6. What is meant by the term ecology?

Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms or group of organisms with

their environment. The environment consists of both biotic components (living
organisms) and abiotic components (non-living organisms).

7. What is the concept of Environmental Audit.

An environmental audit represent a management tool comprising a systematic,

documented, periodic and objective evaluation of the performance of the
organisation, management system and processes designed to protect the
environment with the aim of:
(i) Facilitating management control of practices which may have an impact on the
environment;
(ii) Assessing compliance with company environmental policies.

An environmental audit is a systematic means of providing environmental

management information:
(a) To all levels of management;
(b) For a variety of purposes.

The term ‘environmental audit’ is, therefore, used to refer to a number of different
information and assessment activities.

These can be categorized as:

(a) A technical review:
Such an audit will involve the systematic collection of information about the existing
and potential impact of the organisation’s activities on the environment; it will
normally cover compliance with pollution control and waste management
legislation. It will not cover management practices.
(b) A management review:
This will focus more on the management procedures and record- keeping and will
also gather information on compliance with legislation. It may also review
procedures in the context of company policies, programmes and other
 requirements. It will not examine the existing or likely impact of the operation on
the surrounding environment from a technical standpoint.
(c) Due diligence review:
This will examine the likely cost of implementing pollution control and site
remediation actions and will take account of existing and future legislation. Such
liability reviews are normally carried out in the context of mergers, acquisitions and
long range company planning.

8. Describe about Macrophytes.

Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments
(saltwater of freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes.
A macrophyte is an aquatic plant that grows in or near water and is either emergent,
submergent, or floating, and includes helophytes (a plant that grows in marsh, partly
submerged in water, so that it regrows from buds below the water surface). In lakes
and rivers macrophytes provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic
invertebrates, produce oxygen, and act as food for some fish and wildlife.
Based on growth form, macrophytes can be classified as:

 Emergent macrophytes
 Floating-leaved macrophytes
 Submerged macrophytes
 Free floating macrophytes
Emergent
An emergent plant is one which grows in water but which pierces the surface so that
it is partially in air. Collectively, such plants are emergent vegetation.
This habit may have developed because the leaves can photosynthesize more
efficiently above the shade of cloudy water and competition from submerged plants
but often, the main aerial feature is the flower and the related reproductive process.
The emergent habit permits pollination by wind or by flying insects.
There are many species of emergent plants, among them, the reed
(Phragmites), Cyperus, Typha species, flowering rush and wild rice species.
Floating-leaved
Floating-leaved macrophytes have root systems attached to the substrate or
bottom of the body of water and with leaves that float on the water surface.
Common floating leaves macrophytes are water lilies (family Nymphaeaceae),
pondweeds (family Potamogetonaceae).
 Submerged
Submerged macrophytes completely grow under water with root attached to
the substrate (e.g. Myriophyllum spicatum) or without any root system
(e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum).
Free-floating
Free-floating macrophytes are aquatic plants that are found suspended on
water surface with their root not attached to substrate or sediment or bottom of
water body. They are easily blown by air and provide breeding ground for mosquito.
Example include Pistia spp commonly called water lettuce, water cabbage or Nile
cabbag

Functions of macrophytes in aquatic system

Macrophytes perform many ecosystem functions in aquatic ecosystems and
provide services to human society. One of the important functions performed by
macrophyte is uptake of dissolve nutrients (N and P) from water. Macrophytes are
widely used in constructed wetlands around the world to remove excess N and P
from polluted water. Beside direct nutrient uptake, macrophytes indirectly influence
nutrient cycling, especially N cycling through influencing the denitrifying bacterial
functional groups that are inhabiting on roots and shoots of macrophytes.
Macrophytes promote the sedimentation of suspended solids by reducing the
current velocities, impede erosion by stabilising soil surfaces.

Macrophytes provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic invertebrates.
They also produce oxygen and provide food for some fish and other wildlife.
Macrophytes respond to a wide variety of environmental conditions, are easily
sampled, do not require laboratory analysis and are used for calculating simple
abundance metrics.

The depth, density, diversity and types of macrophytes present in a system

are indicators of waterbody health. Where submerged aquatic macrophytes are
abundant, they can have a heavy influence on habitat structure, fishability,
recreational use and nutrient dynamics. The absence of macrophytes may indicate
water quality problem such as excessive turbidity, herbicides or salinization which
interfere with plant growth and development. However, an overabundance of
macrophytes can result from high nutrient levels and may affect ecosystem health,
recreational activities and the aesthetic appeal of the system.

9. Describe about Phytoplanktons.

 Phytoplankton, also known as microalgae, are similar to terrestrial plants in that
they contain chlorophyll and require sunlight in order to live and grow. Most
phytoplankton are buoyant and float in the upper part of the ocean, where sunlight
penetrates the water. Phytoplankton also require inorganic nutrients such as nitrates,
phosphates, and sulfur which they convert into proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

The two main classes of phytoplankton are dinoflagellates and diatoms.

Dinoflagellates use a whip-like tail, or flagella, to move through the water and their
bodies are covered with complex shells. Diatoms also have shells, but they are made of
a different substance and their structure is rigid and made of interlocking parts. Diatoms
do not rely on flagella to move through the water and instead rely on ocean currents to
travel through the water.

In a balanced ecosystem, phytoplankton provide food for a wide range of sea

creatures including whales, shrimp, snails, and jellyfish. When too many nutrients are
available, phytoplankton may grow out of control and form harmful algal blooms
(HABs). These blooms can produce extremely toxic compounds that have harmful
effects on fish, shellfish, mammals, birds, and even people.

The National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science conduct extensive research on
harmful algal blooms. Scientists use a range of technologies to predict where and when
HABs are likely to form and how they will affect the areas where they occur. Scientists
use this information to inform coastal authorities on how to best respond in order to
minimize negative impacts.

10. Describe about zooplanktons.

Zooplankton may be referred to as "animal plankton" -- they are organisms that

are often at the mercy of the ocean's currents, but unlike phytoplankton, are not
capable of photosynthesis.

Plankton are largely at the mercy of the ocean's currents, winds and waves, and
don't have much (if any) mobility. Zooplankton are either too small to compete against
the currents in the ocean, or are large (as in the case of many jellyfish), but have
relatively weak propulsion systems. The word plankton comes from the Greek
word planktos meaning "wanderer" or "driter." The word zooplankton incorporates the
Greek word zoion, for "animal."

There are thought to be over 30,000 species of zooplankton. Zooplankton can

live in fresh or salt water, but this article focuses largely on marine zooplankton.
 Marine zooplankton are consumers. Instead of getting their nutrition from
sunlight and nutrients in the ocean, they need to consume other organisms. Many feed
on phytoplankton, and therefore live in the euphotic zone of the ocean -- the depths in
which sunlight can penetrate. Zooplankton may also be carnivorous, omnivorous or
detrivorous (feed on detritus).

Zooplankton are basically the second step of the oceanic food web. The food
web starts with the phytoplankton, which are primary producers. They
convert inorganic substances (e.g., energy from the sun, nutrients such as nitrate and
phosphate) into organic substances. The phytoplankton, in turn, are eaten by
zooplankton, who are eaten by smaller fish and even gigantic whales.