i fa&;o m;ygr n f/
Acid reaction q d k&i fat mu fpD * si ft a&t wG u fu d
kMu n fh vdku fyg?v d kwJY
at mu fpD * si ft a&t wG u ft wd kif;
H2O a&ar mfv D u sL;u d kaygi f;x n fh yg?N yD ;&i a
f wmhH v d kw JY
b u fu d kv d kw JYt wd kif; H+ aygi f;x n fh ay;r n f/
Base reaction q d k&i fat mu fpD * si ft a&t wG u fu dkM
u n fh vd ku fyg?v d kw JY
at mu fpD * si ft a&t wG u fu dk
2q v kyfOH- aygi f;x n fh ay;&r , f?N yD ;&i a
f wmhwpfzu fu H v d kw JY
b u fu d kv d kw JY
t wd kif; H2O aygi f;x n fhay;r n f/
Ion-Electron method or Half reaction method

pN
yD
;wGu fM
u n fh
&at mifM
udK
u fpm;o G
m;r , f/yx r q kH
; reaction t r sK
;t pm;u d
d kcG
Jjcm;wwfzd kY
vdkw, f/
H+ awG acid, acid radical u kd
awG U
&i ft u fppfreaction v d kY
t Mu r f;t m;jzi fh
o wfr S w fr , f/
-
aAYreaction q dk&i fOH awG base, base radical awG udkawG U&v d r fh
r , f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
(1) Cr 2O 72- + I- + H+ Cr 3+
+ I2 + H 2 O
Cr 2O 72- Cr 3+
¶ yx r q kH ;cG
Jx kwfr , f
I- I2
Cr 2O 72- 2Cr3+ ¶ O 7v kH ;vd kw , f
2I- I2 ¶ t a&t wG u fw lat mifn d r, f
S
u fw lat mifá H+ jyefx n fh

H t a&t wG ay;r , f
14H+ + Cr2O72- 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O ¶ O t a&t wG
u fw lat mif7 H2O x n fh
r, f
2I- I2
6 e +14H+ + Cr2O72- 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

2I- I2 + 2 e
6 e +14H+ + Cr2O72- 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O

3x 6I- 3 I2 + 6 e ¶ electron t a&t wG
u fw lat mifajr m
Su fr , f
Cr 2O 72- + 6I- + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 3 I2 + 7H2O

This equation is balanced.
....................................................................................................................................
Cr 2O 72- + I- + H+ Cr3+ + I2 + H2O
Cr 2O 72- Cr3+
I- I2
+ 2-
6 e +14H + Cr2O7 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O
2I- I2 + 2 e
6 e +14H+ + Cr2O72- 2Cr3+ + 7 H2O
3x 6I- 3 I2 + 6 e ¶ electron t a&t wG u fw lat mifajr m Su fr , f
......................................................................................
Cr 2O 72- + 6I- + 14H+ 2Cr3+ +3 I2 + 7H2O
..........................................................................................................................................................
H2O + SO2 + NaClO NaCl + H2SO4
-
SO2 + ClO Cl- + SO42-
SO2 SO4 2-
ClO- Cl-
2H2O + SO2 SO4 2- + 4 H+ + 2 e
2 e + 2 H+ + ClO- Cl- + H2O

.....................................................................................
H2O + ClO- + SO2 SO42- + Cl- + 2 H+
¶ x n fh p&m&S w mjyefx n fh
d
H2O + SO2 + NaClO NaCl + H2SO4 aygi f;p&m&S dw mjyefaygi f;
..........................................................................................................................................................
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

2- 2+
MnO 4 + S Mn + S
MnO 4 Mn2+
S2- S
+
5 e + 8 H + MnO4 Mn2+ + 4 H2O
S2- S + 2e
10 e + 16 H+ +2 MnO4 2Mn2+ + 8 H2O
5S2- 5 S + 10 e
.......................................................................................
5S + 16 H+ + 2 MnO4
2-
2Mn2+ + 5 S + 8 H2O
.........................................................................................................................................................
Cu2+ + I- CuI + I2
2+
Cu CuI
2 I- I2
2+ -
e + Cu + I CuI
-
2I I2 + 2 e
2+ -
2 e + 2Cu + 2I 2CuI
2 I- I2 + 2 e
.................................................................................
2Cu2+ + 4I- 2CuI + I2
another one
Cu2+ + I- CuI + I2
2+ -
omit » Cu + I Cu+ + I2
Cu2+ Cu+ ¶ Ooxidation number
2 I- I2 r ajymif;v JwJYI- x yfjzn fh
ndr , f/
S
2+
e + Cu Cu+
2 I- I2 + 2 e
2+
2e + 2Cu 2Cu+
2 I- I2 + 2 e
............................................................................
2Cu2+ + 2I- 2Cu+ + I2
2Cu2+ + 4I- 2CuI + I2
'D
av mu fq d
k&i f acid reaction awGn d w wfav mu fyg&JU
§ / r cu fygb l; O v dk&i f H2O x n fh
r , f/
Hvd k&i f H x n fh
+
ay;r , f/v d
kw JY
b u fv d
ko v d
kaygi f;, kH
ygyJ/
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Basic reaction
To balance O for each O needed á á 1. Add two OH- to side needing O
Base equation r S mO wpfv kH ;v dkcJY
w , fq d
k&i fv d
kw JY kOH- (2)q aygi f;x n fh
b u fu d yg/
' gq d
k&i fw pfjcm;b u fu d
kawmha&ar mfv D u sK;wpfv kH
;jyefaygi f;ay;&r , f/add one H2O to other side
2 OH- = 1 H2O 4 OH- = 2 H2O 6 OH- = 3 H2O 8 OH- = 4 H2O

v u fawG
U
pr f;M
unh
fM
u r, f
MnO 4 + NO 2 + H2O MnO2 + NO 3 + OH-
MnO 4 MnO2
2H2O + MnO4 MnO2 + 4 OH- ¶ MnO2 b u fu O v d
kw, f
NO 3 kH2O aygi f;r , f

MnO 4 b u fu d
NO 2
2 OH- + NO 2 NO 3 + H2O ¶ NO 2 b u fu O v d kw, f
electron u G mjcm;csu fawG &Smr, f/ r sm;wJU b u fu d kelectron ayg NOi 3f; b u fu dkH2O aygi f;w, f
3 e + 2H2O + MnO4 MnO2 + 4 OH- x2
( 0 ) + (-1) = (0) + (-4)
-
2 OH + NO 2 NO 3 + H2O + 2 e x3
(-2) + (-1) = (-1) + (0)
6 e + 4H2O + 2 MnO4 2MnO2 + 8 OH-
6 OH- +3 NO 2 3 NO 3 + 3H2O + 6 e
............................................................................................................
2 MnO4 + 3 NO 2 + H2O 2MnO2 + 3 NO 3 + 2OH-
t ay:u t q i fh
awG
od
NyD
qdk&i f wpfcgwn f;wG
u fv d
ku f&i f' D
av mu fygyJ/
MnO 4 + NO 2 + H2O MnO2 + NO 3 + OH-
MnO 4 MnO2
NO 2 NO 3 ¶ MnO2 b u fu O 2 v kH
;v d
kw, f
-
3 e + 2H2O + MnO4 MnO2 + 4 OH k2H2O aygi f;r , f?
MnO 4 b u fu d
2 OH- + NO 2 NO 3 + H2O + 2 e kMnO2 zu fu d
' gq d kawmha&&JU 2q
- -
6 e + 4H2O + 2 MnO4 2MnO2 + 8 OH 4 OH jyefx n fh
&r , f
6 OH- +3 NO 2 3 NO 3 + 3H2O + 6 e
............................................................................
2 MnO4 + 3 NO 2 + H2O 2MnO2 + 3 NO 3 + 2OH-
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cl2 + NaOH NaCl + NaClO3 + H 2 O
-
Cl2 + OH Cl- + ClO3- + H 2 O
2 e + Cl2 2Cl-
Cl2 + 12OH- 2ClO3- + 6 H2O + 10 e
10 e +5Cl2 10 Cl- ¶ b , fb u f Cl2 u O 6 v kH ;v d
kw, f
Cl2 + 12OH - -
2ClO3 + 6 H2O + 10 e n mzu u
f k
d6H 2
O ayg i ;
fw, f?
............................................................................ n mb u fu dka&(6)v kH;aygi f;awmh
b , b
f u u
f a
k
d& (6)v ;&JU2q
kH
6Cl2 + 12OH- 10 Cl- + 2ClO3- + 6H2O -
12OH jyefaygi f;ay;r , f
3Cl2 + 6NaOH 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
SO2 + H2O + KMnO4 K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2SO4
(- 2 e) x 5 = -10e
+4 +7 +2 +6
SO 2 + H 2O + KMnO4 K2 SO 4 + MnSO4 + H2SO4
(+5 e)x2 = +10e
5SO2 + H2O + 2KMnO4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5H2SO4
5SO2 + 2H2O + 2KMnO4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
SO2 + H2O + KMnO4 K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2SO4
omit » SO 2 + H 2O + MnO4¬ SO4 2- + Mn2+ + H +
SO 2 SO4 2- «---oxidized
MnO4¬ Mn2+ «---reduced
SO 2 + 2H2O SO4 2- + 4H + + 2e «- x5
¬ + 2+
5e +MnO 4
+ 8H Mn + 4H2O «- x2
5SO2 + 10H2O 5SO4 2- + 20H + + 10e
10e +2MnO4¬ + 16H + 2 Mn2+ + 8H2O
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5SO2 + 2H2O + 2MnO4¬ 5SO4 2- + 2Mn2+ + 4H +

5SO2 + 2H2O + 2KMnO4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4
.................................................................................................................
S + NaOH Na 2 S + Na2S2O3 + H 2 O
S + OH- S2- + S2O32- + H 2 O
2e + S S2-
2S + 6OH- S2O32- + 3 H2O + 4 e
4 e + 2S 2S2-
2S + 6OH- S2O32- + 3 H2O + 4 e
..........................................................................................
4S + 6OH- 2S2- + S2O32- + 3H2 O
4S + 6NaOH 2Na2 S + Na2S2O3 + 3H2O
av h
v mpl;pr f; ?pOf;pm;q i fjci f ?ÓP feJY
, S
Of
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Chapter 6
Rate of Reaction and Equilibria
Chemical kinetics
The study of rates of reactions is called chemical kinetics.
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jci f;awG
rS
mjzpfwJY"mwfjyK
wJU
EIef;r sm;av h
v mjci f;u d
k"mwkaA' ES
i fh
qdkifao ma&G
U
v sm;jci f;v d
ac:M
kY u w, f
Rate of reaction
In chemical reactions, the rate of a reaction is measured in terms of change in concentration
of reactant or product divided by time unit.
t csd efwpf, lepft wG i f;r S
m"mwfjyK ypö n f;r sm;&JU
yg0i fu def;awG " mwfjzpfypö
n f;awG &JU
yg0i fu def;awG r sm;jci f;en f;jci f;
jr efjci f; aES
;jci f; jzpfay:ajymif;v Jo G m;M
u wmawG ud k"mwfjyK EIef;v d
ac:M
kY u w, f/
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k&i f wpf&u fES
pf&u fav mu fq d k&i fo H
acs;wu fv mrS myJ?
t M u mB u ;D
aer Swu fwmjzpfv d kYt csd
efu ydkrsm;(M
u m)w, f?' gaM u mifh"mwfjyK wJY
EIef;aES
;wmu d kawGU&r , f/
eg; An iron nail reacts slowly with air (rusty) eg; A candle wax burns in air
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aES ;wmu d kawG &r , f
Y
eg Acid - base reactioneg; t u fq pfeJ aAY
Y " mwfjyK jyefawmh"mwfjyK wmu jr efv mw, f
An explosive explodes , r f;awG aygu fu GJwmM u awmh"mwfjyK EIef;u yd kN
yD;jr efv mw, f/
' gaM
u mifh"mwfjyK jci f;awGrS mwpfckeJY
wpfck"mwfjyK wJY
EIef;r wlwmawG awG &w, f/ t pd
Y kift cJj' yfpi fawG
rSm
"mwfjyKEIef;awG az:jycsi fwJY t cg t csd efwpf, lepft wG i f;r S
mt o kH;jyKvd ku fao m"mwfjyK ypön f;\ yg0i fu def; o d
kY
r [ kwf
jzpfv mao m"mwfjzpfypö n f;\ yg0i fu d
ef;awGeJY
wd kif;wmM u w, f/aysmf&n fawG qd k&i fawmho lwd &JU
kYyg0i fu d
ef;awG
eJYaz:jy
Mu av h&S
w, f/"mwfai G
d Uqd
k&i fawmhpH t ajct aer S m&S
wJY
d x kx n feJUt r sm;t m;jzi fh azmfjyMu av h &Sw, f/
d
For example, Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

The amount of reactant used up or product formd per unit time.
The rate can be measured in term of change in concentration per unit time.
"mwfjyK
EIef;u d
kt csd
efwpf, lepft wG
i f;ajymif;v Jo G
m;ao myg0i fu d
ef;jzi fh
wdkif;wmEd
kifo n f/
quantity of reactant or product

rate = time of reaction
(or )
In reaction ; A + B C +D
d[A ] d[B] d[C] d[D]

rate =
dt dt dt dt
d[A] d[B]
rate for reactants =
dt dt
The sign (-) indicates the decrease in reactant concentrations with increase in time.
t EIw fv u P
© meJU
az:jyjci f;u t csd
efw pf, lepft wG
i f;r S
m"mwfjyK
ypö
n f;\ yg0i fu d
ef;av smh
u so G
m;wmjzpfN
yD
;
d[C] d[D]
rate for products =
dt dt
The sign (+) indicates the increase in products concentrations with increase in time.
t aygi f;v u ©
P meJU
az:jyjci f;u awmht csd
efwpf, lepft wG
i f;r S
m"mwfjzpfypö
n f;\ yg0i fu d
ef;wd
k;v mwmjzpfw, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Units of rate of reactions "mwfjyK EIef;awG ud
ko lwd
&JU
kY, lepfawGM u n fh
jci f;t m;jzi h
fv Jo dEd
kifygw, f/
-1
For solid , mass per unit time (eg, gs )
For gas, partial pressure per unit time (eg., mmHg s-1 )
For solution, mole per unite time or volume per unit (eg., dm3s-1).
Time is usually measured in terms of seconds, minutes, hours, days or months.
"mwfjyK
EIef;ay:r S
mv T
r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu faewJY
t csu fu awmh
(6)csu fawmif&S
ygw, f/
d
Factors Influencing Rate of Reactions
(i) Effect of concentration of reactants (ii) Effect of pressure
(iii) Effect of temperature (iv) Effect of catalysts
(v) Effect of radiation (light) (vi) Effect of surface area of reactants
Effect of concentration of reactants
yx r t csu ft aeeJY"mwfjyK ypön f;awG
&JUyg0i fu def;o u fa&mu fr Iu d
kajym&r , fq dk&i f "mwfjyK ypön f;awG &JU
yg0i fu e
d;f
r sm;av av "mwfjyK jci f;u jr efav av t csdefu wd kawmif;av aygU ' gq dk"mwfjyK
EIef;u t csd efeJY
ajymif;jyefq u fpyfae
wmaygU /r , kH
&i f a&r a&mx m;wJY t &u feJYa&a&mx m;wJY t &u f b , ft &u f yd kjyi f;r v JpOf;pm;Mu n fh&i fo d
Ed
kifw, f
Collision theory
The more frequent the contact between reacting species, the greater can be the rate of reaction.
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udr fzefr sm;pG
mx d
awG Ur Ir sm;av av " mwfjyK EIef;u v Jjr efav av jzpfw, f/
' gu d
kx d
awG
r Io D
Y t d
k&Dvd
ac:w, f/x kH
kY ;pH
t wdkif;"mwfjyK EIef;jr efav av t csdeft wd kif;t wmu wdkav av jzpfw , f/
The rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken.
Effect of pressure
t &n feJY t pd ikft cJay:r S mawmhzd t m;&JU o u fa&mu fr Iu o d o mx i f&S m;r Ir &S wJY
d t wG u fv pfv S L&IEdkifayr , fh
" mwfai G U
&UJx kx n f
t ay:r S mawmh ajymif;v JrIB uD ;r m;w, f' gaM u mizfhd t m;r sm;v d x kx n feJo G
kY m;cJY&i f" mwfai G Ur Iefu av ;awG &JUx d awG r Ir sm;
v mr, f?'gq d k"mwfjyK EIef;jr efav av t csd eft wd ki;ft wmu wd kav av jzpfr , f/(eJav av jzpfr , f/)
Liquids, solutions or solids on the effect of changing the pressure on the reactions are
negligible. But the variation of pressure by gases greately affects on volume.
Effect of temperature
a, b l, st m;jzi fh awmhjr i fh wJY t ylcsd efawG rSm"mwfjyK r I[ mBuD ;r m;wwfM u w, f?t ylo mrsm;v mr, fq d k&i f" mwfjyK ypö n f;t csi f;csi f;
xd awG r Ir sm;r , f" mwfjyK jci f;awG r sm;r , f?' go b m0yJav o d ao mfx d
kY wd kif;wd ku fwdkif;v J"mwfjyK jci f;awGr jzpfEd kifwmawG v J&Sw, f/
d
xd wdkif;wd ku fwd kif;o m"mwfjyK M
u r , fq d k&i fi gY
t d
r fawmifq efY r , fr x i fb l;?(o ab majymwmaemf) t r S efu " mwfjyK zdtk wG
Y uf
v kH
av mu fwY p
JG r f;t i fawG &S&r , f/v kH
d av mu fwJY pG r ;ft i f&SwJYt r IefawG
d wd ku fr d
N
yD;pG
r f;t i fjr i fh
wJYj' yfaygi f;pyfawG t &i fjzpfr , fN yD;r S
" mwfjzpfypö n f;awG t jzpfjyefN ydKuG Jr, f?wcsK U
du wd ku fawmh wd ku fr d
yg&JU
v kH
av mu fwJY t i ft m;?t aet x m;r &S awmh" mwfjyK
d Eid
kfpG r f;
r &S
b l;/pG
d r f;t i fjr i fh
j' yfaygi f;pyfawG jzpfv mjyefawmh v Jwn fN r Jo v m;q d kawmh r wn fN r JM
u jyefb l;?jyefN yD ;N
ydKuG Jo G m;M
u w, f/
'Dt ajct aeu d kIntermediate state or transition state v d kUac: w, f/
Intermediate state (also known as transition state) is a species of high energy would be highly unstable
and the activated complex can be break into products or reactants molecules depending on a change
happening.
Activated complex
Activated complex is a species of high energy and highly unstable formed in the intermediate or
transition state in a chemical reaction.
j' yft r Iefr sm;t csi f;csi f;wd
ku fr d
pOfr S
m(o d
kU
)" mwfjzpfypö
n f;t jzpfr ajymif;v Jci fM
u m;r S
mpG
r f;t i fjr i fh
j' yfaygi f;pyf wpfckjzpfv mw, ?
f
od
kY
ao mf4i f;j' yfaygi f;pyfr sm;[ mpG
r f;t i fajct jr i fh
q kH
;&S
d
ao mfv n f;wn fN
r Jjci f;r &S
d
M
u ?t J'gu d
kActivated complex v d
kYac:M
u w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Activation energy
The minimum energy required to form the activated complex or intermediate complex is called
activation energy.
pGr f;t i fjr i fh
j' yfaygi f;pyfw pfckpwi fjzpfay:zd kY
t wG u fv d kt yfwJY
t en f;q kH ;pGr f;t i fu dkpGr f;t i fajcjr i fh
pf;G
rt i fw u f<u pG r f;t i f
vd ac:M
kY u w, f/
The rate of reaction becomes double when the temperature is increased by ten degrees.
Effect of catalysts
" mwfjyK EIef;ay:r S m"mwfu lypö n f;r sm;&JUvT r f;r dk;o u fa&mu fr IawG &S
M
du ygao ;w, f/" mwfu lypö n f;v dkY
qd kw JY
t wd
f;kio l[ mt u lypö n f;
o u fo u fygyJ?"mwfjyK jci f;x JrS myg0i fw JY ypö n f;awG av smh jci f;wdk;jci f;r &S
b l;?" mwfjyK
d EIef;jr efjci f;aES ;jcif;u d ko mv kyfaq mifay;Eid kfw , f/
Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction, but remains chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction.
" mwfjyK jci f;wpfckrS m" mwfjyK EIef;jr efjci f;aES ;jci f;u dko mv kyfaq mifEd kifN
yD
;" mwfjyK jci f;N
yD;q kH ;o G
m;wJ t cgr S
Y mb mrS t ajymif;t v J
r &SyJr lv t wd
d kif; u sef&pfcJY w JY
t &mawG ud k"mwfu lypö n f;awG vd ac:M
kY u w, f/
Positive catalyst (promotor)
A catalyst that increases the rate of reaction is called a positive catalyst.
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kY
Negative catalyst (inhibitor)
A catalyst that decreases the rate of reaction is called a negative catalyst or inhibitor.
" mwfjyK jci f;wpfcku d kaES;au G ; (av smh u s) apwJYt wG u ft EIw f" mwfu lypö n f;v d ac:w, f/
kY
Example of some reactions;
(i) N2(g) + H2(g) 2NH3(g) (Haber process of NH3) Fe
(ii) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) (Contact process of SO3) Pt or V2O5
(iii) 2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g) (Preparation of O2)MnO2

Enzymes
An enzyme is a biocatalyst and is found in living tissues.
' gv JZD
0"mwfu lypö n f;ygyJ?wH awG ;r Smygwmu ptyalin eJYt pmajc&n fr S m&Sw mu pepsin yg/
d
eg., ptyalin in saliva and the pepsin in gastric juice. (r S efr Sm;av ;awG q kH
;jzwfEd kifzdx n fh
kY ay;x m;jci f;jzpfygw, f/)
1. Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction.
" mwfu lypö n f;awG [ m" mwfjyK jci f;r S
mb , fawmh rSu kefq kH;o G
m;jci f;r &Syg/
d
2. Negative catalys is used to suppress an unwanted reaction.
" mwfjyK jci f;u dk&yfw HYapzd t wG
kY u ft o kH ;jyK
wJY " mwfu lypö n f;u d
kawmh t EIw f" mwfu lypö n f;v d ac:w, f/
kY
3. Ptyalin in saliva is used as a catalyst to break down a large molecule of starch.
wH awG ;r S
mygwJY t i fZd
kif;" mwfu lypö n f;Ptyalin u u pD " mwfar mfv D u sL;awG udkN
zdK
cG Jay;Ed kifw , f/
4. Pepsin in gastric juice is used as a catalyst to break down the protein.
t pmajc&n fr S mygwJY t i fZd kif; pepsin u awmht o m;"mwft r Q i f" mwfawG udkacszsu fzd t wG
kY u ft o kH ;0i fw , f/
5. The rate of reaction does not depend on the amount of catalyst.
' gayr , fh" mwfu lypö n f;u "mwfjyK EIef;ay:r m Sv Tr f;r d
k;o u fa&mu faeayr , fh " mwfu lypö n f;en f;jci f;r sm;jci f;eJY
" mwfjzpfypö n f;r sm;jci f;en f;jci f;v kH ;0r q dkifygb l;?r sm;v dv Jjr efr o G
kY m;o v dken f;v dv Jav smh
kY ro G
m;ygb l;/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
6. A small quantity of catalyst is used to catalyse the reaction of a large quantity of reactant.
" mwfjyK
ypön f;yr mP r sm;wJY
" mwfjyK
jci f;awG t wG u f" mwfu lypö
n f;t r sm;B
uD;r v dkt yfygb l;?
yr P t en f;i , f&Sw JY" mwfu lypö
d n f;u dko kH
;v JyJv kH
av mu fygw, f/
7. Catalysts are widely used in the chemical industry and in chemical reasearch.
" mwfu lypö
n f;u dko kawo ev kyfi ef;awG eJY
" mwkpu f½kHawG rS
mwGi fu s, fpG
mt o kH
;jyKMu w, f/
Effect of radiation
t v i f;jzmx G
u fr I&JU
o u fa&mu fr Iu v J" mwfjyK
EIef;ay:o u fa&mu fr I&S
d
ygw, f?Oyr mt m;jzi fh
uvd
k&i f;aygY
Photochemical reaction
A photochemical reaction is a reaction which takes places only when the reactant molecules absorb
the light radiation (hv) when it is expressed.
wpfcsK
U
d
ao m"mwfjyK
jci f;awG
u t v i f;u d
kpkyf, lN
yD
;r S
" mwfjyK
M
u w, f?'gu d
kt v i f;u d
kt r S
D
jyK
"mwfjyK
jci f;v kd
U
ac:w, f/
Effect of surface area of reactants

aemu fq kH ;wpfckt aeeJY r su fES
mjyi f{ &d
, mrsm;&JUo u fa&mu fr Iu d kajym&r , fr , fq d k&i fr su fESmjyi f{ &d , mrsm;av av
" mwfjyKr Ijr efav av jzpfw, f?wpfckawmh &Sw, f r su fES
d mjyi fr sm;w, fq d kwmr su fES mjyi ft &G , ft pm;M uD;wmr[ kwfb l;aemf?
t av ;csd efwlt &m0wÄ K
ESpfckrS
mwpfcku r su fES mjyi f{ &d
, mrsm;r , ft &G , ft pm;i , fr , f?wpfcku r su fES mjyi f{ &d
, meJr, f
t &G, ft pm;u B uD ;r , fu J-b , ft &mu " mwfjyK EIef;ydkjr efr v Ju G mr i f;wdpOf;pm;M
kY u n fh aygY ?
t wef;x JrS mwi fv u fawG U
jyp&mAv mpmt kyfyJ&S a
dwmh t &G , fwlpmt kyf2t kyfr S mwt kyfu d k'D
t wd kif;x m;?(r su fES
mjyi feJ)
aemu fwpft kyfu d kt &G u fawG q kwfN zJN
yD
;rD
;&Id
Ujyv ku
d fwmaygU Asm/(r su fES mjyi fr sm;)
at mu fr S mar ;x m;wJY wpfyk'fu ' D t aM u mif;t &meJUo ab mw&m;t wlwlygyJ/ (Al t jym ;eJUAl t r Ief)
Why does powder aluminium reacts much more readily than aluminium foil?
The larger the surface area, the greater the contact between the reactants and faster the rate of
reaction. For the same mass of substance, the smaller particles have a larger total surface area than
larger particles. So, powder aluminium reacts much more readily than aluminium foil.
Chemical Equilibra
Many reactions are reversible reactions.
"mwfjyK
jci f;r sm; r sm;pG
m&S
wJY
d t eu f t jyeft v S
efN
yd
K
uGJ"mwfjyK
jci f;v Jwpfckt ygt 0i fjzpfygw, f/
Reversible reaction
A reversible reaction is a reaction, which can be proceeding in the forward as well as
reverse directions, under appropriate conditions.
o i fh
av smfao mt aet x m;wpfckrS ma&S Uod " mwfjyK
kY jci f;v Jjzpfaeo v d
kaemu fjyef" mwfjyK
jci f;v JjzpfEd
kifygw, f
' gu d
kt jyeft v S
ef" mwfjyK
jci f; Reversible reaction v d kY
ac:Mu ygw, f/
Reversible reaction is shown by the double arrows, .
For example; H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
Forward Reaction
The reaction proceeding to the right is called the forward reaction.a&S
Uod kY
" mwfjyK
jci f;
Reverse Reaction
The reaction proceeding to the left is called the reverse reaction. aem
u fjyef" mwfjyKjci f;
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Dynamic equibrium
For a reversible reaction, when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal, there is no
further change in the net concentration although the reactions in both directions continue to take place.
Equilibrium is said to be dynamic equilibrium.
t jyeft v Sef" mwfjyK jci f;wpfckt wG u f" mwfjyK EIef;wpfck[ ma&S Uod kY
OD
;wn fo G m;aeo v d kaemu fo d kY
v Jjyefv S
efN
yd
KuJjciGf;awG
jzpfay:aew, f?t csd efw pfckt wG i f;r Sma&S
Uod kY
oG m;EIef;ES i fh
aemu fjyefo G
m;EIef;[ mn D rQ
v mygw, f?
' gaM
u mifh
rQajcay:r S mt o m;wi fajymif;v JrIo mr&S awmh
d b l;q dk&i fr Q ajc[ mv Iyf&Sm;r Ir &SyJN
d id
r fo u fo Gm;v dr fh
r, f/
wpfcko dx m;&r S
mu r Q ajc[ mv kH ;0&yfo G m;wmr[ kw fyJa&S Uod " mwfjyK
kY EIef;eJY
aemu fo d
jyef" mwfjyK
kY EIef;[ mwln D omG;wJY t wG uf
wn fN id r fo G
m;jci f;o mjzpfw, f?' gu d kv S
K
yf&S
m;r Q ajc dynamic equilibrium.v d kY
ac:w, f/
(or)
Equilibrium is a dynamic state, since both reactions are still proceeding with equal rate on both sides
but no net change is observed.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
When anyone of the factors affecting the equilibrium of a chemical system such as temperature,
pressure or concentration is changed, the system reacts in such a way as to nullify the effect of
the change.
" mwkpepfw pfck&JUrQ ajcay:u d kwpfpkH w pf&mo mo u fa&mu fcJY r , fq dk&i fOyr mt m;jzi fh t ylcsd efao mfv n f;au mif;?zd t m;ao mfv n f;
au mif;?yg0i fu def;r sm;ao mfv n f;au mif; v T r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fcJY r , fq d k&i fr Q ajcay:r S
majymif;v Jjci f;r sm;jzpfay:v mygr , f?
t JU
'Dt cgpepfu v T r f;r d
k;v mr, fh o u fa&mu fr Iwd kif;u d kwpfpkHw pf&mao men f;v r f;r sm;jzi fhwkefY jyefacszsu fypfv d ku fr , fv U
k
d
Le-Chatelier u ajymygw, f/
Factors influencing Equilibrium ' gaM u mifh" mwkrQ ajcay:u d kv T

r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fr Iu at mu fygt wd kif;jzpfygw, f/
(1) Effect of temperature (2) Effect of pressure (3) Effect of concentration
Effect of temperature
t yl&JU
vTr f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fr It aM
u mif;ajzay;&awmh r , fq dk&i fyx r r Qajc&JUb , feJY n mu dko d
bd kY
vdkygw, f/
t ylheat [ mb , fb u fr S m&S
w , fq d
d k&i fa&S
U
odkU
" mwfjyKjci f;u t ylpkyfEndothermic " mwfjyK jci f;jzpfN
yD
;
t ylheat [ mn mb u fr S m&Sd
w , fq d
k&i fa&SUod
kU
" mwfjyKjci f;u t ylx kw fExothermic " mwfjyK jci f;jzpfw , f/
' gaM
u mifh
' vD d krS
wfo m;v d
ku fw , f/
á b , fheat endo (+) positive á á n mheat exo ( - ) negative
wu , vf d
kYr Q
ajcay:u dkt ylu d kwd k;jr i fh
ay;v d
ku fr , fq d
k&i f pepfu t ylu d kpkyf, lr , f
t ylu d
kav Q
mh
csay;r , qf d k&i fawmhpepfu t ylu d kjyefx kwfay;&r , f/
(heat u b , fr Sm&S
d
&S rq d
d kifb l;aemf?rQ ajcpepfu jyefjyD ;wkefY
jyefw mjzpfw , f/)
' gaM u mifh 'D
vdkx yfr S
wfyg/
t ylw d
k;&i fpepfu (endothermic)t ylu d kpkyfr S myJ/t ylav smh &i fpepfu (exothermic)t ylu d kjyefx kw fr S
myJ/
(wd
k;&i fpkyfr , f)¶ heat á (av smh
&i fx kwfr , f)
endothermic exothermic
heat heat
exothermic b , fheat endo (+) positive á endothermic
H   ( ) á n mheat exo ( - ) negative H   ()
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
er lemwpfyk'fajzM
u n fh
r , f/
exothermic
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + heat
endothermic
The forward reaction is heat released (exothermic) reaction and the reverse reaction is heat absorbed
(endothermic) reaction.
a&S U
od " mwfjyK
kY jci f;o n ft ylx G u f" mwfjyKjci f;jzpfN yD ; aemu fjyef" mwfjyK jci f;u t ylpkyf" mwfjyK jci f;jzpfw , /f
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if the temperature is increased,
the heat absorbed (endothermic reaction) will favour. (or)The reverse reaction will favour.
vD csmv fwmv D , med , mrt &r Q ajcay:o d t ylw d
kY k;jr i fh
o u fa&mu fr , fq d k&i f(ylv G ef;v d
kU
) pepfu t ylu d kpkyf, lv d
kurfS
mjzpfw , f
t J'D
t cgr Q ajcu t ylpkyfv d ku fw JY
t wGu fwen f;t m;jzi fhaemu fjyef" mwfjyK jci f;u dkOD;pm;ay;ygv d r fh
r , f/
The equilibrium will shift to the left. The concentration of NH3 will decrease.
' gaM
u mifhr Q ajcu t ylpkyfao mb u f(wen f;) b , fb u fq D od a&G
kY Uv sm;í t ylu d kav Qmhcsay;ygr n f/
' gq d
k" mwfjzpfypö n f; jzpfw JYt r dk;eD
;, m;&JUyg0i fu d ef;awG av smhu so Gm;r , f/ (q D ;aq mpD ;&o v d kygyJ)
According to Le Chatelier’s principle,
if the temperature is decreased, the heat released (exothermic reaction) will be favour.
vD csmv fw mv D , med , mrt &r Q ajcay:o d kYt ylu d kav Q mh csay;r , fq d
k&i f(at ;v d ) pepfu t ylu d
kY kjyefx kw fay;&r S mjzpfw JY
t wG
uf
t ylx kw fao mb u fwen f;t m;jzi fha&S U
od kY" mwfjyK jci f;u d
kOD
;pm;ay;&ygv d r fh
r , f/
The forward reaction will favour. The equilibrium will shift to the right.
The concentration of NH3 will increase.
' gq d
k&i f r Q
ajcu t ylx kw fao mb u f(wen f;t m;jzi fh ) n mb u fq D od kYOD;pm;ay;a&G Uv sm;&ygr n f/
' gq d
k"mwfjzpfypö
n f; jzpfw JYt r d
k;eD;, m;u r Qajcu d kw n fN
id
r fat mifx def;zdkYn mb u fo d wd
kY k;jr S
i fh
ay;&r S
mjzpfw , f/
Effect of pressure
zdt m;o u fa&mu fr Iu d
kM
u n fh
r , fq dk&i fBoyle's Law u d kri f;wd
rS
kYw fr d
M
u t kef;r , fx i fw , f?zd t m;eJYx kx n fajymif;jyef
q u fo G, fM
u w, fr [ kw fv m;/t ckv J'D t wdkif;ygyJ/zdt m;eJY
qd kifwmajzawmh r , fq d
k&i fyx r q kH ;ar ;cG
ef;u d
kjyefu l;&r , /fN
yD
;&i f
reaction r S ma&;x m;wJYphysical state u d kM
u n fh
N
yD;x kx n ft csK ;o wfr S
d w fay;&r , f/
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

1vol + 3vol 2vol
zdt m;o u fa&mu fr It aM u mif;
4vol 2vol
ajzr , fq dk&i f
The forward reaction is volume decreased reaction and x kx n fawG ud kb , fn mao csmM u n fh
the reverse reaction is volume increased reaction. zdt m;r sm;&i f
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if the pressure is increased, x k
x n e
f w
J Jb u fu d
Y kOD ;pm;ay;r , f/
'Dvd kyJzd t m;eJr, fv U kd
the volume decreased reaction will favour.
ajymv m&i f
The equilibrium will shift to the right. x kx n fr sm;wJY b u fu d kOD;pm;ay;&r , f/
The forward reaction will favour. The concentration of NH3 will increase.
---------------
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if the pressure is decreased,
the volume increased reaction will favour.
The equilibrium will shift to left. The reverse reaction will favour.
The concentration of NH3 will decrease.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
wu , vf d
ES
kYpfzu fpv kH
;r S
m&S
wJY
d x kx n fawGu wln D aecJY M
u r , fq dk&i f r Qajcay:b mo u fa&mu fr Ir S
r &S
wJY
d t wG
uf
at mu fr Sma&;x m;o v d kajzx m;o v d
ka&;csi fv J&o v dku d
k, fo d
ud k, fwwfx m;o v d
ka&;v J&ygw, f/
The total volume of reactants is equal to the total volume products.

There is no pressure change.
¶ another one á
There is no pressure effect because the total volume does not change equal to both side.
[The volume is effective in gases only and not in solid or liquid.] or
0 volume = very little affected by change in pressure in solid or liquid. ( 2018 scheme)
Effect of concentration
yg0i fu d ef;r sm;\ o u fa&mu fr Iu d kajymr, fq d k&i fyx r q kH ; "mwfjyKypön f;r sm;&JUo u fa&mu fr Iv d
kY
odx m;&r , f/
at mu fr S mer lemaz:jyx m;wJY nD rQ jci f;u d
kM
u n fh
r , fq dk&i freactants ES pfckx Ju b , freactant u d krq dkyg0i fu d
ef; wd
k;jr §
ih
fay;
vd ku f&i fa&S U
od kU
" mwfjyK
jci f;u d ko mjzpfay:apr S mjzpfN yD
; yg0i fu d
ef;av Q
mh
csv d ku fr , fq d
k&i fawmproduct
h b u fu jyefv n fN ydK
uGJrI
jzpfv mN yD;aemu fjyef" mwfjyK r Iu dko mjzpfv mapv d r fh
r , f/
Fe3+(aq) + SCN- FeSCN2+
pale yellow colourless red coloured complex
If addition of more SCN- ions or Fe3+ ions be on the equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to the right.
The forward reaction will favour. The concentration of FeSCN2+will increase.
The solution will become deeper.
------------------------------------------------------------------
Generlly, The concentration of any reactant is added, the equilibrium will shift to the right.
The forward reaction will favour. The concentration of products will increases.
Reactants
The substances used in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
Products
The substances produced in the reaction are products.
ar ;cG
ef;t csK
ud
d kU
av h
v m&efES
i fhr d
rd
ES
pfo u fo v d
kjyefa&;Ed
kifygw, f/
1. How would you change the temperature and pressure on the following equilibrium so that you could get the
highest quaility of SO3 on the right hand sight?
2SO2 (g) + O2(g) 2SO3 (g)
Forward reaction is exothermic reaction and volume decreasing reaction.
To get the highest quantity of SO3, forward reaction must be favoured.
So, temperature must be decreased and pressure must be increased.
2. Which charge will not affect the following equillibrium.

2NO(g) + Cl2 (g) 2NOCl(g)
Give reason for yor answer.
Catalysts
In the equilibrium, there may change in total volume and heat. Any change (temperature, pressure and
concentration) can affect the above equilibrium.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
3. In the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the following exothermic recation, the condition
in (i) and (ii) are necessary
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)
(i) An excess of air
(i) Number of collisions between SO2 and O2 will increase when excess air is used.
Forward reaction will favour.
Equilibrium will shift to the right and concentration of SO3 will increase.
(ii) A temperature of about 450oC
(ii) The reaction mixture is necessary to heat at 450ºC for the required activation energy.
4. Aluminium foil reacts moderately with aqueous NaOH only when warmed but powdered aluminium
of the same mass reacts rapidly in the cold.Why?
Powder aluminium has the larger surface area than that of aluminium foil.
Therefore aluminium powder reacts readily with sodium hydroxide even in the cold.
5. Predict the effect of increasing concentration of SCN- ion on the following equilibrium.
Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq) FeSCN2+ (aq)
Number of collisions between Fe3+ and SCN- will increase.

Forward reaction will favour. Equilibrium will shift to the right.
More concentration of FeSCN2+ will increase.
exothermic
6. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + heat
endothermic
1 vol; 3vols; 2 vols;
The forward reaction is exothermic reaction and the reverse reaction is endothermic reaction.
According to Le Chatelier’s principle,
if increasing temperature favour to absorb heat.(i.e, endothermic reaction)
Reverse reaction will favour.
The equilibrium will shift to the left. (or) The concentration of NH3 will decrease.
The forward reaction is volume decreasing reaction and the reverse reaction is volume increasing
reaction.
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if increasing pressure favour to decrase volume.
Forward reaction will favour.
The equilibrium will shift to the right. (or) The concentration of NH3 will increase.
t &i fu q dk&i fzd
t m;o u fa&mu fr Ir S
mt pd
kift cJwd
kYt &n fwd
kUjzpfcJU
&i fo kn x kx n fq d
kN
yD
; o wfr S
wfM
u w, f/ t ckawm ht Jv d
kra&;ay;&awmh b l;?
t pdkift cJjzpfap t &n fjzpfap t en f;eJY
t r sm;o u fa&mu fr Iawmh&S d
w, f/ o dodo mo majymif;v JrIu d
kr awG U
&jci f;omjzpfw, f/ ' gaM
u mifh
o kn x kx n fv d
kYra&;awmh
yJo u fa&mu fr It en f;i , f&S
w, fv d
d kYjyi fq i fv d
ku fw, f/
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) 2018

0 vol (very little affected 0 vol (very little 1 vol; marking
by change in pressure ) affected by change in pressure scheme
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
CHAPTER .7
ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
" mwfjyKnD rQ jci f;r sm;ESi fh
pGr f;t i fajymif;v Jjci f; r m
St &m0wÄ K
awG [ mpG r f;t i ft r sK ;r sK
d ;u d
d kyd
kifq d
kifMu w, ft a&G U
pGr f;t i fawG ?
t wn fpG r f;t i fawG ?t ylpG r f;t i f?t v i f;pG
r f;t i f?t o H
pG
r f;t i f?v QyfppfpG r f;t i fawG eJYpu fpG r f;t i fawGt jyi f" mwkpG r f;t i fawG
vJ
&SM
d
u w, f/t Jv d kpGr f;t i fr sm;pG m&S wJYt eu f" mwkaA' u awmh
d t ylpGr f;t i f?" mwkpG r f;t i fwd eJY
kYt r sm;M uD;q u fpyfaewmq d kwmu d
k
ud k;wef;u wn f;u o d N
yD ;jzpfae&ygr , f/ r o d v Jt cko d oG m;NyDvdkUr S
wfv d ku fygaemh ?r [ kwfb l;v m;
Various forms energy

(1) Kinetic energy is the energy due to the moving of a body.
t &m0w¬ K
awG a&GU
v sm;r IaM
u mifh
jzpfay:v m&wJY pG r f;t i f
(2) Potential energy is the energy due to the position of a body.
t &m0w¬ K
awG &JU
wn fae&maM u mifh
jzpfay:v m&wJY pGr f;t i f
(e.g., mass in a gravity field, a charged particle in an electric field)
(3) Thermal energy is the energy due to the effect of temperature.
t ylcsd
efo u fa&mu fr IaM
u mifhjzpfay:v m&wJY pG
r f;t i f
(4) Chemical energy is the energy due to the structure of a substance.
t &m0w¬ K
awG &JU
zG
JU
pn f;wn faq mu fzG JU
pn f;ykH
aM
u mifhjzpfay:v m&wJY
pG
r f;t i f
(5) Other forms of energy
(i) Electrical energy is the energy produced from a generator. r D ;t m;ay;pu fu ae&wJY
vQyfppfpG
r f;t i f
(ii) Mechanical energy is the energy produced from a motor. ar mfw mu aewq i fh &v mwJY
pu fpG
r f;t i f
Chemical Energetic
The study of energy changes in chemical reactions is a subject in is called chemical energetic.
t &m0w¬K
r sm;t csi f;csi f;" mwfjyK
&mu aejzpfay:ajymif;v Jv mwJY
pG
r f;t i fr sm;t aM
u mif;av h
v mjci f;u d
k"mwkpG
r f;t i f
Chemical Energetic v d kY
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Exothermic reactions
An exothermic reaction is one which releases heat to the surrounding.
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Example; - H2SO4 (l) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq) + heat
Endothermic reactions
An endothermic reaction is one which absorbs heat from the surrounding.
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t ylu d
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kt ylpkyf" mwfjyK
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Example; - NH4Cl (s) + heat + H2O (l) NH4Cl (aq)
Units of Heat Change t ylajymif;v Jjci ;fES i fh
qd kifao m, lepfawG yg/
The common units of heat change are joules (J) and calorie (cal).
1 J (joule) = 1V (volt) x 1 C (coulomb)
Calorie ( one calorie)
A calorie is the heat requried to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1oC .
a& 1 gram u d ef1oC wd
kt ylcsd k;ap&eft wG u fv d kt yfao mt ylyr mP u d kone calorie v d ac:w, f/
kY
1 kcal = 1000 cal
The Relation between calorie and joules
1cal (calorie ) = 4.18 J (joule)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Enthalpy Change ( H )t ylajymif;v Jjci f;
zd
t m;u d
ef;ao jzpfaewJYt ajct aer S
mt ylpkyfjci f;(o d
) t ylx kwfjci f; jzpfpOfu d
kY kt ylajymif;v Jjci f;v d
ac:w, f/
kY
t J'Dt ylajymif;v Jjci f;o au F
wu d
kH jzi fh
az:jyw, f/
The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change.
Standard Enthalpy Change ( H  )

pH
t ylcsd
efeJY
pH
zd
t m;r S
mt ylpkyfjci f;u d
kjzpfapt ylx kwfjci f;u d
kjzpfapao mjzpfpOfu d
kpH
t ylcsd
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ac:w, f/
kY
t J'D
pH
t ylcse
dfajymif;v Jjci f;o au F kawmhH  jzi fh
wu d az:jyw, f/
The heat absorbed or released in a process occurring at standard conditions of temperature (298K)
and pressure (1atm) is called the standard enthalpy change.
The standard conditions for standard enthalpy change

Standard temperature = 298 K or 25oC
Standard pressure = 1 atm or 760 mmHg
Sign for enthalpy change and standard enthalpy change
t ylpkyfjzpfay:" mwfjyK
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P mjzi fh
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P mjzi fh
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P mu d
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&i fexothermic reaction t ylx kw f" mwfjyK jci f;jzpfN
yD
;?
t aygi f;v u ©P mu d
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ae&r , f/
For an exothermic reaction where energy is released,
H or H  is negative, i.e., negative sign.
For an endothermic reaction where energy is absorbed,
H or H  is positive, i.e., positive sign.
Thermochemical equation
t ylajymif;v Jjci f;n D
rQ
jci f;awG
t wG
u f&kyf* kP fo wÅ
awG
d ud
kazmfjyay;&ygr , f/
The equations (exothermic as well as endothermic), which include information regarding
heat changes as well as physical states are called thermochemical equations.
Types of Heat Change
(1) Heat of combustion (2) Heat of formation of a compound (3) Heat of neutralization
Heat of combustion ( H  )
The heat of combustion of a substance is the heat change which takes place when one mole of the
substance is completely burned in oxygen.
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ao mt &m0w¬
d Kat mu fpD
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i fN
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kav mifu R
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1
Examples; H 2 (g )  O 2 (g) 
 H 2 O (l) H   - 286.0 kJmol -1
2
C(graphite )  O 2 (g) 
 CO 2 (g) H   - 396.0 kJmol -1
CH 4 (g )  2O 2 (g)   CO 2 (g)  2H 2O(l) H   - 890.0 kJmol -1
 CS2 (l) H    117 kJmol -1
C (graphite)  2 S (rhombic) 
av mifu R
r f;t ylt wG
u ft ylajymif;v Jjci f;o n ft N
r Jw r f; t ylx G
u f" mwfjyK
jci f; jzpfw JY
t wG
u f( - )t EIw fjzpfae&r , f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Heat of combustion of a substance is always negative (exothermic)
i.e., heat is evolved when a substance is burned in oxygen. t ylw efzd
k;awGudkif;wmay;wJY
Heat of combustion is measured by using equipment called a bomb calorimeter. u &d , mu dkawmh
bombcalorimeter
Heat of formation of a compound ( H f ) vd
kYac:w, f/
The heat of formation of a compound is the heat change when one mole of a compound is formed from
its elements in their standard state.(1 atm pressure and 298 K).
pH t ajct aer S m&S
w JY
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k
j' yfaygi f;jzpft ylv d
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1
Examples; H 2 (g)  O2 (g) 
 H 2O (l) ΔHθf  -286.0 kJmol-1
2
S (rhombic) + O2 (g) 
 SO 2 (l) ΔHθf   296.8 kJmol-1
1 1
H 2 (g)  Cl 2 (g) 
 HCl (g) H f   92.2 kJmol -1
2 2
1 3
N 2 (g)  H 2 (g)  NH 3 (g) H f   45.4 kJmol -1
2 2
3
2Al (s)  O 2 (g) 
 Al 2 O 3 (s) H f  1667.8kJmol -1
2
Heat of formation may also be exothermic or endothermic.
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u ft ylajymif;v Jjci f;o n ft ylpkyfjci f;(+) o d
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kifo n f/
Heat of neutralization
The heat of neutralization is the heat change when one mole of hydrogen ions from an acid reacts with
one mole of hydroxide ions from a base.
t u fq pfr S1 mol &S
dhydrogen ions eJYaAYr S1 mol &S
d
ao mhydroxide ions 1 mol wd
kY
" mwfjyK" mwfjy, f&mrS
xGu fay:v mao mt ylu dkHeat of neutralization v d ac:w, f/
kY
H  (aq)  OH  (aq) 
 H 2O (l) ΔHθ   57.0 kJmol-1
All heats of neutralization are formed to be exothermic.

The heat of neutralization of the reaction between HCl and NaOH is -57 kJmol-1.
Na  OH  (aq)  H  Cl (aq)  Na  Cl-
 (l)  H 2O(l) ΔHθ   57.0 kJmol-1
-1
HCl t u fq pfr SH+ ions 1 mol eJYNaOH aAY r SOH- ions 1 mol wd " mwfjyK
kY N; H  = -57 kJmol &w, f/
yD
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-1
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1 &S
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d u sL;wpfv kH kYH  = -57 kJmol
; jzpfv d
-1
The heat given out by the neutralization of KOH and NaOH is also H  = -57 kJmol .
But it is not the same when a complete reaction takes place between NaOH and H2SO4 or NaOH
and H3PO4, since these two acids are not monobasic (i.e., H2SO4 is dibasic).
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq)+ 2H2O (l) H  = -114 kJ
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol 2 x (-57) kJ
a&ar mfar mfv D
u sL;u 2 mol jzpfv mv d
kUr lv t ylwefzd
k;u d
k2q v kyfay;jci f;jzpfw, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation
The net enthalpy change of a given chemical reaction remains the same, no matter by what methods
the change is carried out.
HI
C (graphite) CO2 (g)
H II H III
CO(g)
H I = H II + H III
1 H II
C (graphite )  O2 (g) 
 CO (g) H   - 110 kJmol -1
2
1
CO ( g )  O2 (g) 
 CO 2 (g) H   - 283 kJmol -1 H III
2
C(graphite)  O2(g) 
 CO2 (g) ΔHθ  -393 kJmol-1 H I
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pH
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ygr , f/ Hess’s Law u ajymx m;N yD;o m;ygb , fen f;v r f;eJY
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t ylw efzd
k;u ajymif;v Jjci f;r &S
d
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pH
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Q. Calculate the heat of combustion of propane gas, if it heat of formation is -1800kJmol-1 .
The heats of formation of CO 2 (g) and H 2 O(1)are -390kJmol-1 and -275kJmol-1 , respectively.
require equation,
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l) H   ?
H I 3C (graphite) + 4H2 (g) C3H8 (g) H f  -1800kJmol-1
H II C (graphite)+ O2 (g) CO2 (g) H f  -393 kJmol-1

1
H III H2(g) + O (g) H2O (l) H f  -275 kJmol-1
2 2
by the Hess's Law
heat of combustion of propane  (H II  H III )  H I
 (3  ΔHII  4 ΔHIII )  ΔHI
= [3x ( -393kJmol-1) + 4 x ( -275kJmol-1) ] - ( - 1800kJmol-1)
= [(- 1179kJ) + (- 1100kJ)] + 1800kJ
= - 479 kJmol-1
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l) H   - 479 kJmol-1
heat of combustion of propane is - 479 kJmol-1.
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
ykH
pH
(2) ' gu awmht ckv u f&S
t o kH
d ;jyK
aewJY
wGu fen f;yg/
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l) H   ?
3C (graphite) + 4H2 (g) C3H8 (g) H f  -1800 kJmol-1
C (graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H f  -393 kJmol-1
ykpä
mrS
mformation wefzd
k;awG
ay;x m;wJY u f ΔHθ r S
t wG mf x n fh
ay;&r , f
1
H2(g) O (g) + H2O (l) H f  -275 kJmol-1
2 2
3C (graphite) + 3O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) H   -1179 kJ operation v kyfN
yD
qdkwmeJY
4H2(g) + 2O2 (g)` 4H2O (l) H   -1100 kJ f ud
kjzK
wfo v per
d
k mol u d kv JjzK
wfr , f/
+ .................................................................................................................
3C (graphite) + 4H2(g)+ 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g)+4H2O (l) H   - 2279 kJ
3C (graphite) + 4H2 (g) C3H8 (g) H   -1800 kJmol-1
(-) (-) (+)
....................................................................................................................
The heat of combustion of propane (g) = - 479 kJmol-1
......................................................................................................................................................
ykH
pH
(3)
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l) H   ?
3C (graphite) + 4H2 (g) C3H8 (g) H f  -1800 kJmol-1

1
H2(g) +
O (g) H2O (l) H f  -275 kJmol-1
2 2
reverse v kyfw mjzpfv d
kYΔHθ r S
mv u ©
P majymif;o v d
kf v JjzK
wfay;r , fper mol u d
kv JjzK
wfr , f
3C (graphite) + 3O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) H   -1179 kJ
4H2(g) + 2O2 (g)` 4H2O (l) H   -1100 kJ
3C (graphite) + 4H2(g)+ 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g)+4H2O (l) H   - 2279 kJ
C3H8 (g) 3C (graphite) + 4H2 (g) H   + 1800 kJ
................................................................................................................
The heat of combustion of propane (g) = - 479 kJmol-
1. formation wefzd k;awGay;x m;w, fq d k&i f ΔHθ r S mf u d kr ar U

r av smhx n fhay;&r , f/
2. vdkt yfv d
kYn D
rQ
jci f; n d&r , fq d
S k&i f ' gr S
r [ kwf u d
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mu f&w, fq dk&i f f jzK
wfay;&ygr , f/
per mol (wpfr d
k;r [ kwfawmh
vdyg) u d
kY kv JjzK
wf&ygr , f/.
t ajzu d
kawmhr ar h
r av smhjyefa&;ay;yg/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Heat of Formation
ykH
pH
(1)
Calculate the heat of formation of carbon disulphide(l), if it heat of combustion is -1106 kJmol-1.
The heats of formation of CO 2(g) and H 2O(1)are -394kJmol-1and -297 kJmol-1 , respectively.
C (graphite) + 2 S (rhombic) CS2 (g) H f  ?

H I CS2 (l) + 3O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2SO2 (g) ΔH θ = -1106 kJmol-1
H II C (graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H f  -394 kJmol-1
H III S (rhombic) + O2 (g) SO2 (l) H f  -296 kJmol-1
by the Hess's Law
heat of formation of CS2  (H II  H III )  H I

 (ΔHII  2 ΔHIII )  ΔHI
= [ ( -394kJmol-1) + 2( -296kJmol-1) ] - ( - 1106kJmol-1)
= [(- 394kJ) + (- 592kJ)] + 1106kJ
= + 120 kJmol-1
C (graphite) + 2 S (rhombic) CS2 (g) H f  + 120 kJmol-1
The heat of formation of CS2 = + 120 kJmol-1
...........................................................................................................................................................
C (graphite) + 2 S (rhombic) CS2 (l) H f  ?
CS2 (l) + 3O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2SO2 (g) ΔH θ = -1106 kJmol-1
S (rhombic) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) H f  -296 kJmol-1
-1
C (graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) H   -394 kJmol
2S (rhombic) + 2O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) ΔH θ = -592 kJ
..................................................................................................................
C (graphite) + 2S (rhombic)+ 3O2 (g) CO2 (g)+2SO2 (g) H   - 986 kJ
CS2 (l) + 3O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2SO2 (g) ΔH θ = -1106 kJ

....................................................................................................................
C (graphite) + 2 S (rhombic) CS2 (l) H f  - 120 kJmol-1
The heat of formation of CS2 = + 120 kJmol-1
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Calculate the heat of combustion of ammonia, NH3 gas . If heat of formation of ammonia, nitrogen
oxide and water are - 45.9 kJ mol-1 , + 90.3 kJmol-1 and - 241.8 kJ mol-1 respectively.
required equation, NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3

NO (g) + H O (l) ΔH θ = ?
4 2 2
1 3 H   - 45.9 kJ mol-1 'D
ae&m'D vdkpOf;pm;wmygn D
rQ
jci f;u d
k
(a) N (g) + H (g) NH3 (g)
2 2 2 2 f yx r n D
at mift &i fn d
S
yg/
(b) 1 N2 (g) + 1 O2 (g) NO (g) H   + 90.3 kJmol-1 4NH3 + 5O2 = 4NO + 6H2O
2 2 f NH3 u 1mol jzpf&r S
mrd kY
1 ' gaMu mifh4 eJYjyefpm;ay;v d ku w
f , f/
(c) H2 (g) + O (g) H2O (l) H   - 241.8 kJ mol-1
2 2 f reaction wd kif;u dkt Jv d
kykH
pH
t wd kif;
pOf;pm;v dku fwmyg/
operation equ; {(b) +(c)x 3 }- {equ; (a)} eJeJawmhOD ;aES mu fpm;wmaygU av /
2
1
N (g) + 1 O2 (g) NO (g) ΔH θ = + 90.3 kJ
2 2 2
3 3 3
H (g) + O2 (g)
2 2 4
H O (l)
2 2
ΔH θ = -362.7 kJ
.................................................................................................... .
1
N (g) + 5 O2 (g)+ 3 H2(g) NO (g) ΔH θ = -272.4 kJ
2 2 4 2
1 3
N (g) +
2 2
H (g)
2 2
NH3 (g) ΔH θ = - 45.9 kJ
(-) (-) (-) (+)
.................................................................................................................
5 3
NH3 (g) + O (g) NO (g) + H O (l) ΔH θ = - 226.5 kJ mol-1
4 2 2 2
The heat of combustion of ammonia = - 226.5 kJ mol-1
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4NO (g) + 6 H2O (l) ΔH θ = - 906 kJ mol-1
............................................................................................................................................
Calculate the heat of combustion of iron pyrite, FeS2(s) . If heat of formation is +177 kJmol-1, the
heat of formation sulphur dioxide and iron III oxide are - 296.8 kJ mol-1 and - 224.3 kJmol-1
respectively.
required equation, FeS2 (s) + 11 O2 (g) 1

Fe2O3 (s) + 2 SO2 (g) ΔH θ = ?
4 2
(a) Fe (s) + 2 S FeS2 (s) H   + 177 kJ mol-1

(rhombic) f
3 H   -224.3 kJmol-1
(b) 2Fe(s) + O (g) Fe2O3 (s)
2 2 f
(c) S + O2 (g) SO2 (g) H   - 296.8 kJ mol-1

(rhombic) f
operation equ; {(b) x 1 +(c)x 2}- {equ; (a)}

2
3 1
Fe(s) + O (g)
4 2
Fe O (s)
2 2 3
ΔH θ = - 112.15 kJ
2S (rhombic)+ 2O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) ΔH θ = -593.6 kJ
' gv J
.................................................................................................... .
t ay:u wpfyk'feJY
pOf;pm;ykHt wlw lygyJ
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
11 1
FeS2 (s) + O (g) Fe2O3 (s) + 2 SO2 (g) ΔH θ = - 882.75kJ mol-1
4 2 2
The heat of combustion of iron pyrite = - 882.75 kJ mol-1
4 FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g) ΔH θ = - 3531 kJ mol-1
t "d
u rS
mcsi fw JY
t csu fu Physical state awG
r u sef&pfapzd
kU
&, f?ajr §
mu fw JY
t csd
efr S
mper mol jzK
wfzd
kY
&, ?
f
k&i f ΔH θ r S
heat of formation jzpfw , fq d mf x n fh
zd
&, f?u d
kY ef;&S
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t cgx u fat mu fckq d
kck
q , fq d
kq , f&mq d
k&max mifq d
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w mEIw fr d
w mr r S
m;apzd
eJY
kY
aemu fq kH
;t ajza&;zd
vd
kY kygw, f/
Various forms of energy
1. Matter possesses energy of various kinds.
2. Mass in a gravity field (or) a charged particle in an electrical field is potential energy.
3. Chemical energy is a kind of potential energy.
4. Heat changes result from different kinds of chemical reactions.
Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction

1. Exothermic reaction - Heat released (evolved) reaction
2. Endothermic reaction - Heat absorbed reaction
3. The surrounding temperature increases by the exothermic process.
4. The surrounding temperature decreases by the endothermic process.
5. Freezing of ice is exothermic process.
6. Melting of ice is endothermic process.
7. Dilution of acid (H2SO4, HNO3, ...) or base (NaOH, KOH,..) - exothermic process
8. Dissolving of ammonium chloride, glucose (or) urea - become cold - endothermic process
Unit of Heat Change

1. The common units of heat change are joule (J) of calorie (cal).
2. The relation between joule and calorie is 1 cal = 4.18 J.
Enthalpy Change of Chemical Reactions and Standard Conditions

1. The “heat change” of a chemical reaction is usually expressed by the terms “change in heat content”
or “change in enthalpy” of the chemical reaction.
2. Enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is represented by H .
3. The symbol of the standard enthalpy change is represented by H .
4. Standard enthalpy change is measured at 25oC (298 K) and 1atm (760 mmHg).
5. For an exothermic reaction where energy is released, H or H is negative, i.e., negative sign.
6. For an endothermic reaction where energy is absorbed, H or H is positive, i.e., positive sign.
7. In a thermochemical equation, mention of heat change and physical state is essential.
Types of Heat Changes

1. Heat of combustion - always exothermic (heat release) (negative sign)
Heat of formation - exothermic as well as endothermic
Heat of neutralization - always exothermic
............................................
2. The heat of combustion is measured UAS. B.Sc, B.Edequipment
by using [ chem ] ............................................
called a bomb calorimeter.
3. The symbol of heat of formation is . H f
4. The heat of formation of hydrogen is the heat of combustion of water.
CHAPTER-13-
ACIDS , BASES AND THEIR NEUTRALIZATION
t u fq pfeJY
yu fo u fN yD ; av h
v maeM u o lr sm;x Ju jyi fo pfo d yÜ
yn m&S
H i fw pfOD ;jzpfo lv b d K
Gi fpD, mu
o wÅ K
r [ kwfj' yfpi fr sm;\ at mu fq dk'ft csK U
d
a&wG i faysmf0i f&mrSt u fq pfaysmf&n fr sm;&&S v mw, f/
d
' gaMu mifh
vbd G
K
i fpD, mu o lawG &S
Y csu fu d
d kazmfx kwfv d ku fw , f/ t u fq pfw d kif;r S
mat mu fpD * si fawG ygw, fwJY /
eg; H2SO3 , H2SO4 , H3PO4 , H3AsO3
t 'Jgu d
kH.Davy u incorrect r r S efao ;ygb l;wJY /at mu fpD * si fr ygwJY t u fq pfv J&S d
ygao ;w, fq d kN
yD
;
HCl eJY o u fao jywJY t jyi fM.P.E Berthollet b mo d k;v u fu v Jax mu fcH w JYt aeeJY
HCN, H2S at mu fpD * si fr yg0i fw JY t u fq pfr sm;eJYo u fao jycJY Mu w, f/
1. Lavosier ( 1777)
All acids contain oxygen.
H.Davy (1816)
All acids contain hydrogen.
' gu d
kArrheniust m[ d eD
;, yfpfu a&aysmf&n fawG u aehydrogen ions x kwfay;Ed kifr , fq d k&i facid jzpfw , f?
a&aysmf&n fawG u ae hydroxide ions x kwfay;Ed kifr , fq d k&i fbase jzpfw , fq d kN
yD
;t " dyÜm, fzG i fh
cJY
jyefygw, f/
2. Arrhenius (1887)
An acid as a compound which could produce hydrogen ions in water solution.
A base as a compound which could produce hydroxide ions in water solution.
Strong Acid ( HCl , HNO3, H2SO4)

Arrhenius t q d
kt &t m;jyi f;t u fq pfq d
k&i ft d
kif, G
ef;t jzpft N
yD
;t yd
kifN
yd
K
uGJygw, fwJY

HCl (aq ) 
 H (aq)  Cl -(aq)
Accroding to the Arrhenius theory,
hydrochloric acid ( a strong acid ) is essetially completely ionized in water.
Strong Base (NaOH , KOH)

Arrhenius t q d
kt &t m;jyi f;aAU
u v Ja&aysmf&n fr S
mt d
kif, G
ef;t jzpft N
yD
;t yd
kifN
yd
K
uGJygw, f/
 Na (aq)  OH -(aq)
NaOH ( aq ) 
sodium hydroxide ( a strong base ) is essetially completely ionized in aqueous solution.
Weak Acid (organic acids) HCOOH, CH3COOH, HCN........

Arrhenius t q d
kt &t m;aysmh
t u fq pfq d
k&i fawmht d
kif, G
ef;t jzpfwpfpd
w fwpfyd
kif;r Q
o mN
yd
K
uGJygw, f/
CH3 COOH (aq ) CH 3COO  (aq )  H  ( aq )
ethanoic acid ( a weak acid ) is only partially ionized in water.
Weak base ... (NH3) NH4OH
Arrhenius t q dkt &t m;aysmh
aAY
u v Jt d
kif, G
ef;t jzpfwpfpd
w fwpfyd
kif;r Q
o mN
yd
K
uGJygw, f/

NH 3 (aq )  H 2 O (l ) NH 4 OH (aq) NH 4 (aq)  OH -(aq)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

( Weak base )such as aqueous ammonia are only partially ionized in water.
oDt dk&D&JU
t m;en f;csu fw pfcku awmha&aysmf&n ft m;v kH ;t wG u fo u fao r jyEd
kifyJt u efY
t o wft jzpfo mo kH
;Ed
kifw , f/
qdkv dkw mu a&aysmf&n ft m;v kH ;t wG
u fazmfjyEdkifjci f;r &Syg/(Oyr m-organic solvents azsmf&n fr sm;)
d
3. Bronsted and lowry ( 1922 )

An acid as a proton donor .
A base as a proton acceptor.
'D
oD t dk&D
u t u fq pf&, faAY &, fv d
kY
oD;jcm;pD
pOf;pm;v dkY
r &ygb l;?b maM u mifh
v Jq d
kawmh t u fq pfq dkw maAYeJY
awG
U
rS
ol&JU
t u fq pf* kP fo wd Åu d kazmfjyo v dkaAYu v Jx d
ken f;wlpG mygyJ?q d kv d
kw mu t jyeft v Sefcsdw fq u faeM u wJYt wGuf
+
oD ;jcm;ajymv d kY
t q i fr ajyb l;?Equilibrium wpfckrS mAcid u H ion (proton) u d kx kw fay;N
yD; basewpfckt jzpf
ajymif;v Jo m G;o v dkt J'Dbase u d kAcid &JUconjugate base v d ac:w, f/ x d
kY ken f;wlpGmyJbase u v Jproton
udkv u fcHNy;Do leJY
q u fpyfw JY conjugate acid u d kjyefx kw fay;jyefw , f/ u JM
u n fh
M
u n fh
ygt kH;
conjugate base
H+
HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

acid 1 base 2 acid 2 base 1
conjugate acid
'DnD rQ mHCl u H+ x kw fay;awmhacid jzpfN

jci f;r S yD;u GJu G m;wJYCl- u conjugate base jzpfw , f/
mo G
H2O u H+ u d kv u fcHw Jh
t wG
u fbase jzpfN yD;jzpfv mwJYH3O+ u H2O &JUconjugate acid jzpfw , f/
t jyeft v S YH3O+ u r wn fN
eft m;jzi fh r Jw JY
t wG u fH+ u d kjyefx kw fay;awmhacid jyefjzpfN
yD
; H2O u
- +
conjugate base jzpfv mw, f/ Cl u wzefH u d kjyefv u fcHawmhbase jzpfN yD
; HCl u conjugate acid
jzpfjyefw , f/ r su fpdudkv n faeM
uNyD
v m;?r v n fygeJYv G , fv G , fav ;ygt u fq pfu x G
u fw mu o leJY
q u fpyfw JY
aAh
aAYuxG u fv mwJY o lu q u fpyft u fq pfv d kU
ajymwmyg/
conjugate acid
H+
baseII baseI
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) H3O (aq) + Cl-(aq)
+
acid I Acid II
conjugate base
' geJY
yu fo u fN
yD
; 2009wkef;u pmar ;yG JrS
mpN
yD
;ar ;cJY
zl;w, f/
When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water an equilibrium is represented by
HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
I II III IV
Using the Roman numerals shown below each formula, which of these combinations represents to
two bases? (a) I and III (b) I and IV (c) II and III (d) II and IV and then in the base pair that you
have chosen which one is a weaker base ?
'Dar ;cG
ef;u v Sw , f/ajzM
u n fh
ygv m;/t csu fES
pfcsu fajzEd kifw meJU2 r S
w fay;x m;ygw, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
+
¶ aM o mfH3O &JU
t r n fu Hydronium ac: hydroxonium ygá ' gu d kv JrS
w fx m;yg/
(d) II and IV, Chloride ion is weaker than water, because chloride ion is weak conjugate base.
4. G.N. Lewis (1939)

' DG.N. Lewis u v Jt m;u sr cHo l&JU o u fao jycsu fr sm;eJYt u fq pfaAUoDt d
k&D
udkazmfx kw fcJY
w , f/
A base as species which can donate an electron pair.
An acid as species which can accept an electron pair.

N H 3 (g) + BF3 (s) H3N : BF3
The ammonia molecule possesses a lone pair of electrons (on nitrogen atom) which is shared by the
electron deficient BF3 molecule.
ammonia molecule u o lyd kifq d
kifw JYt D
v u fx &G efw pfpkH
ud kt D
v u fx &GefcsK
d
U
wJYaewJ Y
boron tri fluoride

ud ka0r Q
ay;v d
ku fawmhe x kw fay;o l N H 3 u aAY jzpfN
yD
; v u fcH o lBF3 u t u fq pfq d kN
yD
;t " dyÜ
m, fzGi fh
cJY
w , f/
u Jyx r q kH
;t aeeJY
o lwd
kY
&JU
t u fq pfaAY
oDt d
k&D
awG
ud
ku su fr S
w fx m;&at mif/
Arrhenius (1887)
An acid as a compound which could produce hydrogen ions in water solution.
A base as a compound which could produce hydroxide ions in water solution.
Bronsted and lowry ( 1922 )

An acid as a proton donor .
A base as a proton acceptor.
G.N. Lewis (1939)

A base as species which can donate an electron pair.
An acid as species which can accept an electron pair.
t J'D
t u fq pfaAYawG eJY
q u fpyfaewJYaemu fx yft aM u mif;t &mawG ud kx yfav h
v m&t kef;r , f/
b mawG v Jq d
kawmht m;jyi f;t u fq pfr sm;?t m;aysmh
t u fq pfr sm;?N
yD
;awmh o lwd eJY
kYq u fpyfjzpfay:aewJY
t u fq pfawG aAUawG t aM u mif;u d
ku G
Jjym;jcm;em;pGmo d
bdvd
kY kygao ;w, f/
Strong Acid ( HCl , HNO3, H2SO4 ........) inorganic acids
HCl H+ + Cl-
A strong acid one which is highly ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with easily.
t m;jyi f;t u fq pfq d
kw mo wfr Sw fx m;wJY
t ajct aewpfckrS my&kd wG efu d
kt v G
, fw u lx kw fay;Ed
kifo v d
k
t d
kif, G
ef;t jzpft N
yD
;t yd
kifN
yd
K
uGJEd
kifpG
r f;v J&S
d
&r , f/
Strong Base (NaOH , KOH) aAY

v Jt wlw lygyJ
NaOH Na+ + OH-
A strong base one which is highly ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with easily.
Weak Acid (organic acids) HCOOH, CH3COOH, HCN........

HCOOH HCOO - + H+
A weak acid one which is partially ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with difficulty.
t m;aysmh
t u fq pfq d
kwmu awmh o wfr wS fx m;wJY
t ajct aewpfckrS my&kd wGefu d
kt v G
, fw u lx kwfr ay;Ed
kifyJ
t d
kif, G
ef;t jzpfv Jwpfpdw fw pfyd
kif;r Q
o mN
yd
K
uGJEd
kifpG
r f;o m&S
M
d
u w, f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Weak base ... (NH3) NH4OH
NH4OH NH4+ + OH-
A weak base one which is partially ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with difficulty.
Concentrated Acid
A concentrated acid is one which contains a pure acid or large proportion of the acid .
jyi f;t m;r sm;wJY
t u fq pfq d kwmt u fq pfyg0i fr It csK ;r sm;jym;jci f;?t u fq pfo efY
d o efY
jzpfjci f;u d
kq d
kv d
kw mjzpfw ,/ f
t vG , fajym&&i fawmht u fq pfyg0i fr Ir sm;N
yD
;a&yg0i fr Ien f;yg;ao mt u fq pfv d ajym&r , f/ t m;jyi f;wJY
kY t u fq pfyJjzpfjzpf
t m;aysmh w JY
t u fq pfyJjzpfjzpft u fq pfyg0i fr Ir sm;w, fq d k&i fConcentrated acid jzpfygw, f/
Dilute Acid
A dilute acid is one which contains a relatively small amount of the acid in solution.
jyi f;t m;eJao mt u fq pfq d kwmt u fq pfyg0i fr It csK
; en f;yg;jci f;u d
d kq d
kv d
kw mjzpfw, f/
t vG , fajym&&i fawmht u fq pfyg0i fr Ien f;N yD ;a&yg0i fr Ir sm;jym;ao mt u fq pfjzpfw , f/ t m;jyi f;wJY
t u fq pfyJjzpfjzpf
t m;aysmh w JY
t u fq pfyJjzpfjzpft u fq pfyg0i fr Ien f;w, fq d k&i fdilute acid jzpfygw, f/
5. Basicity
The basicity of an acid may be definied as the number of H+ ions that one molecule of an acid
can produce.
t u fq pfar mfv D u sL;wpfv kH ;u aeH+ ions t a&t wG u fb , fav mu fx kw fay;v d ku fo v Jq d kw mu dkt u fq pfwpfck&U
J
+
aAY
udef;v d
kY
qdkjci f;jzpfygw, f/Oyr mHCl q d k&i fH ion wpfv kH ;x kw fay;w, f' gaM u mifho lY
&JUbasicity u 1 jzpfw , /f
+
H2SO4 q d k&i fH ions ES pfv kH
;x kw fay;Ed
kifw , f/' gaM
u mifh
o lY&JUbasicity u 2 jzpfw , f/
6. Acidity
The acidity of a base may be defined as being equivalent to the number of molecules of
a monobasic acid, which will neutralize molecule of the base.
monobasic acids wpfck\ " mwfjyK Edkifao mt u fq pfar mfv Du sL;t a&t wG u fb , fa&G U
b , fr Q
ESi fh
nD rQ oGm;Edkifo v J" mwfjy, fo Gm;Ed
kifo v Jq d
kw maAhw pfck&JU
t u fq pfu d ef;v d
qd
kY kjci f;jzpfygw, f/
7. Amphiprotic molecule
A molecule, such as water molecule, which can have both proton-accepting (protophilic) and
proton-donating (protogenic) properties, is called an amphiprotic molecule.
ar mfv D
u sL;wpfckOyr mt m;jzi fha&ar mfv D
u sL;v d
krsK
d
; y½kd
wG efr sm;u d
kv u fcHEd
kifo v (protophilic)
d
k
jyefv n fx kwfay;Ed
kifao m
(protogenic)*kP fo wÅ dt pG
r f;&S
d
o lr sm;u d
k' d
* kP f&S
G ar mfv D
d u samphiproticv
L; kY
dac:w, f/
The ionic dissociation of water (a&\ t d kif, G

efu GJu Gmjci f;)
_
+
t u fq pfu aeN yd
K
uGJv mwJYH ion eJYaAU u &&Sv mwJYOH ion wd
d kY
aygi f;pyfzG JU
pn f;wJYt cga&ar mfv D u sL;wpfv kH;
jzpfay:v mayr , fh vd kYwu , fhwu , fawmhneutral jzpfr o G m;ao ;b l;?q d kv d
kwmu v kH ;0u kefpi fat mif"mwfjy, fo G m;wm
r [ kwfao ;b l;?ion yg0i fr It en f;i , f&S
ygao ;w, f/
d
'Dvd kygyJo b m0u &&S wJY
d a&r Smv JyJelectrical conductivity t en f;i , f&S d
w , f/ v kH;0 o kn r [ kw fb l;v d
ajymcsi fwm/
kY
If pure water contained no ions, its electrical conductivity would be zero.
v kH
;0o efU pi fwJY
a&ar mfv D
u sL;u awmhions yg0i rf Ir &S vd
d kYv Qyfu l;EdkifpGr f;o wÅ r &S
d ygb l;/ (v kH
d ;0o efYpi fr S
o mjzpfEd
kifw , f)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Water is purified by distilling it over and over again.
t J'D
v kH
;0o efU
pi fw JY
a&ar mfv D
u sL;u d
kx yfcgx yfcgaygi f;cH
jci f;jzi fh
&&S
Ed
dkifygw, f/
The ionic dissociation of water

By measurement of electrical conductivity the water may be considered to be ionized itself.
vQ
yfu l;jci f;t wkd
i f;t wmt &a&u d
k4i f;u d
k, fw kd
i ft d
kif, G
eft jzpfN
yd
K
uGJo n f[ kr S
w f, l&r n f/
H2O(l) +
H (aq) + OH-(aq)
2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
To write an equilibrium expression.
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) By equilibrium law r Q ajced
, mrt &
[H + ][OH - ]
K= Water ionizes to a very slight extent, the equilibrium concentration
[H O]
2
of water does not appreciably change. (of a constant value)
a&o n fyr mP t en f;i , fo mt d
kif;, G
eft jzpfN
yd
K
uGJo n f/ a&\ r Q
ajcyg0i fu d ef;o n fo d
o mpG
majymif;v JrIr &S
ay/
d
K[H2O] = [ H ] [ OH ] + -
Kw = [H+] [ OH- ]
At 298 K [H+] = [ OH- ] = 1 × 10-7moldm-3
Kw = [(1×10-7)moldm-3][(1×10-7)moldm-3]
Kw = 1 x 10-14 mol2dm-6
Kw = ionic product of water a&\ t d kif;, G
efajr §
mu faz:u def;
8. pH (or) hydrogen ion exponent( power of hydrogen ion)

pH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar concentration hydrogen ion.
pH = -log10[H+] or [H+] = 10-pH = [antilog (-pH)]
Example 1: What is pH of a solution with [H+]= 0.02 moldm-3?
[H+] = 0.02 moldm-3
pH = -log10[H+] yg0ga&SUcs?aemu fu d ef;
= - log (2x10-2) = 2 - 0.301 ud klog Mu n fh?EIw fyg/
pH = 1.699
Example 2. What is the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution with ph 4.30?
pH = 4.30 'Dae&mrS m- 1 + 1 x n fh ay;&jci f;u log wefzd k;
+
- log [H ] = 4.30 o n ft aygi f;u def;jzpfr Santilog M u n fh
vd&
kYr , f/
log [H+] = - 4.30 ' gaM
u mifhwefzdk;wlajymif;ay;jci f;o mjzpfo n f/
= - 4 - 0.30 -4 - 0.30
= - 4 - 1 + 1 - 0.3 -1 +1
= - 5.70 ----- ------

+
[H ] = anti log 5 .70 -5 + 0.7
-5 -3
= 5 × 10 moldm = - 5.70
-5 = 5 = 10-5
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Water neutrality
The term water neutrality refers to the solution in pure water at 298 K. The pH of pure water is 7.
i.e, a neutral aqueous solution at 298 K has a pH of 7.
a&\ " mwfjy, fo wå
d
qdko n fr S
mt cef;t ylcsd ef298 K üo efU pi fao ma&\ t ajct aeu d kñ Tefjyjci f;jzpfo n f/
o efUpi fao ma&\ pH o n f7 jzpfo n f/ wen f;t m;jzi fh298 K ü" mwfjy, fao ma&aysmf&n fw G i fpH 7 &So n f/
d
Acid solutions
t u fq pfaysmf&n fwG
i fpOf;pm;jci f;
Consider a solution containing 0.001M in HCl. At this concentration,
HCl is considered to be completely dissociated.
HCl 0.001M yg0i fao maysmf&n fw pfckrS mHCl u d
kv kH
;0 u G
Ju G
mo n f[ k, lq &r , f/
HCl  H+ + Cl- (or)
1mol 1mol
HCl + H2O + -
 H3O + Cl
The concentration of hydrogen ion = [H+]= 10-3 M
pH = - log[H+]
= - log 10-3
pH = 3 pH of all acid solution is less than 7.
Alkaline solutions
Although alkalnity is associated with hydroxide ion OH- aqueous solution always shows the relation.
t , fv u mv Do wå[ m[ d
d k'fOH -ES
ku faj' mu fq d i fhzG
JU
pn f; x m;o jzi hfa&aysmf&n fo n f' D
q u fo G
, fcsu feJYt N
r Jw r f;
azmfjyav Y
&Mdu w, f/ ' D
S q u fo G, fcsu fpH + pOH = 14 u d kv n f;pmar ;yG
Jar ;av h
&S
w JY
d t wG u fo d
x m;&r , f/
K w = [H ][OH- ]
+ -14
= 1 × 10 mol dm 2 -6
In aqueous solution at 298K

[H+][OH- ] = 1 × 10-14 mol2dm-3
log[H+]+log[OH- ] = log 1 × 10-14
-log[H+] + (-log[OH- ]) = - log 1 × 10-14
pH + pOH = 14
pH and pOH of a same solution can be related by pH + pOH= 14
9. pOH (or) hydroxide ion exponent

pOH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the molar concentration hydroxide ion.
pOH = -log10[OH-] or [OH] = 10-pOH [antilog (-pOH)]
example Consider 0.001M in NaOH

+ -
NaOH  Na + OH
1mol 1mol
[ OH- ] = 10-3 M
pOH = - log 10-3
pOH = 3
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 11
' gaM
u mifhpH scale u d k' D
vd ko xd m;&r , f/ 7 at mu if , f&i fAcid / 7x u fB uD ;&i fBase
acid base
0 7 14
increase pure increase
water
Strength of acids (t u fq pfawG &JUjyi f;t m;)

The division between strong and weak is not definite. Three mineral acids, HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3
are strong acids. Hydrobromic and perchloric acids are also strong acids. Ethanoic, ethanedioic, tataric,
citric and other organic acids are weak acids.
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) is moderately dissociated in aqueous solution, can not be classified definitely
as either a strong or a weak acid.
wG i f;x Gu ft u fq pfo H k;ckjzpfao mHCl, H2SO4 ES i fhHNO3 wd kU
o n ft m;jyi f;t u fq pfr sm;jzpfo n f/ HBr ES i fhHClO4
ygu v d k&pft u fq pfw kd U
o n fv n f; t m;jyi f;t u q f pfr sm;jzpfM
u o n f/ t Do Edk;t pf?t Dod ef;' dkift d
kt pf?wmwm&pf?q pfx &pfESi fh
t jcm;at mf*Jepft u fq pfr sm;o n ft m;aysmh t u fq pfr sm;jzpfo n f/ H2SO4u moderate t o i fh t wi fh
N
ydK
uGJw , f/
' gayr , fhvY b
kd , fo lu t m;jyi f;t u fq pfv Jt m;aysmh t u fq pfv Jq d
kw mwdwd u su sr cG Jjcm;Ed kifao ;ay/
-3
' gaMu mifht u fq pfr sm;u d ko lw d
&JUjyi f;t m;r sm;eJa
kY YzmfjyM u w, f/, lepfu awmhmol dm ygyJ/
Method for comparing strength of acids(t u fq pfr sm;\ jyi f;t m;EId
i f;, S
Of&efen f;)
In aqueous solution of acid HA, the equilibrium is written as:
HA(aq)+ H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A- (aq)
+ -
[H 3 O ( aq)
][A (aq)
]
Ka =
[HA (aq) ]
The equilibrium constant for this reaction is the dissociation constant for the acid Ka.
t m;jyi f;t u fq pfawG ut d kif, Gef;t jzpft NyD
;t yd kifN
yd K
uG Jw JY
t wG u ft u fq pfHA(aq) en f;o G m;N yD
;
+
H3O (aq) + A (aq) awG- r sm;v mr, f?' gq dkydkif;a0B uD;N yD
;ydkif;ajcen f;o Gm;&i f Ka wefzdk;r sm;r , f/
'D
nD rQjci f;r S
ma&\ yg0i fu d ef;u dkazmfjyay;r Ir &Sjci f;u a&&JU
d yg0i fu d ef;o n ft jcm;ao maysmf&n fr sm;wG i fv Jo d
o xmi f&S
m;pGm
ajymif;v Jjci f;r &S
vd
d kY
jzpfygw, f/wen f; a&u d kv pfv S L½Ix m;jci f;jzpfw , f/
t m;aysmh ao mv Q yfv d ku faysmf&n fr sm;t wG u fwpfcgwpf&H rS mLogarithmic Scale eJY v Jaz:jyEd kifygw, f/
Acid t wG u fq dk&i fpKa = - log Ka
Baset wG u fq d
k&i fpKb = - log Kb Ka r S munit &S w , fq w
d km
d
example odx m;&r , f/
For ethanoic acid o lY&JUunit u mol per dm3
Ka = 1.99 x 10-5 mol dm-3 jzpfNyD ;u d
ef;ao t jzpfx m;v dkY
- log K a = - log 1.99 x 10-5 a&;av h r &S
yg/ o d
d kY
ao mf
pK = 5 - log 1.99 oD o efY ar ;ygu , lepfx n fh ay;&r , f/
a
pKa = 5 - 0.2989
pKa = 4. 7011
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
-3
Acids K a(mol dm ) pKa
-2
hydrogen sulphate ion 1.2 x 10 1.9
-3
Chloroethanoic acid 1.4 x 10 2.9
-4
Methanoic acid 1.8 x 10 3.8
-5
Ethanoic acid 1.8 x 10 4.7
-10
Hydrogen cyanide 4.8 x 10 9.3
Small Ka values t u fq pf&JU t m;wefzd k;i , fr , f' gr S

r [ kw fen f;r , fq dk&i ft u fq pf[ m
t m;aysmh ao mt u fq pfu d k&n fn T
ef;w, f/ o leJY
q efYu si fb u ft aeeJY Mu awmpKa (r sm;)M uD ;r , f/
Large Ka values t u fq pf&JU t m;wefzd k;B
uD;r , f' gr S
r [ kw fr sm;r , fq d
k&i ft u fq pf[ m
t m;jyi f;ao mt u fq pfu d
k&n fn Tef;w, f/ o leJY
q efY
u si fb u ft aeeJY Mu awm h a wefzd
pK k;(en f;)i , fr , f/
Small Ka values = large pKa value = weak acid
Large Ka values = small pKa value = strong acid
Small Ka values indicate weak acids.( corresponding to large pKa value)

Large Ka value indicate strong acid.
10. Buffer solution
A buffer solution is defined as a solution that resists changes in pH as a result of
(1) dilution
(2) small addition of acids or bases.
Salt Hydrolysis
The cleavage of compounds by the action of water is called hydrolysis.
(or)
When a salt reacts with water to form acid or alkali, the salt is said to be hydrolysed.
This process is known as hydrolysis.
j' yfaygi f;(o d
)q m;awG
kY ud
ka&ES
i fh
" mwfjyK
N
yd
KuG
Jo G
m;o n fh
jzpfpOfu d
ka&o G
i f;N
yd
K
uGJjci f;v d
ac:M
kY u w, f/
q m;\ a&o G
i f;N
yd
K
uGJrIr sm;u d
kav h
v mM
u n fh
ao mt cg
1. Salt of strong acid and strong base t m;jyi f;ao mt u fq pfESi fht m;jyi f;ao maAY
1. Salt of strong acid and weak base t m;jyi f;ao mt u fq pfES i fht m;aysmh ao maAY
1. Salt of weak acid and strong base t m;aysmh ao mt u fq pfESi fht m;jyi f;ao maAY
1. Salt of weak acid and weak base t m;aysmh ao mt u fq pfESi fht m;aysmh ao maAY
qd
kN
yD
;(4)r sK;awG
d U
&S&ygw, f/
d
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Some sodium chloride was dissolved in water and the solution had a pH of 7.
Explain this result clearly.(2011)exam;(shan)
Sodium chloride is obtained from strong acid HCl and strong base NaOH.
This solution dissociates completely into sodium ion( Na+ )and chloride ion( Cl - ) in water
which may be
NaCl(aq)  Na + (aq) + Cl -(aq)
H2O(l) H + (aq) + OH -(aq)
Aqueous solution of NaCl contains four ions, Na +, Cl - , H + and OH-.
The cation of the salt, Na +, is such a weak acid that it does not react appreciably with water.
The anion of the salt, Cl -, is such a weak base that it does not react appreciably with water.
Sodium chloride solution is neutral because neither ion of such a salt reacts to disturb the
equilibrium of water.( [H+][OH-]= Kw=1x10-14 at 298 K)
The pH of water will not change due to the presence of NaCl.
Therefore the solution had a pH of 7.
qdk'D
, r fu v d k&kd
' fq m;a&r S maysmf0i fo G m;wJY
t cgaysmf&n f\ pH wefzd k;7 jzpf&jci f;t aM u mif; jyn fh pkH
pG
m&Si f;jyygwJY/
'D
awmhNaCl q d kw mt m;jyi f;t u fq pfjzpfw JYHCl eJYt m;jyi f;ao maAYNaOH wY ku ae&&S
d v mwJY
d q m;jzpfw , fq d kw mo d
&r , f
+
q m;u a&r S mNydKuG JrIjzpfo G
m;wJYt cgions av ;r sK ;x G
d u fv mw, f/ cation jzpfw JYNa u NaOH &JUweak conjugate
acid jzpfw , f/o lu t m;t v G efaysmawmh a&eJY ododo mo m"mwfjyK EdkifpGr f;r &Sd
ovd kanion jzpfw JYCl- u v JHCl &JUweak
conjugate base jzpfaejyefw , f?o lu v Jt m;aysmh aeawmh b meJYrS" mwfjyK Ed kifpGr f;r &Sjyefb l;/ (o d
d x m;o i fh
w JYt csu fu t m;jyi f;
+ -
t u fq pf?aAU wd [ mo lY
kY wd&JU
kYt m;r S efo r QudkH eJYOH ay:v kH ;v kH
;v sm;v sm;ay;v d ku fw mjzpfv d kYradical awG rSmt m;o u f
a&mu fr Ir &a S
dwmh b l;q dkw myJ?' gaM u mifhradical awG u a&\ r Q ajcay:v T r f;r d
k;o u fa&mu fEd kifjci f;r &S
d
w myg)
+ -
a&&JUN
ydK
uG Jjci f;jzpfw JYH eJYOH ion awG ud kb , fo lu r Sv ma&mu f" mwfjyK Edkifjci f;r &SM
d
u wJY t wG u fa&&JU rQajcu r lv t wdkif;
ajymif;v JrIr &S vd
d kU a&\ f r Qajc[ mwn fN id
r faew, f/ ' D vd
kt csu fawG aM u mifhNaCl q m;aysmf&n fu a&r S maysmf0i fayr , fh
pH wefzd k;u awmh t ajymif;t v Jv kH ;0r &S
w JY
d t wG u f pH = 7 jzpfae&jci f;jzpfw , f/
'D
vd kar ;cG
ef;r sm;t wG
u f' gawG
udkro d
r jzpfo d x m;zdvd
kY kw , fAs/
Strong Acid ( HCl , HNO3, H2SO4)t d kif, G
ef;r sm;t jzpft N yD
;t yd kifN
yd
K
uGJw , f/
A strong acid one which is highly ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with easily.
Strong Base (NaOH , KOH)t d kif, G

ef;r sm;t jzpft N
yD
;t yd
kifN
yd
K
uGJw , f/
A strong base one which is highly ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with easily.
Weak Acid (organic acids) HCOOH, CH3COOH, HCN..t d kif, G

ef;r sm;t jzpfwpfpd
w fw pfyd
kif;r Q
o mN
yd
K
uGJw , f/
A weak acid one which is partially ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with difficulty.
Weak base ... NH4OH t d kif, G

ef;r sm;t jzpfwpfpd
w fw pfyd
kif;r Q
o mN
yd
K
uGJw , f/
A weak base one which is partially ionized in specified conditions and loses proton with difficulty.
Strong acid u x G
u fv mwJYradical u d kaAYeJY
q u fo G
, fr S
mjzpfv dkUweak conjugate base v d kY
ac:Mu w, f/
Strong base u x G
u fv mwJYradical u d kt u fq pfeJY
q u fo G, fr S
mjzpfv d
kU
weak conjugate acid ac:wm/
Weak acid u x Gu fv mwJY
radical u dkawmhstrong conjugate base v d kYac:w, f/ (i wfB
uD;u sr , fh
au mifawG aygU)
Weak base u x Gu fv mwJY
radical u d kawmhstrong conjugate acid v d kY
ac:&w, f/(wlw lyJi wfB uD;u sr , fh
au mif)
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Would the pH of a solution of sodium ethanoate be greater or less than 7 ?
Explain this result clearly.(2009/shan)2012,2014
CH3COONa is obtained from weak acid (CH3COOH) and strong base (NaOH).
In CH3COONa solution,
CH3COONa(aq)  CH3COO-(aq) + Na + (aq)
H2O(l) H + (aq) + OH -(aq)
In aqueous CH3COO- ion reacts with water to form CH3COOH and OH - as follows;
CH3COO-(aq)+ H2O(l) CH3COOH (aq) + OH-(aq)
Since NaOH is strong base, it can be completely ionized into sodium and hydroxide ions.
The NaOH molecule does not exist as such in aqueous solution.
. CH3COOH, being a weak acid, it can exist as undissociated molecules in aqueous solution.
This disturbs the equilibrium of water ( [H+][OH-]= Kw=1x10-14 at 298 K)
More water ionizes to maintain Kw constant.
This produces more OH- ions which causes the solution to be alkaline.
Therefore the solution of pH value is greater than 7.
Other examples- sodium methanoate(HCOONa), sodium cyanide(NaCN)
qd k'D
, r ft D o Ed k;&d
w fq m;a&r S maysmf0i fr Ijzpfw JY t cgaysmf&n f\ pH wefzd k;[ m7 at mu fi , fr v m;B uD ;r v m;wJY /
'DawmhCH3COONa q d kw mt m;aysmh t u fq pfjzpfw JYCH3COOH eJYt m;jyi f;ao maAYNaOHwY ku ae
d
&&S v mwJY
d q m;jzpfw , f/ q m;u a&r S mN ydK
uG JrIjzpfo G m;wJY t cgions av ;ckx G u fv mr, f/ cation jzpfw JYNa + u
NaOH &JUweak conjugate acid jzpfw , /ft m;u r jzpfpav mu fu av ;yJ&S w , f/
d
o lu t m;aysmh awmh a&eJYod od o mo m"mwfjyK EdkifpGr f;r &Sayr , fhanion jzpfw JYCH3COO- u awmhCH3COOH &JU
d
strong conjugate base jzpfw , f/ ' gaM u mifhCH3COO- u a&aysmf&n fr S m&S w JYH +awG
d ud ko m"mwfjyK N; OH-
yD
awG udkcsefv yfx m;cJY w , f/ (o leJY
r Sr q d kifw mu d k;?x m;cJY w maygY /)
jzpfv mwJYCH3COOH t u fq pfu wpfpd w fw pfyd kif;o mjyefv n fN yd K
uG Jay;wJY t wG u fa&aysmf&n fx JrS mOH- awG om
- +
t r sm;q kH ; u sefcJYw , f/ ' gaMu mifhCH3COO u a&&JU rQ
ajcu d kaES mu f, S u fw , fv d qd
kY kM
u w, f/ (H awG ud k, lo G
m;wmu ;d
k)
+ - -14
t J'Dt cgr S ma&\ r Q ajc[ mwn fN id
r fr Ir &Sawmh
d yJo l&JU rQ ajcwefzd k;( [H ][OH ]= Kw=1x10 at 298 K)q d kwmu d
k
ud ef;ao jzpfN r Jjzpfapzd t wG
kY u fr Qajct o pfjyK v kyfNyD ; a&\ ions r Q ajcu d kwn fN id
r fat mifjyefx def;o d r f;&w, f/
-
t J'Dt cgr S maysmf&n fr S myd kv QaewJYOH awG
H aM u mifhbase v T r f;r d
k;ao maysmf&n fjzpfw , fv d kU
qd k&jci f;jzpfw , f/
'Dvd k'Dvdkt csu fawG aMu mifhCH3COONa q m;aysmf&n f&JUpH wefzd k;u 7 x u fr sm;ae&jci f;jzpfw , f/
CH 3COO- H+ CH3COO- H+
CH3COO- H+
t m;jyi f;wJYt u fq pfawG
OH- -
OH- OH aAY
awGu aeu G Ju Gmv mwJYradical
-
OH awGu weak conjugate jzpfN yD
;
CH3COO- OH-
OH - OH- t m;aysmh w JYt u fq pfawG
CH3COO - OH- OH- aAY
awGu aeu G Ju G
mv mwJYradical
Na+ OH-
awG
u awmhstrong conjugate jzpfw , f?
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
Some ammonium chloride was dissolved in water and the solution had a pH of 5.
Explain this result clearly. 2007,2011, 2014
Ammonium chloride is obtained from strong acid (HCl) and weak base ( NH4OH ).
In ammonium chloride solution,
+
NH4Cl(aq)  NH4
 (aq)
+ Cl -(aq)
H2O(l) H+ (aq)
+ OH -(aq)
In NH4+ ion reacts with water to form NH4OH and H+ as follows;
NH4 + (aq)+ H2O(aq) NH4OH (aq)

+ H+(aq)
Since HCl is strong acid, it can be completely ionized into H+ and Cl- ions.
The HCl molecule does not exist as such in aqueous solution.
NH4OH, being a weak base, it can exist as undissociated molecules in aqueous solution.
This disturbs the equilibrium of water ( [H+][OH-]= Kw=1x10-14 at 298 K)
More water ionizes to maintain Kw constant.
This produces more H+ ions which causes the solution to be acidic.
The pH value is lessthan 7.
t r ke
dD
, rfu v dk&kd
' f q m;a&r S
maysmf0i fo G
m;wJYt cgaysmf&n f\ pH wefzd k;[ m5 jzpfaew, fw JY ?
u Jt J'D
t aMu mif;av ;u d kem;v n fat mif&S
i f;jyay;ygt kH ;/
yx r wpfyk'feJY
' kw d, wpfyk'fu d
kem;v n f&i f' gv Jem;v n fo G
m;r Smyg?u d
k, fw d kifB
udK
;pm;M
u n fh
yg/
Other examples -
ammonium nitrate ( NH4NO3 ), 2011 ( &cd
kif )
ammonium sulphate ( (NH4)2SO4 )
NH4+ OH-
NH4+ OH-
+
NH4
OH-
H+ Cl- H+
aysmf&n fx JrSmH+ ion
-
OH awG r sm;v Scsn fv m;a[ h ?o lw d
kY
H+ Cl-
OH- H+
H+ b mv kyfr , fv d
kY
x i fo v J?
H+ H+ b maysmf&n fjzpfv mr, fv d kY
au mx i fo v J/
H+ H+ +
H H +
pOf;pm;Mu n fhygv m;/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Ammonium ethanoate was dissolved in water and the solution had a pH of 7 or greater or less than 7.
Explain this result clearly.(2013 Ed kifi H
jcm;)
Ammonium ethanoate is obtained from weak acid ( CH3COOH) and weak base ( NH4OH).
In CH3COONH4 solution,
CH3COONH4 (aq)
CH3COO - (aq)
+ NH4 + (aq)
H2O(l) H+ (aq)
+ OH -(aq)
NH4+ ion is the strong conjugate acid of weak base (NH4OH). It is reacted with water to form
undissociated base NH4OH solution and H+ ion as follow;
NH4 +(aq) + H2O(l) NH4OH (aq) + H+(aq)
CH3COO- ion is the strong conjugate base of weak acid (CH3COOH).

It is reacted with water to form undissociated acid CH3COOH solution and OH- ion as follow;
CH3COO-(aq)+ H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) +OH-(aq)
Undissociated molecules of acid and base are formed by using H+ ion and OH- ion from water.
This disturbs the equilibrium of water ([H+][OH-]= Kw=1x10-14 at 298 K)
In this case both acid and base are equally weak ( Ka  Kb ) .
So more water ionizes to maintain Kw constant.
The solution remains almost neutral or pH 7.
u J'D
w pfw yk'fu awmhq m;awG ud ka&o Gi f;N
yd
K
uG Jjci f;&JU
aemu fq kH
;t yk'fjzpfw , f/
x kH
;pH
t wd kif; q m;u d
kb , fv dk&&S
w , fq d
d kw mu ae pv d ku f&at mif/
CH3COONH4 q d kw mt m;aysmh
t u fq pfjzpfw JYCH3COOH eJY
t m;aysmhao maAYNH4OH wY ku ae&&S
d v mwJY
d q m;jzpfw , f/
t u fq pfau maAh
pf au mESpfckpv kH
;u t m;aysmh
N
yD
; ions t jzpfr Nyd
K
uG JEd
kifao mar mfv D
u sL;jzpfaeM
u w, f/
' gaMu mifht u fq pfESi fh
aAhpfw d kY
[ mwln D pGmt m;aysmh
aeawmh a&\ t d kif, G ef;r Q
ajcu dkt aES mu ft , S u fr ay;Ekidfb l;
(Ka = Kb) a&o G i f;N
zd
KcG
Jjci f;aMu mifhH ES
+ -
i fhOH o n f wln D v keD;ao myg0i fu d ef;u d kwn f&S apM
d u w, f
CH3COONH4 ammonium ethanoate [ m aysmf&n fu d kjyi f;x efpG ma&o G i f;N
zdKcG
Jao mfv n f;
aysmf&n fu "mwfjy, fv keD ;yg;jzpfv mayr , fhr lv r Q
ajct wd kif;wn f&S d
aeN r Jo mjzpfaew, f/
' gaMu mifhaysmf&n f&JUpH u r lv t wd kif;ajymif;v Jjci f;r &S b l;aygU
d /
2r sK
;pv kH
d ;u t m;aysmh aewJYt u fq pfeJY aAUjzpfaev d kYpH wefzd k;u 7 eD ;yg;v d kU
ajymjci f;jzpfw , f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 100 ]..............................................." mwk&wemo dku f
Buffer solution
A buffer solution is defined as a solution that resists changes in pH as a result of
(1) dilution(2)small addition of acids or bases.
Mu m;cH
aysmf&n fq d
kwmaysmf&n ft wG i f;o d
kY
a&a&mo n fjzpfapt u fq pft en f;i , f' gr S r [ kw faAY t en f;i , f
x n fh
vdku fw mt cgjzpfap r lv pH wefzd k;r ajymif;v Jat mifx def;x m;ay;Ed
kifw mu dkq d
kv d
kw mjzpfw, f/
'Dqd kv d
kcsu feJY
yu fo u fN
yD ;awmhpmar ;yG JrS
mar ;cJY
zl;awmhav h v mMu n fh
&at mif/
Buffer solution r S mAcid Buffer &, fBase Buffer &, fq d kN
yD
; 2r sK;&S
d w , f/
d
t ckw pfyk'fu awmhAcid Buffer jzpfw , f/
Explain how a mixture of ethanoic acid and sodium ethanoate resists the change of pH in addition of
a small amount of strong acid and strong base. 2008 ( KaChin)
A buffer solution of pH (pH 4 - 7) contains a weak acid CH3COOH and its salt CH3COONa .
CH3COONa is a source of CH3COO- (strong conjugate base), CH3COOH is the source of H+ ion.
The CH3COONa salt provides a large source of CH3COO - ion .

The CH3COOH acid provides a potential source of H + ion.
CH3COONa(aq) 
 CH3COO - (aq) + Na+ (aq)
CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO - (aq) + H + (aq)
If a small amount of acid is added to the buffer solution,
the H + ion will be used up by the formation of molecule of the weak acid .
CH3COO (aq) +H + (aq)
-
CH3COOH (aq)
If a small amount of base is added to the buffer solution,
the OH - ion will be used up by the H+ ion from the acid ,
which then ionizes to restore the original situation almost exactly.
H + (aq) + OH - (aq) H2O (l)
Change of pH is therefore resisted.
ay;x m;ao mt u fq pfM u m;cHazsmf&n fw G i f;u dkt u fq pft en f;i , fES i fh
aAU t en f;i , fx n fh ay;r , fq d
k&i f
pHwefzd k;ajymif;v Jjci f;&S d
r &S
d
ud k&Si f;v i f;ay;apv d kygw, f/
u Jr lv M u m;cH azsmf&n fw G i f;r S
mCH3COOH acid eJY o lY &JUq m;jzpfw JYCH3COONa wd &S
kYw , f/
d
CH3COONa u weak acid &JUstrong conjugate jzpfw , f/ ' gaM u mifho lY mCH3COO- ion t &i f;t jr pfr sm;pG
rS m
+
&S
w , f/ wcgCH3COOH u sjyefawmh
d wpfpd w fw pfyd kif;N
ydKuGJaewJY r lv H awG u &S d
x m;jyefygw, f/M u m;cHaysmf&n fwG i ;fo d
kU
+ -
t u fq pft en f;i , fx n fh vd ku fw JY
t cgt u fq pfu aeN yd K
uG Jv mwJYH awG u aysmf&n fw G i f;r S
m&S w JYCH3COO ion awG
d
aygi f;pyf" mwfjyK vd ku fw JY
t cgjyefv n fN ydK
uG JrIen f;wJYweak CH3COOH acid awG jzpfo G m;w, f/ ' gaM u mifhr lv pH
-
wefzd k;u ajymif;v JrIr &S awmh
d b l;jzpfo Gm;jyefw , f/ wzefaAY t en f;i , fx n fh ay;jyefawmhOH ion awG u aysmf&n fw G i f;o dkY
+ -
0i fv mjyefw , f/ ' D t cgr S mv Jaysmf&n fw G i f; &SEiSh
d N
fyD
;jzpfao mH ion r sm;u 0i fv mao mOH ions r sm;u d kaygi f;pyf" mwfjyK
o n fht wG u f r lv pH wefzd k;ajymif;v JrIr &S djzpfo Gm;jyefygw, f/ aysmf&n ft wG i f;&Sdions r sm;u pHwefzd k;ajymif;v rJIr &S d
at mifx d ef;o dr f;ckcH
ay;Mu o jzi fhM u m;cHajzazsmf&n f[ kac:M u jci f;jzpfw , f/
Strong acid H+ OH- Strong base
CH3COO- + +
H+ H H
CH3COO- H+ CH3COO-
+
H
CH3COO- CH3COO-
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................
ku f
2012 ( YGN)
Explain how a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride
resists the change of pH in addition of a small amount of strong acid and strong base.
'Dw pfyk'fu awmhbase Buffer jzpfygw, f/
A buffer solution of pH 7-11 contains a weak base (NH4OH) and its salt (NH4Cl) may be used.
NH4Cl is a source of NH4+ (strong conjugate acid), NH4OH is the source of OH-.
The NH4Cl salt provides a large source of NH4 + ion .
The NH4OH base provides a potential source of OH- ion.
+
NH4Cl (aq)  NH4 (aq)
 + Cl - (aq)
NH4OH (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH - (aq)
If a small amount of alkali is added to the buffer solution,

the OH- ion will be used up by the formation of molecule of the weak base.
NH4+ (aq) + OH - (aq) NH4OH(aq)
If a small amount of acid is added to the buffer solution,

the H+ ion will be used up by the OH- ion from the base, which then ionizes to restore
the original situation almost exactly.
H + (aq) + OH - (aq) H2O(l)
Change of pH is therefore resisted.
Strong acid
OH- H+
Strong base
NH4+
OH- OH-
r lv Mu m;cHazsmf&n fw G i f;r S
mNH4OH base eJo Y lY&JU
q m;jzpfw JY
NH4+ OH- OH
-
NH4Cl wd &
Y
kS
w , f/ NH4Cl u weak base &JUstrong conjugate
d
jzpfw , f/ ' gaM u mifh o lY rS mNH4+ ion t &i f;t jr pfr sm;pG mo lY rSm&Sw , f/
d NH4+ OH-
NH4+ NH4+
wcgNH4OH u sjyefawmh w pfpd w fw pfydkif;N
ydKuG JaewJYr lv OH- ions
t &i f;t jr pfawG u &S x m;w, fav / 0i fv mr, fhH+ awG
d ud kapmifhaewmaygU /
Mu m;cHaysmf&n fw G i f;aAY t en f;i , fx n fh vd ku fw tJY cgaAY u aeN yd
K
uG Jv mwJYOH- awG u aysmf&n fw G i f;r S w JYNH4+ ion awG
m&S
d
aygi f;pyf" mwfjyK vd ku fw JY t wG u fjyefv n fN
yd KuG JrIr &Sw JYweak base NH4OH awG
d jzpfo G m;M
u w, f/
' gaMu mifhpH wefzd k;u ajymif;csi fayr , fhajymif;v JrIr &S awmh
d b l;av / aemu fw cgt u fq pft en f;i , fx n fh jyefawmh
H+ ion awG u aysmf&n fw G i f;u d
k0i fv mM
u w, f/ ' D t cgr S mv Jaysmf&n fw G i f;&SES
d i fh
N
yD;jzpfw JYOH - ion awG u yJ0i fv mwJY
+
H ud kaygi f;pyf" mwfjyK N
yD; (neutral solution ) r lv t ajct aet wd kif;jzpfat mifjyefx d ef;v d
ku fjyefw , f/
' gaMu mifhpH wefzd k;u t ajymif;t v Jr &S awmh
d b l;aygU /
'Dvd k'D
vd kawG aMu mifhM u m;cH ajz azsmf&n fawG u pH wefzd k;r ajymif;v Jat mift u fppf0i fv m&i fpotential source of OH-
ion eJYx d ef;N
yD; ?aAU 0i fv m&i flarge source of NH4 + ion eJYx d ef;o dr f;ckcH
ay;Ed kifjci f;jzpfw , f/
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

ku f
Buffer solution av ; er lemwG u fjyv dku fygw, f/ar ;x m;wJY
ar ;cG
ef;awG
rS
mx kx n fay;o n fjzpfapr ay;o n fjzpfap
3
r ay;cJY&i fawmhu d k, fh
zmo m1 dm v d x m;wG
kY u fay;yg/
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.02 mole of methanoic acid (ka = 1.8 x10-5) and
0.2 mole of sodium methanoate per dm3.
0.02 mol 0.2 mol
[HCOOH] = 3 = 0.02 M , [HCOONa] = = 0.2 M
1 dm 1 dm 3
- +
HCOONa   HCOO + Na
1 mol 1 mol
[HCOO-] = 0.2 M
HCOOH HCOO- + H+
[ HCOO  ][ H  ]
Ka = -log [H+] = -log 1.8x10-6
[ HCOOH ]
[HCOOH ]
[H+] = Ka pH = 6 - log 1.8
[HCOO  ]
0.02
[H+] = 1.8x10-5 x pH = 6 - 0.2553
0. 2
[H+] = 1.8x10-6 M pH = 5.7447
the pH of a buffer solution = 5.7447
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.02 mole of methanoic acid (pka = 5.4) and 0.2 mole
of sodium methanoate per dm3.
0.02 mol 0.2 mol
[HCOOH] = 3 = 0.02 M , [HCOONa] = = 0.2 M
1 dm 1 dm 3
- +
HCOONa   HCOO + Na
1 mol 1 mol
[HCOO-] = 0.2 M
HCOOH HCOO- + H+
[ HCOO  ][ H  ]
Ka = pH = 5.4 - log 10-1
[ HCOOH ]
[HCOOH ]
[H+] = Ka pH = 5.4 + 1
[HCOO  ]
[HCOOH ]
[H+] = Ka pH = 6.4
[HCOO  ]
[HCOOH]
 log[H  ]  - log K a - log the pH of a buffer solution = 6.4
[HCOO - ]
[HCOOH]
pH  pK a - log
[HCOO - ]
0.02
pH  5.4 - log
0.2
............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

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@ William Saw. @......................................... [ 1 ] ...............................................

Arrangement of Fundamental Particles

Fundamental particles t ajccH u sao mt r Iefr sm;

Fundamental particles and their masses and charges

Particles Mass Charge

Proton 1amu positive vQ

Neutron 1amu neutral vQ

Electron 1/1840amu negative vQ

mass of hydrogen = 1amu = atomic mass unit t ao ;i , fq kH

* The hydrogen atom is without neutron.

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Neutrons are uncharged particles of the nucleus of the atom.

Atomic Number ( Z ) t u fwr ft r S

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0

' gu d kt pOft wd kif;yJu su fyg?u AsmawGpmawG rv d kygb l;?Oyr m- 1H 0r f; t d wfcsf[ d ku fN

Mass Number ( A ) j' yfx kt r S

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

( ii ) Sub shells Maximum number of electrons

(iii) Order of filling up sub shells with electrons

Complete electronic structure [ CES ]

j' yfpi ft u fwr fwpfckrS

Essential electronic structure [ EES ]

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

B &J Ut u fwr ft r S wfpOfu (5) ' gYaMu mifhp+ u 5 v kH ;q d

valence (aygi f;pn f;u d ef;jy)q d

The Periodic Table

The Groups and the Periods

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0

Alkali metals (s-block element v d kU

Alkaline earth metals (s-block element v d kU

Noble gases or inert gases ( p - eJ q kH

Metals and non-metals

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Noble gases or inert gases

Atomic Sizes (Atomic Radii )

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

(a) Size of positive ion (cation) t zd

Negative ion awG M

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Alkali metals awG &JUt jyi fb u fq kH

Periodic table awG &JUa, b k, sr S

(az:jyx m ;wJ Yt ay:at m u fjrm ;awG u electron awG &J

Oyr má ÓP fpr f;t csK

halogen awG &JU

Example (4), Fluorine atom is lower electron affinity than chlorine.

There are three main types of chemical bonds

Ionic bond ( or ) electrovalent bond (t d kif;, G

t u fwr fwpfckeJY wpfckM u m;electron awG t NyD;t yd

Metal + Non-metals Ionic compound dot-cross formula(structure)

1. yx r q k ; Integer en f;eJUo lwd

Covalent bond (zu fpyfpn f;)

............................................ UAS. B.Sc, B.Ed [ chem ] ............................................

Non-metal + Non-metals covalent compound dot-cross structure (formula)

dot-cross structure q G Jo m;jci f;

Coordinate bond (or )Dative bond (ay;r Q pn f;)

electron rich <

covalent bond jzpfjci f;u Al eJ UCl B