T R A N S I T C O O P E R A T I V E R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M

SPONSORED BY

The Federal Transit Administration

TCRP Report 57

Track Design Handbook for

Light Rail Transit

Transportation Research Board

National Research Council
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM

Report 57

Track Design Handbook for

Light Rail Transit
PARSONS BRINCKERHOFF QUADE & DOUGLAS, INC.
Herndon, VA

Subject Area

Rail

Research Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in

Cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS

Washington, D.C. 2000
TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM TCRP REPORT 57

The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, Project D-6 Fy’95
environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public ISSN 1073-4872
transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need ISBN O-309-06621-2
Library of Congress Catalog Card No 99-76424
of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency,
and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is
0 2ooO Transpotition Research Board
necessary to solve operating problems, to adapt appropriate new
technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into
the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program
(TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit
industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet
demands placed on it.
The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special
Report 213-Research for Public Transit: New Directions,
published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban
Mass Transportation Administration-now the Federal Transit
Administration (FTA). A report by the American Public NOTICE
Transportation Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative
recognized the need for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, Research Program conducted by the Transportation ResearchBoard with the
modeled after the longstanding and successful National Cooperative approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such
Highway Research Program, undertakes research and other technical approval reflects rhe Governing Board’s judgment that the project concerned is
activities in response to the needs of transit service providers. The appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the National
scope of TCRP includes a variety of transit research fields including Research Council
plan-ning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and
human resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices. to review this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with
TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. due consideration for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project The
Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was opinions and conclusions expressed or implied are those of the research agency
authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation that performed the research. and while they have been accepted as appropriate
Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13,1992, a memorandum by the technical panel. they are not necessarily those of the Transportation
agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by Research Board, the National Research Council, the Transit Development
the three cooperating organizations: FTA, the National Academies, Corporation, or the Federal Transit Administration of the U S Department of
acting through the Transportation Research Board (TRB); and Transportation
the Transit Development Corporation, Inc. (TDC), a nonprofit Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical panel
educational and research organization established by APTA. according to procedures established and monitored by the Transportation
TDC is responsible for forming the independent governing board, Research Board Executive Committee and the Governing Board of the National
designated as the TCRP Oversight and Project Selection (TOPS) Research Council
Committee. To save time and money in disseminating the research findings, the report is
Research problem statements for TCRP are solicited periodically essentially the original text as submitted by the research agency This report has
but may be submitted to TRB by anyone at any time. It is the not been edited by TRB
responsibility of the TOPS Committee to formulate the research
program by identifying the highest priority projects. AS part of the
evaluation, the TOPS Committee defines funding levels and
expected products. Special Notice
Once selected, each project is assigned to an expert panel,
appointed by the Transportation Research Board. The panels prepare The Transportation Research Board, the National Research Council, the Transit
project statements (requests for proposals), select contractors, and Development Corporation, and the Federal Transit Administration (sponsor of
the Transit Cooperative Research Program) do not endorse products or
provide technical guidance and counsel throughout the life of the
manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear herein solely b&cause they
project. The process for developing research problem statements and
are considered essential to the clarity and completeness of the project reporting.
selecting research agencies has been used by TRB in managing
cooperative research programs since 1962. As in other TRB activ-
ities, TCRP project panels serve voluntarily without compensation. Published reports of the
Because research cannot have the desired impact if products fail
to reach the intended audience, special emphasis is placed on TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM
disseminating TCRP results to the intended end users of the are available from:
research: transit agencies, service providers, and suppliers. TRB
provides a series of research reports, syntheses of transit practice, Transportation Research Board
and other supporting material developed by TCRP research. APTA National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
will arrange for workshops, training aids, field visits, and other
Washinson, D.C 20418
activities to ensure that results are implemented by urban and rural
transit industry practitioners. and can be ordered through the Internet at
The TCRP provides a forum where transit agencies can http://www4.nationalacadem.ies.or@rb/homepage.nsf
cooperatively address common operational problems. The TCRP
results support and complement other ongoing transit research and
training programs. Printed in the United Statesof America
 This Handbook will be of interest to light rail track system design engineers, oper-
FOREWORD ations and maintenance professionals, vehicle design engineers and manufacturers, and
BY StUfl others interested in the design of light rail track systems. The Handbook provides
TransportationResearch guidelines and descriptions for the design of various types of light rail transit track. The
Board track structure types covered include ballasted, direct fixation (“ballastless”), and
embedded track. The components of the various track types are discussed in detail. The
guidelines consider the characteristics and interfaces of vehicle wheels and rail, track
and wheel gauges, rail sections, alignments, speeds, and track moduli. The Handbook
includes chapters on vehicles, alignment, track structures, track components, special
trackwork, aerial structure/bridges, corrosion control, noise and vibration, signals, and
traction power. These chapters provide insight into considerations that affect track
design and require interface coordination.

Transit agencies frequently build new light rail transit (LRT) systems, procure light
rail vehicles (LRVs), and undertake track improvements to existing systems to increase
operating speeds, enhance service, and expand ridership. Many agencies have experi-
enced accelerated vehicle wear and track degradation, attributed to the increased speeds
and incompatibility of contemporary LRVs with the track structure. These problems
lead to reduced service quality and increased maintenance expenditures. Considerable
research has been conducted in recent years to understand the mechanisms involved in
track-vehicle interaction and its effect on track design. However, no widely accepted
guidelines have been developed to aid in the design of light rail transit track. Consequently,
transit agencies have frequently relied on practices developed primarily for heavy rail
transit and freight operations that are not well suited for light rail transit systems.
Under TCRP Project D-6, research was undertaken by Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade
& Douglas to (1) better understand the interactions among track structure, LRVs, and
operating characteristics and (2) develop a Handbook for the design of light rail tran-
sit track to assist the various transit disciplines in selecting the appropriate track and
vehicle characteristics for specific situations.
To achieve the project objectives, the researchers first identified the track-
structure parameters, vehicle characteristics, environmental factors, and operating
conditions that influence track-vehicle interaction and, hence, should be considered in
the design of ballasted, direct fixation, and embedded track systems. The researchers
then collected and reviewed information pertaining to the design and construction of
light rail transit track. A literature search of articles, manuals, texts, and manufac-
turers’ pamphlets pertinent to light rail transit was conducted. In addition, a review
of 17 North American light rail systems, as well as systems in Belgium, France, and
Germany, was undertaken to investigate the different methods of design and con-
struction. In most cases, site visits were conducted that included extensive interviews
with operating and maintenance engineers. Design and construction techniques were
then assessed in terms of performance, safety, and constructability. On the basis of
this assessment, a Handbook providing guidance for the design of light rail track
systems was prepared.
CONTENTS l-l CHAPTER 1 General Introduction
2-l CHAPTER 2 Light Rail Transit Vehicles
3-l CHAPTER 3 Light Rail Transit Track Geometry
4-1 CHAPTER 4 Track Structure Design
5-l CHAPTER 5 Track Components and Materials
6-1 CHAPTER 6 Special Trackwork
7-l CHAPTER 7 Aerial Structures/Bridges
8-l CHAPTER 8 Corrosion Control
9-l CHAPTER 9 Noise and Vibration
10-l CHAPTER 10 Transit Signal Work
11-l CHAPTER 11 Transit Traction Power
COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS STAFF
ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
CHRISTOPHER JENKS, Senior Program Ojjker
EILEEN P. DELANEY, Managing Editor
JAMIE M. FEAR, Associate Editor

PROJECT PANEL D-6

JOHN D. WILKINS, New Jersey Transit Corporation (Chair)
KENNETH J. BELOVARAC, Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
ANTHONY BOHARA, Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority
RICHARD A. BROWN, Dallas Area Rapid Transit
SIEGFRIED FASSMANN, BRW, Inc., Portland, OR
ARTHUR J. KEFFLER, Parsons Transportation Group, Washington, DC
BRIAN H. LONGSON, Toronto Transit Commission
WALTER “BUD” MOORE, Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority
JEFFREY G. MORA, FTA Liaison Representative
ELAINE KING, TRB Liaison Representative

AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research and development of the Track Design Handbook Chapter 3:
Light Rail Transit Track Geometry: Lee Roy Padget
was performed under TCRP Project D-6 by Parsons Brinckerhoff Chapter 4:
Track Structure Design: Gordon W. Martyn
Quade and Douglas, Inc.; Wilson, Ihrig and Associates, Inc.; and Chapter 5:
Track Components and Materials: Gordon W. Martyn
Laurence E. Daniels. Parsons Brinckerhoff was the prime contrac- Chapter 6:
Special Trackwork Lawrence G. Lovejoy
tor for this project. Parsons Brinckerhoff subcontracted noise and Chapter 7:
Aerial Structures/Bridges: David A. Charters
vibration studies to Wilson, Ihrig and Associates and track research Chapter 8:
Corrosion Control: Kenneth J. Moody, Lawrence G.
to Laurence E. Daniels. Lovejoy, Gordon W. Martyn
Gordon W. Martyn, Senior Professional Associate, Parsons Chapter 9: Noise and Vibration: James T Nelson
Brinckerhoff Transit and Rail Systems, was the principal investiga- Chapter 10: Transit Signal Work: Harvey Glickenstein, Gary E.
Milanowski
tor. The Handbook authors were as follows:
Chapter 11: Transit Traction Power: Kenneth Addison, Lawrence
Chapter 1: General Introduction: Gordon W. Martyn, Eugene C. G. Lovejoy
Allen, Lawrence G. Lovejoy Technical editing was performed by Eugene C. Allen of Parsons
Chapter 2: Light Rail Transit Vehicles: Harold B. Henderson, Brinckerhoff. Charles G. Mendell edited the text. Research of tran-
Theodore C. Blaschke, Gordon W. Martyn sit agencies was undertaken by the project team members.
Chapter l-General Introduction

Table of Contents

CHAPTER l-GENERAL INTRODUCTION l-l

1 1 Introduction l-l
1.2 Purpose 1-2
1.3 What is Light Rail, and Why Is it So Heavy? 1-2
1.4 Handbook Organization 1-3

l-i
CHAPTER l-GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1 .I INTRODUCTION and to the designers and manufacturers of

light rail vehicles.
The purpose of this Handbook is to provide to
those responsible for the design, Much research has been conducted in an
procurement, construction, maintenance, and effort to understand the mechanisms involved
operation of light rail transit systems an up-to- in track-vehicle interaction and its impact on
date guide for the design of light rail track, track design. However, no widely accepted
based on an understanding of the relationship guidelines exist to specifically aid in the
of light rail track and other transit system design and maintenance of light rail transit
components. The contents of the Handbook track. Consequently the light rail transit
were compiled as a result of an investigation of industry frequently relies on practices
light rail transit systems, a review of literature developed primarily for heavy rail transit and
pertaining to transit and railroad standards and railroad freight operations that are not
methods, and personal hands-on experience of necessarily well suited for light rail systems,
the authors. Current research also has been a
source of valuable data. This Handbook does not seek to establish
universal standards within an industry
This Handbook furnishes the reader with operating in a wide range of environments.
current practical guidelines and procedures Instead it seeks to offer choices and to
for the design of the various types of light rail present the issues that must be resolved
track including ballasted, direct fixation, and during the design process.
embedded track systems. It discusses the
interrelationships among the various The user of the Handbook assumes all risks
disciplines associated with light rail transit and responsibilities for selection, design, and
engineering-structures, traction power stray construction to the guidelines recommended
current control, noise and vibration control, herein. No warranties are provided to the
signaling, and electric traction power. The user, either expressed or implied. The data
Handbook includes a chapter on light rail and discussions presented herein are for
vehicles, describing the impact of vehicle informational purposes only.
design and operation on the track system. It
also discusses the interaction between tracks The reader is assumed to be an engineer or
and aerial structures, which is crucial when individual familiar with trackwork terminology
continuously welded rail and direct fixation and experienced in the application of guideline
track are used. information to design. For that reason, a
glossary of terms that would be familiar to a
There are many different practical designs for trackwork engineer has not been included
light rail track, and the goal of this Handbook herein. Definitions of common trackwork terms
is to offer a range of options to the engineer. are included in the Manual for Railway
A key focus of the Handbook is to differentiate Engineering, published by the American
between light rail transit track and those Railway Engineering & Maintenance-of-Way
similar, but subtly different, track systems Association. Terms that are unique to light rail
used for freight, commuter, and heavy rail transit are defined within the text of the
transit operations. These differences present Handbook as they are introduced.
challenges both to light rail track designers

l-l
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
1.2 PURPOSE
This Handbook furnishes the reader with
current practical information about light rail
trackwork and guidelines for the design of the
various types of light rail track including
ballasted, direct fixation, and embedded track.
It describes the impacts of other disciplines on
trackwork, which offers the designer insights
into the coordination of design efforts among
all disciplines. The purpose of this Handbook
is to offer a range of design guidelines, not to
set a standard for the industry.
1.3 WHAT IS LIGHT RAIL, AND WHY IS IT
SO HEAW?
Tracks for light rail transit are generally
constructed with the same types of materials
used to construct “heavy rail,” “commuter rail,”
and railroad freight systems. Also, light rail
vehicles may be as massive as transit cars on
heavy rail systems. Consequently, the term
“light rail” is somewhat of an oxymoron and
often misunderstood. Therefore, for the
purposes of this book, it is appropriate to
define light rail transit.
Light rail is a system of electrically
propelled passenger vehicles with steel
wheels that are propelled along a track
constructed with steel rails.
Propulsion power is drawn from an
overhead distribution wire by means of a
pantograph and returned to the electrical
substations through the rails.
The tracks and vehicles must be capable
of sharing the streets with rubber-tired
vehicular traffic and pedestrians. The
track system may also be constructed
within exclusive rights-of-way.
Vehicles are capable of negotiating
curves as sharp as 25 meters (82 feet)
1-2
and sometimes even sharper, in order to
traverse city streets.
l Vehicles are not constructed to structural
criteria (primarily crashworthiness or “buff
strength”) needed to share the track with
much heavier railroad commuter and
freight equipment.
While purists may quibble with some of the
finer points of this definition, it will suffice for
the purposes of this Handbook.
The two most important defining elements of
light rail trackwork are the construction of
track in streets, and the interface between the
wheel of the light rail vehicles and the rails.
Track in streets requires special
consideration, especially with regard to the
control of stray electrical current that could
cause corrosion and the need to create a
formed flangeway that is large enough for the
wheels but does not pose a hazard to other
users of the street. Light rail wheels, in the
past, were smaller and had shallower flanges;
contemporary light rail vehicle wheels are
smaller and narrower than standard railroad
wheels. These variations require special
care in track design, especially in the design
of special trackwork such as switches and
frogs. The compatibility of the vehicle and
track designs is a central issue in the
development of a light rail system if both
components are to perform to acceptable
standards. These issues are discussed at
length in this Handbook.
While light rail may need to share right-of-way
(ROW) with pedestrians and vehicles, the
designer should create an exclusive ROW for
light rail tracks wherever possible. This will
make maintenance and operations less
expensive, and will eliminate platform height
issues associated with Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) compliance.
 General Introduction

1.4 HANDBOOK ORGANIZATION longitudinal restraint, and probable conditions

at a rail break on the structure The analysis
Chapter 2 elaborates on vehicle design and includes the conditional forces generated by
critical issues pertaining to track and vehicle locating special trackwork on an aerial
interface. These topics include wheel/rail structure and methods of contending with
profiles, truck steering within restricted curves them
and primary and secondary suspension
systems, and the effect of these parameters Corrosion control is a major issue arising from
on track and operations the use of the running rail as a negative return
in the traction power system. Chapter 8
Chapter 3 details issues related to light rail highlights the issues pertaining to stray
track geometry with particular attention to current and discusses the need to isolate the
restrictions imposed by alignment characteris- rail and retard the potential for electrical
tics, such as tight radius curvature, severe leakage Methodologies for establishing
vertical curves, and steep profile grade lines. magnitude, identifying sources, and
developing corrective measures are part of
Chapter 4 elaborates on the three basic types this chapter.
of track structures: ballasted, direct fixation,
and embedded track. The chapter takes the Chapter 9 introduces the designer to another
designer through a series of selections environmental issue pertaining to light rail
pertaining to the track design. The chapter transit-noise and vibration. It explains
discusses track and wheel gauges, flange- wheel/rail noise and vibration and the
ways, rail types, guarded track (restraining fundamentals of acoustics. It also discusses
rail), track modulus, stray current, noise and mitigation procedures and treatments for
vibration, and signal and traction power tangent, curved, and special trackwork.
requirements.
Chapter 10 highlights signal issues for light
The various track components and details are rail transit and discusses some of the
discussed in Chapter 5. interfacing issues and components that must
be considered by a track designer.
Chapter 6 provides guidelines for the design
and selection of various types and sizes of Chapter 11 presents elements pertinent to
special trackwork. Included are details traction power, including supply system and
pertaining to switches, frogs, guard rails, substations; the catenary distribution system;
crossings (diamonds), and associated items. and the power return through the running rails.
The chapter also discusses corrosion control
Most light rail transit systems require bridges measures to mitigate the effects of DC current
or similar structures. Aerial structures are not to adjacent services.
uncommon. Chapter 7 provides a framework
for determining the magnitude of forces An overall table of contents lists the eleven
generated due to differential thermal chapter topics. Each chapter contains its own
expansion between the rail (especially table of contents, reference list, and list of
stationary continuous welded rail) and the figures and tables. Pages are numbered by
structure. The analysis elaborates on chapter (for example: 4-24 is page 24 in
structural restrictions, fastener elastomer Chapter Four).
displacement, fastening toe loads, friction and
Chapter 2 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

Table of Contents

2.1 INTRODUCTION 2-1

2.2 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS 2-2
2.2.1 Vehicle Design 2-2
2.2.1 1 UnidirectionalIBi-directional 2-2
2.2.1.2 Non-Articulated/Articulated 2-2
2.3 VEHICLE CLEARANCE 2-4
2.3 1 Static Outline 2-4
2.3.2 Dynamic Outline 2-4
2.3.2.1 Car Length: Over Coupler Face and Over Anticlimber 2-5
2.3.2.2 Distance between Truck Centers 2-5
2.3.2.3 Distance between End Truck and Anticlimber 2-5
2.3.2 4 Vehicle Components Related to Dynamic Positions 2-5
2.3.2.5 Track Components Related to Dynamic Positions 2-5
2.3.2.6 Ensuring Adequate Vehicle Clearance 2-5
2.3.2.7 Pantograph Height Positions 2-5
2.4 VEHICLE-TRACK GEOMETRY 2-6
2.4.1 Horizontal Curvature-Minimum Turning Radius of Vehicle 2-6
2.4.2 Vertical Curvature-Minimum Sag and Crest Curves 2-6
2.4.3 Combination Conditions of Horizontal and Vertical Curvature 2-6
2.4 4 Vertical Alignment-Maximum Grades 2-7
2.45 Maximum Allowable Track Vertical Misalignment 2-7
2.4.6 Ride Comfort and Track Geometry 2-7
2.4.6.1 Track Superelevation 2-7
2.4.6.2 Lateral Acceleration on Track Curves 2-7
2 4.6 3 Transition Spirals on Track Curves 2-7
2.5 VEHICLE STATIC AND DYNAMIC FORCES 2-8
25.1 Static
Vertical 2-8
251.1 AWOIAWl Loads 2-8
2.5.1.2 AW21AW3iAW4 Loads 2-8
251.3 Wheel Loading Tolerance (Car Level) 2-8
2.5.1.4 Wheel Loading @ Maximum Stationary Superelevation,
Considering Car Tilt and Uniform AW3 Load 2-9
2.5.1.5 Unsprung Weight (Truck Frame, Wheels, Axle,
Bearings, and Portions of the Motor/Gear Units) 2-9
2.5.1.6 Truck Weight 2-9
2.5.1.6.1 Motorized Trucks 2-9
2.5.1.6.2 Non-Motorized Trucks 2-9
2.5.1.7 Load Leveling 2-9
2.5.2 Dynamic Horizontal/ Longitudinal 2-9
2 5.2.1 Maximum Acceleration 2-9
2.5.2.2 Maximum Deceleration (Wheels) 2-9
2.5.2.3 Maximum Deceleration (Track Brakes) 2-10
2.5.2.4 Tolerances 2-l 0
2.5.2 5 Maximum Train Size 2-10
2.5.2.6 Load Weight Z-10
2.5.2.7 Sanding 2-l 0

2-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

2.53 Dynamic Vertical 2-l 0

2.5.3.1 Primary Suspension 2-l 0
2.5.3.1.1 Spring Rate 2-l 0
2.5.3.1.2 Damping Rate 2-l 0
2.5.3.2 Secondary Suspension 2-10
2.5.3.2 1 Damping Rate 2-l 1
2.5.3.2.2 Yaw Friction 2-l 1
2.5.3.3 Maximum Speed 2-l 1
2.5.3.4 Car Natural Frequency 2-l 1
2.6 VEHICLE WHEEL GAUGE/TRACK GAUGE/ WHEEL PROFILE 2-l 1
2.6.1 Track Gauge 2-11
2 6.2 Vehicle Wheel Gauge 2-l 1
2.6.3 Wheel Profiles-United States, Canada, Europe 2-l 1
2.6 4 Wheel/Rail Profiles 2-12
2.6.4.1 Wheel Profile-Widths and Flangeways 2-18
2.6.4.2 Wheel Profile-Flange Configuration 2-l 8
2.6.4.3 Wheel/Rail Wear Interface 2-l 9
2.6.4.3.1 Hollow Worn Wheels 2-l 9
2.6.5 Profile Rail Grinding vs Wheel Wear 2-l 9
2.651 Wheel Profile Development 2-20
2.6.5.2 Wheel/Rail Interface Profiles and Potential Derailments 2-20
2.6.5.3 Special Trackwork and Hollow Worn Wheels 2-21
2.6.5.4 Truck Resistance with Hollow Worn Wheels 2-22
2.6.5.5 Truck Resistance-Alternate Approaches 2-22
2.7 WHEEL CENTER LIMITING FLANGE CONDITIONS 2-23
2.8 VEHICLES AND STATIONS-ADA REQUIREMENTS 2-23
2.8.1 Clearance and Tolerances 2-24
2.9 REFERENCES 2-24

List of Figures
Figure 2.6. I
Wheel Profiles (U.S.) 2-13
Figure 2.6.2
Wheel Profiles (U.S./North America) 2-14
Figure 2.6.3
European Wheel Profiles 2-15
Figure 2.6.4
AAR Wheel Profiles 2-l 5
Figure 2.6.5
Wheel-Rail Interface 2-17
Figure 2.6.6
Preliminary High Face Gauge Wear Measurements 2-20
Figure 2.6.7
New AAR-1B and Hollow Won Wheel 2-20
Figure 2.6.8
Three Rail Profiles Used in AAR Demonstration 2-21
Figure 2.6.9
Track Steering Moment and Warp Angle
from Demonstration 2-21
Figure 2.7.1 Resilient Wheel 2-25
Figure 2.8.1 Design Guidelines: Track at Station Platform 2-26

List of Tables
Table 2.1 Contemporary Light Rail Vehicle Characteristics Matrix 2-3

2-ii
CHAPTER 2-LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT VEHICLES

2.1 INTRODUCTION - Wheel profile, which must be

compatible with the rail, particularly in
Designers of the current generation of light rail the case of special trackwork
vehicles (LRV) have primarily concentrated - Wheel gauge to ensure compatibility
with the track gauge including
their efforts on achieving a comfortable ride
tolerances
for passengers and complying with Americans - Wheel back-to-back gauge that is
with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements Wrth compatible with flangeway
respect to trucks (bogies), these efforts have dimensions and special trackwork
resulted in primary and secondary suspension checkgauges
system designs that are significantly different l Longitudinal Track Forces
than those employed on previous generations - Maximum acceleration (traction
forces)
of electric streetcars, including the once
- Deceleration from disc and tread
radical design first used on Presidents’ brakes
Conference Committee (PCC) trolley cars in - Maximum possible deceleration from
the mid 1930s. As vehicle technology electromagnetic emergency track
continues to evolve, so do propulsion and brakes
suspension system designs. Emerging l Lateral Track Forces
- Maximum lateral forces resulting from
concepts, such as independent steerable
all speed and curvature combinations
wheels, hub-mounted motors, etc., quickly
l Dynamic Rail Forces
lead to the conclusion that there are few hard
- Impact of car and truck natural
and fast rules about the vehicle/track interface frequencies
for light rail systems. - Impact of wheel flats or damaged
wheels
In spite of this lack of design consistency,
there are several key vehicle-to-rail interface It is essential that the track designer and the
parameters that the track designer must vehicle designer discuss their designs to
consider during design of light rail systems. ensure full compatibility under all operating
These include: . conditions.
l Vehicle Weight (both empty and with full
passenger load) Light rail vehicles are found in a variety of
0 Clearance designs and dimensions. Cars may be
- Required track-to-platform location unidirectional or bi-directional. In almost all
tolerances to meet ADA requirements cases, they are capable of being operated in
- Required clearance between cars on coupled trains.
adjacent tracks considering car
dynamics In most cases, LRVs are larger and heavier
- Required route clearances (wayside,
than their streetcar predecessors. Particularly
tunnel, bridge) considering car
dynamics on older existing systems, these larger
l Wheel Dimensions replacement cars can challenge the track
- Wheel diameter, which can be very designer to come up with suitable methods to
small in the case of low-floor vehicles accommodate them.
and is virtually always smaller than
that used on freight railroad Light rail vehicles vary in the following design
equipment
characteristics:

2-l
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

l Unidirectional versus bi-directional relatively small, usually only a single urban

l Non-articulated versus articulated building lot. Transit companies typically found
l High floor; partially low floor (70%); low that the expense of buying properties and
floor (100%) building loops was small compared to the
l Overall size (width, length, and height) savings associated with not having to maintain
l Truck and axle positions duplicate sets of control equipment in “double
l Suspension characteristics ended” trolley cars.
l Performance (acceleration, speed, and
braking) Current designs of high-capacity light rail
l Wheel diameter vehicles have much larger minimum radius
l Wheel gauge limitations and the amount of real estate that
is required to construct a turning loop is much
These characteristics must be considered in greater. Accordingly, most contemporary
the design of both the vehicle and the track LRVs have control cabs in both ends and can
structure. reverse direction anywhere that a suitable
crossover track or pocket track can be
The results of an investigation of the provided, This arrangement is usually more
characteristics of 17 North American LRVs economical in terms of space required and
are summarized in Table 2.1. It is interesting has become the norm for modern light rail
to note that vehicle criteria published by transit (LRT) systems. Such arrangements
vehicle manufacturer(s) rarely contain can be sited within the confines of a double-
information on vehicle wheel gauge. Track track right-of-way, and do not require the
and vehicle designers will have difficulty in the property acquisition (and subsequent
design process without first establishing this maintenance) needed for turning loops.
initial interface value and then determining the
acceptable gap between the track and wheel
gauges. 2.2.1.2 Non-Articulated/Articulated
Non-articulated (rigid) cars are single car
bodies carried on two four-wheel trucks.
2.2 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS Articulated cars, on the other hand, will have
two or more body sections that are connected
by flexible joints.
2.2.1 Vehicle Design

There is a common misconception that

2.2.1.1 Unidirectional/Bi-directional
Nearly all of the traditional streetcar systems
that survived through the 1960s used
unidirectional vehicles. That is, the cars were
built with a control station in the forward end,
doors on the right side, and a single trolley
pole at the rear At the end of the line, cars
negotiated a turning loop and ran to the
opposite terminal. Because these vehicles
could negotiate curves with centerline radii as
small as 10.7 meters (35 feet), the amount of
real estate needed for a turning loop was
articulated cars can negotiate sharper curves
than a rigid body car. This is not true. They
are limited in length primarily due to the fact
that the lateral clearances required in curves
increase dramatically as the distance between
the trucks increases. If lateral clearances are
not an issue, rigid body cars are a practical
alternative that can be appreciably cheaper to
procure and maintain than articulated cars of
similar capacity. In North America, modern
non-articulated cars are used only in
Philadelphia, Buffalo, and Toronto.

2-2
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

Table 2.1 Contemporary Light Rail Vehicle Characteristics Matrix

Track
Empty Wheel Gauge
Vehicle Vehicle Articulated/ Truck/Bogie Wheel Diameter Wheel
Manufacturer and Weight Non- Centers Base New/Used Gauge
City Model (kg) Articulated (mm) (mm) (mm) Delta A
Baltimore ABB Traction 48 526 Artic. 9,144 2,286 771 1,435
1,421 5
A13.5
Boston Boeing Vertol 30,390 Artic 7,010 1,855 660 new 1,455
(3 Vehicles) Kinki Sharyo #7 38,460 Artic 7,137 1,905 660 13427.2
Breda #8 39,000 Double Artic. 7,351 1,900 71 l/660 A27.8
Buffalo Tokyo Car 32,233 Single Unit. 11,024 1,880 6601610 1,432
Rigid 1,414 5
Al75
Dallas Kinki Sharyo 49,900 Artic 9,449 2,083 711 1,435
1,409 0
A26
Denver Siemens Duewag 40,000 Attic. 7,720 1,800 7201660 1,435
SD 100 1,413.g
A2l.l
Los Angeles Kinki Sharyo 44,500 Artic 8,534 2,007 71 II660 1,435
Blue Line
Siemens Duewag Artic. 9,449 2,100 1,412 9
Green Line 821.1
Philadelphia City Kawasaki 26,000 Single Unit, 7,620 SE 1,900 660 new 1,581
Division SE Rigid 1,578
A3
Philadelphia Kawasaki 27,000 Single Unit, 8,400 DE 1,900 660 new 1,588
Suburban Division DE Rigid 1,578
Al0
Pittsburgh Siemens Duewag 40,000 Attic 8,950 2,100 7201670 1,587.5
U2-A 1,577.5
A10
Portland Bombardier 41,244 Artic. 9,040 1,900 711/660 1,435
(2 vehicles) Siemens Duewag 47,600 Artic. 10,515 1,800 1,421
SC 600 Al4
Sacramento Siemens 47,160 At-tic 7,723 1,800 7201660 1,435
Duewag U2 1,414
A21
San Diego Duewag 32,600 Artic 7,720 1,800 7201660 1,435
(2 vehicles) Type U2 1,414
Siemens Duewag Artic. 7201660 A21
SD 100
San Jose UTDC 44,724 Artic 8,611 1,905 711 1,435
7,416
A19
St. Louis Siemens Duewag 40,993 Artic. 9,677 2,100 7111660 1,435
1,418
Al7
San Francisco Boeing Vertol 30,390 Artic. 7,010 1,855 660 1,435
Breda 36,200 Artic. 7,315 1,900 711 1,425.5
A9.5
Toronto UTDC 22,685 Single Unit, 7,620 1,829 66016 10 1,495 0
(2 vehicles) Hawker Siddley 36,745 Rigid 7,620 1,829 6601600 1,492 5
Artic. A2.5
Calgary Duewag Type U2 32,600 Artic. 7,720 1,800 7201660 1,435
1,429
A6
Edmonton Duewag Type U2 31,600 Artic 7,720 1,800 7201660 1,435
1,418
Al7

2-3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Articulated LRVs developed in order to which the car is intended. While

improve the ratio of passengers carried per manufacturers can, in theory, build cars to any
vehicle operator. By attaching two or more dimension, it is usually more economical to
body sections together, the car capacity can choose vehicles that are already engineered
be increased while maintaining the capability or in production. Therefore, the facility
to negotiate sharp curves without excessive designer of a new system should establish a
lateral clearance excursions. Where two body clearance envelope that accommodates
sections meet, a turntable and bellows vehicles from several manufacturers to
arrangement connects the sections, allowing maximize opportunities for competitive
free passage for passengers. Each LRV bidding.
manufacturer has devised its own specific
design for such articulation joints. In some The clearance diagram must consider both
cases, particularly in Europe, multiple body the vehicle’s static outline and its dynamic
sections have been joined in double, triple, outline. The static outline is the shape of the
and even quadruple arrangements to form car at rest. The dynamic outline includes the
multi-articulated cars. allowable movement in the suspension
system, end overhang, and mid-ordinate
More recently, European manufacturers have overhang. The manufacturer develops the
created a variety of modular designs, dynamic outline for each type of transit
particularly for low-floor cars. Typically, these vehicle. To establish clearances along the
designs include separate modules for cab, right-of-way, a vehicle dynamic clearance
door, and body sections. They are joined in envelope must also be developed. Using the
both rigid and articulated arrangements, vehicle dynamic outline along with the
allowing a vehicle to be tailored to meet a associated track components, track
range of curve radius requirements. Low-floor tolerances, wear limits of the components,
LRV designs may incorporate stub axles, and a clearance zone with a safety factor of
independent wheels, small trucks, small 50 millimeters (1.968 inches), the dynamic
diameter wheels, hub-mounted motors, body- vehicle clearance envelope can be
mounted motors, vertical drives, and a variety established. For additional information on
of other unique technological solutions that vehicle clearances, refer to Section 3.4 of this
permit vehicles to incorporate very low floors handbook.

2.3 VEHICLE CLEARANCE 2.3.1 Static Outline

Clearance standards for various types of The static outline of an LRV is its dimensions
railroad vehicles are well documented by the at rest, including elements such as side view
use of graphics or “plates”. One standard is mirrors. The resulting diagram will show the
the common Plate “C.” Any car whose minimum overhang on tangents and curves.
dimensions fit within the limits established on The dynamic outline of the car is more
Plate C can travel virtually anywhere on the significant to the track designer.
North American railroad system. Transit
systems do not share this standard. 2.3.2 Dynamic Outline
Therefore, vehicle manufacturers must
develop clearance plates based on the The dynamic outline of an LRV describes the
characteristics of the existing system for maximum space that the vehicle will occupy

2-4
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

as it moves over the track The dynamic 2.3.2.4 Vehicle Components Related to
outline or “envelope” includes overhang on Dynamic Positions
Primary/Secondary Suspension
curves, lean due to the action of the vehicle
Systems
suspension and track superelevation, track Maximum Lean/Sway
wear, wheel/track spacing, and abnormal Maximum Lean due to Total Failure of
conditions that may result from failure of All Truck Components
suspension elements (e g. deflation of an air Wheel Flange Wear
spring).
2.3.2.5 Track Components Related to
Dynamic Positions
2.3.2.1 Car Length: Over Coupler Face Track Surface-Maximum Cross-
and Over Anticlimber Level Limits and Lateral Tolerance of
Rails
When considering the length of a light rail Rail Headwear and Side Gauge Face
vehicle, it is important to distinguish between Wear
the actual length of the car body over the Track Superelevation
anticlimbers and its length over the coupler Wheel Gauge to Track Gauge Lateral
faces. Clearance
Truck/Wheel Set (Axle) Spacing
l Over Coupler Face-The coupler is the
connection between LRVs that operate 2.3.2.6 Ensuring Adequate Vehicle
together. It extends beyond the front of Clearance
the car structure. The length over the Where facility clearance restrictions exist, the
couplers becomes a consideration for track designer should coordinate with the
determining the requisite length of vehicle and structural designers to ensure that
facilities such as station platforms and adequate car clearance is provided. Vehicle
storage tracks. dynamics are governed by the cars
l Over Anticlimber-The anticlimber is the suspension system(s) and, therefore,
structural end of the car. As its name indirectly by numerous factors of track and
implies, it is designed to reduce the vehicle interaction. For multiple-track
possibility of one car climbing over an situations, multiple clearance envelopes must
adjacent car during a collision. The length be considered. Overlapping must be avoided.
of the vehicle over the anticlimber is used The resulting requirements will dictate
to determine clearances. minimum track centers and clearances for
tangent and curved track, including tolerances
and safety factors.
2.3.2.2 Distance between Truck Centers
The distance between adjacent truck pivot 2.3.2.7 Pantograph Height Positions
points determines the overhang of a cars Outside Height: Roof and Pan Lock-Down-
midsection for given track curvature. Should include all roof-mounted equipment.

Roof - The roof of an LRV is typically curved,

2.3.2.3 Distance between End Truck and with the highest dimension at the car
Anticlimber
centerline. However, the LRV pantograph
This dimension and the car body taper establishes the maximum car height.
determine the overhang of the car front for a
given track curvature.

2-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Pantograph Operation - Light rail facility spacing, truck spacing, and suspension
designers are typically interested in the elements all contribute to vehicle flexibility.
absolute minimum clearance between top of
rail and an overhead obstruction, such as a The track designer must take the vehicle
highway bridge. This dimension must characteristics defined below into account in
accommodate not only the pantograph when developing route designs. The values
operating at some working height above lock- associated with these characteristics are
down, but also the depth of the overhead furnished by the manufacturer. For vehicles
contact wire system. The minimum supplied for existing systems, the vehicle
pantograph working height above lock-down manufacturer must meet the minimum
includes an allowance for pantograph geometrical requirements of the system.
“bounce” so that lock-down does not occur
accidentally. Maximum pantograph height is 2.4.1 Horizontal Curvature-Minimum
the concern of vehicle and overhead catenary Turning Radius of Vehicle
system (OCS) designers, unless the light rail
guideway must also accommodate railroad The minimum turning radius is the smallest
freight traffic and attendant overhead horizontal radius that the LRV can negotiate.
clearances. If railroad equipment must be The value may be different for a single versus
accommodated, the clearance envelope will coupled LRVs or for a fully loaded LRV versus
be dictated by Association of American an empty one.
Railroads (AAR) plates, which do not include
clearance for the overhead catenary system.
Additional clearances may be required 2.4.2 Vertical Curvature-Minimum Sag
and Crest Curves
between the underside of the contact wire
system and the roof of any railroad equipment The minimum vertical curvature is the
in order to meet electrical safety codes.
smallest vertical curve radius that the LRV
can negotiate. The maximum sag and crest
2.4 VEHICLE-TRACK GEOMETRY
values are typically different, with the sag
The most demanding light rail transit value being more restrictive. Vehicle builders
alignments are those running through describe vertical curvature in terms of either
established urban areas. Horizontal curves radius of curve or as the maximum angle in
must be designed to suit existing conditions, degrees through which the articulation joint
which can result in curves below a 25meter can bend. The trackway designer must relate
(82-foot) radius. Vertical curves are required those values to the parabolic vertical curves
to conform to the existing roadway pavement typically used in alignment design.
profiles, which may result in exceptionally
sharp crest and sag conditions. 2.4.3 Combination Conditions of
Horizontal and Vertical Curvature
LRVs are specifically designed to
accommodate severe geometry by utilizing The car builder may or may not have a graph
flexible trucks, couplings, and mid-vehicle that displays this limitation. If a route design
articulation. Articulation joints, truck results in significant levels of both parameters
maximum pivot positions, coupler-to-truck occurring simultaneously, the design should
alignments, vehicle lengths, wheel set (axle) be reviewed with potential LRV suppliers to
establish mutually agreeable limits.

2-6
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

2.4.4 Vertical Alignment-Maximum elevation of the track. Track designers often

Grades limit actual superelevation and permit an
unbalanced condition where the forces on
The maximum allowable route grade is limited
vehicles and passengers are not equal.
by the possibility that the LRV could stall or
Unbalanced superelevation results in an
the traction motors overheat. This is the
unbalanced amount of lateral acceleration that
steepest grade the LRV can negotiate. A
the passenger feels. The standard limit is 76
short grade that the LRV enters at speed
mm (3 inches) of unbalanced superelevation
should not be a problem up to about 6%.
which is equal to about 0 1 g. Chapter 3
Above that the operational requirements
elaborates on the formulas used to establish
should be reviewed. Grades of up to 10% are
the amount of superelevation for both actual
possible. At grades between 6% and lo%,
and underbalanced conditions.
wheel-to-rail slippage may occur in poor
conditions, such as when ice or wet leaves
are on the rail. This may result in wheel flats 2.4.6.2 Lateral Acceleration on Track
during braking or rail burns during Curves
acceleration. Ride comfort is an important and very
complex issue. Acceleration is a good
measure of ride comfort and is a criterion for
2.4.5 Maximum Allowable Track Vertical ride comfort on track curves. The rate of
Misalignment
change of acceleration (jerk) is another
important criterion. Industry standards have
Truck equalization refers to the change in
established that a lateral acceleration of 0.1 g
wheel loading that occurs when one wheel
can be tolerated with comfort. Chapter 3
moves above or below the plane of the other
elaborates on formulas used to establish the
three wheels on a two-axle truck. If a wheel is
spiral criteria considering lateral acceleration.
unloaded significantly, it may climb the rail
and derail. LRV truck equalization must be 2.4.6.3 Transition Spirals on Track Curves
compatible with the expected track vertical A proper transition curve between the tangent
surface misalignment to prevent conditions track and the circular portion of the track
that can cause a derailment. curve is a recognized requirement for a
smooth, comfortable ride on track curves.
2.4.6 Ride Comfort and Track Geometry The change from no curve to a given constant
curvature must be made gradually so that
lurching does not occur at the entrance and
2.4.6.1 Track Superelevation exit of the curve. The usual method is to
Passenger safety and ride comfort limit introduce curvature and superelevation in the
vehicle speed on sections of curved track. transition curve uniformly along the curve.
Experience has shown that safety and comfort
can be achieved if vehicle speed is limited Since the centrifugal force is inversely
such that 75 to 115 mm (3 to 4.5 inches) of proportional to the radius of the curve and the
superelevation is required in the outer rail to superelevation for a given speed, both radius
achieve equilibrium (a balanced condition) on and superelevation change at a linear rate.
transit track. Equilibrium exists when loads on Thus, lateral acceleration increases at a
the inner and outer rails are equal and the constant rate until the full curvature of the
centrifugal force on the car body and the circular portion of the curve is reached, where
passengers is in balance with the super-

2-7
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

the acceleration remains constant until the exit 2.5 VEHICLE STATIC AND DYNAMIC
FORCES
spiral is reached.

As a guideline, the transit industry has 2.5.1 Static Vertical

established 0.03 g per second as the desired
maximum rate for change of acceleration. As The following parameters establish the LRV
stated previously, constant lateral acceleration vertical wheel load on the rail head. The
in the central part of a track curve is vehicle manufacturer generally provides these
comfortable at 0.10 g. Therefore, if the values.
allowable maximum acceleration in the
circular curve is 0.10 g and the rate of
attainment is 0.03 g per second the time the 2.5.1 .I AWOIAWI Loads
train traverses the spiral must be no less than: AWO is the total car weight, in a ready for
0 log revenue service condition, with no passengers
= 3.33 seconds on board. AWI is the car weight with a fully
0.03glsec
seated passenger load, at 155 pounds per
passenger.
The formulas presented in Chapter 3 are
based on the 0.03 g per second rate of
change of acceleration, with the provision to 2.5.1.2 AW2lAW3lAW4 Loads
increase to 0.04 g per second when realigning AW2 (Design Load) is seated load plus
existing tracks to fit built-in conditions. standing passengers at 4 per square meter of
suitable standing space. AW3 (Crush Load)
The main objective is to design spirals that is seated load plus standing passengers at 6
are sufficiently long enough to provide per square meter of suitable standing space.
satisfactory ride comfort. Considering the AW4 (Structure Design) is seated load plus
average vehicle roll tendency and allowing for standing passengers at 8 per square meter of
variability in tracks and vehicles, the rate of suitable standing space. Since the seating
change of unbalanced lateral acceleration and suitable standing space is a function of
acting on the passenger should not exceed the vehicle design, the loading should be
0.03 g per second. In difficult situations, an defined by the car builder.
acceleration of 0.04 g per second may be
acceptable.
2.5.1.3 Wheel Loading Tolerance (Car
Passenger comfort on track curves is based Level)
on the theory that the spiral must be long If exact wheel loadings must be known, the
enough so that excessive lateral force is not variations in each wheel load due to design
required to accelerate the vehicle up to the and manufacturing tolerances must be
constant angular rotation of the circular curve. considered.
The spiral curve must be long enough, relative
to the length of the vehicle, so that there is not
excessive twisting of the vehicle, since
twisting forces tend to produce derailments.

2-8
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

2.5.1.4 Wheel Loading @ Maximum 2.5.1.7 Load Leveling

Stationary Superelevation, To meet ADA car threshold-to-platform
Considering Car Tilt and Uniform alignment standards, track and platform
AW3 Load
designers must also consider the accuracy of
Worst-case wheel/rail force is expected when car leveling systems that compensate for
a fully loaded car stops on a maximum variable passenger loading. Load leveling can
superelevated track structure Car tilt will also be provided by the secondary air springs or
add to the lateral and vertical forces on the hydraulic actuators. For ADA requirements
lower rail. see Section 2.8 herein.

2.5.1.5 Unsprung Weight (Truck Frame,

2.5.2 Dynamic Horizontal/ Longitudinal
Wheels, Axle, Bearings, and
Portions of the Motor/Gear Units)
The following parameters establish the
Unsprung weight is a significant contributing
maximum forces along the direction of the
factor to dynamic track loading as these items
rails.
are not isolated from the track by the car
primary suspensions.
2.5.2.1 Maximum Acceleration
The maximum car acceleration provided by
2.5.1.6 Truck Weight
the car propulsion system is the resulting
Truck weight and yaw inertia will affect rail
force at the wheel tread to rail head interface.
forces on curved track. Total truck weight will
The amount of adhesion is the measure of the
also affect dynamic forces as only the car
force generated between the rail and wheel
body is isolated by the truck secondary
before slipping. A typical 4.8 kilometer per
suspensions.
hour per second (3 miles per hour per second)
acceleration rate is equivalent to a 15%
2.5.1.6.1 Motorized Trucks adhesion level, if all axles are motorized. For
Motorized trucks (typically at the ends of the a typical LRV with four of six axles motorized,
car) may have either one monomotor or two the adhesion rate is 22.5%.
motors that drive both axles, along with gear
units that connect the motors to the axles.
2.5.2.2 Maximum Deceleration (Wheels)
The motors may be either DC or AC design
The maximum car deceleration rate is
depending on the vehicles control system
established by the retarding force at the wheel
package. Newer designs may have unique
tread. The deceleration force can be the
wheel and drive support systems that do not
result of a combination of disc brakes, wheel
resemble traditional truck designs.
tread brakes, and traction motor electrical
2.5.1.6.2 Non-Motorized Trucks brakes, either dynamic or regenerative.
All trucks under a specific LRV will not have
the same mass or the same inertia. Non- 2.5.2.3 Maximum Deceleration (Track
motorized trucks will not have motors and Brakes)
gear units, but may have axle-mounted disc Deceleration force is generated by
brakes. They are typically located under the electromagnetic brakes applied to the rail
articulation joints of LRVs. On some vehicles, head, in addition to that produced at the
the wheels may be independently mounted wheel. This force is developed at the track
rather than configured as a conventional truck. brake-to-rail head interface and can provide

2-9
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

an additional 4.8 kilometers per hour per 2.5.3 Dynamic Vertical

second (3 mphps) of deceleration.
Determination of total track force is a complex
issue that depends on LRV design features.
2.5.2.4 Tolerances Typically the vehicle total weight is increased
All acceleration and deceleration values also by a factor to include dynamic loading effects.
have tolerances that are due to many factors. The characteristics of the LRV suspension
The major factors for acceleration tolerance system should be defined by the
are traction motor tolerances, actual wheel manufacturer, who should also provide the
diameter size, and generation and dynamic load factor to the track designer.
interpretation of master controller commands
This tolerance may range from +5 to 7%.
2.5.3.1 Primary Suspension
All actual deceleration values are dependent Primary suspension provides support between
on friction coefficients as well as the above the truck frame and the axle journal bearings.
issues. The expected tolerance for friction It is the first level of support for the bearings
and track brakes should be obtained from the above the wheel set.
supplier
2.5.3.1.1 Spring Rate
2.5.2.5 Maximum Train Size Spring rate is the force per travel distance for
Acceleration and deceleration forces are the coil or chevron primary springs. This
applied per car. Therefore, the total rail force relationship may be non-linear for long travel
per train will depend on the maximum train distances. The equivalent vertical,
size. If more than one train can be on longitudinal, and lateral spring rates will be
common rails at one time, this should also be different.
considered.

2.5.2.6 Load Weight 2.5.3.1.2 Damping Rate

If the LRV has a load weight function, the
acceleration and deceleration forces will be
increased at car loadings above AWO, to
some maximum loading value. These values
should be defined to establish maximum
longitudinal track force.
2.5.2.7 Sanding
Car sanders apply sand to the head of the rail
in front of the wheel to obtain a higher
adhesion coefficient. Sanding in specific
locations has a fouling effect on track ballast
that should be considered.
Damping rate is the “shock absorber” action
that provides a force proportional to the
velocity of the spring movement. It is
designed to minimize oscillation of the
springs/mass system.
2.5.3.2 Secondary Suspension
Secondary suspension supports the car body
on the truck and controls the range of car
body movement with relation to the truck. The
suspension and track alignment basically
establish the LRV ride quality. The secondary
springs can be either steel coils or air bags.

2.5.3.2-l Damping Rate

Damping rate is optimized for ride quality.
With an air bag system, orifices in the air

2-l 0
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

supply to the air bags can adjust the damping 2.6 VEHICLE WHEEL GAUGE/TRACK
rate. GAUGE/ WHEEL PROFILE

2.5.3.2.2 Yaw Friction 2.6.1 Track Gauge

Yaw is the amount of rotation of the truck with
The American Railway Engineering
relation to the car body Some yaw is normal
Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA)
on curved track. The truck design and
standard track gauge for railways shown on
materials used will establish the friction force
Portfolio Plan 793-52 is established at 1,435
that restrains truck swivel. Yaw contributes to
millimeters (56 5 inches) New light rail transit
lateral track forces, which can produce
systems generally adopt railway gauge as
conditions where the wheel climbs over the
standard. The use of AAR and AREMA
rail head. The design of related friction
standards facilitates procurement of track
surfaces should be such that the friction factor
materials and track maintenance. For
remains constant as service life increases.
additional information on track gauge refer to
Chapter 4
2.5.3.3 Maximum Speed
The operating speed limit for all track
2.6.2 Vehicle Wheel Gauge
considers passenger comfort and safety. This
criterion should be coordinated with the car
AAR standard wheel gauge for railroad cars
design. Civil speed limits are set by
per AREMA Portfolio Plan 793-52 is
determining the maximum rate of lateral
established at I,4145 millimeters (55.7
acceleration that passengers can comfortably
inches). The inside gauge of flanges (wheel
endure, This is usually in the range of 0.1 g,
back-to-back distance) considering the
which establishes the level of unbalanced
common 29.4-millimeter (1.2-inch) wide wheel
superelevation on curves. Speed limits on
flange is 1,355.7 millimeters (53 4 inches).
curves are then established based on the
Transit standard wheel gauge generally
actual and unbalanced superelevation.
conforms to track gauge with a minimal
clearance, resulting in wheel gauge width of
2.5.3.4 Car Natural Frequency 1,429 millimeters (56.25 inches). Vehicle
The natural frequency of cars should be wheel gauge is a very important interface
coordinated with the natural frequency of civil issue that must be addressed jointly by
structures such as bridges or elevated vehicle and track designers.
guideways. Trucks and car bodies each have
different natural frequencies that should also
2.6.3 Wheel Profiles-United States,
be considered. Also, car loaded weight Canada, Europe
affects the car body’s natural frequency.
Therefore, natural frequency should be Wheel profile is one of the most critical vehicle
defined at car weight extremes, AWO to AW3. parameters to consider in track design, since
the wheel is the primary interface between the
vehicle and the track structure. The wheel
profile must be compatible with the rail

2-11
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

section(s); the special trackwork components, shown on AREMA Drawing 793-52. In 1991,
including switch points and frog flangeways or the AAR revised this standard wheel profile to
moveable point sections; the guard rail the current AAR-IB narrow flange profile.[*l
positions to protect special trackwork These two wheel profiles are shown in Figure
components; and the guarded track 2.6.4.
restraining rail positions on shorter or sharp
radius track curves. Many transit agencies have adopted a “worn
wheel” design, featuring wheel contours that
Once approved, any changes to the wheel approximate the template to which railway
profile (especially tread and flange width) wheels wear in service. These designs are
must be evaluated by both vehicle and track intended to:
designers. In more than one instance, the l Reduce wheel and rail wear
wheel profile has been altered at the last
l Reduce likelihood of derailment under
minute without informing the track designer,
adverse operating conditions
resulting in unsatisfactory performance of both
the track and vehicle. Selected wheel profiles l Enhance stable performance over the
are shown below [l]: nominal range of speeds

USA. Figure 2.6.1 Baltimore l Provide reasonable contact stress

Los Angeles characteristics
Boston (2)
Tests by the AAR at the Transportation Test
Pittsburgh
Center in Pueblo, Colorado have shown that
Dallas
the AAR-1 B wheel provides:
Portland (2)
l A lower lateral over vertical (LA/) ratio in a
Denver
233-meter (764-foot) radius curve than the
Sacramento
previous AAR I:20 profile
Figure 2.6.2 San Diego
San Francisco (2) l A lower rolling resistance than the
San Jose previous AAR I:20 profile.
Philadelphia
l Lower critical hunting speeds than the
St. Louis
new AAR 1.20 profile
Toronto
Calgary New transit agencies must review the
Edmonton advantages of adopting either the AAR-18
Europe Figure 2.6.3 Koln wheel profile or a similar worn wheel design
Zurich adapted to the local needs of the transit
Karlsruhe system, considering factors such as the
overall tread width, wheel diameter, and
A cursory review of the selected profiles
flange width and depth.
(Figures 2.6.1 to 2.6.3) clearly indicates that
transit vehicle designers virtually always
utilize unique wheel profiles, unlike the 2.6.4 Wheel/Rail Profiles
railroad industry, which has adopted standard
profiles Wheel profile is a flexible design decision,
drawn from the different profile sections used
In 1928, the AAR established the recently throughout the transit industry. The same
outdated AAR standard wheel profile as

2-12
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

NI
LOS ANGELES

BALTIMORE

‘R

BOSTON
5 9/c

r 2.w PITTSBURGH

DALLAS

5-23/32' u

3-i/16'
i-

5/a- R

DENVER
SACRAMENTO
Figure 2.6. I Wheel Profiles (U.S.)

2-13
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

TAPER
1' IN 20-7

s
b
SAN DIEGO z

ST LOUIS

SAN FRANCISCO
TORONTO
4-21/64'

1' IN 32' 14
316 - R

‘!
2 CALGARY
SAN JOSE '
4.134 -
Y L
3.721’

l-1/16"
J/16 --
TAPER

l-31/32' R

SEPTA EDMONTON
Figure 2.6.2 Wheel Profiles (U.S./North America)

2-14
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

AAR RAILROAD WHEEL (OBSOLETE)

I 1-14 KOLN

Figure 2.6.4 AAR Wheel Profiles

profiles and rail profile grinding has been

undertaken by and for the railroad industry.
The transit industry can also benefit from this
research. However, recommendations for
heavy haul railroads may not be entirely
applicable to the transit industry. A light rail
ZURICH 4 vehicle weighs (AWO) approximately 44,000
kilograms (97,000 pounds). A loaded freight
Figure 2.6.3 European Wheel Profiles
car weighs as much as 152,000 kilograms
flexibility is not provided in the selection of (335,000 pounds). This ,represents a
standard rail profiles. Only a few standard rail significant difference in wheel loads of 5,500
sections exist for use by the transit industry. kilograms (12,100 pounds) and 19,000
However, wheel and rail profiles must be kilograms (41,900 pounds) for LRVs and
compatible, which means that the wheel freight cars, respectively. Obviously, rails
profile should conform to the rail head profile. used in transit service will not be subjected to
wheel forces of the magnitude exerted by
As with wheel profiles, the majority of the freight cars. Therefore, theories of rail gauge
research and development on rail head corner fatigue, high L/V ratios, and the threat

2-l 5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
of rail rollover that pertain to freight railroads
may not be fully applicable on a transit
system.r31 The contact forces at the rail gauge
corner on curved tracks are usually twice as
large as those between the rail crown and
wheel tread.
To reduce contact stresses at the gauge
corner and gauge side rail base fastening, it is
important that the wheel/rail profile be
compatible. The wheel profile is conformed to
the rail profile if the gap between the wheel
and rail profile is less than 0.5 millimeters
(0.02 inches) at the center of the rail (in
single-point contact) or at the gauge corner (in
two-point contact).
Figure 2.6.5 illustrates various transit rail
sections used on contemporary LRT systems
in conjunction with the obsolete AAR wheel
profile and the new AAR-IB wheel profile.
The obsolete AAR wheel profile is included to
show a non-conformal two-point contact
wheel/rail relationship that transfers the
vertical load from the gauge corner toward the
centerline of the rail. This combination, shown
in Figure 2.6.5 A and C, reduces the wheel
radius at the contact location which is
detrimental to steering and introduces
accelerated gauge face wear. A secondary
distinct wheel/rail profile condition, shown in
Figure 2.65 E, is the AAR-IB wheel
superimposed on the Ri59N girder groove rail.
Although the wheel is conformed to the rail
head, a pronounced one-point contact
materializes. Although excellent for steering,
the contact stresses at the gauge corner may
prove to be too high and detrimental to the
rail, leading to fatigue defects. Recent
revisions to the rail head profile that alter the
head radius introduce a surface cant in the
head, and increase the gauge comer radius of
the Ri59 and Ri60 rail to 13 millimeters (0 5
2-l 6
inches) were undoubtedly undertaken to
improve the wheel-to-rail contact points.
The combinations of wheel and rail profiles
shown in Figure 2.6.5 illustrate the various
interface conditions generated between the
wheels and rails. The old AAR wheel profile
is obsolete for use on main line railroads.
However, some existing transit systems may
utilize this profile. To improve wheel/rail
interface contact, alternate wheel shapes may
be considered. During the early design stage
of new transit systems, transit wheel profiles
should be considered that match or conform
to the rail section(s) to be used on the system.
In the process of wheel design, the design
engineer must consider the rail sections and
the rail cant to be selected. For additional
information on rail sections, refer to Section
5.2.2 of this handbook. For additional
information on rail cant selection and benefits,
refer to Section 4.2.4.
Many transit properties have adopted the
combination of transit wheel/rail profiles
proposed by Prof. Herman Heumann r4],where
the wheel profile conforms to the rail head
profile. This design emphasizes single point
contact which improves the difference in
radius between the two rail/wheel contact
points leading to improved wheel set (axle)
curving. Improved wheel/rail contact at the
gauge corner provides improved steering and
less gauge face contact. Figure 2.6.5 F
illustrates a recommended transit wheel
profile taking advantage of the following
design concepts.
l The wheel profile is designed to conform
to selected rail sections (where the transit
system will not share track with freight
cars). Heritage or historical vehicles to be
used on the transit system for special
occasions must be considered.
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

AAl?-I8 HEEL AAR-18 WEEL

RAIL
1:20 CANT
RAIL
1:40 CANT

108 (4.250’)
k

I AAR WHEEL
TRANST HEEL

124 BC
1:20 CAN
Ri-60
NO CANT

NONCCNFORHAL

C F

Figure 2.6.5 Wheel-Rail Interface

l The selected wheel width is 108 additional wheel tread for occasional wide
millimeters (4.2 inches) to reduce wheel track gauge locations in sharp curves to
weight and projection of wheel beyond the specifically halt the vertical wear step in
rail head on the field side. Special the head of rail produced under these
trackwork switch mates, turnouts, and operating conditions.
crossing (diamond) frogs must be flange
Tee rail profile is 124 BC to provide a
bearing to conform to the wheel width. l
preferred rail head profile with improved
The width of the wheel is 18 millimeters radii and additional steel in the head area.
(0.7 inches) wider than the normal 89-
millimeter (35inch) width. This provides

2-l 7
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
l Girder groove rail section (Ri59N) is used
to provide a narrow flangeway and
increased tram or girder lip. (Note the
wheel gauge must be transit width or
1,421 millimeters).
l Rail cant is 1.20 to improve wheel/rail
contact location in curved track.
2.6.4.1 Wheel Profile-Widths and
Flangeways
The wider clearance between AAR wheel
gauge and standard track gauge governs the
width of the wheel tread and affects the width
of the wheel tread supporting surface through
special trackwork. The larger wheel-to-rail
clearance requires a wider flangeway opening
through frogs and the corresponding guard rail
flangeway. The wider flangeways promote
increased lateral wheel positions resulting in
less wheel tread contact when the wheels are
furthest from the gauge face of a frog. This
condition promotes rapid deterioration of the
critical wing rail frog point due to improper
tread support transfers between the two
components. Wheels traversing the frog point
area in a facing point lose the wing rail-wheel
support surface resulting in premature transfer
of wheel load to the frog point. This early
transfer causes the load to bear on too narrow
a frog point, producing frog point vertical head
crushing.
Placing the wheel flange further from the
gauge face of rail requires a wider wheel
tread. The wider wheel tread increases the
weight of the wheel, thereby increasing the
unsprung mass of the truck. A narrower
wheel profile of 133 millimeters (5.25 inches)
with the standard AAR-1B flange profile is the
recommended maximum width for transit
systems sharing track with freight cars, or for
special trackwork sections that do not employ
a flange-bearing frog design. This width
includes a 6-millimeter (0.25inch) radius at
the field side of the wheel tread. Narrower
2-18
wheels used with standard railroad
flangeways and wheel gauges will
undoubtedly lead to improper wheel traverse
through special trackwork components.
2.6.4.2 Wheel Profile-Flange
Configuration
The wheel flange is an extremely important
component when considering wheel/rail
design compatibility. The width of the flange
should be selected based on the standard
girder groove or guard rail section to be used
in embedded track. The standard rail sections
currently available (Ri59N, RiGON, etc.)
restrict the width of the wheel flange. If only
tee rail is to be used on the transit system, the
flange width can be more flexible. A wheel
flange with side slopes approximately 70”
from vertical has been the focus of much
design discussion based on the W wheel
forces and friction levels, with rail head wear
leading to potential wheel climb. The
proposed wheel is based on Professor
Heumann’s 70” flange design. The radii at the
outside edges of the wheel flange should be
relatively curved, in lieu of a squarer
configuration which, when worn, could lead to
sharp flange corners that perpetuate potential
wheel climb. The flange edge, or bottom, on a
majority of transit wheels is totally curved.
Comparing standard American and European
wheel profiles (Figures 2.6.1, 2.6.2 and 2.6.3),
it is apparent that the European wheel design
with flat wheel flanges considers flange
bearing a standard practice. The majority of
transit agencies in North America have not
featured a flat wheel flange design, even
though a limited amount of flange bearing is
used on some systems. Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, and Calgary are the only North
American transit agencies using a pronounced
flat wheel flange design. The recommended
wheel design proposes a limited flat section
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

on the flange specifically to be compatible with Generally, the wheel/rail profiles have been
flange-bearing special trackwork components. designed and maintained separately, with the
consequence that some practices may benefit
As a guideline for improved wheel-to-rail and one discipline but degrade overall
special trackwork performance, the wheel performance One such example is the
flange profile should be 25 millimeters (1 inch) practice of grinding gauge corner relief on the
high nominally and definitely not less than 22 high rail in curves and applying lubrication.
millimeters (0.86 inch). This practice was commonly thought to
reduce rail wear and extend rail life. However,
investigations now indicate that this procedure
2.6.4.3 Wheel/Rail Wear Interface
may actually accelerate rail wear in curves
As stated previously, transit systems generally
and degrade railcar steering to the point that
rely on railroad research data for analyzing
wheel flange forces are substantially
conditions when considering issues of
increased. Wheel/rail conformance and
mechanical and track maintenance, vehicle
maintaining that conformance on transit
operation, and safety. Understandably,
system track is essential in restricting these
intensive research by new transit systems is
degradations.r51
not economically practical. However,
conditions on railroad trackage are often
different than conditions on transit trackage. 2.6.5 Profile Rail Grinding vs. Wheel Wear
Conclusions based on railroad research
should be used only as a basis for clarifying Rail grinding procedures have received a
and resolving transit-related conditions substantial amount of attention in the railroad
between vehicle and track. The following industry. The focus has been on grinding the
information discusses AAR research and high rail in curves to provide gauge corner
development of the wheel/rail interface.L51 relief. The theory was that avoiding overload
of the gauge corner on the high rail would
reduce internal rail defects. The other theory
2.6.4.3.1 Hollow Worn Wheels
was that this relief grinding exacerbates rail
AAR investigations of rail rollover derailments and wheel wear, compared to more conformal
have ascertained that, under certain
rail profiles, by reducing the railcar steering
conditions, a combination of hollow worn
forces and increasing the wheel flange forces.
wheels and heavy rail gauge corner grinding
can generate large gauge spreading forces. To provide insight into the relative
The interfacing of the wheel/rail profiles can performance of various rail grinding practices,
contribute to: long-term rail grinding experiments were
l Rail spalling and wear undertaken, New rails were installed in
l Wheel shelling and wear several curves and were being maintained
l Damage to special trackwork using three different rail grinding practices:
l Rail rollover and flange climb derailments l No grinding
l Train resistance . “Mild” high rail gauge corner relief
. “Moderate” high rail gauge corner relief
The wheel and rail profile system can be
considered a fundamental component of a rail Transverse rail profiles and rail head heights
vehicle’s suspension system, providing proper were periodically measured to compare the
guidance along the track. relative wear rates in the three zones.

2-19
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

2.6.5.1 Wheel Profile Development

Figure 2.6.6 shows preliminary results of the
rail grinding experiment cited above. The high
rail gauge face wear rates are plotted for each
practice. Clearly, the wear rate increased with
the amount of gauge corner relief. It was
established that new wheels with AAR I:20
profiles experienced substantial wear when
first put into service and that most worn
wheels developed very similar profiles over
time. To minimize wear on new wheels, the
AAR developed a new standard wheel profile Figure 2.6.7 New AAR-1B and Hollow
(AAR-IB) that was based on an “average” Worn Wheel
worn wheel shape (see Figure 2.6.4).
100 Truck warp occurs when the truck is skewed
80 ._._._..._..... so much that its side frames rotate relative to
the bolster in the vertical plane and both
g so
s wheel sets develop large angles of attack
g 40 ._.........
relative to the rails. The large angles of attack
20
from the wheel sets of a warped truck often
0
NOORlNO MILDGRINDMODERATE GRIN0 generate large gauge spreading forces.

Figure 2.6.6 Preliminary High Face Gauge

Wear Measurements 2.6.5.2 Wheel/Rail Interface Profiles and
Potential Derailments
The implementation of the AAR-IB wheel Wheel and rail profiles play major roles in
profile has reduced the wear of new wheels. flange climb and rail rollover or wide gauge
However, stricter new wheel profile derailments. The MR recently performed
maintenance practices are required to tests to better understand the factors that
minimize deterioration of wheel profile influence the propensity of a wheel set to
performance from tread wear. For example, climb the rail. These factors include lateral
Figure 2.6.7 shows the profile of a new AAR- and vertical wheel force ratios, wheel set
1B wheel hollow worn from revenue service. angle of attack, wheel/rail flange contact
Although the worn wheel tread appears to be angle, and friction.
excessively hollow, the wheel is not
condemnable under current AAR limits. The test demonstrations were conducted on a
233-meter (7&I-foot) radius track curve for the
The ability of worn wheels to properly guide, three different high rail profiles, as shown in
or steer, a railcar through curves is seriously Figure 2.6.8:
compromised by excessive tread hollowing. . “Heavy” gauge corner grinding
The AAR has recently demonstrated that in a . “Light” gauge corner grinding
233-meter (7Wfoot) radius track curve with l No grinding
heavy high rail gauge, corner grinding and
wheel sets with hollow profile will actually
produce forces that inhibit truck turning and
cause trucks to warp.

2-20

Figure 2.6.8 Three Rail Profiles Used in
AAR Demonstration
A pair of instrumented wheel sets, with the
hollow worn profiles shown in Figure 2.6.7,
were used in the trailing truck of a loo-ton
hopper car to measure the wheel/rail forces.
The primary measurements of interest were
truck steering moments, truck warp angle, and
wheel set lateral forces. Truck steering
moments were measured to evaluate the
steering quality of a particular wheel/rail
profile combination. In Figure 2.6.9 the
bottom curve shows the truck steering
moment through the three test zones when
the running surfaces of the rails were dry and
the gauge face of the high rail was lubricated.
In the figure, a positive steering moment acts
to steer the truck into the curve, while a
negative steering moment acts to resist truck
steering. The combination of hollow worn
wheel profiles and heavy rail gauge corner
grinding generated a large negative steering
moment in the heavy grind zone. The
steering moment improved dramatically in the
mild and no-grind zones.
The large negative steering moment caused
the test truck to warp in the heavy grind zone,
as shown in the top curve of the figure. As the
2-21
Liaht Rail Transit Vehicles
Figure 2.6.9 Truck Steering Moment and
Warp Angle from Demonstration
steering moment increased in the light and no-
grind zones, the truck warp angle improved.
At the point of maximum truck warp in the
heavy grind zone, the test truck produced a
trackside lateral gauge spreading force of
151,000 Newtons (34,000 pounds) Gauge
spreading forces of this magnitude have the
potential to cause wide gauge or rail rollover
derailments in weak track under certain
conditions.r51
2.6.5.3 Special Trackwork and Hollow
Worn Wheels
False flanges on hollow worn wheels cause
excessive damage to switches, turnouts,
crossing frogs, and grade crossings compared
to properly tapered wheels. Hollow worn
wheels increase noise and vibration due to
excessive impacting of the false flange on the
wing rails and wide special trackwork
components.
European switch point design does not
consider the raised switch point concept;
therefore, the selection of a uniform or
graduated design is not a concern. However,
either raised switch point design, especially
level switch point design, can best improve
operations through the regular maintenance of
wheel truing, eliminating the false flange and
secondary batter caused by the false flange.
The standards for vehicle wheel maintenance
play an important part in the switch point
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

design and must be considered when wear rates on both wheels and rails due to the
contemplating wheel special trackwork switch decrease in overturning, creep, and climb
point interface. forces being exerted on the running rails.

For additional information on wheel false
flange and special trackwork switch point
design with raised switch points, refer to
Section 6.53.
2.6.5.4 Truck Resistance with Hollow
Wheels
It was determined that trucks that warp in
curves, so that both wheel sets run in flange
contact with the high rail, have a higher rolling
resistance than trucks that steer properly in
curves. Also, trucks that exhibit a “diagonal”
wheel wear pattern-two diagonally opposite
wheels are worn hollow while the other two
are not-might have an increased rolling
resistance on tangent track because two
diagonally opposite wheels would run in or
near flange contact.
Test results indicate that, at 80 km/h (48
mph), the rolling resistance of the test truck
increased in the curve from approximately
2600 to 7100 Newtons (600 to 1,600 pounds)
when the wheel profile was changed from new
to hollow worn.
Transit agencies generally include wheel
truing machines in their requirements for
maintenance facilities. Therefore, severely
hollow worn wheels should not be a problem if
conscientious wheel maintenance is
practiced. Hollow worn wheels would also be
a severe detriment to the surrounding
surfaces in embedded track.
“Normal” trucks are configured as two parallel
sets of wheels and axles locked in a
rectangular frame. As this assembly travels
through curves, the attempt by the inside and
outside wheels to remain parallel results in
significant forces being exerted by the wheels
Worn
on the rails.
The wheels attempt to overturn the rails, climb
the rails, and creep along the rails
simultaneously.
Rail systems designers have recognized that
if successful steerable trucks could be
developed, rail and wheel wear could be
reduced. A major problem in achieving a
successful steerable truck or axle has been
the difficulty in developing a system that not
only permits steerability in curves, but also
retains stability (i.e. does not “hunt”) when
traveling on tangent track.
The self-steering principle has been
successfully implemented in main line diesel-
electric freight locomotives using mechanical
linkages that allow axle movement within the
truck frame. Successful designs based on
rubber/steel chevron primary suspension
systems have been achieved on commuter,
intercity, and high speed trains, notably in
Sweden.
The rubber/steel chevron system has also
been applied successfully to light rail vehicles
both in Europe and the United States.

Some new design European vehicles,

2.655 Truck Resistance-Alternate
Approaches featuring 100% low-floor designs, are
The advantages of “radial” or “self-steering” effectively eliminating the conventional “four-
trucks have been demonstrated in a variety of wheel” truck, as we have known it. Instead
main line railroad and transit applications. various types of single axles and
These advantages usually appear as lower independently mounted wheels are being
utilized.

2-22
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

If a light rail system is proposed that will utilize in the tire, and the distortion in the elastomer
radial steering or other unconventional at the high rail. The limiting flange provides
designs for wheels and axles, the vehicle and control of the lateral tire position. The figure
track designers should cooperatively also illustrates the inner wheel, wherein the
determine the impacts of such designs on restraining rail-to-wheel tire action actually
wheels and rails. opens the gap at the limiting flange Under
these conditions, the wheel tire is free to shift
to the limit of the elastomer distortion which is
2.7 WHEEL CENTER LIMITING FLANGE
equal to the lateral outside wheel shift beyond
CONDITIONS
the restraining rail flangeway width.
The standard for most LRV wheel designs
Wheel designers must consider transit
includes resilient wheels such as the Bochum
systems design criteria for guarded track
54, Bochum 84, SAB, and the Acousta-Flex
wherein the guard or restraining rail will place
wheel designs.
lateral restrictions on movement of the wheel
Observation of internal wheel wear at the out of the normal direction.
interface between the resilient wheel tire and
Notably, the resilient wheel designs for the
the center hub has indicated substantial
North American PCC cars were designed with
lateral deflection in the elastomer components
rigidity limits in both lateral directions.
as shown in Figure 2.7.1. Some resilient
Whether this was by design or accident is
wheel designs include a limiting flange that
unknown.
controls the amount of lateral deflection when
the outside wheel actually bears against the
In addition, to accommodate the proposed
outside rail gauge face. On certain resilient
heavy wheel flanging due to sharp curvature
wheel designs the limiting flange is
and excessive vehicle mass, the tire and
unidirectional, controlling the lateral shift for a
wheel center component material and
typical outside wheel-to-rail force. The limiting
hardness should be reevaluated to provide
flange design does not consider the inner
wear-resistant faces.
wheel action, as normally there is no lateral
wheel restriction. Wheel squeal in curves has continually been
studied at the wheel/rail interface.
Most light rail track designs include guarded
Consideration must be given to wheel squeal
track on relatively sharp curves by providing a
caused by the limiting flange action,
restraining rail adjacent to the inner rail. The
guarding or restraining rail is positioned to 2.8 VEHICLES AND STATIONS-ADA
contact the inside face of the inside wheel of REQUIREMENTS
the vehicle in a curve. This action, in fact,
assists in steering the vehicle truck through ADA requires that public operators of light rail
the track curve. For additional information on transit systems make their transportation
guarded track, refer to Section 4.2.8. The services, facilities and communication
restraining rail action results in a force on the systems accessible to persons with
wheel in the direction opposite to the disabilities. New vehicles and construction of
customary wheel-rail gauge face flanging. facilities must provide the needed
accessibility.
Figure 2.7.1 illustrates and documents the
normal resilient wheel position, the lateral shift

2-23
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

2.8.1 Clearance and Tolerances Figure 2.8.1 outlines the general configuration
of the track-to-station platform interface with
To properly address ADA requirements, the desired installation tolerances. The
designers will consider all dimensional illustration references both embedded track
tolerances of the platform/vehicle interface, and direct fixation track designs that require
such as: construction of a permanent track bed in lieu
l Track-to-platform clearances of a ballasted section, which is subject to
l Vehicle-to-track clearances settlement and possible surface lift
l Vehicle dimensional tolerances, new/old requirements.
l Vehicle load leveling
2.9 REFERENCES
The tight horizontal and vertical clearance
requirements between the vehicle door [I] Penn Machine Company. LRV Wheel
threshold and the platform edge impact the Profiles. Richard E. Trail, VP
construction of track. In order to maintain Transportation Letter dated July 3, 1996.
these tolerances, it may be necessary to 21 Leary, John F. “America Adopts Worn
structurally connect the track and the platform Wheel Profiles.” AAR Railway Gazette
This may best be accomplished using direct International, July 1990.
fixation track or embedded track with a
[3] Kalousek, Joe & Magel, Eric, Managing
structural slab connected to the platform
Rail Resources, AREA Volume 98,
structure.
Bulletin 760, May 1997.
Track design, station design, and vehicle [4] Professor Hermann Heumann,
design must comply with the requirements of Centenary Anniversary.
the ADA (1990). As a guideline, new light rail [5] Mace, Stephen E., Improving the
transit stations should be designed taking into Wheel/Rail Interface, Association of
consideration the ultimate ADA goal of American Railroads Railway Age,
providing access for persons with disabilities. October 1995.
Horizontally, these requirements include
providing platform edges that are within 75
millimeters (3 inches) of the edge of the
vehicle floor with the door in the open position.
Vertically, the vehicle floor elevation should be
level with or slightly higher than the station
platform elevation.

2-24
 Light Rail Transit Vehicles

LIMITING NON-DISTORTED
FLANGE - ELASTOMER

TIRE

NORMAL WHEEL CONDITION

VEHICLE AXLE FORCE VEHICLE AXLE FORCE

. 4 .

WHEEL CENTER
CENTER

OUTSIDE HIGH RUNNING RAIL INSIDE LOW RUNNING RAIL

\ WlTH RESTRAINING RAIL
VEHICLE WHEELS IN CURVE POSITION

NOTES: 1. LATERAL SHIFTS AND DISTORTION OF RUBBER OF 6 millimeters (l/4 inch) IS CONSIDERED NORMAL.

2. !MDE WHEEL GAUGE DUE TO DISTORTION RESULTS IN GUARDED (RESTRAINING RAIL) SITUATIONS.

3. WHEEL CENTER TO TIRE SHIFT UNCONTROLLED AT INSIDE RUNNING RAIL.

Figure 2.7.1 Resilient Wheel

2-25
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

GAUGE LINE FINAL E3ca VEHICLE we (FROM GAUGE LINE

- f TO DOOR TRESiC!40) PLUS 75 (3 INCHES)

TRA

I I/ - ----^ _^ \ / / TRUNCATED DOMES

DIRECT FlXATlON TRACK

CONSTRUCTlGN ENTIRE
LENGTH OF PLATFORM
15 METERS (50 FT) L+B 16” REFER TO NOTE 4
EACH END.-,
DESIGN TO CONSIDER
50 (2 INCH) OEPTH DRAINACE
DEPRESSJONTO RETARD
SEEPAGE TO RAIL AREA

DIRECT FIXATION TRACK SECTION AT STATION PLATFORM

RAIL TO PLATFORM GuIDELINES

FINAL DEYGN VEHICLE MDTH (FROM GAUGE LINE

GAUGE LINE TO DOOR TRESHOLD) PLUS 75 (3 INCHES)

f h:T; ;yRTA;LGAuGE L+;E,FT;;r$;

/

EMBEDDED TRACK SECTION AT STihN PLATFORM

RAIL TO PLATFORM GUIDELINES

LONGITUDINAL PLATFORM TOLERANCES

NDTES:
DIMENSJONS A h B TO BE DETERMINEDUSING TRANSIT AGENCY MHlCLE
WlOTH AND HEIGHT DlMEN3ONS RESPECTIMLY

FOR THE ENTIRE LONGITUDINAL LENGTH OF PLATFORM. THE SURFACE

DEMATlON SHAlL HAM A TOCERANCEOF 3 (I/8 INCH) IN 6100 (20 FEET)
AND MUST BE CONSTRUCTED YIITHIN THE STATED CRITICAL MRilCAL
(TOP OF RAlL PLATFORM SURFACE) TRERATEO LIMITS

THE GAUGE LINE ALIGNMENT of THE CLOSEST RAIL TO THE PLATFORM SHALL
MAINTAIN A SPEUFIC HORIZONTAL RELATIONSHIP TO THE PLATFORM FACE
WlTHlN THE STATED HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE THROUGHOUT THE LENGTH
OF THE STATION PLATFORM

THE TOP OF RAIL ALIGNMENT SHALL MAJNTAIN A SPECIFIC MRnC&

RELATlONSHlP TO THE PLATFORM NRFACE WITHIN THE STATE0
MRTlCAL CLEARANCE THRCUGHCUT THE LENGTH OF THE
STATlON PLATFORM

PLATFORM EDGE OMRHANG SHALL BE OF SUFFICIENT LENGTH TO ALLOW

lNSTALLATlCh’i CONTRACTOR TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTSOF NOTE 1 AND
A PLATFORM MHICLE CLEARANCE OF 75 (3 INCHES) WITH MHlCLE IN
NORMAL STATIC POSITION

Figure 2.8.7 Design Guidelines: Track at Station Platform

II
2-26
Chapter 3-Light Rail Transit Track Geometry

Table of Contents

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3-l

3.2 TRANSIT TRACK HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 3-2

3.2 1 Minimum Tangent Length Between Curves 3-3
3 2.2 Vehicle Length Criteria 3-5
3.2.3 Speed Criteria, Vehicle and Passenger 3-5
3.2.4 Circular Curves 3-6
3.2 4.1 Compound Circular Curves 3-9
3.2.4.2 Reverse Circular Curves 3-l 0
3.2.5 Superelevation and Spiral Transition Curves 3-l 0
3.2.5.1 Superelevation 3-l 1
3.253 Spiral Transition Curves 3-l 3
3.253 1 Spiral Transition Curve Lengths 3-20
3.2.6 Speed, Curvature, and Superelevation: Theory .
and Basis of Criteria 3-21
3.2.6.1 Design Speed in Curves 3-21
3.2.6.2 Superelevation Theory 3-21
3.2.6.3 Actual Superelevation 3-22
3.2.6.4 Superelevation Unbalance 3-23
3.2.6.5 Determination of Curve Design Speed 3-24
3.2.6.5.1 Categories of Speeds in Curves 3-24
3.2.6.5.2 Overturning Speed 3-24
3.2.6.5.3 Safe Speed 3-25
3.2.6.5.4 Determination of Superelevation Unbalance
Values for Safe and Overturning Speeds 3-26
3.2.6.6 Easement Curves 3-26
3.2.6.6.1 Length of Easement Curves 3-26

3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 3-29

3.3.1 Vertical Tangents 3-29
3.3.2 Vehicle Length Criteria 3-31
3.3.3 Vertical Grades 3-31
3.3.4 Vertical Curves 3-31
3.3.4.1 Vertical Curve Lengths 3-32
3.3.5 Vertical Curves, Special Conditions 3-32
3.3.5.1 Reverse Vertical Curves 3-32
3.3.5.2 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Curvature 3-32
3.3.6 Station Platform Alignment Considerations 3-33
3.3.6.1 Horizontal Alignment of Station Platforms 3-33
3.3.6.2 Vertical Alignment of Station Platforms 3-33
3 3.7 Joint LRT-Railroad/Freight Tracks 3-33
3.3 7.1 Horizontal Alignment 3-33

3-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

3.3.7.2 Tangent Alignment 3-33

3.3.7.3 Curved Alignment 3-33
3.3.7 4 Superelevation 3-34
3.3.7.5 Spiral Transitions 3-34
3.3 7.6 Vertical Alignment of Joint Use Tracks 3-34
3.3.7.6.1 General 3-34
3 3.7.6.2 Vertical Tangents 3-34
3.3.7.6.3 Vertical Grades 3-35
3.3.7.6.4 Vertical Curves 3-35

3.4 VEHICLE CLEARANCES AND TRACK CENTERS 3-35

3.4 1 Clearance Envelope 3-36
3 4.1.1 Vehicle Dynamic Envelope 3-36
3.4.1.2 Track Construction and Maintenance Tolerances 3-37
3 4.1.3 Curvature and Superelevation Effects 3-37
3 4.1.3.1 Curvature Effects 3-38
3 4.1.3.2 Superelevation Effects 3-39
3.4.1.5 Vehicle Running Clearance 3-39
3.4.2 Structure Gauge 3-40
3.4.3 Station Platforms 3-40
3.4.4 Vertical Clearances 3-41
3.4.5 Track Centers and Fouling Points 3-41

3.5 REFERENCES 3-41

List of Figures
Figure 3.2.1 Horizontal Curve and Spiral Nomenclature 3-8

Figure 3.22 Supelevation Transitions for Reverse Curves 3-10

Figure 3.2.3 LRT Vehicle on Superelevated Track 3-22

Figure 3.2.4 Force Diagram of LRT Vehicle on Superelevated Track 3-25

Figure 3.3.1 Vertical Curve Nomencalture 3-30

Figure 3.4.1 Horizontal Curve Effects on Vehicle Lateral Clearance 3-38

Figure 3.4.2 Dynamic Vehicle Outline Superelevation Effect on

Vertical Clearances 3-39

List of Tables
Table 3.2.1 Alignment Design Limiting Factors 3-6

Table 3.2.2a Desired Superelevation and Minimum

Spiral Curve Length (Metric Units) 3-14

Table 3.2.2b Desired Superelevation and Minimum

Spiral Curve Length (English Units) 3-17

Table 3.2.3 Safe and Overturning Speed E, Limits 3-26

3-ii
CHAPTER 3-LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT TRACK GEOMETRY

3.1 INTRODUCTION construction is an existing or abandoned

freight railway line. 1’1 The LRT vehicle is often
The most efficient track for operating any required to operate at speeds of 65 to 90 kph
railway is straight and flat. Unfortunately, (40 to 55 mph) through alignments that were
most railway routes are neither straight nor originally designed for FRA Class 1 or 2
flat. Tangent sections of track need to be freight operations; i.e , less than 45 kph (30
connected in a way that steers the train safely, mph)
ensuring that the passengers are comfortable
and the cars and track perform well together. General guidelines for the development of
This dual goal is the subject of this chapter. horizontal alignment criteria should be
determined before formulating any specific
The primary goals of geometric criteria for criteria. This includes knowledge of the
light rail transit are to provide cost-effective, vehicle configuration and a general idea of the
efficient, and comfortable transportation, while maximum operating speeds. An example of
maintaining adequate factors of safety with the latter is shown from an excerpt from the
respect to overall operations, maintenance, design criteria for one LRT system: [*I
and vehicle stability. In general, design
criteria guidelines are developed using “Except for areas where the LRT
accepted engineering practices and the operates within or adjacent to surface
experience of comparable operating rail transit streets, the track alignment shall be
systems. designed to accommodate the
maximum design speed of 90 kph (55
Light rail transit (LRT) geometry standards ~M-0. Physical constraints along
and criteria differ from freight or commuter various portions of the system,
railway standards, such as those described in together with other design limitations,
applicable sections of the American Railway may preclude achievement of this
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way objective. Where the LRT operates
Association (AREMA) Manual, Chapter 5, in within or adjacent to surface streets,
several important aspects. Although the the maximum design speed for the
major principles of LRT geometry design are track alignment shall be limited to the
similar or identical to that of freight/commuter legal speed of the parallel street
railways, the LRT must be able to safely travel traffic, but shall not exceed 57 kph (35
through restrictive alignments typical of urban mph). In all areas, the civil design
central business districts, including rights-of- speed shall be coordinated with the
way shared with automotive traffic. Light rail normal operating speeds as provided
vehicles are also typically designed to travel on the train performance simulation
at relatively high operating speeds in program speed-distance profiles.
suburban and rural settings.
Where the LRT system includes at-
The LRT alignment corridor is often grade portions where light rail
predetermined by various physical or vehicles will operate in mixed traffic
economic considerations inherent to design with rubber-tired vehicles in surface
for urban areas One of the most common streets, the applicable geometric
right-of-way corridors for new LRT design criteria for such streets shall

3-l
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

be met in the design of the track performance requirements. This generally

alignment results in the following effects on the LRT
horizontal alignment and track superelevation
Where the LRT system includes areas designs:
where light rail vehicles will operate in . Minimum main line horizontal curve radius
joint usage with railroad freight traffic, on new LRT systems is approximately 25
the applicable minimum geometric meters (82 feet), depending on physical
design criteria for each type of rail restrictions and vehicle design.
system shall be considered and the
l Superelevation unbalance ranges from
more restrictive shall govern the
100 to 225 millimeters (4 to 9 inches),
design of the track alignment and
depending on vehicle design and
clearances.”
passenger comfort tolerance.[31 Vehicle
Criteria for the design of LRT and freight designs that can handle higher
railroad joint usage tracks are described later superelevation unbalance can operate at
in this section. higher speeds through a given curve
radius and actual superelevation
In addition to the recommendations presented combination. LRT superelevation
in the following sections, it should be noted unbalance is normally limited to 75
that combinations of minimum horizontal millimeters (3.0 inches); however, there
radius, maximum grade, and maximum are instances where 115 millimeters (4.5
unbalanced superelevation are to be avoided inches) have been implemented.
in the geometric design. a LRT spiral transition lengths and
superelevation runoff rates are generally
The following geometric guidelines are
shorter than corresponding
established to consider both the limitations of
freight/commuter railway criteria.
horizontal, vertical, and transitional track
geometry for cost-effective designs and the In determining horizontal alignment, four
ride comfort requirements for the LRT levels of criteria may be considered.[41 These
passenger. levels are based on a review of existing
design criteria documents, particularly those
with a combination of ballasted and
3.2 TRANSIT TRACK HORIZONTAL
embedded main line trackwork:
ALIGNMENT
l Main Line Desired Minimum-This
The horizontal alignment of track consists of a criterion is based on an evaluation of
series of tangents joined to circular curves maximum passenger comfort, initial
and spiral transition curves. In yards and construction cost, and maintenance
other non-revenue tracks, the requirement for considerations on main line ballasted and
spiral transition curve is frequently deleted. direct fixation track. It is used where no
Track superelevation in curves is used to physical restrictions or significant
maximize vehicle operating speeds wherever construction cost differences are
practicable. encountered. An optional preferred
minimum may also be indicated to define
An LRT alignment is often constrained by both the most conservative possible future
physical restrictions and minimum operating case; i e., maximum future operating

3-2
 - LRT Track Geometry

speed for given conditions within the a programmed maintenance schedule, but
alignment corridor extensive use of absolute minimum design
criteria can result in eventual revenue service
Main Line Absolute Minimum-Where
degradation and unacceptable maintenance
physical restrictions prevent the use of the
costs.
main line desired minimum criterion, a
main line absolute minimum criterion is
The recommended horizontal alignment
often specified. This criterion is
criteria herein are based on the LRT vehicle
determined primarily by the vehicle
design and performance characteristics
design, with passenger comfort a
described in Chapter 2.
secondary consideration.
Main Line Embedded Track-Where the
LRT is operated on low-speed embedded 3.2.1 Minimum Tangent Length Between
track, with or without shared automotive Curves
traffic, the physical restrictions
The discussion of minimum tangent track
encountered require a special set of
length is related to circular curves (Section
geometric criteria that accommodates
3.2.4). The complete criteria for minimum
existing roadway profiles, street
tangent length will be developed here and
intersections, and narrow horizontal
referenced from other applicable sections.
alignment corridors that are typical of
urban construction.
The development of this criterion usually
Yard and Non-Revenue Track-This considers the requirements of AREMA
criterion is generally less than main line Manual, Chapter 5, which specifies that the
track, covering low-speed and low-volume minimum length of tangent between curves is
non-revenue service. The minimum equal to the longest car that will traverse the
criterion is determined primarily by the system.@] This usually translates into a
vehicle design, with little or no desired minimum criterion of 30 meters (100
consideration of passenger comfort. feet). Ride comfort criteria for transit systems
must be considered, however, and the
The yard and non-revenue track criteria may minimum length of tangent between curves is
not be valid for relatively high-volume tracks also given as:
such as yard main entrance leads. This
Li = 0.57v (LT = 3V)
criterion also must assume that work train
equipment will use the tracks. where:
L, = minimum tangent length in meters
It should be emphasized that the use of (feet)
absolute minimum geometric criteria, V = operating speed in kph (mph)
particularly for horizontal alignment, has
several potential impacts in terms of This formula is based on vehicle travel of at
increased annual maintenance, noise, and least 2 seconds on tangent track between two
vehicle wheel wear, and shorter track curves. This same criterion also applies to
component life. Its use should be circular curves, as indicated below. This
implemented with extreme caution. One or criteria has been used for various transit
two isolated locations of high track designs in the U.S. since BART in the early
maintenance may be tolerated and included in 1960s.[61 The desired minimum length

3-3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
between curves is thus usually expressed as
an approximate car length or in accordance
with the formula above, whichever is larger.
Main line absolute minimum tangent length
depends on the vehicle and degree of
passenger ride quality degradation that can be
tolerated. One criterion is the maximum truck
center distance plus axle spacing; i.e., the
distance from the vehicle front axle to the rear
axle. In other criteria, the truck center
distance alone is sometimes used. When
spiral curves are used, the difference between
these two criteria is not significant.
An additional consideration for ballasted
trackwork is the minimum tangent length for
mechanized lining equipment, which is
commonly based on multiples of IO-meter
(31-foot) chords. Very short curve lengths
have been noted to cause significant
alignment throw errors by automatic track
lining machines during surfacing operations.
The IO-meter (31-foot) length can thus be
considered an absolute floor on the minimum
tangent distance for ballasted main line track
in lieu of other criteria.
The preceding discussion is based on reverse
curves. For curves in the same direction, it is
preferable to have a compound curve, with or
without a spiral transition curve, than to have
a short length of tangent between the curves
This condition, known as a “broken back”
curve, does not affect safety or operating
speeds, but does create substandard ride
quality. As a guideline, curves in the same
direction should preferably have no tangent
between curves or, if required, the same
minimum tangent distance as that applicable
to reverse curves.
In embedded trackwork on city streets and in
other congested areas, it may not be feasible
to provide minimum tangent distances
between reverse curves. Unless the
3-4
maximum vehicle coupler angle is exceeded,
one practical solution to this problem is to
waive the tangent track requirements between
curves if operating speeds are below 32 kph
(20 mph) and no track superelevation is used
on either curve. r4]
For yards and in special trackwork, it is
usually not practicable to achieve the desired
minimum tangent lengths AREMA Manual,
Chapter 5, provides a series of minimum
tangent distances based on long freight car
configurations and worst-case coupler angles.
The use of the AREMA table would be
conservative for an LRT vehicle, which has
much shorter truck centers and axle spacings
than a typical freight railroad car. As speeds
in yards are restricted and superelevation is
generally not used, very minimal tangent
lengths are required between curves. It is
also noted in the AREMA Manual that turnouts
and sidings can also create unavoidable short
tangents between reverse curves.
Existing LRT criteria do not normally address
minimum tangent lengths at yard tracks, but
leave this issue to the discretion of the
trackwork designer and/or the individual
transit agency. To permit the use of work
trains and similar rail mounted equipment, it is
prudent to utilize the AREMA minimum
tangent distances between reverse curves in
yard tracks.
Having reviewed the various criteria for
tangents between reverse curves, it is now
possible to summarize typical guideline
criteria for light rail transit:
Main Line Preferred
Minimum (Optional) The greater of either,
LT = 60 meters (200 feet) or
LT = 0.57v
where: LT = minimum
tangent length (meters)
V = maximum operating
speed (kph)
 LRT Track Geometry

Main Line Desired 3.2.2 Vehicle Length Criteria

Minimum The greater of either
LT = length of LRT vehicle Refer to Sections 1.3 and 2.2 of this handbook
over couplers (meters) or LT for a discussion and data regarding vehicle
= 0 57V length. Criteria for vehicle length are set not
where. LT = minimum only by the vehicle capacity requirements, but
tangent length (meters) also by clearance and track curvature
V = maximum operating considerations
speed (kph)
Note: The LRT vehicle The type of vehicle, whether articulated or
length over couplers is often low-floor, will also affect its overall length,
rounded up to 30 meters truck center spacing, axle spacing, and center
(100 feet). of gravity, all of which have an impact on the
Main Line Absolute track alignment.
Minimum: The greater of either
LT = 9.5 meters (31 feet) or
LT = (Vehicle Truck Center 3.2.3 Speed Criteria, Vehicle and
Distance) + (Axle Spacing) Passenger
Main Line
Embedded Track
LT = 0 meters, where The speed criteria for curved track is
vehicle coupler angle limits determined by carefully estimating passenger
are not exceeded, speed is comfort and preventing undue forces on the
less than 32 kph (20 mph),
and no track superelevation trackwork, vehicle trucks/wheels, and vehicle
is used frames. Vehicle stability on curved track is
or LT = main line absolute also an important consideration in the
minimum determination of LRT speed criteria.
Yard and Non-
Revenue Track: The lesser of either, In general, the limiting factors of the major
LT = 9.5 meters (31 feet) or alignment design components can be
LT = 0 meters (0 feet) for classified as shown in Table 3.2.1.
Rs290 meters (955 feet)
LT = 3.0 meters (10 feet) for As indicated in previous sections, LRT
Rs250 meters (818 feet) operating speeds are generally in the range of
LT = 6.1 meters (20 feet) for 65 to 90 kph (40 to 55 mph), except on
R>220 meters (716 feet) embedded trackwork. Separate geometric
LT = 7.6 meters (25 feet) for criteria are recommended for these
Rsl95 meters (637 feet) conditions. Restricted operating speeds are
LT = 9.1 meters (30 feet) for always possible along the alignment corridor,
Rsl75 meters (573 feet) but proposed design speeds below 60 kph (40
Note: Where absolutely generally create unacceptable
mph)
necessary, the Main Line constraints to the train control design and
Embedded Track criteria proposed operations.
may also be applied.

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Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Table 3.2.1 Alignment Design Limiting Factors

Alignment Component Major Limiting Factors(s)

Minimum Length between Curves . Passenger comfort
l Vehicle truck/wheel forces
Circular Curves (Minimum Radius) l Trackwork maintenance
l Vehicle truck/wheel forces
Compound and Reverse Circular Curves l Passenger comfort
l Vehicle frame forces
Spiral Transition Curve Length 0 Passenger comfort
l Trackwork maintenance
Superelevation . Passenger comfort
l Vehicle stability
Superelevation Runoff Rate 0 Passenger comfort
l Vehicle frame forces
Vertical Tangent between Vertical l Passenger comfort
Curves
Vertical Curve/Grade . Passenger comfort
(Maximum Rate of Change) l Vehicle frame forces
Special Trackwork 0 Passenger comfort
l Trackwork maintenance
Station Platforms l Vehicle clearances
l ADA platform gap requirements
Joint LRT/Freight RR Usage l Trackwork maintenance
l Compatibility of LRT and freight vehicle
truck/wheels

3.2.4 Circular Curves curvature is defined entirely in English units

Intersections of horizontal alignment tangents
are connected by circular curves. The curves
may be simple curves or spiraled curves,
depending on the curve location, curve radius,
and required superelevation.
LRT alignment geometry differs from freight
railroad (AREMA) design in that the arc is
used to define circular curves and the
associated spirals. Also, curves for LRT
designs are generally defined and specified by
their radius rather than degree of curvature.
This becomes an important distinction when
designing in metric units, as the degree of
and has no direct equivalent in metric units.
For conversion of existing alignment curve
data calculated in English units, particularly
those based on the degree of curvature, it is
most efficient to determine the radius in
English units, then convert to metric.
As a guideline for LRT design, curves should
be specified by their radius. Degree of
curvature, where required for calculation
purposes, should be defined by the arc
definition of curvature as determined by the
following formula:

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 LRT Track Geometry

In some locations, such as aerial structures

D=
and tunnels, maintenance vehicle and
equipment access must also be considered in
where, D = degree of curvature, in decimal degrees the selection of minimum horizontal curve
R = radius of curvature, in meters (feet) criteria.
Circular curves for LRT design are, as noted
The desired minimum curve radius is set at
above, defined by curve radius and arc of
the threshold limit for restraining rail, as
curve length. The geometric properties of the
determined from Chapter 4 herein. In most
circular curve are summarized in Figure
cases, this is around 150 meters (500 feet). A
3.2.1.
secondary limit is considered for main line
The minimum curve radius is determined by track, where rail guarding can control
the physical characteristics of the vehicle. excessive maintenance and wheel squeal.
Although steerable trucks or “stiff truck Embedded track and yard track have far less
designs have an impact on minimum rigid criteria, as vehicle speeds on these
allowable track curve radius, the minimum tracks are generally limited to 25 kph (16
radius is more severely affected by the mph).
distance between vehicle truck centers and
Embedded main line track is normally
truck axle spacing.
permitted to be constructed at absolute
For most modern LRV designs, whether high- minimum radii as a concession to the extreme
or low-floor, the most common absolute alignment restrictions in urban areas.
minimum radius appears to be 25 meters (82 However, rail-mounted maintenance
feet). This is considerably larger than the ? ?- equipment, particularly work locomotives,
to 12-meter (36- to 40-foot) track radius that must be able to operate on these tracks The
can be negotiated by a tram or PCC type use of absolute minimum radius curves should
vehicle The 25meter track radius is still be thus restricted to main line terminal loops
sufficient, however, to permit at-grade and yard turnaround or bypass tracks. ~1
alignments in urban areas while maintaining
In view of the design considerations indicated
an adequate vehicle capacity.
above, guideline criteria for modern LRV
It is easier to maintain track on tangent equipment are as follows for minimum curve
alignments than on curves, and there is a radii:
curve radius threshold below which it Main Line Desired Minimum, 150 meters
becomes extremely expensive to maintain except Embedded Track: (500 feet)
track components. In addition, the probability Main Line Absolute Minimum, 150 meters
of wheel squeal increases dramatically on Aerial Structures and (500 feet)
smaller radius curves. The use of restraining Tunnels:
rail or girder guard rail as discussed in Main Line Absolute Minimum, 90 meters
Chapter 4 of this handbook can reduce the Ballasted At-Grade: (300 feet)
severity of some of these track problems to Main Line Embedded Track, 35 meters
tolerable levels, but at a relatively high initial Desired Minimum: (115 feet)
cost.

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LightRailTrackDesign Handbook

MAN
TANGENT

NOTATIONS
cc - CENTER OF CIRCULAR CURVE - POINT OF CHANGE FROM CIRCULAR
PT
CURVE TO TANGENT
cs - POINT OF CHANGE FROM CIRCULAR
CURVE TO SPIRAL - RADIUS OF CIRCULAR CURVE
R
DC - DEGREE OF CIRCULAR CURVE, - POINT OF CHPNGE FROM SPIRAL
SC
ARC DEFINITION TO CIRCULAR CURVE

ES - TOTAL EXTERNAL DISTANCE OF A - POINT OF CHANGE FROM SPIRAL

ST
SPIRALIZED CURVE TO TANGENT
k - TANGENT DISTANCE FROM TS OR ST - SHORT TANGENT OF SPIRAL
S.T
TO PC OR PT OF THE SHIFTED
CIRCULAR CURVE - TOTAL TANGENT DISTANCE
TS
FROM TS OR ST TO PI
Lc - TOTAL LENGTH OF CIRCULAR
CURVE ARC TS - P$MO~CHANGE FROM TANGENT

LS - TOTAL LENGTH OF SPIRAL

XS - TANGENT DISTANCE FROM TS
LT - LONG TANGENT OF SPIRAL TO SC OR ST TO CS
P - OFFSET FROM THE MAIN TANGENT - TANGENT OFFSET AT SC OR CS
YS
TO THE PC OR PT OF THE SHIFTED
ClRCULAR CURVE A - TOTAL CENTRAL ANGLE OF SPIRAL
AND CIRCULAR CURVES
PC - POINT OF CHANGE FROM TANGENT
TO CIRCULAR CURVE - CENTRAL ANGLE OF THE
AC
CIRCULAR CURVE
PI . POINT OF INTERSECTION OF
MAlN TANGENTS - CENTRAL ANGLE OF SPIRAL
0s
PI, - POINT OF INTERSECTION OF
MA4N TANGENT WITH TANGENT
THROUGH SC OR CS POINT SPWL FORMUIAS
OS IN RADIANS
CURVE FORMULAS 2 6
X5’ L,(,--.-- 8s 82 -...85 ) Ls - 2RB,
10 216 9360
5729.578
DC
-7 3 82 7 1 Ls
0s. TF
y,- L, (---*-8s 0s --... *s )
Ts - (R*p) ton + - k 3 42 1320 75600 L.T. .
2 4 6 xs - - ys
ton 0s
(R.p) (1 - 1) . p 1 8s 8, 0s
Es - k -Ls +-y----~-~-~-.~ ST.- -%
co5 a sn 85
2
AC A- 2R5 3 5
- x 100 .
Lc -
DC
-
DC
x 100 p -Ls (---.-.0s 0s 0s )
12 336 15840

Figure 3.2.1 Horizontal Curve and Spiral Nomenclature

3-8
 LRT Track Geometry

Main Line Embedded Track, 25 meters 3.2.4.1 Compound Circular Curves

Absolute Minimum. (82 feet) The criterion for compound circular curves is
Yard and Non-Revenue 30 meters similar to that of the tangent-to-curve
Track, Desired Minimum: (100 feet) transition described in Section 3 2.5
Yard and Non-Revenue 25 meters Although generally less severe, they must still
Tracks, Absolute Minimum (82 feet) address the dual objectives of passenger
comfort and vehicle structural design in
The minimum circular curve length is dictated torsion
by ride comfort and is hence, unlike minimum
tangent length, not related to vehicle physical A transition spiral should be used at each end
characteristics. The desired minimum circular of a superelevated circular curve and between
curve length is generally determined by the compound circular curves. Where compound
following formula: curves are used, they should be connected by
a spiral transition curve. The desired
L = 0.57V (L = 3V)
minimum main line spiral length is the greater
where: L = minimum length of curve, in of the lengths as determined by the following:
meters (feet)
LS =0.38(E,2 -E,,) (Ls =31(E,2 -Ea,))
V = design speed through the curve,
in kph (mph) Ls =0.006 (E,2 -E,,)V (Ls =0.82(Eu2 -E”,)V)
Ls =0.008 (Ea2 -E&V (Ls =l.10(Ea2 -% 4
For spiraled circular curves, the length of the
circular curve added to the sum of one-half
the length of both spirals is an acceptable where Ls = minimum length of spiral, in
method of determining compliance with the meters (feet)
above criteria in areas of restricted geometry. E, = actual superelevation of the
The absolute minimum length of a first circular curve in
superelevated circular curve should be 15 millimeters (inches)
meters (45 feet). E,= actual superelevation of the
second circular curve, in
Curves that include no actual circular curve millimeters (inches)
segment (e.g., double:spiraled curves) should E,, = superelevation unbalance of
be permitted only in areas of extremely the first circular curve, in
restricted geometry (such as embedded track millimeters (inches)
in an urban area), provided no actual E,= unbalanced superelevation
superelevation (E,) is used and prior authority of the second circular curve,
approval is obtained. This type of alignment is in millimeters (inches)
potentially difficult to maintain for ballasted V = design speed through the
track. circular curves, in kph (mph)

The design speed for a given horizontal curve The absolute minimum spiral curve on main
should be based on its radius, length of spiral line tracks, as well as the minimum criteria for
transition and actual and unbalance yard and non-revenue tracks, is as follows,
superelevation through the curve as described corresponding to LRV torsion limits:
in the following sections.
L, = 2 6% - L,) U-s = 31 (E, - ‘2))

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 Light Rail Track Design Handbook

3.2.4.2 Reverse Circular Curves

Where an extremely restrictive horizontal
geometry makes it impossible to provide
sufficient tangent length between reversed
supereievated curves, the curves may meet at
a point of reverse spiral. This tends to violate
ride quality and vehicle structure criteria. As a Figure 3.2.2 Supelevation Transitions for
guideline, the point of reverse spiral should be Reverse Curves
set so that:
Ls, L = Ls2 L, increased ballast section width at the point of
the reverse spiral and possible increased
where E,, = actual superelevation applied clearance requirements. Such issues must be
to the first curve in millimeters investigated in detail before incorporation in
(inches) the design
Ea = actual superelevation of the
second circular curve, in In conclusion, the use of reversed spirals
millimeters (inches) should be restricted to low speed operation.
L Sl = the length of the spiral leaving As a guideline, a reasonable criterion for the
the first curve in meters (feet) use of reversed spirals is given below: r2]
L s2 = length of the spiral entering
second curve in meters (feet) “On embedded tracks in city streets, if
alignment constraints make providing
A minimum separation of 1.0 meter (3.3 feet) a tangent between two superelevated
between the spirals is acceptable in lieu of spiraled reversed curves impossible,
meeting at a point of reversal. a tangent shall not be required
provided that the operating speed is
It is entirely possible to have reverse spirals limited so that the lateral acceleration
and remain within acceptable ride comfort is held to a maximum of 0.10 g.”
criteria. This is indeed the practice for
European interurban railway alignments and is Refer to Section 3.2.1 for additional
occasionally incorporated in North American discussion on minimum tangent distances
practice.161 However, the spiral lengths between curves.
required for reverse spirals to maintain ride
comfort are significantly longer than normally
considered in LRT design. 3.2.5 Superelevation and Spiral Transition
Curves
The superelevation transition between reversed
spirals is usually accomplished by sloping both The permissible speed at which a rail-
rails of the track throughout the entire transition mounted vehicle negotiates a curve may be
spiral as shown on Figure 3.2.2. Note that increased by increasing the elevation of the
through the transition, both rails will be at an outside rail of the track, creating a banking
elevation above the theoretical profile grade line. effect called superelevation. This
This method of superelevation transition creates superelevation serves to counteract the
additional design considerations, including an centrifugal force acting radially outward on the
vehicle as it travels through the curve.pl

3-10
 LRT Track Geometry

For a given curve radius, the permissible Equilibrium superelevation is the amount of
operating speed can be increased by superelevation that would be required to make
physically increasing the elevation of the the resultant force from the center of gravity of
outside rail of the curve, known as actual the light rail vehicle perpendicular to the plane
superelevation; or allowing the operating of the two rails and halfway between them at a
speed to exceed a lateral equilibrium force given speed. If a curved track is
condition, known as superelevation superelevated to achieve equilibrium at a
unbalance. The latter is defined as the given speed, a light rail vehicle passenger
superelevation that would be required to would experience no centrifugal force through
restore an operating vehicle to an equilibrium the curve at that speed. Equilibrium
steady state condition. superelevation is usually determined by either
of the following equations:
For vehicle operation in both actual
superelevation and superelevation unbalance, Eq=Ea+EU=ll 7 Eq=Ea+Eu’396
there must be a transition to either zero
superelevation or a different superelevation
condition
accomplishing
The logical method
this transition on a circular
of E, = 0.0067V2
where
D Eq=0.00069V2
1
E, = equilibrium superelevation, in
D
1
curve with actual superelevation (and/or
millimeters (inches)
superelevation unbalance) is to utilize a spiral
E, = actual track superelevation to
curve with a gradually increasing radius to
be constructed in millimeters
tangent track, or a different horizontal curve
(inches)
radius
E, = unbalance superelevation, in
Actual superelevation is generally applied (run millimeters (inches)
V = design speed through the
off) linearly throughout the length of the
transition curve. As the rate of superelevation curve in kph (mph)
R = radius of curve in meters (feet)
run off is necessarily limited by passenger
D = degree of curve in decimal
comfort considerations, the transition curve
length is determined by the length necessary degrees
[Note previous comments on the use of
to run off either the actual superelevation or
degree of curvature with metric units.]
superelevation unbalance.

In practice, full equilibrium superelevation (E,)

3.2.5.1 Superelevation is rarely installed in track. This would require
Main line tracks are designed with excessively long spiral transition curves. It
superelevations that permit desired design could also produce passenger discomfort on a
speeds to be achieved without resorting to train that is moving much slower than the
excessively large curve radii. Note that due to design speed or stopped in the middle of a
local constraints, the design speed may be steeply superelevated curve. Therefore, only
less than either the system maximum speed a portion of the calculated equilibrium
or the maximum possible speed for a curve of superelevation (E,) is commonly installed as
a given radius. The design speed criteria actual superelevation (E,). The difference
stated below are based on a maximum lateral between the equilibrium and actual
passenger acceleration of 0.10 g. superelevation is called superelevation
unbalance (E,). Most curves will be designed

3-l 1
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

with some combination of actual and and divide the total equally between actual
unbalanced superelevation. and unbalanced superelevation; i.e., (E, =
EJ2) and (E, = EJ2). Where E, reaches its
Three strategies are generally employed to maximum value (see below), the remaining
apply the combination of actual superelevation portion of the total equilibrium superelevation
and superelevation unbalance: (E,) is applied to the actual superelevation
1. No (or minimal) superelevation unbalance 03
is applied until actual superelevation (E,)
reaches the maximum allowable level. As a practical matter for construction, curves
Actual superelevation is thus equal to the with a large radius in comparison to the
equilibrium superelevation for most desired operating speed should not be
curves. Under ideal conditions, where all superelevated. This can be accomplished by
vehicles operate at the same maximum not applying actual superelevation (E,) until
speed and do not stop (or slow down) on the calculated total equilibrium superelevation
curves, this strategy creates the least (E,) is over a minimum value, usually 12 to 25
amount of passenger and vehicle lateral millimeters (0.05 to 1 .OO inches).
acceleration for a given transition curve
length. Under less than ideal operating Desired values of actual superelevation (E,)
conditions, however, the minimum can be determined from the following formula:
superelevation unbalance strategy
produces unfavorable ride comfort E, =X35(+6.7 ka =2.64[;)-0.66]
conditions.
2. Maximum superelevation unbalance is
applied before any actual superelevation The desired relationship between E, and E,
is considered. This option is used by can thus be defined as:
freight and suburban commuter railroads.
Where a wide variety of operating speeds E, ,25_E,
are anticipated on the curved track, 2
particularly on joint LRT-freight trackage,
this strategy is usually the least disruptive Use of the above equation will result in the
to passenger comfort. gradual introduction of both actual and
unbalanced superelevation and avoid
3. Actual superelevation W and
unnecessary lateral acceleration of light rail
superelevation unbalance (E,) are applied
vehicles and their passengers. Calculated
equally or in some proportion. Because a
values for actual superelevation should be
certain amount of superelevation
rounded to the nearest 5 millimeters (0.25
unbalance, applied gradually, is generally
inch). For a total superelevation (E, + E,) of
considered to be easily tolerated by both
25 millimeters (1 inch) or less, actual
vehicle and passenger and tolerable
superelevation (E,) is not usually applied. In
superelevation unbalance increases with
specific cases where physical constraints limit
speed, this strategy is preferred for
the amount of actual superelevation (E,) that
general usage.
can be introduced, a maximum of 40
One method used to apply the combination of millimeters (1.5 inches) of superelevation
actual and unbalanced superelevation is to unbalance (E,) can be permitted before
find the total equilibrium superelevation (E,) applying any actual superelevation (E,).

3-12
 LRT Track Geometrv

Actual superelevation (E,) is usually set so In areas of mixed traffic operation with
that trains will have a positive superelevation roadway vehicles, the desired location for a
unbalance (E,) on curves where speed is pavement crown is at the centerline of track.
likely to vary. Negative E, is not tolerated well Where this is not feasible, a maximum
by passengers. Table 3.2.2 provides desired pavement crown of 2.0% (l/4 inch per foot)
values of actual superelevation recommended across the rails may be maintained in the
for LRT alignment calculations. Other street pavement to promote drainage. This
combinations of E, and E, should be used practice will normally introduce a constant
only where physical restrictions make the use actual superelevation (E,) of approximately 25
of desired values prohibitive or impractical millimeters (1 inch). If, at curves, the street
pavement is neither superelevated nor the
Actual superelevation (E,) should be attained crown removed, this crown-related
and removed linearly throughout the full length superelevation may also dictate the maximum
of the spiral transition curve by raising the allowable operating speed.
outside rail while maintaining the inside rail at
the profile grade. One exception to this On curved track, this 25 millimeters (1 inch)
method of superelevation is sometimes could be either positive or negative,
employed in tunnels with direct fixation tracks, depending on which side of the roadway
where superelevation is achieved by rotating crown line the track is located. In such cases,
the track section about the centerline. This is in order to minimize the need to extensively
undertaken to reduce vertical clearance regrade street pavements, which could affect
requirements. curb reveal heights and other civil features,
the superelevation unbalance should be
Maximum values of actual superelevation can maximized prior to the introduction of any
be as high as 200 to 250 millimeters (8 to 10 additional actual superelevation. Thus, a
inches). Superelevation unbalance values of normal pavement crown would retain an
150 millimeters (6 inches) are not actual superelevation (E,) of 25 millimeters (1
unreasonable for LRT vehicle designs.P1 inch) until a calculated superelevation
While these values are achievable by specific unbalance (E,) of 75 millimeters (3 inches) is
light rail vehicle designs, it is much more reached. At this point, either a limit is placed
common for actual superelevation to be on the LRT design speed or the pavement
limited to 150 millimeters (6 inches) and crown design is revised.
unbalanced superelevation to 115 millimeters
(4.5 inches). This limit equates to the 0.1 g
limit that passengers can tolerate comfortably. 3.2.5.3 Spiral Transition Curves
Spiral transition curves are used to gradually
As a guideline, the recommended maximum build into the superelevation of the track and
values for actual and superelevation limit lateral acceleration during the horizontal
unbalance are as follows: transition of the light rail vehicle as it enters
the curve.
Superelevation Maximum Values:
E, = 100 mm (4 inches) desired, 150 mm (6
inches) absolute
E, = 75 mm (3 inches) desired, 115 mm (4.5
inches) absolute

3-l 3
 Table 3.2.2a Desired Superelevation and Minimum Spiral Curve Length (Metric Units)
CURVE RADIUS (meters)
VEL.(kph) 26 27 -1 40 15 I1 50 1I 55 1 60 1 65 1 70 1 75 1 80 1 86 1 90 1 96 1 100 1 110 1 120 1 130 1140 1 150 1 160 1 170 1 180 200 220 240 260
I
15 1 Ea 55 50 45 35 30 1 25 1 20 [ 20 I 15 15 10 10 0 0 00

1 Ls 22 20 16 18 18 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 -4
20 1 Ea 1 110 II00 1 go 1 75 1 65 1 55 1 50 1 45 1 40 1 35 1 30 1 30 1 25 1 25 1 20 1 20 1 15 1 15 1 IO 1 IO 1 IO 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 0 1 0 1 0 lo 1
Ls 42 40 36 30 26 22 20 18 18 18 18 18 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 18 18 18
25 Ea Min. R = 150 I125 1 110 95 85 75 70 60 1, 55 1 50 45 1 45 1 40 1 35 1 35 1 30 1 25 1 25 1 20 1 20 1 15 1 15 1 15 10 10 5 5
Ls 58 1 48 1 42 38 34 30 28 24 1 22 1 20 , III,v I, IR
,v I, IR
,v I, IR
mu I, 111
.w I, 18
._ 1, IR
._ I, IR._ I, IR,_ I, 18
,_ ,1 '*10 ,1 '*IU ,1 I*IU 18 18 18 16

30 Ea
Ir
La
Min.R=43m 145
CG
“V
125
AR
7”
115
AA
77
105
40
95
38
1 85
34
1 80
32
1 75
30
1 70
28
1 65
26
1 60
24
1 55
22
1 50
20
1 45
18
1 40
18 -7q-x
1 35 1 35 1 30 1 25 1 25 20
18
20
18
15
18
15
18
35 Ea Min.R= 58m 145 135 125 115 105 100 95 85 80 75 65 60 35 30 25 25
Ls 56 52 46 44 40 40 36 34 32 30 26 24 1 18 I IR IR 18 18 IR

40 Ea Min.R=76m 145 135 125 120 110 100 90 80

Ls 56 52 48 46 42 40 36 32
-
45 Ea Min.R=96m 145 130 120 110
Ls 56 50 46 42
60 Ea Min.R=118m 150 135
LS 62 56

1
1 60 1 Ea 1
1 64
-
1 60 1 56 1 54
~~~~~
1 48 1 42 1 38 1 34

Min.R= 170m 11~0 r145 I125 I115 II05 1 95

Ls 74 70 62 56 52 46
65 Ea Min.R=199m 150 135 125 115
Ls 1 60 1 72 66 60
70 Ea Min.R= 231 m 145 135

1 75 1 Ea I Min.R=265m

1 80 !Ea I Min.R= 302 m

Ls
85 Ea Min.R= 341 m
Ls
90 Ea Min.R= 382m
Ls
95 Ea Min.R=425m
Ls
100 Ea Min.R=471 m

3-14 .
50 Ea 55 50 45 45 40 35 35 35 30 30 25 25
Ls 24 22 20 20 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
55 Ea 70 65 60 55 50 50 45 40 40 35 35 35
Ls 32 30 28 26 24 24 20 18 18 18 18 18
60 1 Ea I85 I80 I75 I70 I65 I60 I55 I55 I50 I45 I45 I40
ILs 142 140 138 I34 132 130 I28 I28
I
126 122 122 I20
65 Ea 105 95 90 85 80 75 I70 65 60 60 55 50
Ls 56 50 48 46 42 40 I38 34 32 32 30 28
70 Ea 125 115 105 100 95 85 80 75 75 70 65 65
Ls 72 66 60 58 54 48 46 44 44 40 38 38
75 Ea 145 135 125 115 110 100 95 90 85 80 80 75
I
Ls 88 82
I
76 70’
I I
68 62 58 56 52 50 50 46
80 Ea Min.R= 1451135 125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 75 70 70 65 65 60 60 60 55
Ls 94 I88 82 78 72 68 66 62 58 56 50 46 46 42 42 40 40 40 36
85 Ea R=341 m 145 135 130 120 115 ?I0 105 100 85 85 80 75 75 70 70 65 65
Ls 100 92 90 82 80 76 72 70 58 58 56 52 52 48 48 46 46
90 Ea R=382m 145 135 130 125 120 115 105 100 95 90 90 85 80 80 75 75
Ls 106 98 94 92 88 84 74 70 66 66 62 58 58 56 56
- 76
95 Ea R=425m ,145 140 135 125 115 110 110 105 100 95 95 90 85 85
Ls 112 108 104 96 88 84 84 80 78 74 74 70 66 66
-
100 Ea R=471m 150 145 130 125 120 115 110 110 105 100 100 95
Ls 122 118 106 102 98 94 90 90 86 82 82 78

3-15
VEL. kph)950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450
15 Ea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
LS 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
-
20 Ea 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0
Ls 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
25 Ea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
LS 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 .- .- .- I -- I -- 1 --
30 Ea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 olololo 0 0 0 0 0 00
-ix 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 i 18 1 18 1 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 0
35 Ea 0 IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO IO lolo lo lo
Ls
-
181 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18- 1 18.- 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 IO
40 Ea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00,
Ls 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 0
45 Ea
-iF
-
50 Ea
-ix
55 7%
--iii
60 Ea
LS
65 Ea 20 1 20 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 15 1 IO 1 IO I IO I 10 I IO
-ix 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18 1 18
70 Ea I 1 I I I 1 I I I I
Ls ,~1,~1,~1~1~1~1~1~1~1 - - - I”8- 1:- I
75 Ea 15 15 IO IO IO IO 5 0 I 0 I 0 I 0 lo
Ls 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1 i8 l-8 l-i 1-i l-8 18 18 l-8 6
80 Ea 40 35 35 30 30 30 25 25 25 20 20 20 15 15 I 15 10 10 IO IO I IO !i 5 5 5 5 5 5 0
Ls 26 24 24 20 20 20 18 18 18 18 18 ;ij 1 iij 1 ;ij 1 ;i 1 ii 1 ii 1 ii 1 ii 1 ?i 1 18 1 18 1 l-8 1 l-8 1 18 1 l-8 1 18 16 I
Ea 45 45 40 35 35 35 30 30 30 25 25 25 20 20 15 15 15 15 IO IO IO IO IO 5 5 5 5 0
-6 32 32 28 24 24 24 22 22 22 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 0
-
Ea
Ls

3-16
 Table 3.2.2b Desired Superelevation and Minimum Spiral Curve Length (English Units)

I I CURVE RADIUS (feet) 1

VEL. 82 90 100 110 120 130 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 900 100 110 120 130 140
(mph) 0 0 0 00
I

10 1 Ea 12.50 ~2.25~2.00~1.75~1.50~1.25~1.00~0.75~1.50~0.50~0.50~0.25~0.25~
I I I 1 I I
0 I
I
0 10 I
I I
0 I
I
0 10 10 10 I 0 10 I
1 0 I I
0 10 I I
0 I
I
0 l-l
- 0
Ls 80 70 65 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

15 Ea Min. 6.00 5.25 4.75 4.25 4.00 3.25 2.75 ~2~~~~~~~~i.50~1.~~~1.00~0.75~0.75(0.50)0.50)0.25~0.25~0.25~0.25~ 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 10 1

Ls 190 165 150 135 125 105 90 1 70 65 60 60 60 1 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
-
20 Ea Min. R = 159 ft. 5.5014.50 4.00--I- 3.50--,----I 3.2512.7512.2512.00 1.75 1.50~1.25~1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.5010.50
I
0.25 0.25 0.25 I
0
I --I -I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

175 1140) 1251 1101 1051 90 1 70 1 65 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60 1 60

I I

25 Ea Min. R = 248 ft. 6.00 5.25 5.00 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.75 2.25 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50
Ls 190 165 160 125 110 95 90 70 65 65 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

f-t. 5.25 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.25 1.00

Ls 225 205 185 165 155 145 130 120 100

Ea Min. R = 635 fi. 6.00 5.25 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.25 3.00 2.50 2.25
Ls 265 235 225 200 180 155 145 135 115 100

Ea Min. R = 803 ft. 5.25 4.75 4.25 3.75 3.50 3.25

Ls 260 240 215 190 175 165

Ea Min. R = 991 ft. 6.00 5.25 4.75 4.50 4.00

LS 335 290 265 250 225

Ea Min. R = 1199 ft. 6.00 5.50 5.00

Ls 365 335 305

Ea Min. R = 1427 ft.

Ls

Ea Min. R = 1675 ft.

Ls

3-17
 Ls 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
l5EaO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ls 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
20 EaO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ls 60 60 60 60 60 60 CO 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
25 Ea 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ls 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
30 Ea 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ls 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
35 Ea 1.50 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0 0 0 0
Ls 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
40 Ea 2.25 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Ls 100 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
45 Ea 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Ls 150 140 125 115 115 100 100 90 90 75 75 75 65 65 65 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
50 Ea 3.75 3.50 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.75
Ls 210 195 180 170 155 155 140 125 125 115 115 115 100 100 85 85 85 70 70 60 60 60 60 60 60
55 Ea 4.75 4.25 4.00 3.75 3.50 3.25 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.75 2.50 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 'I.50 1.50 1.50 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.00
Ls 290 260 245 230 215 200 200 185 170 170 155 155 140 140 125 125 110 110 95 95 95 80 80 65 65
60 Ea 5.75 5.25 5.00 4.75 4.50 4.00 4.00 3.50 3.50 3.25 3.25 3.00 3.00 2.75 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.25
Ls 380 350 335 315 300 265 265 235 235 215 215 200 200 185 185 170 150 150 135 135 120 100 100 100 85
65 Ea R = 1675fl. 6.00 5.50 5.25 5.00 4.50 4.50 4.25 4.00 3.75 3.75 3.50 3.25 3.25 3.00 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75
Ls 430 395 380 360 325 325 305 290 270 270 255 235 235 215 215 200 180 165 165 145 145 130 130

3-18
 VEL.
(mph) 5000 5200 5400 5600 iO0 80001 8500

10 Ea 0 0 0 0 010 0 0
Ls
--
60
--
60
-- 60
-_ 60 I
60
--
1 60
-- 60
-- 60
-- *
Ea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0
I Ls 60 60 60 60
010 1 60 60 60 60 60160

I I

I I .
60 1 60 1 0
35iEaI OlOlOlO~OlOlOlO 0 0
1 Ls 1 60 60 1 60 60 1 60 60 60 1 60
40 1 Ea i 0.25 0.25 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

60 60 0
0.25 0 0
I I I
60 60 0
60 I Ea I 1.25 I I.25 I 1.00 I 1.00 I 0.75 I 0.75 I 0.75 I 0.50 0.25 0.25 0
Ls 85 85 70 70 60 60 60 60
65 Ea 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75
LS 110 110 110 110 75 75 75 60

3-19
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Horizontal spiral curves are broadly defined
as curves with a constantly decreasing or
increasing radius proportional between either
a tangent and curve (simple spiral) or between
two curves (compound spiral).
As a guideline, for a car with 7-meter (23-foot)
truck centers, the minimum transition length
for a 75-mm (3-inch) superelevation is 21
meters (69 feet).

There are many formulae that describe or 3.2.5.3.7 Spiral Transition Curve Lengths
For LRT design, it is recommended that spiral
approximate the alignment that conforms to
the above definition. Various types of spirals transition curves should be clothoid spirals as
found in railway alignment design include depicted in Figure 3.2.1 and as
AREMA Ten Chord, PTUSEPTA, Cubic, mathematically defined by Hickerson. WI
Bartlett, Hickerson, clothoid, and ATEA. For Spirals should be used on all main line track
the spiral lengths and curvatures found in horizontal curves with radii less than 3,000
LRT, all of the above spiral formulae will meters (10,000 feet) wherever practicable.
generally describe the same physical
As a guideline, the recommended criteria for
alignment laterally to within several
the LRT transition spiral length, based on the
millimeters. The choice of spiral easement
theoretical development in the previous
curve type is thus not critical.
section, are presented herein.
It is important, however, to utilize only one of
It is recommended that the length of spiral be
the spiral types, and define it as succinctly as
at least 20 meters (60 feet). Where geometric
possible. Vague terms such as “clothoid
conditions are extremely restricted, such as in
spiral” should be clarified as more than one
unsuperelevated embedded track in a CBD
formula describes this type of spiral curve. A
area, the spiral length may be reduced to the
spiral transition curve that is most commonly
absolute minimum of 10 meters (31 feet). The
used in transit work is the Hickerson spiral.
minimum length of spiral should be the greater
Its main advantage is that it is well-defined in
of the lengths determined from the following
terms of data required for both alignment
formulae, rounded to the next even meter (or
design and field survey work.
5 feet).
Spiral curve length and superelevation runoff L, = 0.38 E, (L, = 31 E,)
are directly related to passenger comfort At L, = 0.006 VE, (L, = 0.82 E,V)
this point, it is useful to review the basis of L, = 0.008 VE, (L, = 1.10 E,V)
both superelevation theory and runoff rate.
where: E, = equilibrium superelevation in
There are a number of good explanations of
millimeters (inches)
the derivation of runoff theory; the references
L, = length of spiral in meters (feet)
at the end of this section contain extensive
E, = actual track superelevation to
background on the subject. r*-“l
be constructed in millimeters
While passenger comfort is a major (inches)
consideration, the designer must also limit the E, = unbalance superelevation in
rate of change in superelevation in a transition millimeters (inches)
curve to avoid overstressing the vehicle frame V = design speed through the
through twisting. In order to accomplish this, curve, in kph (mph)
the superelevation differential between truck
centers should not exceed 25 mm (1 inch).

3-20
 LRT Track Geometry

A spiral is preferred, but not required, for yard
and secondary tracks where design speeds
are less than 16 kph (10 mph). Curves on
yard lead and secondary tracks that have
design speeds greater than 16 kph (10 mph)
should have spiral transition curves and
superelevation
Under normal design conditions,
superelevation should be introduced and run
off uniformly throughout the length of a spiral
transition curve In extraordinary cases, the
superelevation may be developed along the
tangent preceding the point of curvature (PC),
or run off in the tangent immediately beyond
the point of tangency (PT). The transition
length is then determined from the minimum
spiral length formulae presented herein. The
maximum amount of superelevation that is run
off in tangent track should be no more than 25
millimeters (1 inch).
3.2.6 Speed, Curvature, and
Superelevation: Theory and Basis of
Criteria
This section summarizes the basis of design
for speed, curvature, and superelevation.
This material is based on information provided
by Nelson al, but has been condensed and
modified as necessary for the specific
application to current LRT designs and to
include the use of metric units.
300-meter (1 OOO-foot) circular curve and
accelerate back to 1 IO kph (70 mph). The
same curve designed for a reduction to 70 kph
(45 mph) requires a length of about 1 2
kilometers (0 75 miles). Therefore, it is
generally desirable to eliminate as many
speed restrictions as possible and to
maximize the design speed of all curves that
must be designed with speed restrictions
3.2.6.2 Superelevation Theory
The design speed at which a light rail vehicle
can negotiate a curve is increased
proportionally by increasing the elevation of
the outside rail of the track, thus creating a
banking effect called superelevation.
When rounding a curve, a vehicle is subject to
centrifugal force acting radially outward. The
forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in
Figure 3.2.3. To counteract the effect of the
centrifugal force (F,), the outside rail of a
curve is raised by a distance ‘e’ above the
inside rail. A state of equilibrium is reached in
which both wheels exert equal force on the
rails; i.e., where ‘e’ is sufficient to bring the
resultant force (F,) to right angles with the
plane of the top of the rails.
AREMA Manual, Chapter 5, gives the
following equation to determine the distance
that the outside rail must be raised to reach a
state of equilibrium, where both wheels bear
equally on the rails.

3.2.6.1 Design Speed in Curves e-Bv2

The background for recommended standards
gr
for actual superelevation, allowable
superelevation unbalance, easement curves, where, e = equilibrium superelevation in
and the length of superelevation runoffs will meters (feet)
be reviewed in this section. B = bearing distance of track in
meters (feet) usually 1.5 meters
It takes more than 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) for (5 feet).
a light rail vehicle to decelerate from 110 kph V = velocity in meters (feet) per
(70 mph) to 90 kph (55 mph), run through a second

3-21
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

1,524'?
E=

cENTRfffGAL%%E- >CEN~R
M--m.__ OF GRAWTY
E=
@[y)(
60V2

??!i!$?y
=-

y
60V2

thus;

EzV
D 1430
2
-orE=O 0069gD E=-
V2D
1430
or E = 0 OOO$D

and conversely;

These are the standard equations for

equilibrium superelevation most commonly
used in track design.

Figure 3.2.3 LRT Vehicle on Superelevated

3.2.6.3 Actual Superelevation
Track Most railway route design texts recommend
an absolute limit of 200 millimeters (8 inches)
g = force of gravity in meters per
of actual superelevation for passenger
second per second, or meters/set?
operations unless slow moving or freight
(feet per second per second, or
traffic is mixed with passenger traffic. As
feeffser?)
noted previously, LRT superelevation is
r = radius in meters (feet)
generally limited to 150 millimeters (6 inches)
or less.
To convert these terms to common usage, ‘e’
in meters (feet) is expressed as ‘E’ in
All railroads administered by the Federal
millimeters (inches), ‘B’ is usually considered
Railroad Administration (FRA) are limited- to
to be 1524 millimeters (60 inches) on standard
150 millimeters (6 inches) of superelevation,
gauge track. ‘V’ in meters per second (feet
primarily because the FRA mandates that all
per second) is changed to ‘V’ in kph (mph). ‘g’
track that is a part of the nation’s general
is equal to 9.8 meterslsec? (32.2 feetlseti),
railroad system must be capable of handling
and ‘I-’ is replaced by 1746.379/D (5730/D) in
mixed traffic. Track that is not part of the
meters (feet), where ‘D’ is equal to the
general railroad system, or is used exclusively
decimal degree of curvature. The revised
for rapid transit service in a metropolitan or
formula is as follows.
suburban area, generally does not fall with the
jurisdiction of the FRA. This includes the vast
majority of LRT systems.

3-22
 LRT Track Geometry

In view of the foregoing, railways that are not design speed calculations to avoid the effects
administered by the FRA may, when of persistent underspeed operation-including
appropriate, use up to 200 millimeters (8 passenger discomfort and excessive rail flow
inches) of actual superelevation on curved on the low (inside) rail of the curve.
track. This has been applied to at least two
North American transit systems. However, it Allowable superelevation unbalance varies
is more common to limit maximum actual among transit facilities. For instance, MTA
superelevation to 150 millimeters (6 inches) New York City Transit only allows 25
on LRT systems, as it becomes more difficult millimeters (1 inch), while the Delaware River
to consistently maintain ride comfort levels at Port Authority (Lindenwold High Speed Line)
higher actual superelevations. allows 115 millimeters (4.5 inches).
Generally, it is recognized that 75 to 115
millimeters (3 to 4.5 inches) of superelevation
3.2.6.4 Superelevation Unbalance unbalance is acceptable for LRT operations,
The equations in the previous section are depending upon the vehicle design.
expressed in terms of a single equilibrium
speed. Light rail vehicles often run at different It should also be noted that Amtrak, with the
speeds on the same segment of track. The approval of the FRA, raised its superelevation
variance from the so-called balanced speed unbalance limit from 75 millimeters (3 inches)
concept is termed superelevation unbalance. to 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) for intercity
passenger trains.
Superelevation unbalance may be defined as
the difference between actual superelevation In Sweden, Norway, West Germany, and
and that superelevation required for true France, intercity railways commonly employ
equilibrium of the LRT vehicle traversing a from 100 to 150 millimeters (4 to 6 inches) of
curve. superelevation unbalance, and occasionally
use even higher unbalance for specific
If we call the superelevation unbalance E, and applications.
the actual applied superelevation E,, the
formulae from the previous section may be The AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering
restated as: (1985-86) states:

1
145 5(E, +Eu) 1430(E, + E, ) “Equipment designed with large
v2 = $ =
D D center bearings, roll stabilizers and
C
outboard swing hangers can negotiate
or
curves comfortably at greater than 75
millimeters (3 inches) of unbalanced
superelevation because there is less
body roll.” .,. “ If the roll angle is less
than lo-30’ experiments indicate that
and; cars can negotiate curves comfortably
at 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) of
E, = 0.0069 VD - E, [E, = 0 0007 VD - E,] unbalanced elevation.”

Limited superelevation unbalance is The preceding comments also generally apply

intentionally incorporated in most curve to LRT vehicles as well.

3-23
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

In other words, a curve without any actual
superelevation (E,) can be safely and
comfortably negotiated at a velocity requiring
115 millimeters (4.5 inches) of superelevation.
A greater operating speed would result in an
uncomfortable ride. Hence, a speed requiring
no more than 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) of
additional superelevation for equilibrium than
is actually used is within a range for
comfortable speed. Actual superelevation for
maximum comfortable speed (E,) may be
expressed as:
E, = 0.0069 VD - 115 [E, = 0.0007VD
different than the LRT vehicles described in
Chapter 2.
3.2.6.5.1 Categories of Speeds in Curves
Speed in curves may be categorized as
follows;
Overturning Speed: The speed at which
the vehicle will derail or overturn because
centrifugal force overcomes gravity.
Safe Speed: The speed limit above which
the vehicle becomes unstable and in great
danger of derailment upon the introduction
- 4.51 of any anomaly in the roadway.

Thus, if an LRT vehicle is of modern design, it Maximum Authorized Speed (MAS): The
speed at which the track shall be
is appropriate to use up to 115 millimeters (4.5
designed utilizing maximum allowable
inches) of superelevation unbalance as a
parameter in the design of track curves. actual superelevation and superelevation
unbalance.
It also should be noted, however, that a Signal Speed: The speed for which the
greater superelevation unbalance creates an signal speed control system is designed
increased impact on maintenance of vehicles Ideally, signal speed should be just a little
and track. Conversely, operation closer to faster than the speed at which an
balance speed results in a more comfortable experienced operator would normally
ride and less impact on the vehicle and track. operate the vehicle so that the automatic
Therefore, given equal speeds and overspeed braking system is not deployed
circumstances it is preferable to maximize unnecessarily.
actual superelevation and minimize
superelevation unbalance to reduce the 3.2.6.5.2 Overturning Speed
effects of centrifugal force upon the When the horizontal centrifugal forces of
passengers, vehicles, track structures, and velocity and the effects of curvature overcome
roadbed. the vertical forces of weight and gravity,
causing the resultant to rotate about the
3.2.6.5 Determination of Curve Design center of gravity of the vehicle and pass
beyond the bearing point of the track,
Speed
The calculation of design speed in curves is derailment or overturning of the vehicle will
dependent on the vehicle design and occur. This is diagrammed in Figure 3.2.4.
passenger comfort. In addition to the
Overturning speed is dependent upon the
preceding guidelines, curve design speed can
height of the center of gravity above the top of
be determined from the following principles if
the rail (h) and the amount that the center of
specific vehicle performance characteristics
gravity moves laterally toward the high rail (x)
are known. This analysis is also necessary if
the vehicle dimensions are significantly

3-24
 LRT Track Geometry

(145.5)(150 + 854)
Overturning Speed V =
5
= 170.9 kph (106 mph)
Obviously, overturning speed should be far in
excess of the curve’s maximum authorized
speed

3.2.6.5.3 Safe Speed

It is generally agreed that a rail vehicle is in a
stable condition while rounding a curve if the
resultant horizontal and vertical forces fall
within the middle third of the distance between
the wheel contact points. This equates to the
middle 508 millimeters (20 inches) of the
Figure 3.2.4 Force Diagram of LRT Vehicle
1524-millimeter (60-inch) bearing zone ‘B’
on Superelevated Track
indicated in Figure 3.2.4.
The formula for computing superelevation
Safe speed is that arbitrary condition where
unbalance for ‘Overturning Speed E,’ is
the vehicle force resultant projection stays
derived from the theory of superelevation:
within the one-third point of the bearing
distance. That speed is entirely dependent
Overturning Speed E, = Be/h
upon the location of the center of gravity,
where: B = rail bearing distance = 1524 which is the height above the top of rail ‘h’ and
millimeters (60 inches) the offset ‘x’ of the center of gravity toward the
e = B/2-x outside rail. From the theory of
h = height of center of gravity = 1270 superelevation, we derive the formula for
millimeters (50 inches) computing superelevation unbalance for
maximum safe speed ‘E,‘:
If ‘x’ = 50 mm (2 in.), then e = (1524/2) - 50 =
712 millimeters (28 inches) Safe Speed E, = Be/h
then: where: B = rail bearing distance = 1524
millimeters (60 inches)
(1524)(712) e = B/6 - x. If ‘x’ = 50 mm (2 in.),
Overturning Speed E, =
1270 then e = (1524/6) - 50 = 204 millimeters
= 854 millimeters
(8 inches)
(33.6 inches)
h = height of center of gravity =
and 1270 millimeters (50 inches)
Overturning Speed V = then
d=F
(1524)(204)
SafeSpeed Eu =
For example, if ‘E; is given as 150 millimeters 1270
(6 inches) and the decimal degree of = 245 millimeters
curvature ‘D’ is equal to 5.00°, then (9.6 inches)

3-25
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

and Using the example of a typical transit car with

a center of gravity shift/height of 63.5
mm/l270 mm, an ‘Eu’ of 229 millimeters (9
MaximumSafeSpeed V =
f--v inches) for safe speed and an ‘E,’ of 838
millimeters (33 inches) for overturning speed
Using the example given for overturning are calculated. MAS and signal speed can
speed, if ‘E,’ is given as 150 millimeters (6 then be determined from the safe speed
inches) and the decimal degree of curvature results.
‘D’ is equal to 5.00”, then:
3.2.6.6 Easement Curves
(145.5)(150 + 245) Superelevated circular curves usually require
Maximum Safe Speed V = easement curves to control the rate of lateral
d 5
acceleration exerted upon the track, the
= 107kph (66.5 mph)
passengers, and the vehicle. Easement
3.2.6.5.4 Determination of Superelevation curves are usually spirals with radii changing
Unbalance Values for Safe and from infinity to the radius of the circular curve.
Overtorning Speeds Spiral curves also provide the ramp for
Table 3.2.3 lists reasonable values for ‘E,’ for introducing superelevation into the outside rail
safe speed and overturning speed for various of the curve. Superelevation is normally
equipment characteristics. For reference, a runoff entirely within the spiral curve.
typical transit car has a typical center of
gravity shift (x) and height (h) of 63.5 mm and
3.2.6.6.1 Length of Easement Curves
1270 mm, respectively, and a freight train
Safety and comfort will usually limit operating
diesel locomotive has a typical ‘x’ and ‘h’
speed and dictate the length of transition
values of 75 mm and 1575 mm, respectively.
spirals. As a general rule, any speed and

Table 3.2.3
Safe and Overturning Speed E, Limits

3-26
 LRT Track Geometrv

transition that provides a comfortable ride Converting to kilometers per hour (miles per
through a curve is well within the limits of hour) the formula may be expressed as
safety.

L,(meters) = V (kph)gx 3.33

Determining easement curve length allows for
establishment of superelevation runoff within
the allowable rate of increase in lateral
acceleration due to cant deficiency
(superelevation unbalance). Also,
transition must be long enough to limit
possible racking of the vehicle frame and
torsional forces from being introduced to the
track structure by the moving vehicle.
When an LRT vehicle operating on straight
(tangent) track reaches a circular path, the
vehicle axles must be set at a new angle,
depending upon the radius of the curve. This
movement is not done instantly but over a
measurable time interval, thus creating the
need for a transitional curve, the length of
which equals speed multiplied by time.
3.2.6.6.7.1 Length Based upon Passenger
Comfort and Superelevation Unbalance. It
is generally recognized by FRA, AREMA,
Amtrak, OSHA, and many other applicable
authorities that the maximum acceptable rate
of acceleration of cant deficiency, or
superelevation unbalance, for passenger
comfort is 0.10 g, where ‘g’ is 9.8 meters per
second per second (32.2 feet per second per
second).
The change in the rate of acceleration from
zero to 0.10 g should not exceed 0.03 g per
second. Thus the minimum time needed to
attain the maximum lateral acceleration will
be:
Max. Rate of Accel. O.lOg
=- = 3.33 seconds
Max. Rate of Change 0.039
Therefore the time factor for determining the
length of the spiral required is 3.33 seconds
multiplied by the speed of the vehicle.
= 0.925V (kph)
[Ls(feet) = 4.89V (mph)]
the
Assuming that 115 millimeters (4.5 inches) is
the maximum allowable superelevation
unbalance, a formula to determine the length
of the spiral necessary to ensure passenger
comfort can be stated as:
0.925
L, = -VEu orLs = 0.008VEu
115
L, = VE,orLs =l.O9VEu
I
3.2.6.6.1.2 Length based upon
Superelevation. AREMA Manual, Chapter 5,
gives the following formula for determining the
length of an easement spiral curve:
L,(meters) = 0.75E,(millimeters)
[L, (feet) = 62E, (inches)]
In this equation, ‘Ls’ equals the length of the
spiral and ‘E,’ equals actual superelevation.
The only criterion for establishing minimum
spiral length is actual superelevation with no
consideration for speed. For 150 millimeters
(6 inches) of elevation, this produces a spiral
113 meters (372 feet) long.
This formula is based on the long-term
structural integrity of a 26-meter (85foot) long
intercity passenger car. Most LRT vehicles
can easily tolerate twice this rate of change.
Therefore, a normal value for the minimum
spiral length due to vehicle consideration is:
L, = 0.38 E, [Ls = 31 E,]

3-27
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
The AREMA Manual criteria is somewhat
conservative for LRT design in this respect.
As indicated above, the AREMA Manual
determination of spiral length as a function of
the runoff of actual superelevation is based on
a 26-meter (85foot) length car with 19-meter
(62-foot) truck centers. This indicates that, for
a 1,435millimeter (4 35foot) gauge, the
minimum ratio of superelevation change
across truck centers is 1:744. This is an
empirical value that accounts for track cross-
level tolerances, car suspension type,and
fatigue stresses on the vehicle sills. Also note
that the AREMA Manual formula is applicable
to both passenger and freight cars.
Light rail vehicles have a far greater range of
suspension travel than freight or intercity
passenger cars. The magnitude of the LRV
frame twist is relatively small compared to the
nominal LRV suspension movement. The
maximum actual superelevation runoff rate
and minimum ratio of superelevation change
across truck centers are thus not fixed values,
but are functions of the LRV truck center
distance.
Another service proven, although
conservative, approach to establishing
minimum criteria for spiral length can be
derived from Amtrak’s Specification
Construction and Maintenance of Track, MW-
1000. Amtrak uses 75 to ? 15 millimeters (3 to
4.5 inches) of superelevation unbalance on
curves, comparable to many LRT systems.
MW-1000, Part I, Paragraph 213.63 states
that for Class 3 Track, the maximum rate of
superelevation runoff may not be more than
188:l (2 inches in 31 feet). MW-1000, Part II,
Paragraph 59.2 also states that the rate of
change should not be more that 744:l (0.5
inch per 31 feet) at 80 kph (50 mph). With the
maximum rate of elevation as 744:l and
maximum rate of change of 188:1, the length
of the spiral is 57 meters (186 feet) with 150
(6 inches) of superelevation.
Therefore, L, can be derived from:
L, = 0.0046 Ve, [L, = 0.62 VE,]
where: L, = spiral length in meters (feet)
V = speed in kph (mph)
E, = actual superelevation in
millimeters (inches)
Amtrak’s MW-1000 Manual also shows that,
for Class 5 track, the maximum rate of
superelevation runoff may not be more than
3372:l (1 inch in 31 feet) and that the
maximum rate of change of elevation should
not exceed 1488:l (0.25 inch per 31 feet) for
160 kph (100 mph). With the maximum rate
of elevation as 372:l and maximum rate of
change of 1488: 1, the length of the spiral is 76
meters (248 feet) with 100 millimeters (4
inches) of superelevation.
Therefore again:
L, = 0.0046 Ve, IL, = 0.62 VE,]
If ‘E,’ is increased to 150 millimeters (6
inches) and ‘V’ remains at 162 kph (100 mph)
then:
for L, = (0.0046)(162)(150) = 112 meters
[L, = (0.62)(100)(6) = 372 feet]
This shows that the AREMA formula is safe
and conservative for speeds up to 162 kph
(100 mph), but that other methods for
determining spiral length should be used
when shorter lengths are required for cases of
lower operating speed.
3.2.6.6.1.3 Comparison of Spiral Lengths
Based Upon Actual vs Unbalanced
Elevation. From Section 3.2.6.6.1 .I, based
on superelevation unbalance, minimum spiral
curve length is determined by:
3-28
 LRT Track Geometrv

L, = 0.008 V E, [L, = 1.09 VE,]
An example using the above equation where
V = 80 kph (50 mph) and E, = 115 millimeters
(4.5 inches) yields:
The percentage grade is defined as the rise or
fall in elevation, divided by the length. Thus a
change in elevation of 1 meter over a distance
of 100 meters would be defined as a 1%
grade.

L, = (0.008)(80)(115) = 74 meters (242 feet) The profile grade line in tangent track is
usually measured along the centerline of track
From Section 3.2.6.6.1.2, based on actual between the two running rails and in the plane
superelevation runoff, minimum spiral curve defined by the top of the two rails. In
length is determined by: superelevated track, the inside rail of the
curve normally remains at the profile grade
L, = 0 0046 V E, [L, = 0.62 VE,]
line and superelevation is achieved by raising
the outer rail above the inner rail. One
An example using the formula above, where V
exception to this recommendation is in
= 80 kph (50 mph) and E, = 150 millimeters
tunnels, where the superelevation may be
(6 inches) yields:
rotated about the centerline of track in the
L, = (0.0046)(80)(150) = 56 meters (186 feet) interest of improved vertical clearances.

If E, = 200 millimeters (8 inches), the The vehicle’s performance, dimensions, and

minimum spiral length values would be very tolerance to vertical bending stress dictate
criteria for vertical alignments. The following
close for the two cases above. In LRT design,
the vehicle can generally handle twice the criteria are used for proposed systems using a
actual superelevation runoff indicated in the modern low-floor vehicle. It can be used as a
basis of consideration for general use.
above example. Therefore, it can be said that
passenger comfort criteria will generally be
3.3.1 Vertical Tangents
the main factor in determining minimum spiral
length.
The minimum length of constant profile grade
between vertical curves should be as follows:
3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT Condition Length
Main Line 30 meters (100 feet) or
The vertical alignment of an LRT alignment is Desired Minimum 0.57V, three times the
composed of constant grade tangent design speed in kph
segments connected at their intersection by @W-O, whichever is
parabolic curves having a constant rate of greater
change in grade. The nomenclature used to Main Line 12 meters (40 feet)
Absolute
describe vertical alignments is illustrated in
Minimum
Figure 3.3.1.

3-29
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

G2

/
PVT

\-

G2 .-

ELEV
I
PVC

t DATUM
X

SAG VERTICAL CURVES

PVC
0

-r
ELEV PVC

DATUM
1

CREST VERTlCAL CURVES

PARABOLIC VERTICAL CURVE FORMULAS:

+-GI
e- ( -) LVC - + A (LVC); r - ( - 1 - RATE OF CHANGE IN GRADE
8 LVC
Gz-Gl
Y’ y+x2- +x2

ELEVA- + X2 - XC, * ELEV PVC

Figure 3.3.1 VerticaI Curve Nomencalture

3-30
 LRT Track Geometrv

In embedded track in urban areas, where the No minimum grade is specified at passenger
need to conform to existing street profiles stations provided adequate track drainage can
makes compliance with the above criteria be maintained. In urban areas, the existing
impracticable, the above requirement is street profile may govern the profile grade
usually waived Where a tangent between within the station. In this case, the profile
vertical curves is shorter than 12 meters (40 grade may exceed 2.0%, but should be
feet), consideration should be given to using restricted to a maximum of 3.5%.
reverse or compound vertical curves. This
avoids abrupt changes in vertical acceleration Yard Tracks
that could result in both passenger discomfort Desired 00%
and excessive vehicle suspension system Maximum 1 .O%
wear. Yard Storage & Pocket Tracks
Desired 0.0%
3.3.2 Vehicle Length Criteria Maximum 0.2%

This topic is covered in Section 2.4 of this All tracks entering a yard should either be
handbook. level, sloped downward away from the main
line, or dished to prevent rail vehicles from
3.3.3 Vertical Grades rolling out of the yard onto the main line. For
yard secondary tracks, a slight grade, usually
Maximum grades in track are controlled by between 0.35% and l.OO%, is recommended
vehicle braking and tractive efforts. On main to achieve good track drainage at the
line track, civil drainage provisions also subballast level.
establish a minimum recommended profile
grade. In yards, shops, and at station Through storage tracks generally have a sag
platforms, there is usually secondary or cross in the middle of their profile to prevent rail
drainage available. Thus, grades in the range vehicles from rolling to either end. It is
of 0.00% to 0.04% are acceptable. recommended that the profile grade of a stub
end storage track descend toward the stub
As a guideline, the following profile grade end and, if it is adjacent to a main line or
limitations are recommended for general use secondary track, it should be curved away
in LRT design: from that track at its stub end. If it is
necessary for the profile grade of a storage
Main Line Tracks
track to slope up toward the stub end, the
Maximum Sustained Grade, 4.0%
grade should not exceed 0.20%.
Unlimited Length
Maximum Sustained Grade with Up 6.0% Tracks located within maintenance shops and
to 750 Meters (2500 feet) between other buildings are generally level.
PVls of Vertical Curves
Maximum Short Sustained Grade 7.0%
with No More than 150 Meters (500 3.3.4 Vertical Curves
Feet) between PVls of Vertical
Curves All changes in grade are connected by vertical
Minimum Grade for Drainage on 0.2% curves. Vertical curves are defined by
Direct Fixation Track parabolic curves having a constant rate of
change in grade. Parabolic curves are, for all

3-31
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

practical purposes, equivalent to circular meters (820 feet) for crests and 350 meters
curves for LRT design, but parabolic curves (1150 feet) for sags. This equivalent radius of
are easier to calculate and are thus preferable curvature can be calculated from the following
for this purpose. formula:

As a guideline, the following vertical curve LVC LVC

criteria are recommended for general use in Rv = O.Ol(Gz-GI) Rv = O.Ol(Gz-GI) I
LRT designs:
where: R, = minimum radius of curvature of a
vertical curve in meters (feet).
3.3.4.1 Vertical Curve Lengths
The length of vertical curves can be Minimum vertical curve length and/or design
determined as follows: speed may be governed by the overhead
l Desired Length: LVC = 60A (LVC = contact system (OCS) due to the maximum
200A) permissible rate of separation or convergence
l Preferred Minimum Length: LVC = 30A between the track grade and the contact wire
(LVC = 1 OOA) gradient. Coordination with the OCS designer
l Absolute Minimum Length: is strongly recommended to ensure
- Crest Curves. compliance with this limitation.

3.3.5 Vertical Curves, Special Conditions

- Sag Curves:

3.3.5.1 Reverse Vertical Curves

where: LVC = length of vertical curve, in
meters (feet)
A= (G, - G,) algebraic difference
in gradients connected by the
vertical curve, in percent
G, = percent grade of approaching
tangent
G2 = percent grade of departing
tangent
V = design speed, in kph (mph)
Both sag and crest vertical curves should
have the maximum possible length, especially
if approach and departure tangents are long.
Vertical broken back curves and short
horizontal curves at sags and crests should
be avoided.
Reverse vertical curves are feasible, provided
each curve conforms to the requirements
stated in Section 3.3.4 and the restrictions
imposed by the LRT vehicle design.
3.3.5.2 Combined Vertical and Horizontal
Curvature
Where possible, areas of combined vertical
and horizontal curvature should be avoided.
Where areas of combined vertical and
horizontal curvature cannot be avoided, the
geometry should not be more severe than a
25meter (82-foot) radius horizontal combined
with a 250-meter (820-foot) equivalent radius
vertical crest curve. Again, this criterion must
be conformed with the vehicle design.

The minimum equivalent radius of curvature

for vertical curves located on main line
tangent track should not be less than 250

3-32
 LRT Track Geometrv

3.3.6 Station Platform Alignment 3.3.7 Joint LRT-Railroad/Freight Tracks

Considerations
Railroad tracks to be relocated or in joint
In addition to the stringent track installation usage areas are designed in conformance
tolerances imposed by the Americans with with the requirements of the operating railroad
Disabilities Act (ADA), there are alignment and the AREMA Manual, except as
considerations that must be included in LRT recommended herein As a guideline,
trackwork. All LRT systems must provide recommended criteria are as follows:
level boarding. This applies whether the LRT
vehicle uses a high- or low-floor system.
3.3.7.1 Horizontal Alignment
Consequently, a horizontal curve cannot be The horizontal alignment for joint LRT-
located within a vehicle length of the platform; railroad/freight tracks consists of tangent,
otherwise, the ADA platform gap requirements circular curves, and spiral transitions based
will be virtually impossible to achieve. on the preferred maximum LRV design speed
and the required FRA freight class of railroad
operation Lead tracks and industrial spurs
3.3.6.1 Horizontal Alignment of Station generally do not require spiral transitions.
Platforms
At station platforms, the horizontal alignment Curves adjacent to turnouts on tracks that
should be tangent throughout the entire length diverge from the main track should be
of the platform. The tangent should be designed for the maximum allowable speeds
extended beyond both ends of the platform as of the adjoining turnouts.
follows:
Yard track should be designed for a minimum
Condition Minimum Tangent Length of 25 kph (15 mph). Lead track and industrial
Desired Minimum 25 meters (75 feet) sidetracks should be designed for a minimum
of 16 kph (10 mph).
Preferred 20 meters (60 feet)
Minimum
Absolute Minimum 15 meters (45 feet) 3.3.7.2 Tangent Alignment
For joint LRT-railroad/freight main tracks, the
desired tangent length between curves should
3.3.6.2 Vertical Alignment of Station
be 90 meters (300 feet), with an absolute
Platforms
minimum of 30 meters (100 feet). For lead
The profile at stations should be on a vertical
tracks and industrial spurs, a minimum
tangent that extends 12 meters (40 feet)
tangent distance of 15 meters (50 feet) should
beyond each end of the platform.
be provided between curve points. All
turnouts should be located on tangents.
Station Area Grades
Desired: 0.0%
Maximum: 2.0% 3.3.7.3 Curved Alignment
The maximum desired degree of curvature for
No minimum grade is necessary at passenger
railroad main line tracks should be either 3” or
stations, provided that adequate track
the maximum presently in use along the route,
drainage can be maintained.
but should not in any case exceed 9” 30’. The

3-33
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

maximum curvature for lead tracks and
industrial sidetracks should be 12”. In
extreme cases, revisions to existing industrial
sidetracks may be designed with sharper
curves that match the existing values.
Exceptions to the above criteria may be
permitted as authorized by both the transit
authority and the operating freight railroad.
The minimum length of circular curves for
main line tracks should be 30 meters
(100 feet).
3.3.7.4 Superelevation
Superelevation should be provided on main
line and secondary line tracks only, based on
the following formula:
require spirals. Spirals should be provided on
all curves where the superelevation required
for the design speed is 12 millimeters (0.5
inch) or more. The maximum E, for freight
traffic is 37 millimeters (1.5 inches). Note that
allowable LRT and railroad operating speeds
along a given track may differ due to the
difference in the maximum unbalance
superelevation allowed for each mode and
specific operating requirements.
As a guideline, the minimum length of a spiral
in railroad track and joint use railroad and LRT
track should be determined from the following
formulae, rounded off to the next meter (or 5
feet), but preferably not less than 18 meters
(60 feet).

E,=mo(+ ka=,.,,($l4] L, = 0.75 E,

L,= 0.009 E, V
(L, = 62 E,)
(L, = 1.22 E, V)
L,=O.O083E,V (L,= 1.13 E,V)
where: E, = actual superelevation in
millimeters (inches) where: L, = minimum length of spiral, in
V = curve design speed, in kph (mph) meters (feet)
R = radius of curve in meters (feet) E, = actual superelevation in
millimeters (inches)
Values of actual superelevation (E,) should be E, = unbalanced superelevation in
rounded to the nearest 6 millimeters (0.25 millimeters (inches)
inch). In cases where the calculated value is V = curve design speed in kph (mph)
less than 12 millimeters (0.5 inch), no actual
superelevation (E,) need be applied.
3.3.7.6 Vertical Alignment of Joint Use
Under joint freight and LRT operating Tracks
conditions, E, should be obtained from the
3.3.7.6.1 General
above formula until the calculated value
The profile grade is defined as the elevation of
reaches 75 millimeters (3 inches). E, can be
further increased to 100 millimeters (4 inches) the top of the low rail. Vertical curves should
to achieve desired speed with the approval of be defined by parabolic curves having a
transit authority and the operating railroad. constant rate of grade change.

3.3.7.6.2 Vertical Tangents

3.3.7.5 Spiral Transitions
The desired minimum length of vertical
Spiral transition curves are generally used for
tangents is 90 meters (300 feet) with an
railroad/freight main line and secondary line
absolute minimum value of 60 meters (200
tracks only. Low-speed yard and secondary
feet). Turnouts should be located only on
tracks without superelevation generally do not
tangent grades.

3-34
 LRT Track Geometrv

3.3.7.6.3 Vertical Grades where: LVC = length of vertical curve in

On main line tracks, the preferred maximum meters (feet)
grade should be 1.0%. This value may only A = (G2 - G,) = algebraic difference
be exceeded in cases where the existing in gradients connected by the
longitudinal grade is steeper than 1.0%. vertical curve, in percent.
Grades within horizontal curves are generally G, = percent grade of approaching
compensated (reduced) at a rate of 0.04% per tangent
horizontal degree of curvature. Locations G2 = percent grade of departing
where freight trains may frequently stop and tangent
start are compensated at a rate of 0.05% per
degree of curvature. This compensation If an existing railroad vertical curve is below
reduces the maximum grade in areas of the desired length, a replacement vertical
curvature to reflect the additional tractive effort curve with a rate of change of grade not
required to pull the train. exceeding that of the existing curve may be
acceptable.
For yard tracks and portions of industrial
sidetracks where cars are stored, the grades
should preferably be 0.20% or less, but should 3.4 VEHICLE CLEARANCES AND TRACK
not exceed 0.40%. Running portions of CENTERS
industrial sidetracks should have a maximum
grade of 2.5%, except that steeper grades This section discusses the minimum
may be required to match existing tracks. dimensions that must be established to
Grade compensation is usually not required in ensure minimum clearances between the light
railroad yard and industrial tracks. rail vehicles and transit structures or other
obstructions and to establish a procedure for
determining minimum track center distances.
3.3.7.6.4 Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are usually provided at all The provision of adequate clearances for the
intersections of vertical tangent grades, safe passage of vehicles is a fundamental
except for where the total grade difference is concern in the design of transit facilities.
less than 0.5%. . Careful determination of clearance envelopes
and enforcement of the resulting minimum
The lengths of vertical curves in railroad clearance requirements during design and
trackage should provide a rate of change of construction are essential to proper operations
grade not exceeding 0.05% per station in sags and safety.
and 0.10% per station in summits (rounded off
to the next largest 30 meters, or 100 feet). The following discussion concentrates on the
Situations where this proves impossible to establishment of new vehicle clearance
achieve may use shorter curves using the envelopes and minimum track centers. On
following formulae: existing LRT systems, this is normally
established in the initial design criteria or by
Crests: LVC = 76A (LVC = 250A) conditions in the initial sections of the transit
Sags: LVC = 150A (LVC = 500A) system

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Light Rail Track Design Handbook

3.4.1 Clearance Envelope above are combined; for example, the

The clearance envelope (CE) is defined as the
space occupied by the maximum vehicle
dynamic envelope (VDE), plus effects due to
curvature and superelevation, construction
and maintenance tolerances of the track
structure, construction tolerances of adjacent
wayside structures, and running clearances.
The relationship between the vehicle and
clearance envelope can thus be expressed as
follows: [141
CE = VDE+l-T+C&S+RC
where: CE = Clearance Envelope
VDE = Vehicle Dynamic Envelope
TT = Trackwork Construction and
Maintenance Tolerances
C&S = Vehicle Curve and
Superelevation Effects
RC = Vehicle Running Clearance
trackwork construction and maintenance
tolerances are frequently included in the
calculation of the vehicle dynamic envelope. r2]
Regardless of how the individual factors are
defined, it is important that all of these items
are included in the determination of the overall
clearance envelope.
3.4.1 .I Vehicle Dynamic Envelope
Determination of the VDE begins with the
cross sectional outline of the static vehicle.
The dynamic outline of the vehicle is then
developed by making allowances for car body
movements that occur when the vehicle is
operating on level tangent track. These
movements represent the extremes of car
body displacement that can occur for any
combination of rotational, lateral, and vertical
car body movements when the vehicle is
operating on level tangent track.

The clearance envelope represents the space The following items are typically included in
into which no physical part of the system, the development of the VDE: r’s*‘61
other than the vehicle itself, must be placed, 1. Static vehicle outline
constructed, or protrude. 2. Dynamic motion (roll) of springs and
suspension/bolsters of vehicle trucks
A second part of the clearance equation is 3. Vehicle suspension side play and
what is termed structure gauge, which is component wear
basically the minimum distance between the 4. Vehicle wheel flange and radial tread
centerline of track and a specific point on the wear
structure. 5. Maximum truck yaw (fishtailing)
6. Maximum passenger loading
Although structure gauge and clearance 7. Suspension system failure
envelope elements are often combined, it is
8. Wheel and track nominal gauge difference
not advisable to construct a clearance
9. Wheel back-to-back tolerance
envelope that includes wayside structure
10. Rail fastener loosening and gauge
clearances and tolerances, as the required widening during revenue service
horizontal or vertical clearances to different 11. Dynamic rail rotation
structures may vary significantly. 12. Rail cant deficiency

The factors used to develop the clearance Some of these items, particularly Items 10 to
envelope are discussed in further detail in the 12, are relatively minor and are often
following sections. It should be noted that in combined into a single value.
some LRT designs, some of the factors listed

3-36
 LRT Track Geometry

The development of the VDE is typically the based on the ballasted trackwork case. Both
responsibility of the vehicle designer. The options have been used in actual practice.
trackwork designer may have to estimate the
values of Items 10 to 12. It is imperative that Trackwork-based factors to be considered in
the vehicle designer include maintenance the development of the clearance envelope,
tolerances as well as the initial installation with typical values, include the following:
tolerances in the determination of the VDE. l Lateral Rail Wear: 13 millimeters (0.50
Typical values for vehicle-based maintenance inch)
factors include the following: l Lateral Maintenance Tolerance, Direct
Fixation Track: 13 millimeters (0 50 inch)
l Lateral wheel wear: 7.5 millimeters (0.30
inch) l Lateral Maintenance Tolerance, Ballasted
l Nominal wheel-to-rail sideplay: 10.5 Track: 25 millimeters (1 .OO inch)
millimeters (0.405 inch) l Vertical Maintenance Tolerance: 13
l Vertical radial wheel wear: 25 millimeters millimeters (0.50 inch)
(1 inch)
l Cross Level Variance, Direct Fixation
The VDE is usually represented as a series of Track: 13 millimeters (0.50 inch)
exterior coordinate points with the reference l Cross Level Variance, Ballasted Track:
origin at the track centerline at the top of rail 25 millimeters (1 .OO inch)
elevation. The static vehicle outline is
generally not used in track design except for Cross level variance creates a condition of
the establishment of station platforms and vehicle rotation rather than lateral shift.
associated station trackwork design at these Effects on the clearance envelope are similar
locations. to superelevation effects noted below.

3.4.1.2 Track Construction and 3.4.1.3 Curvature and Superelevation

Maintenance Tolerances Effects
Track construction and maintenance In addition to the VDE and track maintenance
tolerances should be included in the factors, track curvature and superelevation
determination of the clearance envelope, have a significant effect on the determination
whether as part of the VDE or as a separate of the clearance envelope. These effects will
clearance item. The track maintenance be covered separately. Some authorities
tolerances are generally far greater than the consider the effects of curvature and
initial construction tolerances and thus take superlevation as part of the VDE, and
precedence for the purpose of determining calculate separate VDE diagrams for each
clearances. combination of curvature and superelevation.
As a guideline, this handbook considers only
It should also be noted that direct fixation and one VDE and determines curvature and
ballasted trackwork have different track superelevation effects separately to establish
maintenance tolerances. It is possible to multiple clearance envelopes.
determine separate clearance envelopes for
ballasted and direct fixation track, or to use
the more conservative clearance envelope

3-37
light Rail Track Design Handbook

3.4.1.3.1 Curvature Effects

In addition to the dynamic car body
movements described above, car body
overhang on horizontal curves also increases F TRUCK
F cAR
F Kucx
r VLHICLE
the lateral displacement of the VDE relative to I I WiUNE

the track centerline. For design purposes,

both mid-car inswing (mid-ordinate) and end-
of-car outswing (end overhang) of the vehicle
must be considered.

The amount of mid-car inswing and end-of-car

outswing depends primarily on the vehicle
truck spacing, vehicle end overhang, and Figure 3.4.1 Horizontal Curve Effects on
track curve radius. The truck axle spacing Vehicle Lateral Clearance
also has an effect on clearances, although it is
A somewhat more accurate calculation is
relatively small and frequently ignored.161
provided from UIC 505-5, Enclosure VI, which
Refer to Section 2.3.2 for vehicle dynamic
is calculated by placing the four vehicle axles
outline.
on the track centerline. In this publication, the
To determine the amount of vehicle inswing vehicle inswing and outswing are determined
from:
and outswing for a given curve radius, one of
two formulas are generally used, depending G2/2k+L2/2)-(p2/4)
lnswing = MO =
on whether the vehicle axle spacing is known. 2R
Both methods are sufficiently accurate for
general clearance envelope determinations for
(L2/2k - L2/2)- (p2/4)
LRT vehicles. Outswing = E, =
2R

If truck axle spacing effects are ignored, the

where: P = vehicle axle spacing
effects of vehicle inswing and outswing are
determined from the assumption that the For single axle vehicles, such as those on
vehicle truck centers.are located at the center low-floor articulated vehicles, the value of P in
of track, as shown on Figure 3.4.1. In this the UIC formulae is 0.
case, the vehicle inswing and outswing can be
found from: In determining the outswing of the vehicle, it
must be noted that some vehicles have
lnswing = M, = R(l-cosa) and a = sin tapered ends, and that the clearance diagram
is based on the worst-case between the
where: M, = mid-ordinate of vehicle chord vehicle end section and the full vehicle section
R = track curve radius away from the vehicle end.
L2 = vehicle truck spacing
When calculating the CE for horizontal curves
L with spirals, it is necessary to end the tangent
Outswing = R, - R R, = -
cos b clearance envelope at some distance, usually
where: R = track curve radius 15 meters (50 feet), before the track tangent-
L = half of overall vehicle length to-spiral (TS) point. The full curvature CE
should begin 7.5 meters (25 feet) before the

3-38
 LRT Track Geometry

track spiral-to-curve (SC) point and after the

curve-to-spiral (CS) point. Horizontal offsets
of the CE are calculated by linear interpolation
with sufficient accuracy for clearance
purposes. For simple circular curves, the full
curvature CE begins 15 meters (50 feet)
before the point of curve (PC) and ends 15
meters (50 feet) beyond the point of tangency
(PT). These distances are for a 25 to 28-
meter (82- to 92-foot) long vehicle, very short
LRT vehicles would require shorter distances.

The CE through turnouts is calculated based

on the centerline radius of the turnout.

It is of interest to note that the vehicle

designer does not always provide the
calculations for the effects of horizontal
curvature clearance, and that this task is Figure 3.4.2 Dynamic Vehicle Outline
frequently left to the trackwork or civil Superelevation Effect on Vertical
alignment engineer. Clearances

3.4.1.3.2 Superelevation Effects 3.4.1.5 Vehicle Running Clearance

Superelevation effects are limited to the The clearance envelope must include a
vehicle lean induced by a specific difference minimum allowance for running clearance
in elevation between the two rails of the track, between the vehicle and adjacent obstructions
and should be considered independently of or vehicles. Running clearance is generally
other effects on the CE. In determining the measured horizontally (laterally) to the
effects of superelevation, the shape of the obstruction, although some clearance
VDE is not altered, but is rotated about the envelopes are developed with the running
centerline of the top of the low rail of the track clearance added around the entire perimeter
for an amount equal to the actual track of the vehicle.
superelevation.
The most common general value assigned to
This rotation is illustrated in Figure 3.4.2. For running clearances is 50 millimeters (2
any given coordinate on the VDE, the inches). Except at station platforms, which
equations indicated in Figure 3.4.1 are are special cases in LRT design, the 50
sufficiently accurate to convert the original millimeters (2 inches) represents a minimum
VDE coordinate (xT,yT) into a revised running clearance value.
clearance coordinate (x2, y2) to account for
superelevation effects. Some items are occasionally assigned a
higher minimum running clearance. These
include structural members and adjacent
vehicles. A typical assignment of running
clearance criteria includes the following data:

3-39
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Minimum running clearance to signals, Construction tolerances for wayside structures

signs, platform doors, and other non- include the construction and maintenance
structural members: 50 millimeters (2 tolerances associated with structural elements
inches) outside of the track. These can include walls,
catenary poles, and signal equipment. A
Minimum running clearance to an
minimum construction tolerance for large
emergency walkway envelope: 50
structural elements is normally 50 millimeters
millimeters (2 inches)
(2 inches), although soldier pile and lagging
Minimum running clearance along an type walls may have a much larger tolerance
aerial deck parapet, walls, and all requirement.
structural members: 150 millimeters (6
inches) A second item that must be considered in
construction tolerances is an allowance for
Minimum running clearance to adjacent
chorded construction of tunnel walls, large
LRT vehicles: 150 millimeters (6 inches)
precast aerial structure sections, and
walkways, In lieu of exact construction
3.4.2 Structure Gauge information, a general guideline of a l&meter
(50-foot) chord for curve radii greater than 750
The second part of the clearance equation is meters (2,500 feet), and 7.5-meter (25-foot)
what is termed structure gauge, which is chords for smaller radius curves can be used
basically the minimum distance between the as a basis for design.
centerline of track and a specific point on the
structure. This is determined from the CE Finally, provisions for present or future
above, plus structure tolerances and minimum acoustical treatments are often required on
clearances to structures. Thus: walls and other structures. Typical values for
this range from 50 to 75 millimeters (2 to 3
SG=CE+SC+ST+AA inches).

where, SG = structure gauge

CE = clearance envelope 3.4.3 Station Platforms
SC = required clearance to wayside
structure Station platforms require special clearance
ST = wayside structure construction considerations, especially since regulations
tolerance such as the American with Disabilities Act
AA = acoustic allowance cover the maximum permissible gap between
the vehicle floor and platform edge.
The required clearance to wayside structures
may be specified separately from the running It should be noted that current ADA
clearance described above. In other words, regulations require a maximum vehicle-
the running clearance envelope is stated as a platform gap of 75 millimeters (3 inches) with
constant value, usually 50 millimeters, and a the static vehicle located at the centerline of
separate required clearance criteria is track. For high platforms or high block
specified for each type of wayside structure. portions of station platforms, where
Values of 50 to 150 millimeters (2 to 6 inches) applicable, this is usually not in conformance
are normally specified as minimum clearance with other clearance criteria. Therefore,
from structures in the clearance envelope. clearance at station platforms should be

3-40
 LRT Track Geometw

considered separate from all other structural TC = Tt + T, + 2(OWF + RC) + P

clearances
where: TC = minimum track centers
This topic is also covered in the discussion of Tt = half of vehicle CE toward curve
vehicle/track installation tolerances in Chapter center
2 herein. T, = half of vehicle CE away from
curve center
RC = running clearance
3.4.4 Vertical Clearances OWF = other wayside factors (see
structure gauge)
Vertical clearances are normally set with a P = maximum allowable catenary
100- to 150-millimeter (4- to 6-inch) allowance pole diameter
from the clearance envelope, including
superelevation effects. Actual LRT operations Where the LRT track is designed for joint
normally do not require this amount of vertical usage with freight railroads, the clearances
clearance, but an allowance is usually mandated by the operating freight railroad
required to accommodate future maintenance, generally predominates. The AREMA Manual
particularly on ballasted trackwork. contains useful information on general freight
railway clearances, but the individual railroads
also have specific clearance requirements
3.4.5 Track Centers and Fouling Points
that will supersede the AREMA
recommendations.
The minimum allowable spacing between
tracks and the location of fouling points are
determined using the same principles as 3.5 REFERENCES
those used for determining clearances to
structures. Referring to the previous American Railway Engineering and
PI
discussion on clearances, minimum track Maintenance-of-Way Association
centers can be determined from the following (AREMA) Manual of Railway
equation, if catenaty poles are not located Engineering (Washington, DC: AREMA,
between tracks: 1997), Ch. 12.

TC = T,+T,+2(OWF)+RC New Jersey Transit, Hudson-Bergen

PI
Light Rail Project, Manual of Design
where: TC = minimum track centers Criteria, Feb. 1996, Chapter 4.
T, = half of vehicle CE toward
curve center American Railway Engineering
[31
J-G3= half of vehicle CE away from Association, “Review of Transit
curve center Systems,” AREA Bulletin 732, Vol. 92,
RC = running clearance Oct. 1991, pp. 283-302.
OWF = other wayside factors (see
structure gauge) t41 Maryland Mass Transit Administration,
Baltimore Central Light Rail Line,
Where catenary poles are located between Manual of Design Criteria, Jan. 1990.
tracks, the minimum track centers are
determined from: PI AREMA Manual, Chapter 5.

3-41
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

PI Parsons Brinckerhoff-Tudor-Bechtel, PII F.E. Dean and D.R. Ahlbeck, “Criteria

“Basis of Geometries Criteria,” for High-Speed Curving of Rail
submitted to the Metropolitan Atlanta Vehicles” (New York; ASME, Aug.
Rapid Transit Authority (Atlanta: 1974), 7 pp.
MARTA, Aug. 1974), p. 3.
WI Los Angeles County Mass
VI Harvey S. Nelson, ‘Speed and Transportation Administration, “Rail
Superelevation on an Interurban Electric Transit Design Criteria & Standards,
Railway,” presentation at APTA Vol. II,” Rail Planning Guidebook (Los
Conference, Philadelphia, PA, June Angeles. LACMTA, 6194).
1991.
1131 Thomas F. Hickerson, Route Location
181 Raymond P. Owens and Patrick L. Design, 5’” ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill,
Wd, “Railroad Passenger Ride 1964), pp. 168-l 71, 374-375.
Safety,” report for U.S. Department of
Transportation, FRA, Feb. 1988. 1141 Jamaica-JFKIHoward Beach LRS,
“Basic Design Criteria Technical
PI American Railway Engineering Revisions”, (New York: NYCTA, 2197).
Association, “Passenger Ride Comfort
on Curved Track,” AREA Bulletin 516, I151 Washington Metropolitan Area Transit
Vol. 55 (Washington, DC: AREA, 1954), Authority, Rapid Transit System,
pp. 125214. “Manual of Design Criteria”
(Washington: WMATA, 1976 with rev.).
UOI American Association of Railroads,
“Length of Railway Transition Spiral [161 Portand Tri-Met, Westside Corridor,
Analysis-Analysis and Running Tests,” Manual of Design Criteria, June 1993,
Engineering Research Division Chapter 2.
(Washington, DC: AAR, September
1963), pp. 91-129.

3-42
Chapter “Track Structure Design

Table of Contents
4.1 INTRODUCTION 4-l

4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND FLANGEWAYS 4-1

4.2 1 Vehicle Truck Factors 4-l
4.2.2 Standard Track and Wheel Gauges 4-2
4.2.2.1 Railroad Gauge Practice 4-2
4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice 4-3
4.2.2.3 Gauge Issues for Joint LRT and Railroad and
Mixed Fleet Operations 4-4
4.2.2 4 Gauge Issues for Embedded Track 4-5
4.2.2.5 Non-Standard Track Gauges 4-6
4.2.3 Gauge Measurement Location 4-7
4.2.4 Rail Cant and Wheel Taper-Implications for Track Gauge 4-7
4.2.4.1 Tapered Wheel Tread Rationale 4-7
4 2.4.2 Asymmetrical Rail Grinding 4-8
4.2.4.3 Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for Enhancing
Truck Steering 4-9
4.25 Track Gauge Variation 4-10
4.2.6 Considerations for Determination of Appropriate Gauge 4-l 0
4.2.6.1 Gauge for Tangent Track 4-10
4.2.6.2 Gauge for Curved Track 4-l 0
4.2.7 Fiangeways 4-11
4.2.8 Guarded Curves and Restraining Rails 4-12
4.2.8.1 Curve Double Guarding 4-13
4.2.8.2 Restraining Rail Design 4-13
4.2.9 Gauge Determination Analysis 4-l 3
4.2.9.1 Nytram Plot-Truck-Axle-Wheel Positioning on Track 4-14
4.2.9.2 Filkins-Wharton Flangeway Analysis 4-19
4.2.10 Gauge Implications of Track Construction and
Maintenance Tolerances 4-24

4.3 TRACK SUPPORT MODULUS 4-26

4.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity 4-26
4.3.2 Track Modulus of Various Track Types 4-27
4.3.2.1 Ballasted Track 4-27
4.3.2.2 Direct Fixation Track 4-28
4.3.2.3 Embedded Track 4-29
4.3.3 Transition Zone Modulus 4-30
4.3.3.1 Interface Between Track Types 4-30
4.3.3.2 Transition Zone Design Details 4-31
4 3.3.3 Transition Zone Improvements 4-31
4.3.3.3.1 Transition from Direct Fixation Track to
Ballasted Track 4-31

4-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

4.3.3.3.2 Transition from Embedded Track to

Ballasted Track 4-31
4.3.3.3.3 Design Recommendation 4-33
4.4 BALLASTED TRACK 4-33
4.4.1 Ballasted Track Defined 4-33
4.4.2 Ballasted Track Criteria 4-34
4 4.2.1 Ballasted Track Rail Section and Track Gauge 4-34
4.4.2.2 Ballasted Track with Restraining Rail 4-34
4.4.2.3 Ballasted Track Fastening 4-34
4.4.3 Ballasted Track Structure Types 4-34
4.4 3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience 4-35
4.4.3.2 Timber Crosstie Ballasted Track 4-35
4.4.3.2.1 Timber Crosstie Fastening 4-36
4.4.3.2 2 Timber Crossties 4-37
4.4.3.3 Concrete Crosstie Ballasted Track 4-37
4.4.3.3 1 Concrete Crosstie Fastening 4-37
4.4.3 3.2 Concrete Crossties 4-39
4.4 4 Crosstie Spacing 4-39
4.4.4.1 Crosstie Spacing-Tangent/ Curved Track 440
4.4.5 Special Trackwork Switch Ties 4-41
4.451 Timber Switch Ties 4-41
4.4.5.2 Concrete Switch Ties 4-42
4.4.6 Ballast and Subballast 4-42
4.4.6.1 Ballast Depth 4-43
4.4.6.2 Ballast Width 4-43
4.4.6.3 Subballast Depth and Width 4-43
4.4.6.4 Subgrade 4-44
4.4.7 Ballasted Track Drainage 4-44 ’
4.4.8 Stray Current Protection Requirements 4-44
4.4.9 Ballasted Special Trackwork 4-45
4.4.10 Noise and Vibration 4-45
4.4.11 Transit Signal Work 4-45
4.4.12 Traction Power 4-46
4.4.13 Grade Crossings 4-46
4.5 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK (BALLASTLESS OPEN TRACK) 446
4.5.1 Direct Fixation Track Defined 4-46
4.5.2 Direct Fixation Track Criteria 4-47
4.5.2.1 Direct Fixation Track Rail Section and Track Gauge 4-47
4.5.2.2 Direct Fixation Track with Restraining Rail 4-47
4.5.2.3 Direct Fixation Track Fastener 4-47
4.5.2.4 Track Modulus 4-47
4.5.3 Direct Fixation Track Structure Types 4-47
4.5.3.1 Cementitious Grout Pads 4-48
453.1 .I Cementitious Grout Pad on Concrete Surface 4-48

4-ii
 Track Structure Design

4.5.3.1.2 Cementitious Grout Pad in Concrete Recess 4-49

4.5.3 1.3 Cementitious Grout Material 4-49
4 5.3.2 Reinforced Concrete Plinth 4-50
4.5.3.2.1 Concrete Plinth in Tangent Track 4-50
4.5.3.2.2 Concrete Plinth on Curved Track 4-51
4.5.3.2.3 Concrete Plinth in Guarded Track with
Restraining Rail or Safety Guard Rail 4-51
4.5.3.2.4 Concrete Plinth Lengths 4-52
4.5.3.2.5 Concrete Plinth Height 4-54
4.5.3.2.6 Direct Fixation Vertical Tolerances 4-54
4.5.3.2.7 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design 4-54
4.5 3.3 Direct Fixation Fastener Details at the Rail 4-56
4.5.3.4 Direct Fixation “Ballastless” Concrete Tie Block Track 4-57
4.5.4 Direct Fixation Track Drainage 4-59
4.5.5 Stray Current Protection Requirements 4-60
4 5.6 Direct Fixation Special Trackwork 4-60
4.5.7 Noise and Vibration 4-60
4.5.8 Transit Signal Work 4-61
4 5.9 Traction Power 4-61

4.6 EMBEDDED TRACK DESIGN 4-61

4 6.1 Embedded Track Defined 4-61
4.6.2 Embedded Rail and Flangeway Standards 4-62
4.6.2.1 Embedded Details at the Rail Head 4-62
4.6.2.2 Wheel/Rail Embedment Interference 4-63
4.6.3 Embedded Track Types 4-64
4.6.3.1 Non-Resilient Embedded Track 4-64
4.6.3.2 Resilient Embedded Track 4-65
4.6.3.3 Super Resilient Embedded Track (Floating Slab) 4-66
4.6.3.4 A Special Resilient Rail Installation for Vibration
Sensitive Zones 4-67
4.6.4 Embedded Track Structure Types 4-67
4.6.4.1 Concrete Slab Track Structure 4-67
4.6.4.1 .I Rail Installation 4-68
4.6.4.1.2 Stray Current Protection Requirements 4-70
4.6.4.1.3 Rail Embedment Materials 4-72
4.6.4.1.4 Embedded Track Drainage 4-75
4.6.4.2 Ballasted Track Structure With Embedment 4-76
4.6.5 Embedded Special Trackwork 4-78
4.6.6 Noise and Vibration 4-79
4.6 7 Transit Signal Work 4-80
4.6.8 Traction Power 4-80
4.6.9 Typical Embedded Concrete Slab Track Design Guideline 4-80
4.6.10 Turf Track: Another Type of Embedded Track 4-84

4.7 REFERENCES 4-86

4-iii
 Light Rail Track Design Handbook

List of Figures
Figure 4.2.1 Standard Wheel Gauge-AAR (Railroad) 4-3
Figure 4.2.2 (Recommended) Standard Wheel Gaug-Transit System 4-4
Figure 4.2.3 Gauge Line Locations on 115 RE Rail Head 4-7

Figure 4.2.4 Rail Cant Design and Wheel Contact 4-9

Figure 4.2.5 Nytram Plot-Modified AAR-IB Transit Wheel 4-15
Figure 4.2.6 Nytram P/of-l428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 1828 Ax/e Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-16
Figure 4.2.7 Nytram Plot-1428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-I 7
Figure 4.2.8 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-I 7
Figure 4.2.9 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing,
25-Meter Curve 4-l 9
Figure 4.2.10 Nytram Plot-Rotated Truck Position on Track,
Transit Wheel Gauge 4-20
* Figure 4.2.11 Nytram Plots-Rotated Truck Position on Track,
AAR Wheel Gauge 4-21
Figure 4.2. I2 Filkins- Wharton Diagram for Determining Flangeway
Widths 4-23
Figure 4.2.13 Filkins- Wharton Plot to Establish Flangeways 4-24
Figure 4.3.1 Track Transition Slab 4-32
Figure 4.4.1 Ballasted Single Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie) 4-36
Figure 4.4.2 Ballasted Double Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie) 4-36
Figure 4.4.3 Ballasted Single Track, Curved Track (Timber Crosstie) 438
Figure 4.4.4 Ballasted Double Track, Curved Track (Timber Crosstie) 4-38
Figure 4.5.1 Cementitious Grout Pad Design-Direct Fixation Track 4-48
Figure 4.5.2 Concrete Plinth Design-Tangent Direct Fixation Track 4-50
Figure 4.5.3 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Direct
Fixation Track 4-52
Figure 4.5.4 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Guarded
Direct Fixation Track with Restraining Rail 4-52
Figure 4.5.5 Concrete Plinth Lengths 4-53
Figure 4.5.6 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design 4-55

4-iv
 Track Structure Design

Figure 4.5.7 Rail Cant and Base of Rail Positioning 4-58

Figure 4.5.8 Encased Concrete Crosstie 4-59

Figure 4.5.9 Standard LVT System 4-59

Figure 4.6.1 Embedded Rail Head Details 4-63

Figure 4.6.2 Special Resilient Rail Installation for Vibration

Sensitive Zones 4-67

Figure 4.6.3 Concrete Slab with Two Individual Rail Troughs 4-68

Figure 4.6.4 Two-Pour Concrete Slab with Two Individual

Rail Troughs 4-68

Figure 4.6.5 Three-Pour Concrete ‘Bathtub” Installation 4-68

Figure 4.6.6 Initial Rail Installations-Base Material 4-69

Figure 4.6.7 Rail Fastening Installations 4-70

Figure 4.6.8 Insulating Surface Barrier at Trough Edges 4-71

Figure 4.6.9 Extruded Elastomer Trough Components 4-72

Figure 4.6.10 Polyurethane Trough Filler with Web Blocks 4-73

Figure 4.6.11 Direct Fixation Fastener with Internal Drain System 4-74

Figure 4.6.12 Cut Away Section Embedded Track Drainage Chase 4-77

Figure 4.6.13 Ballasted Track Structure with Embedment 4-77

Figure 4.6.14 Special Trackwork-Embedded “Bathtub” Design 4-79

Figure 4.6.15 Typical Embedded Track Design 4-81

Figure 4.6.16 Turf Track-Another Type of Embedded Track 4-85

List of Tables

Table 4.2.1 Track Construction Tolerances 4-25

Table 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Design Parameters 4-41

4-v
CHAPTER ATRACK STRUCTURE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The design standards for contemporary light
rail transit (LRT) track structures, whether in
an aerial, at-grade, or tunnel environment,
differ considerably from the principles for
either “heavy” rail transit or railroad service.
The varied guideway environments in which
an LRT system can be constructed result in
horizontal and vertical track geometry that
often affects light rail vehicle (LRV) design
and performance. Consequently, the light rail
track designer must consider not only the
track geometry, but also the characteristics of
the LRV and how it responds to the guideway
geometry This is particularly true in
embedded track located in streets. Embedded
track construction constitutes the greatest
challenge to the light rail track designer.
4.2 TRACK AND WHEEL GAUGES AND
FLANGEWAYS
The determination of the correct dimensions
to be used for track and wheel gauges and for
the widths of the flangeways through special
trackwork and other guarded portions of the
track structure is the most critical activity to be
undertaken during track design. If these
dimensions are not carefully selected to be
compatible with the rail vehicle(s) that will
operate over the track, unsatisfactory
performance and excessive wear of both the
track structure and the vehicle wheels will
occur.
4.2.1 Vehicle Truck Factors
New, state-of-the-art LRV designs, particularly
“low-floor” LRVs, incorporate many features
radically different from heavy rail metros and
railroads. These may include smaller
4-l
DESIGN
diameter wheels, short stub single wheel
axles, and a wide variety of truck axle
spacings and truck centers-all of which
affect the vehicle’s interface with the track
structure. In some cases, multiple variations
of these factors can occur on a single car. A
common situation involves smaller diameter
wheels and a shorter truck wheelbase on the
center truck of a partial low-floor light rail
vehicle. If these parameters are not carefully
considered in track design, the vehicle’s
tracking pattern can be susceptible to hunting,
truck skewing in curves, and unpredictability
at special trackwork. The track gauge-to-
wheel gauge relationship is especially
important in controlling these operational
performance features.
In general, reducing the lateral clearance
between the wheel flange and rail head, either
through increasing the wheel gauge or
decreasing the track gauge, improves wheel
tracking of the rail by keeping the truck square
to the rails. This reduces hunting, skewing,
and flange attack and results in improved
performance through curved track and special
trackwork. Vehicle wheel gauge will generally
not vary within a given LRV fleet although
cases have occurred where the wheel gauge
and wheel contour of a new vehicle
procurement have not matched that of the
transit agency’s existing fleet. The track
designer should take steps to ensure that the
vehicle designer does not select wheel
parameters independent of track design.
If, as is common, there are several series of
vehicles in use on a rail transit line, each with
a different combination of truck
characteristics, the track designers must
consider the worst-case requirements of each
car series and optimize the track gauge
parameters accordingly.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
4.2.2 Standard Track and Wheel Gauges
The majority of contemporary rail transit
systems nominally utilize “standard” track
gauge of 1435 mm (56-l/2 inches). This track
gauge stems from 18th century horse drawn
railways used by English collieries, where
track gauge was dictated by the common
wheel-to-wheel “gauge” of the wagons used to
haul the coal. This wagon gauge can be
traced back to ancient times, where it was
used on Roman chariots because
approximately matched the center-to-center
distance of a pair of war horses. This made it
easier for the horses to follow the wagon ruts
in the roads. While many different track
gauges were adopted over the years, none
have proven to be either as popular or
practical as standard gauge.
Track that is nominally constructed to
standard gauge can actually be tighter or
wider than 1435 mm depending on a variety of
circumstances. The track gauge can be
adjusted along the route so as to optimize
vehicle-to-track interaction. Conditions that
can require gauge adjustments include track
curvature, the presence or lack of curve guard
rails, rail cant, and several vehicle design
factors. Vehicle factors include wheel
diameter; wheel tread taper and width; wheel
flange shape including both height and
thickness; the distance between axles; and
the wheel gauge or distance between wheels
mounted on a common axle.
While nominal standard gauge is nearly
universal for both electric rail transit and
“steam” railroads, different requirements of
these modes resulted in appreciably different
details, such as where the track gauge is
measured, under what conditions it is varied,
and the amount of freeplay that is required
between the wheel flanges and the sides of
the rails
4.2.2.1 Railroad Gauge Practice
North American railroads set track and wheel
mounting gauges in accordance with criteria
established by the Mechanical Division of the
Association of American Railroads (AAR) and
the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA).
AAR standard wheel gauge is defined as 55
1 l/16 inches (equivalent to 1,414 millimeters)
and is measured 518 of an inch (15.9
millimeters) below the wheel tread surface.
it The AREMA definition of track gauge is
measured at the same distance below the top
of rail. These gauge standards have been
incorporated in many contemporary LRT track
designs to accommodate possible joint
railroad and LRT operations.
If wheels using the current AAR-IB wheel
profile are mounted at standard AAR wheel
gauge, and the wheel and axle assembly is
centered between the rails at standard track
gauge, the horizontal clearance between the
wheel and the rail at the gauge line elevation
is 13/32 inch or 10.3 millimeters as shown in
Figure 4.2.1. This results in total freeplay
between correctly mounted and unworn
wheelsets and exactly gauged rails of 13116
inch or almost 21 millimeters.
It is important to recognize that railroad gauge
practices generally evolved in a different
environment than transit operations.
Particularly in curved tracks, railroad criteria is
predicated on the use of equipment that
generally has much larger diameter wheels
than those used on transit vehicles. In
addition, both the maximum wheelbase and
the number of axles that might be mounted on
a rigid truck frame are usually much greater.
Steam locomotives in particular could have
wheels over 1800 millimeters (6 feet) in
diameter, with up to five such sets of wheels
on a rigid frame. Even contemporary diesel
4-2

Figure 4.2, f Standard Wheel Gaug-AAR
(Railroad)
locomotives can have wheels that are over 1
meter (3.2 feet) in diameter, with three wheel
and axle sets on trucks that can have an
overall wheelbase of nearly 4 meters (13 feet).
By contrast, contemporary rail transit vehicles
rarely have wheels over 711 mm (28 inches)
in diameter, never have more than two axles
per truck, and generally have maximum
wheelbase distances no longer than about
2200 millimeters (7 feet). (Refer to Table 2.1.)
The much larger truck features associated
with railroad equipment dictate wheel gauge-
to-track gauge relationships that are far less
stringent than those required for transit
equipment. Hence, railroad gauge and
flangeway criteria should not be adopted
unless both transit and freight railroad
equipment will operate jointly on a common
track.
4.2.2.2 Transit Gauge Practice
Traditional street railway/tramway systems
developed guidelines for wheel gauge that
differ considerably from those used by
railroads. In the United States, the most
common standards for track and wheel
mounting gauges were those promulgated by
the American Electric Railway Engineering
Association (later renamed the American
Transit Engineering Association or ATEA)
4-3
Track Structure Design
The metric equivalents of the ATEA standard
track and wheel gauges were 1,435 and 1,428
millimeters (56-l/2 inches and 56-114 inches),
respectively, and were measured 6
millimeters (l/4 inch) below tread height. In
addition, some transit systems tightened the
track gauge in tangent track, taking advantage
of a compound curve gauge corner radius that
was rolled into the head of some ATEA girder
rails ATEA standards are generally followed
by those North American light rail systems
that predate the renaissance of light rail transit
that began in the late 1970s. European
tramways developed similar standards
although it is important to note that, in general,
European street railways use wheel flanges
that are even smaller than those promulgated
by ATEA.
The transit type standards for wheel gauge
have several advantages:
With a tighter gauge relationship, truck
“hunting”-the lateral oscillation of a truck
from one rail to the other as it seeks a
consistent rolling radius on all wheels-is
more easily controlled. Hunting typically
is a tangent track phenomenon and is
more prevalent at higher vehicle speeds.
The threshold for vehicle hunting is
controlled by the stiffness of the primary
suspension.
Trucks cannot become as greatly skewed
to the track, thereby reducing flange bite
in curving.
Flangeways can be appreciably narrower;
a significant consideration for embedded
tracks areas with significant pedestrian
activity.
Generally tight wheel gauge-to-track gauge
relationships can only be employed when the
transit operator does not have to share its
tracks with a railroad Many contemporary
LRT systems fall into that category and, as a
result, feature a wide variety of vehicle wheel
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

gauges while all generally
track gauge of 1,435
inches). Table 2.1 in this
selected track and wheel
17 light rail transit systems
in North America.
employing standard shares any portion of its route with a freight
millimeters (56-l/2 railroad, or if future extensions either will or
handbook provides might share freight railroad tracks, then
gauge standards of conformance with freight railroad gauge and
currently operating other freight geometry constraints will control
the track design.

As a guideline, Figure 4.2.2 illustrates a
recommended wheel gauge of 1421
millimeters (56 inches) for transit use with
standard track gauge. The free play between
one wheel and rail is 7 millimeters (0.3 inch).
When a new light rail system shares track with
a freight railroad, freight operations normally
occur only along ballasted track segments. It
is unusual for freight trains to share aerial
structure or embedded track segments of a
system. Nevertheless, the mixing of rail
freight and LRT operations on any portion of a
system will govern track and wheel gauge
design decisions for the entire system. Even
if the system’s “starter line” does not include
joint operation areas, consideration should be
given to whether future extensions of the
system might share tracks with a freight
railroad.

The key issues to consider in accommodating

Figure 4.2.2 (Recommended) Standard
Wheel Gauge-Transit System
4.2.2.3 Gauge Issues for Joint LRT and
Railroad and Mixed Fleet
Operations
For a system with a mixed fleet, compromises
may be required to accommodate a variety of
truck and wheel parameters. This problem is
not new-early 20th century electric street
railway track designers frequently had to
adapt their systems to handle not only city
streetcars with short wheel base trucks and
relatively small diameter wheels, but also
“interurban” trolleys that typically had longer
wheel base trucks and larger diameter
wheels. Some trolley companies even offered
freight service and routinely handled ‘steam”
railroad engines and freight cars over portions
of their lines. Today, if the light rail system
mixed operations are the setting of the back-
to-back wheel dimension, guard check gauge,
and guard face gauge criteria that result from
a particular wheel setting. Track design
parameters that will be most affected by these
decisions include:
l The practicality of using available girder
groove and guard rails that are rolled with
a specific flangeway width.
l The flangeway width and track gauge
required for effective restraining rail or
guard rail applications.
l Details for guarding of frog points in
special trackwork locations.
Transit systems that do not share tracks with
a freight railroad may still have a track
connection at the maintenance facility yard for
delivery of freight cars loaded with track
materials or the system’s new light rail
vehicles. If the system’s maintenance
program contemplates movement of railroad

4-4
 Track Structure Design

roiling stock (such as hopper cars full of maintenance-of-way equipment. It is

ballast) over portions of the system, it may be
necessary to compromise the track design to
accommodate the railroad equipment. This
does not mean wholesale adoption of railroad
standards. Provided that the guard check
gauge at turnout frogs allows sufficient space
for AAR back-to-back wheel gauge, freight
cars can usually be moved over open track
portions of an LRT system at low speeds. It
may be necessary to prohibit any railroad
equipment whose wheels are not precisely
mounted, as AAR has tolerances for wheel
settings that are considerably more liberal
than those applied to rail transit fleets.
Embedded track areas that utilize narrow
flangeway girder rails typically cannot
accommodate movements of railroad rolling
stock through curves with radii less than about
100 meters, regardless of rail section. Other
restrictions on railroad equipment movements
involve the structural capacity of bridges
designed for LRT loads and clearances to
trackside obstructions such as catenary poles
and station platforms.
imperative that specific notification be given
that the transit system’s gauge standards
differ from AAR and AREMA standards so that
construction and maintenance equipment do
not damage the track.
4.2.2.4 Gauge issues for Embedded Track
The appropriate track gauge to use in
embedded track is highly dependent on the
rail section (either tee rail or girder groove rail)
and the vehicle wheel gauge. In this regard it
is very important to note that standard railroad
wheel contours (e.g. AAR-IB) and railroad
wheel mounting gauges are not compatible
with narrow flangeway girder rails presently
available from European mills if the track is
built to 1435millimeter (56-112 inch) gauge.
The backs of the wheels will bind with the
tram or guarding lip of the girder rail causing
one flange to ride up out of the flangeway. If
narrow flangeway girder rails are selected,
such as Ri 59N or Ri 60N, it will be necessary
to adopt either a wide wheel gauge or an
equivalent narrow track gauge.

Another category of joint operations is where it If railroad standard wheel gauge must be
is proposed to extend an existing “heavy” rail employed on an LRV because some portion of
transit operation using light rail technology. the route shares track with a freight railroad,
The existing system will already have track wheel clearance to the embedded girder rail
gauge, wheel gauge, and wheel contour track can alternatively be achieved by
standards in place that must be considered in reducing the track gauge only in those areas
the design of the light rail tracks and vehicles where the girder rail is installed. This will
for the new system. If the truck parameters of reduce the wheel-rail clearance at the gauge
the existing rolling stock, such as truck line and may result in unsatisfactory
wheelbase or wheel diameter, are appreciably interaction with railroad equipment.
different from typical LRV designs, Embedded track is typically separated from
compromises will be necessary to achieve joint use track. Railroad equipment
compatible operations. movements, limited to occasional
maintenance work trains at low speed, may be
Even if neither railroad rolling stock nor mixed acceptable.
transit car fleets are a consideration, the
trackwork designer should consider the If routine joint operation with railroad freight
ramifications that track and wheel gauge equipment along an embedded track area is
variations might have for on-track expected, use of narrow flangeway girder rails

4-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
will not be possible. Wide flangeway girder
rails for freight railroad use are provided by
some European rolling mills, but presently
available designs of this type are so wide that
the tram does not provide any guarding action
for curves or special trackwork. Freight
railroad girder rail flangeways are also
generally wider than desirable for pedestrian
areas. Such was not the case with girder rails
made in North America until the mid-1980s;
however they can no longer be obtained
near match of the head and flangeway
contours of North American designs can be
achieved by milling the head of the lOW80
structural section available from European
mills; however this is an expensive solution
that requires careful investigation and
justification.
More latitude for joint operations in embedded
track can be achieved using tee rails rather
than girder rails; however a separate
flangeway must be constructed and
maintained in the pavement surface. Refer to
Section 5.2.2.3 of this handbook for additional
discussion concerning the possible application
of tee rails to embedded track.
4.2.2.5 Non-Standard Track Gauges
In addition to standard 1,435millimeter
(56-112 inch) track gauge, several other
gauges have been used on light rail transit
systems in North America and overseas.
Narrow gauge systems, typically 1,000
millimeters (39-l/3 inches), are relatively
common in Europe, particularly in older cities
where narrow streets restrict vehicle sizes.
There were once many narrow gauge street
railways in North America; however the only
known survivors are the Detroit street car and
the San Francisco cable car system. Broad
gauge trolley systems were more common
Four traditional trolley operations in North
America use broad gauges. These range
from 1,496 millimeters (58-718 inches) in
Toronto to 1,581 millimeters (62-l/4 inches)
on the Philadelphia City system to 1,588
millimeters (62-l/2 inches) on the Pittsburgh,
New Orleans, and Philadelphia Suburban
systems. Such gauges were typically
dictated by the municipal ordinances that
granted the streetcar companies their
“franchise” to operate within the city streets.
In such legislation it was typically specified
that the rails should be laid at a distance apart
A that conformed with local wagon gauge,
thereby providing horse drawn wagons and
carriages with a smoother running surface
than the primitive pavements of the era. The
only new start transit operation in North
America to adopt a non-standard gauge in
recent years was San Francisco’s BART
“heavy” rail system at 1,676 millimeters (66
inches). This gauge was intended to provide
increased vehicle stability against crosswinds
for a proposed bridge crossing.
Those systems that employ unusual gauges
typically rue the fact because it complicates
many facets of track design, construction, and
maintenance. Contracting for services such
as track surfacing and rail grinding becomes
more difficult and expensive since contractors
do not have broad gauge equipment and
converting and subsequently reverting
standard gauge equipment for a short-term
assignment is time consuming and expensive.
Vehicle procurement is also complicated since
off-the-shelf truck designs must be modified
and potential savings from joint vehicle
procurements cannot be realized. Wide
gauges also preclude joint operation of a rail
transit line on a railroad route since dual
gauge special trackwork and train control
systems necessary to operate it are both
extremely complex and expensive.
Accordingly, non-standard gauges are not
recommended for new start projects.
Systems that presently have broad gauge
tracks most likely need to perpetuate that
4-6

practice for future extensions so as to
maintain internal compatibility in both track
and rolling stock design.
4.2.3 Gauge Measurement Location
Track gauge is measured a specific distance
below top of rail because of the gauge corner
radii of the rail and the flange-to-tread fillet
radius of the wheel. The location where
gauge is measured frequently differs between
railroad and transit systems. The customary
gauge elevation point on North American
railroads is 15.9 millimeters (0.625 inches)
below top of rail. Track gauge on traditional
street railways systems was, and in some
instances still is, measured at either 6.4
millimeters (0.25 inches) or 9.5 millimeters
(0.375 inches) below top of rail.
Figure 4.2.3 Gauge Line Locations on 175
RE Rail Head
Rail sections with compound gauge corner
radii, such as 115 RE section (Figure 4.2.3),
do not have a nominally vertical tangent
section for gauge measurement at the 6.4-
(0.25-inch) or 9.5-millimeter (0.375inch)
height, hence the designation of a lower
elevation. Older rail sections that were
prevalent when the ATEA promulgated its
standards, such as ASCE and ARA rails, had
gauge corner radii that were smaller and thus
more conducive to gauge measurement closer
to top of rail. Except for the 100 ARA-B
section, such rail is no longer commonly rolled
in North America. Since measurement of
gauge within the curved portion of the rail
Track Structure Design
head is difficult at best and misleading at
worst, it is recommended that gauge elevation
be defined consistent with railroad practice.
For a transit system that is being designed in
metric dimensions, designation of gauge
elevation at 15.9 millimeters (0.625 inches)
below top of rail is awkward.
As a guideline for metric transit track design, it
is recommended that track gauge be defined
at 15 millimeters (0.591 inches) below top of
rail. Wheel gauge will be measured at a
location to suit the height of wheel flange.
4.2.4 Rail Cant and Wheel Taper-
Implications for Track Gauge
Rail cant is a significant factor in wheel-to-rail
interface. Cant describes the rotation of the
rail head toward the track centerline. It is
intended to complement conical wheel treads
in promoting self-steering of wheelsets
through curves. The cant also moves the
vertical wheel loading away from the gauge
corner of the rail and toward the center of the
ball of the rail. Rails are generally installed at
I:40 cant in both tangent and curved track.
Zero cant is usually specified through special
trackwork so as to simplify the design and
fabrication of trackwork components. Canted
special trackwork is now often specified for
high-speed operations over 140 krn/hr (90
mph).
4.2.4.1 Tapered Wheel Tread Rationale
Railway wheel treads are typically tapered to
be shaped like a truncated cone. A cone that
is lying on a flat surface will not roll straight
forward but one that is supported on a single
edge-such as a rail-can be made to follow
a straight path if its axis is held rigidly at right
angles (i.e., by an axle) to the direction of
travel. Railway design takes advantage of this
geometric relationship to facilitate self-
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
steering of railway trucks through gentle
curves without requiring interaction between
the side of the rail head and the wheel
flanges.
The usual conicity of the wheel tread is a ratio
of 1:20. This results in a wheel that has a
greater circumference close to the flange than
it has on the outer edge of the wheel tread. In
curved track, this differential moderately
compensates for the fact that the outer rail of
a curve is longer than the inner rail over the
same central angle. The wheel flange on the
outer wheel of the axle shifts toward the outer
rail when negotiating a curve and hence rolls
on a greater circumference while the inner
wheel flange shifts away from that rail and
rolls on a smaller circumference. Thus, the
outer wheel will travel forward a greater
distance than the wheel on the inner rail even
though they are both rigidly attached to a
common axle and hence have the same
angular velocity. As a result, the axle
assembly steers itself around the curve just as
a cone rolls in a circle on a table top.
Railroad wheelsets, mounted at AAR standard
wheel gauge and tapered at 1:20, theoretically
eliminate flanging on curves with radii over
580 meters (1900 feet). Below that radius,
contact between the wheel flange and the
gauge side of the rail provides a portion of the
steering action. Nevertheless, tapered wheels
still provide a significant degree of truck self-
steering that reduces flanging on curves with
radii as small as 100 meters (328 feet) For
sharper curves, flanging is the primary
steering mechanism. Transit wheels self-
steer only on relatively large radii curves, due
to the fact that the minimal 6 millimeters (0.2
inches) of freeplay between wheel gauge and
track gauge allows only very limited
differential rolling radii on a conical wheel
before the wheel begins flange contact with
the rail. A transit wheelset, mounted at
4-8
standard transit wheel gauge and tapered at
1:20, theoretically will begin flanging on
curves of radii less than 1350 meters (4,429
feet).
Wheel profiles that have either a cylindrical
tread surface or only a slight taper, such as
1:40, do not self-steer through curves; hence
flanging is the primary steering mechanism.
Conical wheels that are not re-trued regularly
also lose their steering characteristics
because the contact patch becomes
excessively wide as a significant portion of the
wheel tread matches the contour of the rail
head. Hollow worn wheels develop a “false
flange” on the outer portion of the tread and
can actually attempt to steer the wrong way as
the rolling radius on the tip of the false flange
can be equal or greater than on the flange to
tread fillet. The importance of a regular wheel
truing program cannot be overstated and track
designers should insist vehicle maintenance
manuals require wheel truing on a frequent
basis.
Note that rolling radius differential is
maximized when the wheel and axle set is
free to shift laterally an appreciable amount.
An actual cone has a fixed slope ratio; hence
it can smoothly follow only one horizontal
radius. A wheel and axle set with tapered
wheels, on the other hand, can assume the
form of a cone with a variable side slope by
shifting the free play left and right between the
wheel flanges and the rails. Hence larger
values of track gauge-to-wheel gauge freeplay
can be beneficial in that regard.
4.2.4.2 Asymmetrical Rail Grinding
Rail grinding to remove surface imperfections
has been performed for decades, but a recent
trend has been rail grinding designed to alter
the location of the rail contact patch. By
grinding an asymmetrical profile on the rail
head, and having distinctly different contact
 Track Structure Design

patch locations on the high and low rails of a at 1.20 while the high rail remains at 1:40,
given curve, the location of the contact patch then the threshold radius for flanging drops to
on the tapered wheel tread can be optimized, about 750 meters (29.5 feet).
thereby changing the rolling radius. In theory,
a special grinding pattern could be created for $ RAIL
j E CONTACT PATCH
each curve radius, thereby optimizing the I i 11.89 (0.46W) FOR IO‘ RADIUS
7 ! 8 38 (03300') FOR 8' RADIUS
ability of a truck to steer through that curve.

424.3 Variation of Rail Cant as a Tool for

Enhancing Truck Steering
POTENTIALLATERAL
Rail cant variation can improve the rolling WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')

radius differential on standard rail head

NO CANT
profiles in a manner similar to that achieved
by asymmetrical rail grinding. Aside from the 1:40 ( RAIL

structural implications of loading the rail closer RAiL cANT-+fCONTACT PATOl

! ; 6.32 (0.2490-) FOR IO- RADIUS
to or further from its vertical axis, greater or f ! 509 (OjW2") FOR 8' RADIUS

lesser amounts of cant can be beneficial by

altering the point on the tapered wheel tread
that contacts the rail. Rails installed with no
cant create a contact zone or wear strip that is POTENTIALLATERAL
WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')
close to the gauge corner of the rail. In rails
I / I
installed with 1:40 or I:20 cant, the contact
patch progresses further from the gauge 1:40 CANT
corner of the rail. Note that the greater the rail
. ^^ 6 RAIL k C CONTACTPATCH
cant, the smaller the rolling radius of a tapered
wheel, which reduces the self-steering effect.

Figure 4.2.4 illustrates the theoretical contact

patch locations measured from the vertical
centerline of the rail. The lateral distance
POTENTIALLATERAL
between the contact patches for 1:40 and 1:20 WHEELSHIFT 4 (01575')

cants is 6.32 millimeters (0.249 inch) for a rail

head radius of 245 millimeters (10 inches). 1:20 CANT
This results in a decrease in circumference at Figure 4.2.4 Rail Cant Design and Wheel
the contact point of 2.0 millimeters (0.8 Contact
inches) for a wheel with a 1:20 taper and a
nominal diameter of 711 millimeters (28 Cant differential, in effect, mimics
inches). While this may appear to be asymmetrical rail profile grinding. However,
insignificant, if the steeper cant is applied to the application of I:20 low rail cant in curved
the inside rail, it will increase the amount of track can be considered even if asymmetrical
curvature the wheelset can negotiate without rail grinding is practiced.
flanging by a significant amount. For
example, a trolley wheelset will flange at a The drawback of differential cant is that it
1,350-meter (4,429-foot) curve radius if both requires that curved track employ different
rails are at 1:40 cant. If the low rail is canted concrete ties than tangent track. Further, the

4-9
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
curve ties would have right and left hand
orientations that would have to be carefully
monitored during track construction In direct
fixation and timber tie ballasted track at least
two types of rail fasteners-l:40 cant and
I:20 cant-would be required.
The benefits of differential cant, like those of
asymmetric rail grinding, decline as the
wheels and rail wear. As wheel treads wear
toward a flat or hollow profile and rails wear to
conform with the wheel profile, self-steering
capabilities decline. Once the rail has worn,
the contact patch must be restored to its as-
designed location by asymmetric rail profile
grinding, as it is not practical to modify rail
cant after installation.
4.2.5 Track Gauge Variation
On an ideal light rail system, there would be
no need for any variations of the track gauge,
thereby producing a completely uniform
environment for the wheel-rail interface. This
is seldom practical, particularly on systems
that have tight radius curves or employ narrow
flangeway girder rails. When mixed track
gauges are employed, the designer should
consider rail grinding operations and the
adjustment capabilities of state-of-the-art rail
grinding machines as a means of maintaining
a reasonably consistent wheel-rail interface
pattern.
4.2.6 Considerations for Determination of
Appropriate Gauge
Determination of appropriate track gauge is
the heart of this section. The sections that
follow detail some of the design conditions
that must be accounted for in gauge design.
A recommended analytical procedure for this
work is defined in Section 4.2 9 herein.
4-10
4.2.6.1 Gauge for Tangent Track
Light rail transit tracks that are constructed
with conventional tee rails can use standard
1,435millimeter (56l/2-inch) track gauge in
both tangent track and through moderate
radius curves without regard to whether
railroad (I,41 5millimeters or 55.7087 inches)
or transit design standards are used for wheel
gauge. As noted in Section 4.2.2, transit
wheel gauge varies considerably between
different LRT operations although 1,421
millimeters (55.9449 inches) is recommended.
Operations that use the tighter freeplay
standard generally have fewer problems with
truck hunting. This can be achieved either
through widening the wheel gauge or
narrowing the track gauge. The former
approach is generally recommended. Non-
standard track gauge impacts several aspects
of trackwork design and maintenance
including concrete crosstie design, as well as
maintenance operations (such as tamping and
grinding) undertaken by on-track vehicles.
4.2.6.2 Gauge for Curved Track
The threshold radius at which it may be
appropriate to alter the gauge in curved tracks
will vary based on a number of factors related
to the vehicles that operate over the track.
Track gauge on moderately curved track can
normally be set at the standard 1,435
millimeters (56-112 inches) to accommodate
common wheel gauges. As curves become
sharper, more consideration should be given
to ensure that sufftcient freeplay is provided to
prevent wheelset binding. Factors involved in
this analysis are the radius of curve under
consideration and wheel diameter, shape of
the wheel flange, wheel gauge, and wheel set
(axle) spacing on the light rail vehicle truck.
Systems with mixed fleets and a variety of
wheel and axle configurations must consider
the ramifications associated with each and
 Track Structure Design

develop a compromise among the various generally discouraged, sharp curves cannot
requirements. always be avoided.

Conventional wisdom suggests that track Even small gauge increases are usually not
gauge must be widened in curved track; possible if railroad contour flanges are used in
however this axiom is largely based on combination with narrow flangeway girder rails
railroad experience with large diameter because the gauge widening exacerbates the
wheels and long wheelbases. By contrast, problem of back-to-back wheel binding.
transit vehicles with small diameter wheels,
short and narrow flanges, and short The appropriate gauge to be used through
wheelbase trucks will often require no track curved track must be determined through an
gauge widening in moderately to sharply analytical process. One such method is the
curved track. Transit equipment may, development of “Filkens-Wharton Diagrams,”
therefore, require track gauge widening on a graphical method developed about 100
any severely curved track segments. For years ago by Wm. Wharton, Jr. & Co., Inc. of
trucks with wheel diameters less than 711 Philadelphia. Details of this method are
millimeters (28 inches) and axle spacings less described in Section 4.2.9.
than 1980 millimeters (6.5 feet), gauge
increase will rarely exceed 3 to 6 millimeters Reduction rather than widening of track gauge
(l/8 to l/4 inches) even if AAR wheel flanges in curved track has been considered on
are used. Conversely, large diameter wheels, several systems in Europe and at one agency
large flanges, and long wheelbases will in North America as a way to improve vehicle-
require gauge widening at appreciably greater tracking performance when passing through
curve radii than for smaller trucks which may reduced radius curves. It is thought that this
be incompatible with satisfactory operation on could also reduce wheel squeal by limiting
extremely sharp radius curves. As an lateral wheel slip, which is believed to be a
example, light rail vehicles with axle spacings main source of such noise. This is an
of 1828 millimeters (72 inches), wheel interesting concept that requires further
diameters around 650 millimeters (25.5 research and development to generate actual
inches) and wheel flange heights less than 20 performance values. Designers should refer
millimeters (0.8 inches) typically do not to current professional journals and papers for
require any gauge widening for curves with information on this topic that may have been
radii greater than above 35 meters. They can published subsequent to printing of this
also negotiate extremely small radius curves handbook.
as low as 11 meters (36 feet). Vehicles with
larger trucks are typically limited to curve radii
4.27 Flangeways
of at least 25 meters (82 feet} and may require
gauge widening on curves with radii less than Once track gauge and wheel gauge have
60 meters (197 feet). been selected, flangeway widths must be
designed that permit free passage of the
As a guideline, it is recommended that
wheel flange at both special trackwork (e g.,
systems that have numerous sharp curves
frog and frog guard rail flangeways) and on
select vehicles with smaller trucks. While
restraining rails in sharply curved track
curves with radii less than 25 meters are not
sections that require track guarding.
recommended and less than 50 meters are

4-11
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
The following method of checking track gauge
with vehicle truck and wheel profile and
determining the minimum flangeway widths is
derived from a 1909 report by the Committee
on Way Matters of the American Electric
Railway Engineering Association (AEREA).
The primary concern was to establish
Rangeway widths to suit the wheel flange on
various curves due to the extensive use of
girder rails on the street railways. The method
used was a series of wheel-axle-track gauge
plots. Similar procedures utilizing computer-
aided drafting will be used in contemporary
design considering the various tight radius
curves and the various wheel gauges and
wheel profiles available.
In addition to track gauge, flangeway widths in
guarded curves must be considered. Where
adjustable restraining rail is employed, this is
dealt with fairly easily. However, girder
groove or girder guard rails cannot be readily
adjusted and will require special
consideration.
42.8 Guarded Curves and Restraining
Rails
It is customary in light rail track design to
provide a continuous guard rail or restraining
rail through sharp radius curves. The
restraining rail provides additional steering
action using the flange of the wheel that is
riding on the inside rail of the curve. By doing
so, the lateral over vertical (L/V) ratio at the
outer wheel can be reduced, which will both
reduce wheel and rail wear and deter possible
derailment.
In a typical LRT installation, the restraining rail
is installed inside the gauge line of the curve’s
low rail to provide a uniform flangeway,
typically 35 to 50 millimeters (l-3/8 to 2
inches) wide. The working face of the
4-12
restraining rail bears against the back side of
the inside wheel, guiding it toward the curve’s
center and reducing the lateral contact force
of the opposite outside wheel’s flange against
the high rail of the curve This essentially
divides the lateral force between two contact
surfaces and greatly reduces the rate of
lateral wear on the high rail. It also reduces
the tendency of the truck to assume the shape
of a parallelogram, thereby reducing the angle
of attack between the wheel flange and the
rail. In all cases, the use of restraining rail in
a curve will reduce the tendency of the leading
outside wheel to climb the high rail, thereby
preventing possible derailments.
The radius threshold for employing guarded
track varies between light rail transit agencies.
Some transit agencies guard any track curves
with radii less than 365 meters (1,200 feet),
while others do not guard track in curves with
radii larger than 91 meters (300 feet). Other
operations relate the need for guard rails to
vehicle speed and the amount of unbalanced
superelevation, hence considering the lateral
portion of the W ratio before deciding that the
expense of guarding is warranted. A system
with short tramway type wheel flanges will
have a greater need for guarding than one
that uses railroad type wheels, since the
lateral wheel loading will be distributed over a
narrower contact band along the side of the
rail head thereby increasing contact stresses.
In theory, a system whose vehicles are
equipped with a self-steering radial truck
design will not need guarded track.
Curve guarding does not usually terminate at
the point of tangency of a curve; it extends
some distance into the adjacent tangent track.
This distance depends on a number of factors
including the resistance to yaw of the vehicle’s
suspension system. The conservative
designer will extend the restraining rail a
distance equivalent to one truck center into
 Track Structure Design

the tangent track, typically about 10 meters
(33 feet). When the curve is spiraled, the
need for guarding typically ends long before
the spiral-to-tangent location In such cases,
curve guarding can usually be terminated a
distance equivalent to one truck center
beyond the point on the spiral where the
instantaneous radius matches the curve
guarding threshold.
The criteria for beginning curve guarding on
the entry end of the curve is typically the same
as for the exit end, accounting for the
possibility of occasional reverse running train
operation. As a guideline, the minimum
guarding should begin at the tangent-to-spiral
location of a spiraled curve so that the vehicle
trucks are straight prior to entering the
guarding threshold spiral curve.
For additional information on curve guarding
and vehicle steering, refer to Section 429.1.
and climb the low rail. The outer restraining
rail reduces this derailment potential.
As a guideline, a typical threshold for
consideration of double guarded track is for
curves with radii of 30 to 38 meters (100 to
125 feet).
4.2.8.2 Restraining Rail Design
Curve guarding on traditional street railway
systems was most frequently achieved using
a girder guard rail section similar to that
illustrated in Figure 52.1 of this Handbook,
particularly for track embedded in pavement.
For open track design, such as ballasted or
direct fixation track, a separate restraining rail
mounted alongside the running rail is
commonly used. The restraining rail itself can
be a machined section of standard tee rail,
which can be mounted either vertically or
horizontally, or a specially rolled steel shape.

For additional information on various types of

4.2.8.1 Curve Double Guarding restraining rail designs, refer to Section 5.3 of
Some transit agencies “double guard” this Handbook.
extremely sharp curves, placing a guard or
restraining rail adjacent to the high rail as well
as the low rail. These installations are 4.2.9 Gauge Determination Analysis
designed to counter the tendency of the
Requisite track gauge and flangeway
second axle on a truck to drift toward the
dimensions in curved track must be
center of the curve, exacerbating the angle of
determined analytically for each combination
attack of the outside wheel on the leading
of vehicle truck factors. To visualize the
axle. In a double restraining rail installation,
positions that the wheel flanges assume with
the restraining rail alongside the inner fail
the rail, a simple and effective graphical
shifts the leading axle of the truck toward the
technique was developed known as the
center of the curve. The outer restraining rail
Filkins-Wharton diagram.
then guides the trailing axle away from center,
helping to ensure that the truck is reasonably
A modified version of the Filkins-Wharton
square to the track, that both axles are in a
diagram, referred to herein as the Nytram
nearly radial orientation, and that the truck
Plot, has been developed for this Handbook
frame is rectilinear rather than
taking advantage of the power of computer
parallelogrammed. In superelevated, sharp
aided design and drafting as an analytical tool.
radius track curves where the vehicle speed is
The Nytram Plot illustrations, beginning with
reduced, the vehicle truck may tend to hug
Figure 4.2.5, show horizontal sections of a

4-13
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

selected wheel profile that have been derived Wheel Profile Modified 133-millimeter
at the gauge line elevation, at the top of rail, (5.2-inch) AAR-1 B* width
and, where appropriate, at a restraining rail Wheel Diameter 711 millimeters (28
height 19 millimeters (0.75 inches) above the inches)
top of rail. Figure 4.25 illustrates the method Wheel Gauge Transit: 1428 millimeters
of establishing the Nytram Plot. (56.25 inches)
AAR: 1415 millimeters
The plot is derived by sectionalizing both the (55.7087 inches)
side view of a wheel of specific diameter with Axle Spacings 1828 millimeters (72.00
designated flange height and the wheel profile inches)
in the flange area. Projecting points 0 to 9 2300 millimeters (90.55
from both sections as shown, a horizontal inches)
section or “footprint” of the wheel can be Curve Radii 25 meters (82.0 feet)
developed at various heights above or below 150 meters (492.1 feet)
the top of rail elevation. Using these wheel 228 meters (748.0 feet)
sections, the actual vehicle truck axle and * The AAR-1 B wheel profile has been used in
wheel positions can be superimposed on a the example for convenience. Transit profile
section of curved track to simulate the truck in wheels with alternate flanges may be
a radial and skewed position to determine the considered.
“attack angle” and wheel clearances.
Figure 4.2.6 illustrates a vehicle truck with
transit wheel gauge, 1828-millimeter (72-inch)
4.2.9.1 Nytram Plot-Truck-Axle-Wheel axle spacing on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius
Positioning on Track track curve positioned on the centerline of
Filkins-Wharton diagrams produced manually track perpendicular to the radius line. The
were forced to graphically shrink track gauge vehicle wheel plots are taken from Figure
and wheelbase in order to depict an entire 4.2.5. To establish the gauge lines of the
truck assembly on a reasonably sized drafting track a circle is drawn with a 1435 millimeter
sheet. CADD provides the track designer with (56.5inch) diameter centered at the midpoint
the ability to develop a full-sized picture of the of the axle. The track gauge lines (inside and
entire vehicle truck positioned on a curved outside) are drawn tangent to the diameter of
track. These can then either be plotted at the circle. The clearance distances from the
reduced scale or selected portions of the wheels to the gauge line of the rails have
diagram can be printed at full size. been derived using CADD software and
represent the closest point of the wheel plot to
To illustrate the methods involved, a series of the gauge face of the rail. Note that these
figures have been developed that illustrate the clearances differ (are less than) from the
fundamentals of adapting track gauge to calculated wheel gauge-to-track gauge
wheel gauge and wheel contour and
differences of 10 and 3.5 millimeters (0.4 and
positioning of a truck on a segment of curved 0.1 inches) for AAR and transit conditions,
track. To understand the impacts of tight respectively.
curvature, and the ramifications of different
wheel gauge standards and axle spacings, the
figures include the following parameters:

4-14
 Track Structure Design

19 (3/4") ABOVE
TOP OF RAIL
RESTRAINING
RAIL HEIGHT

711 (28 00')

WHEEL OIAMETER-

DESIGN NOTES:
1 TRACK AND WHEEL RELATED DIMENSIONS
PERTAIN TO RAILWAY WHEEL GAUGE FOR (56.50’)
TRANSIT AND RAILWAY JOINT USE TRACK

2 ALTERNATE WHEEL GAUGE FOR RANSIT

USE ONLY TRACK REDUCING THE TRACK
GAUGE TO WHEEL GAUGE CLEARANCE
IS AN ACCEPTABLE ALTERNATIVE.

3 REFER TO TABLE 2.1 FOR OTHER NA

TRANSlT SYSTEM STANDARDS

4. ALTERNATE WHEEL PROFILE IMPLEMENTING LlO (0.39373')

FLAT WHEEL FLANGE FOR FLANGE BEARING SECTIONA CLEARANCE
SPECIAL TRACKWORK IS AN ACCEPTABLE
ALTERNATIVE

5. WHEEL PROFILE SHOWN DERIVED FROM

AAR DWG AAR-13 NF3.

figure 4.2.5 Nytram Plot--Modified AAR-1B Transit Wheel

4-15
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

hi1Nl~Ut.d CLEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - 0.51 (00201”)
150m CURVE - 3 56 (0 1402”)
228~1 CURVE - 379 (0.1492”)

WHEEL GAUGE
-------.-.-_ ___ ___._.__ __._____-.-.-.---- _._ -.--.-

SEE FIGURE 42.12

FOR FLANGEWAY
MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT DETAILS BY
25m CURVE - 0.19 (0 0075”) FILKINS-WHARTON
150m CURVE - 347 (01366’)
228m CURVE - 3.73 (0 1469’)

Figure 4.2.6 Nytram Plot-1428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing, 25-Meter Curve

Similar plots were undertaken with the same
truck parameters for track curves with 150-
and 228-meter (492- and 748-foot) radii. The
clearance results have been entered on this
figure The intersection angles between the
perpendicular truck and the tangent point to
the track arc have been calculated and are
shown for the three curve radii for
comparison. To determine flangeway widths
and wheel attack angle, truck skewing must
be considered as described later in this
section.
Figure 4.2.7 illustrates a vehicle truck with
transit wheel gauge, 2300-millimeter (90.55
inch) axle spacing on a 2%meter (82-foot)
radius track curve positioned on the center of
track perpendicular to the radius line.
similar scenario to the above illustration was
undertaken to establish the clearance
distances for the three specific track curve
radii.
Figure 4.2.8 illustrates a vehicle truck with
AAR wheel gauge, 1828 millimeter (72-inch)
axle spacing on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius
track curve positioned on the centerline of
track perpendicular to the radius line. The
vehicle wheel plots are taken from Figure
4.2.5. A similar scenario to that in Figure
4.2.6 was undertaken to establish the
clearance distances at the wheels and the
intersection angle of the truck wheel to the
track arc for the three specific track curve
radii.
A

4-16
 Track Structure Design

MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - -0 34 (-O-0134-)
WHEEL PLOT
150m CURVE - 3.38 (0 1331”)
228m CURVE r 3 66 (0 1441) FROM FIGURE 4.2 5

, 1
I -7!-!
DIAMETER=
mi
STANDARD TRACK
2i C
GAUGE
si
-1
-1428 (56 22”)
WHEEL GAUGE
--.___ __ _
CENTERLINE OF iTRUCK _ ___ _ - c -.-- -.-
.-.-._.___._._.__.______ ____._,-.-_-_-._.~.-.-.-
* I
“2
2"
'X
wiz
DIRECTION OF
-+ TRAVEL
20’ 25m CURVE -
t

2300 (90.55”)
AXLE SPACING SEE FIGURE 4 2 12
FOR FLANGEWAY
MiNlMUM CLEARANCE POINT DETAILS BY
25m CURVE - -0 64 (-0 0252”) FILKINS-WHARTON
15th CURVE - 3 29 (0 1295”) DIAGRAM
228m CURVE - 3 61 (0 1421”)

Figure 4.2.7 Nytram Plot-1428 Transit Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing, PSMeter Curve

r MINIMUM UEARANCE POINT

25m CURVE - 7.02 (0.2764’)
150m CURVE - 10.05 (0.3957”)
228m CURVE - 10.28 (0.4047”)~ 7 . --- PIOT
HIFFI _-
FROM FIGURE 4.2.5

u”I \ I BACK TO BACK

OF WHEELS \.:
zi
ei
\
90

SEE FIGURE 4.2 12

FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
- MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT
2% CURVE - 6.67 (0 2626”)
150m CURM - 9.98 (0.3929’)
228m CURVE - 10.23 (0.4028’

Figure 4.2.8 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 1828 Axle Spacing, 25Meter Curve

4-17
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
Figure 4.2.9 illustrates a vehicle truck with
AAR wheel gauge, 2300-millimeter (90.55
inch) axle spacing on a 25meter (82-foot)
radius track curve positioned on the center of
track perpendicular to the radius line.
similar scenario to that in Figure 4.2.6 was
undertaken to establish the clearance
distances at the wheels and the intersection
angle of the truck wheel to the track arc for the
three specific track curve radii.
The above illustrations show the relationships
between the various wheel gauges, axles
centers, curve radii and the standard track
gauge. Had the wheel to rail clearances
indicated binding or potential binding as in
Figure 4.2.7, the track gauge would have to
be widened.
The above illustrations depict a truck
superimposed on a track curve perpendicular
to the radius line. To simulate the steering
action of the vehicle truck traversing through
the various track curves, a set of drawings
with the same truck parameters as above has
been developed.
The simulation represents the steering action
of the truck wherein the lead outside wheel on
the truck encounters the curved outside rail
resulting in steering or deflecting of the lead
axle and the truck. Once the outside wheel
initially contacts the rail, the wheel action
causes the lead axle and the truck to rotate
about the contact point seeking a second
wheel flange to rail contact point if the curve
radius is short and/or the primary suspension
of the truck is relatively stiff. Trucks with
moderate self-steering capability may not
encounter the second contact point.
Figure 4.2.10 illustrates two vehicle trucks
with transit wheel gauge, 1828-millimeter (72-
inch) and 2300-millimeter (90.55-inch) axle
spacings on a 25-meter (82-foot) radius track
curve. The track gauge is both standard and
wide gauge at 1435 millimeters (56.5 inches)
and 1438 millimeters (56.625 inches),
respectively. Track gauge was widened
based on potential wheel binding with 2300-
A millimeter (90.55-inch) axle spacing. The
drawing indicates:
l The sequence of maneuvers required to
position the traversing truck in the curving
position.
l The angle of attack of the lead wheel to
the outside running rail.
l The measured inside flangeway width to
allow outside wheels to touch or barely
touch the outside running rail if a
restraining rail is considered.
l The wheel positions once the truck has
completed the skew and second wheel
contact is made.
For comparison, Figure 4.2.11 has been
developed using AAR wheel gauge with 1828-
and 2300-millimeter (72- and 90.55-inch) axle
spacings.
The drawings do not account for either
potential axle swivel that might be permitted
by a flexible primary suspension system at the
journal box or any possible twisting or racking
of the vehicle truck into a parallelogram
configuration. These are conditions that may
be inherent in each agency’s vehicle.
This type of interface study should be
undertaken with the joint involvement of the
projects vehicle and track designers. The
drawings do not consider restraining rail;
however, a measured inside rail flangeway
width has been stated on the drawings as a
reference. If restraining rail is required on a
system due to restricted sharp radius track
curves, then a similar scenario should be
undertaken using the parameters of the
vehicle truck and track system to establish the
4-18
 Track Structure Design

r
MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT
25m CURVE - 584 (02299”)
150m CURVE - 987 (03886”)
228m CURE

WHEEL GAUGE
-.- - - - -____ _ _ _._I_____.-- -.-.- -

DIRECTION OF

ic 2300
AXLE SPACING
MINIMUM CLEARANCE POINT
25m CURVE - 6 15 (0 2421’)
15&n CURVE - 9 79 (0 3854”)
228x CURVE - 10.11 (03980’)
LSEE FIGURE 4212
FOR FLANGEWAY
DETAILS BY
FILKINS-WHARTON
DIAGRAM

Figure 4.2.9 Nytram Plot-1415 AAR Wheel Gauge, 2300 Axle Spacing, 25-Meter Curve

flangeway. For extremely sharp radius curves
requiring double restraining rails, the same
procedures are required to establish both
flangeway widths. Truck rotation about an
initial contact of the inside lead axle wheel on
the restraining rail face is possible if the
designer elects to provide clearance at the
outside lead axle wheel. From the illustrations
it is apparent that the AAR wheel gauge
requires a wider flangeway than the transit
wheel gauge due to basic clearances between
the wheel and the rail. Under these same
conditions, it may be necessary to increase
track gauge so as to provide either wheel
contact on both the restraining rail and the
outside running rail or to provide clearance
between the outside wheel and its running rail.
As a guideline, it is recommended that the
inside restraining rail flangeway width be set
to provide dual wheel contact so that the
inside back face of wheel makes contact with
the restraining rail face while the outside
wheel is simultaneously contacting the gauge
corner of the outside rail. This will divide the
lateral steering force between both wheels
and rails. In practice, this condition may not
be immediately obtained, however, rail wear
at either the outside running rail or inside
restraining rail will eventually balance the
curving action.
4.2.9.2 Filkins-Wharton Flangeway
Analysis
Flangeway widths are a primary concern
when girder rail is to be used in the track
system.
Victor Angerer, in a paper before the
Keystone Railway Club (1913), said that
“...theoretically for track laid to true ga[u]ge
every combinafion of radius of curve and
wheel base of truck, with a given wheel
f7ange, calls for a specific width of groove to
make fhe inside of the flange of fhe inside
wheel bear against the guard and keep fhe
flange of the outside wheel from grinding

4-l 9
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

RESTRAINING FACE
25m CURM - 39.53 (1 5563’)
15Om CURVE - 37.92 (1 4929’)
22&n CURVE - 3778 (1 4874”)

BACK TO BACK

INITIAL POlNi OF CONTACT

1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE -
1828 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE

RESTRAINING FACE

-r
25m CURVE - 43 36 (1 7071:)
Dl 15Om CURM - 41.01 (1.6146 )
SECOND POINT 228m CURVE - 40.94 (1 6118’)
OF CONTACT - 1

BACK TO BACK WHEEL GAUGE

-----____ __ ___ _.__-.-.- -.-.-.

ATTACK ANGLE DIRECTION OF

25m CURVE - 2.8889’
150m CURVE - 0 7343’
228m CURVE - 05852

1428 TRANSIT WHEEL GAUGE - ;N;T~AL POINT

OF CONTACT
2300 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURM
TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO

A LEAD AXLE ROTATED ABOUT CENTER OF TRUCK
(POINT -A’) TO DETERMINE WHEEL CONTACT WITH
RUNNING RAIL (INITIAL CONTACT POINT 61).
8 HOLDING OUTSIDE VMEEL PowoN (POINT 61)
ENTIRE TRUCK ROTATED ABOUT LEAD AXLE
OuTSlDE WnEEL UNTIL CONTACT WAS MADE
AT A SECOND MiEEL LOCATION
c SECOND CONTACT POiNT WAS ESTABLISHED ON
INSIDE REAR AXLE ~-IEEL (POINT DI AGAINST
INSIDE RUNNING RAIL)
D CLEARANCES EXISTED BETWEEN ALL OTHER
WHEELS AND RAIL HEADS
E USING THIS ROTATED TRUCK POSITION AND
MiEEL NYTRAM PLOT. THE ATTACK ANGLE &
RESTRAINING RAIL CLEARANCES AS NOTED
WERE DETERMINED
F. OTHER WHEEL CLEARANCES MAY BE DETERMINED
BY A SIMILAR METHOD
G TOLERANCES HAVE NOT BEEN INCORPORATED

Figure 4.2.10 Nytram Plot-Rotated Truck Position on Track, Transit Wheel Gauge

4-20
 Track Structure Design

SECOND POINT RESTRAINING FACE

OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVi 2% CUR’.‘? - 53 10 (2 0906”)
FOR 228m CURVE
15Om CURVE - 51 09 (20114”)
228m CURVE - 50 69 (1 9957”)

WHEEL GAUGE
______ -.--
- -.- _.___ _ _ _ _____.-.- - -.-

DIRECTION OF
TRAVEL
228m CURVE - 08680

1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE - OF CONTACT

1828 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE

OF CONTACT FOR 150m CURVE RESTRAINING FACE

FOR 228m CURVE 2% CURVE - 53.74 (2 1156”)
150m CURVE - 51 15 (20138-)
228m CURVE - 51 07 (2 0106-)

WHEEL GAUGE
- -.- - ___ .-
i- -.- - _ _ __ __________.-.-----

ATTACK ANGLE DIRECTION OF

25m CURVE - 31325’
150m CURM - 09768’
228m CURVE - 0.8144’

1415 AAR WHEEL GAUGE - INITIAL POINT

2300 AXLE SPACING - 25m CURVE OF CONTACT

TRUCK ROTATION SCENARIO

A LEAD AXLE ROTATED ABOUT CENTER 0; TRUCK 0. CLEARANCES EXISTED BETWEEN ALL OTHER
(POINT ‘A’) TO DETERMINE WHEEL CONTACT WITH WHEELS AND RAIL HEADS
RUNNING RAIL (INITIAL CONTACT POINT 81)
E USING THIS ROTATED TRUCK POSITION AND
B HOLDING OUTSIDE WHEEL POSlnON (POINT 81) WEEL NYTRAM PLOT, THE ATTACK ANGLE &
ENTIRE TRUCK ROTATED ABOUT LEAD AXLE RESTRAINING RAIL CLEARANCES AS NOTED
OUTSIDE WHEEL UNTIL CONTACT WAS MADE WRE DETERMINED
AT A SECOND WHEEL LOCATION
F. OTHER WHEEL CLEARANCES MAY BE DETERMINED
C SECOND CONTACT POINT WAS ESTABUSHED ON BY A SIMILAR METHOD
INSIDE REAR AXLE &EEL (POINT Dl & D2 AGAINST
INSIDE RUNNING RAIL) G. TOLERANCES HAM NOT BEEN INCORPORATED

Figure 4.2.11 Nytram Plots-Rotated Truck Position on Track, AA R Wheel Gauge

4-21
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
against the ga[u]ge-line and possibly
mounting it. It is manifestly impracticable to
provide guard rails with such a variety of
grooves or to change the grooves of the rolled
rail. The usual minimum of l-9/16 inch is wide
enough to pass the AREA standard t7anges on
a 6-foot wheel base down to about a 45foot
radius, and the maximum width of l-l l/l6
inches down to about a 35foot radius. On
curves of larger radius the excess width
should be compensated for by
corresponding widening of the ga[u]ge. If the
groove in the rolled rail is too narrow for given
conditions, it must be widened by planing on
the head side of the inside rail, to preserve the
full thickness of the guard, and on the guard
side of the outside rail to preserve the full
head. Unusual wheel bases such as 8 feet or
9 feet may require widening of the gage on
some curves. This widening of gage is
necessary on/y to bring the guard into play
when the groove is too wide for some one
combination of wheel and flange. In T-rail
curves the guard is formed of a rolled shaped
guard, or a flat steel bar, bolted to the rail. In
special work and curves in high T-rail track a
girder guardrail is often used. This is
desirable, as it gives the solid guard in one
piece with the running rail. The idea that a
separate guard can be renewed when it is
worn out does not work out in practice, as it is
usually the case that when the guard is worn
the running rail is also worn to such an extent
that it will soon have to come out a/so.“[‘l
This excerpt provides still timely guidance in
determining flangeway requirements,
particularly for design of restraining rail
systems and evaluating the possible use of
presently available girder rails.
The tight wheel-to-track gauge freeplay and
small wheel flange profiles that were common
on traditional street railways required smaller
flangeways than those needed for railroad
service. Hence girder rails that were rolled for
streetcar systems had much smaller
flangeways than those for steam railroads
running on paved track in warehouse and
wharf districts. These smaller flangeways are
more conducive in areas with pedestrian
traffic although it should be noted that AREMA
standards for flangeways through grade
crossings comply with American with
Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements.
a
The Filkins-Wharton diagram analysis was a
simple and effective technique to establish the
flangeway openings required to suit wheel
flange profiles, track curve radii and axle
spacings. The following describes the Filkins-
Wharton diagram procedures.[‘l
Figure 42.12 represents an AAR-IB wheel
placed on 115 RE rail on a 25meter (82-foot)
radius curve. In the illustration, the wheel is
adjacent to the rail gauge line. The
wheelbase or distance between axles is 1828
millimeters (72 inches). In the illustration, A-B
is the horizontal cut plane passing through the
AAR-1 B wheel profile (W) resting on the 115
RE rail head (R).
C-D-E represents the plan view of the section
produced by plane A-B similar to the Nytram
plot at top of rail. The line C-D-E is
perpendicular to the axle.
The length of rail head with a 25-meter
(82-foot) centerline radius adjacent to section
C-D-E is short enough to be considered a
straight line.
The line F-G represents a perpendicular line
to the radius line and forms an intersecting
angle of 2.0368” to the wheel axis C-D-E. All
four wheels will approximately produce a
similar angle for line F-G using the
combination of curve radius and wheelbase.
4-22
 !!I,ii Track Structure Design

radial to the track curve. Projecting the points

r
of the wheel in plan along the track arc to line
ii H-J produces the outline K-L-M.
ii
ii
ii
Outline K-L-M represents the absolute
iF
I, minimum groove section required to permit
iI the vehicle truck AAR-IB wheel profile and
ii
jj
OF INSIDE RAIL stated wheelbase to negotiate through the
stated track curvature.

Additional flangeway clearances will be

required to allow relatively free movement and
to compensate for tolerances in the wheel
mountings, wheel profiles and track gauge
tolerances, which results in a wider flangeway
width. Flangeway depth must consider wheel
tread wear and special trackwork design
features as flange bearing flangeways.

Figure 4.2.13 illustrates the flangeway

requirements using outline K-L-M considering
both flangeways using Ri 59N rail and
ii I standard track gauge and AAR wheel gauge.
ii t
ii I
L,k-2.0368°i
Comparing these results with the Nytram plots
and CADD system, similar flangeway
requirements are established. The Nytram
plot CADD method appears to be a more
comprehensive method of establishing
flangeway widths and also provides the angle
of attack and potential clearances.

PARAMETERS: The above interface issues are basic in

. AAR-1EI MODIFIED NARROW FLANGE WHEEL
l 25 METER TRACK CURVE establishing clearances. Research in wheel
l 1828 (72") Wi-IEEL BASE rail interface has introduced sophisticated rail
l 711 (28") WHEEL DIAMETER
. 1415 (557087) WHEEL GAUGE head grinding procedures to improve the
tracking patterns of wheels as discussed in
Figure 4.2.12 Filkins- Wharton Diagram for
Section 5.2 of this Handbook.
Determining Flangeway Widths

Geometric construction is applied to project

the resulting flange profile on the plane H-J.
Plane H-J is perpendicular to the rail head and

4-23
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

PROJECTED WHEEL PROFILE (K-C-M)

FROM FIGURE 4210
133 (5 l/4') NOMINAL
43 (1 69") MINIMUM FLANGEWAY WlDTH
MODIFIED
AAR-18 WHEEL
3 l/8' FLANGEWAY CLEARANCE TO COMPENSATE MODIFIED
*'-FOk TRA)CK & MEEL GAUGE TOLERANCES AAR-1E VMEEL
L-- /
1435 (56.5') TRACK GAUGE
RI-59N

TYPICAL WHEEL RAIL

INTERFERENCE I IXING
TRANSlT & RAllROAD STANDARDS

Figure 4.2.13 Filkins- Wharton Plot to Establish Flangeways

4.2.10 Gauge Implications of Track employed, then construction tolerances

Construction and Maintenance may have to be less restrictive.
Tolerances
l Maintenance Tolerances: These
represent the acceptable limits of wear for
The most precisely calculated standards for
track systems components. After
track gauge and flangeways will be of no
components are worn to this level,
value if the track is not constructed and
performance is considered to be
maintained in a manner that ensures that the
sufficiently degraded such that wear is
design intent is achieved in practice.
likely to occur at an accelerated rate. At
Obviously, perfectly constructed and
that time, maintenance should be
maintained tracks are not possible, and the
performed to restore the system to a
cost of achieving such would probably exceed
condition as close as possible to its new,
the value of benefits that would ensue.
as-constructed state.
Accordingly, tolerances must be specified that
both protect the design objective as closely as l Safety Tolerances: These represent the
possible and are practical and achievable with levels beyond which the system is unsafe
the materials and equipment available. for operation at a given speed. The FRA
Track Safety Standards are a well-known
Tolerances fall into three categories: example. If track systems are permitted
l Construction Tolerances: These will be to degrade to an unsafe condition,
the strictest. Track construction performance will be unsatisfactory, wear
tolerances are most often specified with will be excessive, and the cost of
the use of new materials in mind. If used restoration to a satisfactory state will be
materials, such as relay grade rail, are high.

4-24
 Track Structure Design

The reduced differential distance between tolerance limits is important in both the
track gauge and wheel gauge in transit longitudinal track surface (vertical) and
systems governs the gauge tolerances for alignment (horizontal) planes.
both. The practice is to have a plus tolerance
for track gauge and a minus tolerance for Table 4.2.1 lists recommended track
wheel gauge. construction tolerances for the three general
types of track construction. Track
Transit track construction tolerances are more maintenance limits that define allowable wear
restrictive than conventional railroad and surface conditions are not included, as
standards The tolerances apply to the they should be developed with the needs of a
following track standards-track gauge, guard particular transit operating agency in mind.
rail gauge, cross level and superelevation, Future updates of this Handbook should
vertical track alignment and horizontal track include guidance on the development of
alignment. The rate of change within the maintenance tolerances.

Table 4.2.1 Track Construction Tolerances

Construction Tolerances Location Tolerances

Type of Track and Cross Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Vertical

Track Guard Rail Level w Alignment Alignment Alignment Alignment
Gaugeo DeviatiorW) DeviatiorWs) Variable(@ Variable@
Ballast (Main +3 +(0.1250") 3 (0.125on) 6" (0 25""') 6'2' (0 25"(2)) 15 (0.3937") 15 (0.3937")
Line) -0 -(0.0000")

Direct Fixation +3 (+O 1250") 3 (0.1250") 6"' (0.25"'") 6" (0 25"") 10 (0 3937") 10 (0.3937")
-1 (-0.0625")

Embedded +3 (+0.1250") 3 (0.1250") 6s (0.25"") 3""W (0~,250"'3"4') 6 (0.2500") 6 (0.2500")

-1 (-0.0625")

Ballast (Yard) +4 (+0.3125") 4 (0 3125") 9 (0 3750") 9 (0.3750") 15 (0.5906") 15 (0.5906")

-1 (-0.0625")

NOTES:
(1) Deviation is the allowable construction discrepancy between the standard theoretical
designed track and the actual constructed track.
(2) Deviation (horizontal) in station platform areas shall be: 0 millimeters (inches) toward
platform, 3 millimeters (0.125 inches) away from platform. Refer to Figure 2.8.1.
(3) Deviation (vertical) in station platform areas shall be: plus 0, minus 6 millimeters (0.2500
inches), or in conformity with latest American with Disabilities Act requirements. Refer to
Figure 2.8.1.
(4) Deviation at top of rail to adjacent embedment surface shall be plus 6 millimeters (0.2500
inches) minus 0.
(5) Rate of change variations in gauge, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, cross level and
track surface shall be limited to 3 millimeters per 5 meters (0.1250 inches per 16 feet) of
track.
(6) Variable is the allowable construction discrepancy between the overall location of track and
the actual final location of the constructed track. (not to be confused with tolerances
pertaining to track standards). Tracks adjacent to fixed structures shall resort to deviation
limits.

4-25
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

4.3 TRACK SUPPORT MODULUS simply as the amount of deflection in these

springs from a given wheel load. The greater
Railway track acts as a structural element that the deflection, the lower the modulus.
undergoes stress and strain as a vehicle Conversely, a track with little deflection has a
passes over the track. The rail, fastener, tie, high modulus, which is generally considered
ballast, subballast, and subgrade are each a important for ride quality and good
component of the track structure. Each serviceability. Most of the deflection of the
undergoes some deflection as the wheel track structure occurs in the ballast and
passes. The analysis of how the track subgrade, with only small deflections at the
structure reacts to wheel loads has been rail and tie. In order to minimize deflections,
studied analytically since Professor Talbot the track designer must focus on a thick
and his committee wrote the first definitive section of well-compacted ballast and
work on this subject in 1918 for AREMA. This subballast with a sound dry compacted
Handbook provides sufficient information to subgrade. This is crucial if total deflections for
design track; for additional reference, the ballasted track are to be kept under the 6-
designer is advised to study either the Talbot millimeter (0.2-inch) limit suggested by
Reports of 1920 or Dr. Hay’s Railroad AREMA.
Engineering, which both provide a more
detailed explanation. g51 In direct fixation track, the track modulus is
much higher because the rail fasteners are
Track modulus is an important subject, with made of neoprene and/or rubber which have a
complex mathematical calculations, to allow controlled restricted deflection.
for track analysis as a structure to determine
appropriate rail weights, tie size and spacing, When rails are embedded directly into
ballast depth, the need for subballast, and the concrete pavement, the modulus becomes
need for special subgrade preparation for very high since there is almost no deflection
ballasted track. Similar mathematical by rigid pavements.
calculations are undertaken for direct fixation
track. The following explanation deals with ballasted
track modulus, which can be determined using
The track modulus factor value (p) established the following equation?]
in this section is a requirement of track design
P = -UY (1)
and one of the variables used in the
calculations for ballasted track structural where: p is the upward pressure per unit
design (Section 4.4.3) and direct fixation track on the ballast or sub-ballast
structure design (Section 4.5.3). In addition, U is a factor determining the
the track modulus is a parameter found in track stiffness or “modulus of
many of the calculations used by noise and track”
vibration engineers when considering wheel Y is the vertical deflection
impacts, contact separation and velocities. measured at the base of rail

4.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity[21 The modulus of track is defined as the vehicle

load per unit length of rail required to deflect
Ballasted track is often characterized as a the rail one unit. An example follows.
beam supported on a continuous series of
springs. Track modulus can be defined

4-26
 Track Structure Design

Assume a wheel load of 9,090 kilograms 4.3.2 Track Modulus of Various Track
(20,000 pounds), converted to an 88,960-N Types
force, results in a track vertical deflection of
IO millimeters (0.394 inches) The force The stiffness of rail, fastenings and supporting
required to deflect the track 25.4 millimeters (1 structure determines the stiffness of track.
inch) is: The types of track encountered on an LRT
system-ballasted, direct fixation and
embedded-have a wide range of stiffness
because the components of each track
P = 225,960 N LP = 50,761 Ibs. 1 substructure are dramatically different.
Ballast provides the most flexible track
Expressed (in metric) for a deflection of 1 structure support, while embedded track is
millimeter, force per unit deflection is thus: usually the stiffest.

P 225,960
Pu c-z = 8,896N/mm
25.4 25.4 4.3.2.1 Ballasted Track
Determination of track modulus for ballasted
50,761
P= - = 50,761 lb./in track can be made by strictly following the
L lin _I Talbot formula shown in Section 4.3.1

In many cases for ballasted track, the

The force required to deflect the track per unit;
maximum rail deflection is not known, or the
i.e., 1 millimeter (1 inch), with track tie spacing
maximum rail deflection is to be estimated
at 760 millimeters (30 inches) is:
from a given track structure. The latter
PU 8,896 condition is frequently encountered in
or- = 1 I.7 N/mm/mm or N/mm*
Tie Spacing 760 ballasted trackwork design.
50,761
- 30 = 1,692 Ibs./in./in. or psi 1 The track modulus can be estimated
considering the crosstie size, structure depth
The above calculated force required to deflect of subballast and ballast, type of ballast rock
one rail on one tie 1 millimeter with a tie or stone, and the crosstie spacing. As a
spacing of 760 millimeters is known as the guideline, track modulus using 115 RE rail
modulus of track elasticity. section can be expected to be in the following
ranges:
The above analysis assumes that the rail l S-17 N/mm2 (1500 - 2500 psi): 450
deflection is either known, or that maximum millimeters (17.7 inches) depth of sub-
rail deflection is the primary criteria for the ballast and limestone ballast, timber ties
track design. Developing a high track spaced at 550 millimeters (22 inches)
modulus without increasing the weight of rail . 17-24 N/mm2 (2500 - 3500 psi): 550
will dramatically reduce the bending moments millimeters (21.7 inches) depth of well-
in the rail. compacted subballast and heavy stone
ballast, timber ties spaced at 550
millimeters (22 inches)
l 24-34 N/mm* (3500 - 5000 psi): 600
millimeters (23.6 inches) depth of well-

4-27
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

compacted subballast and heavy granite spring rates vary widely. Two popular spring
ballast, timber ties spaced at 520 rate ranges are:
millimeters (20.5 inches) 15,780 to 24,540 N/mm (90,000 to
140,000 lb./in)
Track modulus has been known to vary and and
lose stiffness with a change in applied load;
42,060 to 56,080 N/mm (240,000 to
that is, modulus under a 63,500-kilogram (70-
320,000 lb./in)
ton) car may have a lesser value when
measured under a 90,700-kilogram (loo-ton) Fastener spacing, like the spacing of ties in
car: A modulus of 13.8 to 17.3 N/mm* (2000- ballasted track, is a factor in the stiffness of
2500 psi) represents good timber tie ballasted
direct fixation track; a common spacing for
track. The value can, and most likely will, rise fasteners is 760 millimeters (30 inches). The
to 34.6 to 55.3 N/mm* (5000-8000 psi) for spring rate in direct fixation fasteners is often
track with concrete cross ties spaced at adjusted to mitigate ground borne vibrations.
610 millimeters (24 inches). This adjustment then affects the track
modulus.
4.3.2.2 Direct Fixation Track
The following is an example on establishing
As stated above, the track stiffness or the
the modulus of track elasticity for direct
amount of vertical deflection of the track
fixation track:
structure under vehicle load is the basis for
P
determining the track support modulus. -= P
Unlike ballasted track, however, the track S
where
component deflections and elastic properties
p is the upward pressure per unit length on the fastener
of direct fixation track are generally known. In
direct fixation track, the vertical deflection s is the fastener spacing
occurs in the: u is a factor determining the track stiffness also known
Bending of the rail as the “modulus of track”

Elastomer portion of the direct fixation p is a pre- determined value based on the spring rate of
fastener the direct fixation fastener elastomer as stated above

Intermittent seating of the direct fixation s is a set value based on the desired direct fixation

fastener to the concrete or at the layers of fastener spacings - 760 millimeter (30 inch) spacing
vertical shims below the fastener
P 17,530
Intermittent seating of the rail at the rail -=-= 23,1N/mm/mm
seat S 760

Flexure of the direct fixation slab at the

supporting subbase materials for at-grade
installations.
100,000
30
P 52.,580
= 3,333 Ibs/in./in.
1
-=- = 69.2Nlmmlmm
S 760
The track modulus of direct fixation track is
determined by establishing the nominal spring
rate of the elastomer component of the direct
fixation fastener. Elastomer vertical static
300,000
30
= 10,000 Ibs/in/in
1

4-28

The above calculated force required to deflect
one rail on one fastener 1 millimeter with a
fastener spacing of 760 millimeters is known
as the modulus of track elasticity.
The track moduli calculated above are
somewhat understated. The dynamic spring
rate of most elastomeric direct fixation rail
fasteners are 10 to 50% higher than the static
spring rate. Dynamic spring rate can be most
easily visualized by considering that the
elastomer has not fully recovered, or is in
various stages of resonance, when the next
wheel load is applied.
The net effect of the dynamic spring rate is to
increase the effective spring rate and thus the
track modulus. Most direct fixation rail
fasteners show an increase of 30% in spring
rate during dynamic qualification testing. The
static track moduli calculated above should be
multiplied by 1.30, unless rail fastener test
results indicate that another value is more
appropriate.
4.3.2.3 Embedded Track
The track modulus for embedded track is very
dependent upon the design of the rail support
and underlying base slab.
For embedded ballasted tie track with
pavement overlay, the track modulus is in the
range of ballasted track, 10.4 to 31.1 N/mm2
(1,500 to 4,500 psi). See Section 4.3.2 1 for
ballasted track modulus values. If the
pavement extends down into the ties, and
especially if the pavement is constructed
underneath the ties, the track structure
behaves more like a slab. Ballasted track
equations are not valid for the latter case.
Some recent embedded track designs are
essentially direct fixation trackwork installed in
troughs formed in an underlying concrete slab.
Where the infill material provides little or no
4-29
Track Structure Desian
structural support, or where only elastomeric
side pieces are used, the track modulus is
identical to the direct fixation track analysis
indicated in Section 4.3.2.2.
It is more difficult to determine the track
modulus for most embedded trackwork
designs for the following reasons:
l The rail is continuously supported. The
Talbot premise of beam supports on an
elastic foundation does not apply
l Rail deflections can be extremely small.
l The spring rate for the rail support
material is not known or easily
determined.
Track modulus values have very little meaning
for designs where the rail is completely
encased in concrete. Rail deflections, if any,
are in the range of 0.025 millimeters (0.001
inches). The corresponding track modulus is
extremely large, and may even be dependent
on the deflection of the underlying track slab.
The slab deflection is also a minor value.
An embedded track design with limited
resiliency, such as the rail trough liner design
used in Baltimore and Seattle, is known from
field measurements. In Baltimore, the
embedded rail trough features a 2.3-millimeter
(90-mil) thick polyethylene lining at its
perimeter for stray current mitigation and
limited resiliency. Track measurements taken
under a 53.375-N (12,000-pound) wheel load
indicated that the rail deflected from 0.050 to
0.25 millimeters (0.002 in to 0.010 inches).
This corresponds to an average force per unit
deflection of approximately 356,000 N/mm
(2,000,OOO lb./in). As the force per unit
deflection and track modulus are identical for
continuously supported track, the track
modulus is thus seen to be 356,000 N/mm2
(2,000,OOO psi). Similar track moduli would be
expected from a fully encased high grade
polyurethane fill.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
A more complex evaluation would be needed
for a design that uses rigid fastener plate
supports. For concrete infill, the track
modulus would be extremely large. For an
elastomeric or asphalt infill, the track modulus
would be calculated from the rail deflection
between rigid supports using conventional
structural continuous beam formulas.
Finally, a rail boot or similar continuous
elastomeric pad under the rail may be
incorporated in the embedded trackwork
design.
Representative track moduli may be estimated
from values for data from one manufacturer
It uses a 50 Durometer elastomer with an 8-
millimeter (0.3-inch) thickness at the rail base.
The elastomer is ridged for additional
resiliency. The track modulus from this
design is approximately 1037 N/mm2 (150,000
psi). An additional elastomer layer is optional
with this design, increasing pad thickness to
19 millimeters (0.75 inches). The track
modulus is decreased to 207 N/mm* (30,000
psi).L31 Note that the track modulus change is
not a linear function of elastomer thickness in
this case, but varies in accordance with
elastomer pad shape.
Where the assumption of a linear elastomeric
pad deflection is reasonable, a rough estimate
of track modulus can be obtained by using a
rail deflection of 15% of the elastomer pad
thickness.r41
4.3.3 Transition Zone Modulus
4.3.3.1 interface Between Track Types
The interface points between embedded and
ballasted track segments and between direct
fixation and ballasted track are typically
locations of sudden changes in track modulus.
If special design consideration is not given to
such areas, particularly in line segments
4-30
where the transit vehicles operate at speeds
greater than typical yard operation, the
ballasted track will invariably settle and the
stiffer track will incur structural damage. The
passengers will experience an abrupt
transition in the form of vertical acceleration,
similar to hitting a bump in the road with a car.
Track modulus can vary dramatically among
various track types. Well-maintained
ballasted track, where timber or concrete
crossties are supported by a stipulated depth
of ballast and sub-ballast, can have a track
modulus as low as 17.2 N/mm* (2,500 psi) or
as high as 48.3 N/mm* (7,000 psi). Concrete
crosstie and timber crosstie track with elastic
rail fastenings tend toward the higher end of
the scale. Embedded or direct fixation track,
where a concrete base slab supports the rail,
typically have a higher modulus value and
greater stability as do non-ballasted “open”
deck bridge structures where the rail is
supported on rigid structural abutments and
spans.
Locations where the track modulus changes
abruptly are prone to vertical alignment
problems, particularly when the predominant
traffic moves from the stiffer to the more
flexible track. A typical example is the
interface between an open deck bridge and
adjoining ballasted track. Railroads have long
been aware of track alignment problems in
these areas and have attempted to
compensate by installing transition or
approach ties similar to those shown on
AREMA Plan No. 913-52. Various
arrangements of long-tie installations are used
on different railroads, sometimes with an
incremental decrease in the crosstie spacing.
The objective of these designs is to gradually
stiffen the ballasted track structure over an
extended distance, thereby reducing the
abrupt change in track stiffness at the bridge
abutment. Transition tie arrangements have
 Track Structure Design

also been placed at the ends of concrete tie wheel load leaving the stiffer track section.
installations where the track modulus The rail shows a downward deflection
differential between the concrete and timber approximately 1 meter (3 feet) from the
crossties often results in additional surface transition point or end of direct fixation or
maintenance requirements. Similar conditions embedded concrete slab, with a resulting
repeatedly occur on transit track installations upward force approximately 1 meter (3 feet)
between ballasted track and both embedded into the direct fixation or embedded track
and direct fixation track. Special transition portion. The rail sine wave disturbs the
track design must be considered to maintain ballasted track and attacks the direct fixation
an acceptable ride quality at these locations or embedment track installations, leading to
without incurring excessive maintenance deterioration of components and track
costs. conditions.

4.3.3.2 Transition Zone Design Details 4.3.3.3.1 Transition from Direct Fixation
In North America, the current standard to Track to Ballasted Track
compensate for the track modulus differential The ballasted track side of the transition zone,
is to use a reinforced concrete transition slab even with a transition slab, cannot
(also called an approach slab) to support the consistently produce a uniformly varying track
ballasted track. These transition slabs modulus due to the tendency of ballast to
(Figure 4.3.1) extend from the end of the compact, pulverize, and become fouled. Such
abutment or the embedded track slab, a deterioration leads to settlement voids, hard
minimum of approximately 6 meters (20 feet) spots, and pumping track. Regular
into the ballasted section. The top of the slab maintenance of the ballast is needed to
typically is located 300 millimeters (12 inches) protect the rails and maintain ride quality.
below the bottom of the ties immediately
Fortunately, direct fixation fastener design
adjacent to the stiffer track, gradually
continues to evolve and a greater range of
increasing to 350 millimeters (14 inches) at
fastener spring rates is now available. A direct
the far end of the slab. This design replaces
compressible subballast materials with a fixation track modulus of 23.1 MPa (3,333 lb/in
stiffer base, while also gradually decreasing per inch of rail), which compares favorably
the thickness and compressibility of the with standard concrete crosstie installation, is
now possible. Softer direct fixation fasteners
ballast layer. Center-to-center distances
in the zone immediately adjacent to the
between track crossties are generally reduced
in the transition slab section to provide ballasted track transition zone can alleviate
some of the transition problems that are not
additional stability and increase the track
modulus. However, even a well-designed addressed by conventional transition slabs.
transition zone will experience some track
surface degradation during operation, 4.3.3.3.2 Transition from Embedded Track
requiring periodic inspection and resurfacing to Ballasted Track
to avoid pumping track conditions. Embedded track design continues to evolve
and improve; however, the rail deflections that
would be required to match typical ballasted
4.3.3.3 Transition Zone improvements track modulus values are difficult to achieve in
The action of the rail at a transition zone embedded track. The track sine wave
represents a sine curve produced by the

4-31
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

PROYlDE CLEATS OR
GAUGE LINE OF RAIL COURSE SURFACE
-65 (2 l/2") FLARE TO LOCK IN BALLAST-,
45 (I 314-j
50 (2' MIN.) WHEEL
CLEARANCE DE:PRESSiON 1 / /
I If FLANGEWAY

rTD? OF EMBEDDED
IN CONCRETE II I I SECTION

1 BALLAST
115 RE RAIL
Top OF BALLAST
EMN WITH BOTTOM
OF EMBEDDED TROUGH

DETAIL OF BALLASTED SECTION SUPERIMPOSED TYPICAL TRACK & SLAB INSTALLATION

ON END SECTION OF EMBEDDED TRACK
115 RE RAIL FLANGEWAY FLARE

OUTLINE OF TRANSInDN

BALLASTED / EMBEDDED TRACK

PLAN \nEW
BALLASTED TRACK INSTALLATION ., EYBEDDED TRACK INSTALLATION
FIRST POUR CONCRETE
e OF flRST TIE-+ 1
TIE SPACING PER_,. 10 CONCRETE TIES SPACED AT 610 (24') CENTERS
I I --- I__..

406- -305 TOP OF SUBGRAD+

(16-l' (12’) SUBBALLAST BASE PAD
TRANSITION SLAB il
6100 (20'-0')
m L

==-@
TRANSITION BEMEN BALLASTED TRACK
AND EMBEDDED TRACK INSTALLATIONS

Figure 4.3.1 Track Transition Slab

4-32
 Track Structure Design

phenomenon in the rail places extremely high section of the transition rail could also be
bending forces in the contained rail within the continuously varied to provide a stiffness
embedded track immediately adjacent to the gradient suitable for the purpose. The
ballasted-to-embedded track transition point. transition rail of sufficient length (IO
The differential in track modulus between meters (32 feet)) would straddle the
embedded and ballasted track may be too interface point.
large to overcome by introducing a flexible rail
support in the area adjacent to the interface. Whatever design is developed, it should be
compatible with conventional concrete or
timber crosstie fastenings, direct fixation
4.3.3.3.3 Design Recommendation fasteners, and installation within the selected
The track designer must eliminate the embedded track design.
pronounced sine curve action in the rail at the
transition zone. Eliminating or reducing the
sine curve is more achievable in direct fixation 4.4 BALLASTED TRACK
track than in embedded track using
conventional track components. The following Ballasted track is the most prevalent track
recommendation applies to both types of track type used in light rail transit. While ballasted
transition interfaces. track for light rail transit resembles
conventional railroad track in appearance, its
The sine curve may be reduced to a functional design may have to contend with issues such
level by stiffening the rail in the vertical axis. as electrical isolation and acoustic
A stiffer rail will act as a beam to bridge the attenuation. In addition, it may be required to
crucial transition point. The beam or stiffer rail accommodate continuous welded rail on an
section should project a minimum of 5 meters alignment that includes curves far sharper and
(16.4 feet) in each direction from the transition grades far steeper than would ever be
interface point. Rail stiffening can be achieved encountered on a freight railroad or even a
by several means; the following are suggested “heavy rail” transit route.
procedures:
l Attachment of a standard joint bar section Proper design of the roadbed and ballast
to the rail with standard track bolts, spring elements of the track structure is a key issue.
washers and heavy duty nuts. The It is essential in providing an adequate
standard joint bar section would straddle foundation for the track so as to minimize
the interface point. future maintenance requirements. Roadbed
and ballast sections should be designed to
l The use of an inherently stiffer rail section
minimize the overall right-of-way width, while
across the interface. If the standard
providing a uniform, well-drained foundation
running rail section is 115 RE, the use of
for the track structure.
thick-web 115 TW, could provide the
required bridging effect. A special
transition rail section could also be 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Defined
machined from the European heavy blank
rail section 180/105. The ends of the Ballasted track can be described as a track
transition rail section could be machined structure consisting of rail, tie plates or
to provide a pressure weld connection to fastenings, crossties and the
the adjacent running rail. The cross ballastisubballast bed supported on a

4-33
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

prepared subgrade. The subgrade may be a l Track gauge

compacted embankment, an excavation or cut
section, or a bridge structure. Ballasted track
is generally the standard for light rail transit
routes that are constructed on an exclusive
right-of-way outside of a central business
district.
l Guarding of curved track and restraining
rail features
l Rail fastenings and tie plates
l Type of track tie and corresponding track
structure to suit operations

Ballasted track can be constructed to various 4.4.2.1 Ballasted Track Rail Section and
designs, depending on the specific Track Gauge
requirements of the transit system. Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this
Depending on the portion of the system under Handbook for guidance on determining rail
design, a satisfactory ballasted track design section, track gauge, and flangeway
could be anything from timber crossties with requirements.
conventional tie plates, cut spikes, and rail
anchors, to concrete crossties with elastic rail
4.4.2.2 Ballasted Track with Restraining
fastenings that incorporate insulating
Rail
components. While the loadings typically are
Refer to Section 4.2.8 herein for determining
limited to those of the light rail vehicles only,
requirements, locations and limits for guarding
heavier loading standards may be required.
track with restraining rail. Specific details for
Ballasted track may need to accommodate
various types of restraining rail designs are
freight railroad loadings where the track is to
included in Chapter 5.
be shared with a commercial railroad. Light
rail structural loading is one-quarter to one-
third of that imposed on freight railroad tracks. 4.4.2.3 Ballasted Track Fastening
Refer to Section 5.4 for requirements
Prior to developing a ballasted track design, concerning crosstie rail fastenings.
several vehicle/track related issues must be
resolved, including: vehicle wheel gauge,
wheel profile, and truck design; the track 4.4.3 Ballasted Track Structure Types
gauge and rail section; and the ability of the
vehicle to negotiate the track in a satisfactory There are generally two standard designs for
operational manner. These are addressed in track structures on ballasted track.
other chapters of this Handbook. If the track l Timber crosstie track
is to be located in an acoustically sensitive l Concrete crosstie track
area, the designer should also consider noise
and vibration mitigation measures as Ballasted track design can result in a suitable
discussed in Section 4.4.10. track structure using either timber or concrete
crossties. The differential track support or
track modulus dictates the quality of the track,
4.4.2 Ballasted Track Criteria the ride and future maintenance requirements.
Concrete crosstie ballasted track provides a
To develop ballasted track design, the more reliable track gauge system and tighter
following track components and standards gauge construction tolerances. This results in
must be specified: a smoother ride with less differential track
l Rail section settlement.

4-34
 Track Structure Design

Chapter 2 documents the types and crosstie/concrete crosstie) and corresponding

magnitudes of loads transferred from the track structure resiliency or track support
vehicle wheel to the rail. The rail must stiffness.
support the vehicle and the resulting loads by
absorbing some of the impact and shock and Rail supported on timber crossties and a
transferring some forces back into the vehicle moderate ballast/subballast section, results in
via the wheels. The initial impact absorber on a track modulus range of 14 to 17 N/mm*
the vehicle is the elastomer in the resilient (2,000 to 2,500 lb /inch per inch of rail).
wheels (if used) followed by the primary
suspension springs and then the secondary Resilient rail base pads are placed on
suspension system. The initial impact concrete crossties, both to protect the
absorber on the track is the rail, specifically concrete tie seat and to impede the impact
the rail head, followed by the fastening or and vibration associated with wheel passage
supporting system at the rail base and then from migrating from the rail to the crosstie.
the remaining track structure. A resilient rail They are a determining parameter of track
seat pad is used to absorb some of the force modulus. A reduced pad height (6 millimeters
on concrete crossties On timber crossties or 0.2 inches) and a very stiff elastomer or
the resiliency in the wood itself acts as the polyethylene pad produce a stiff track support
absorber. All components absorb and resulting in an increased rail support modulus.
distribute a portion of the load.
Rail supported on concrete crossties and an
Many transit systems have used both timber ample ballasffsubballast section results in a
and concrete crossties. In some instances, track modulus range of 31 to 45 N/mm* (4,500
the main line track on new installations was to 6,500 lb/inch per inch of rail).
constructed using concrete crossties with
standard rail insulation. Regardless of the
4.4.3.2 Timber Crosstie Ballasted Track
type of main line crossties, yard maintenance
On many light rail transit systems constructed
facility tracks are generally built with timber
in the early 198Os, timber crossties were
crossties either with or without insulated
considered to provide sufficient electrical
fasteners. The track structure’s design
isolation. Some projects, including those that
(degree of resiliency) dictates the amount of
reconstructed existing trolley systems, did not
load distributed to the rail and track structure
take extraordinary measures to insulate the .
and the magnitude of force returned to the
track because other measures were either
wheels and vehicle.
taken or in-place to control traction power
stray current. Contemporary designs typically
4.4.3.1 Ballasted Track Resilience incorporate insulation systems within the
Ballasted track design allows partially crosstie rail fastening to control stray currents
controlled rail deflection in both the vertical close to their source. Typically, non-insulated
and horizontal directions. This phenomenon rail fastenings are employed only in yard
of rail action contributes to successful track tracks, where the yard has its own traction
operation by distributing the load to the power substation and stray currents are
surrounding track components and structure. unlikely to leave the site. Non-insulated,
ballasted track may also be used in rights-of-
Specific track design decisions must be made way where there are no parallel utilities.
regarding the type of track structure (timber

4-35
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Timber crosstie ballasted track consists of the 4.4.3.2.1 Timber Crosstie Fastening
rail placed on a tie plate or rail fastening Conventional tie plates, cut spikes and rail
system positioned on the crosstie which is anchors were sufficient to establish a
supported by a ballast and subballast ballasted track installation using timber
trackbed as shown in Figures 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 crossties for railroad and earlier contemporary
for single- and double-track, respectively. transit track. However, current track design
generally includes protection of the negative
return rail from stray electrical currents.

SUBJECT TO SlTE SPECIFICS AND REOUIREMENTS

FOR CATENARY POLES (REFER TO CHAPTER 3)

N BASE OF RAJL AND

L SUBBALLAST LBALLAST DEPTH

SUBBALLAST DEPTH
SUEGRADE

Figure 4.4.1 Ballasted Single Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie)

2500 (98") NOM. SUBdCT TO SITE

SPECIFICS AND REOUIREMENTS FOR
CATENARY POLES BETWEEN TRACKS
(REFERTO CHAPTER3)

RAIL AND FASTENIN

TIMBEROR CONCRETECROSSTIE

ASE OF RAIL AND

LSUBBALLAST LBALLAST DEPTH

Figure 4.4.2 Ballasted Double Track, Tangent Track (Timber Crosstie)

4-36
 Track Structure Design

Although wood is an insulating material, the 7x9 inches) for mounting an insulated
use of the timber crosstie to protect against fastening system.
stray current has proven insufficient over time.
Isolating the rail from the surrounding track For additional information on timber crossties
structure is an important design element that refer to Chapter 5. Determining timber
must be quantified to determine the extent of crosstie spacing for transit track is discussed
insulation. in Section 4.4.4.

Timber crossties are generally insulated at the

base of the tie plate or fastening plate. To 4.4.3.3 Concrete Crosstie Ballasted Track
insulate the fastening plate, a high-density Concrete crossties are gaining popularity in
polyethylene (HDP) pad (a minimum of 12 light rail transit installations. They have been
millimeters (0.5 inches) projecting on all sides shown to have lower life-cycle costs, provide
of the plate) is placed between the bottom of better ride quality, and incur lower track
the fastening plate and the top of the tie. To surfacing maintenance costs.
protect the screw spike holding the fastening
The concrete crosstie is typically insulated at
plate to the tie, a special insulating
the base of the running rail to protect the
collar/thimble is positioned in the anchor
negative return running rail from potential
screw spike hole to isolate the screw spike
stray currents. Concrete crosstie ballasted
from the fastening plate. For additional design
track consists of the rail placed in the rail seat
information on timber crosstie fastenings, refer
area and the tie supported by a ballast and
to Chapter 5.
subballast trackbed as shown in Figures 4.4.3
and 4.4.4 for single- and double-track,
4.4.3.2.2 Timber Cross&s respectively.
Timber crossties have been standard for light
rail transit installations for years and continue
4.4.3.3.1 Concrete Crosstie Fastening
to be the standard for older established transit
The success of the concrete crosstie is partly
agencies. Life-cycle cost comparison of
due to the introduction of elastic (spring clip)
timber ties and concrete ties must be
fastenings at the rail hold down location.
performed using a uniform baseline, including
Fastening designs have evolved to meet new
all fastenings and hardware needed for each
requirements for electrical isolation and to
type of tie. The tie spacing for timber ties is
incorporate an elastic fastening to replace the
generally shorter than for concrete ties, which
spike, bolt and rail anchor.
contributes to this comparison. Conventional
rail anchors projecting into the ballast section
The insulating barrier must be at the base of
will create a stray current leakage path,
the rail or mounting surface to provide
another issue to be considered in the analysis.
electrical isolation of the rail from the
Also, the material cost for timber crossties can
surrounding track components. The insulating
vary widely over a short period of time. That
barrier consists of a base rail pad and
said, many transit agencies continue to use
insulators for the edges of the rail base. As
timber ties with satisfactory results.
shown in Figure 5.4.1 of this handbook, the
rail is fully insulated from the mounting
Timber crossties for a transit system should
surface.
be hardwood (oak, maple, birch), with a cross
section of 175 x 230 millimeters (generally

4-37
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

,-SUPERELEVATION 100 (4") ILLUSTRATED

/ 'i TRACK .Tcnn
; LJVU ,,\38”) NOM
I SUBJECT TO SITE SPECIFICS AND REWREMENTS
i FOR CATENARY POLESAT SUPERELEVATION TRACK

BETkiN BASE OF RkL !iND

-SUBBALLAST t SUBBALLAST DEPTH

I- BALLAST DEPTH
SUBGRADE

Figure 4.4.3 Ballasted Single Track, Curved track (Timber Crosstie)

SUPERELEVATION100 (4") ILLUSTRATED

TIMBER CR CONCRETECROSSTIE
(CONCRETEILLUSTRATED)

SUBBALLAST DEPTH
/SUBBALLAST LBALLAST DEPTH

Figure 4.4.4 Ballasted Double Track, Curved Track (Timber Crosstie)

4-38
 Track Structure Design

The concrete crosstie design includes the guidelines assume the following typical light
specific type of elastic fastening system rail transit installation data:
(spring clip) with insulating rail seat pad and Rail Section 115 RE
rail base insulators. The elastic clip provides Vehicle Load per 5,400 kilograms
sufficient toe load to the rail base to act as the Wheel (12,000 pounds)
longitudinal rail anchor, eliminating the Track Modulus
conventional rail anchors used with timber - Timber Tie 17.2 N/mm* (2,500
crossties. Ibs/inch per inch of
rail)
- Concrete Tie 34.5 N/mm* (5,000
4.4.3.3.2 Concrete Crossties
Ibs/inch per inch of
The standard transit concrete crosstie is
rail)
generally 255 millimeters (10 inches) wide
Desired Load
and 2515 millimeters (99 inches) long at the
Transfer to
base of tie. The tie is tapered, with a 190-
- Ballast ~0.45 MPa (65 psi)
millimeter (7.5-inch) height at the rail seat and
- Sub Grade ~0.14 MPa (20 psi)
a 165-millimeter (6.5-inch) height at the center
Ballast Depth 255 millimeters (10
of the tie. The ties are prestressed, precast inches)
concrete produced in a factory with climate
Subballast Depth 200 millimeters (8
controls for the curing process. For additional
inches)
information on concrete crossties refer to Tie Sizes
Chapter 5. - Timber 180 x 230 x 2590
millimeters (7 x 9 x
4.4.4 Crosstie Spacing 102 inches)
- Concrete 190 x 250 x 2515
Ballasted track structure design is dependent (7.5 x 10 x 99
on the vehicle wheel load, a predetermined inches)
track modulus target or standard, the selected Design Calculations:
Tie Seat Load = p a. P [Timoshenk o 19291
rail section, the type and size of tie, and the
where :
depths of ballast and subballast. These are
combined to meet the criteria established by a = tie spacing (variable)

AREMA for both ballast pressure and P = axle load = 107 kN (24 kips) - twice the wheel load

subgrade pressure. l/A

Ballasted track designs can meet or exceed

P=(-&1
the AREMA pressure requirements by altering Timber Tie: u = track modulus
the variable parameters (track modulus, tie
spacing and ballast depth) as needed. As a = 17.2 N/mm* (2500 lb/inch
guideline the following sample calculations per inch of rail)
are provided for design of ballasted track with Concrete Tie: u = track modulus
timber or concrete crossties. = 34.5 N/mm* (5000 lb/
inch per inch of rail)
Design computations based on Talbot,
Timoshenko, Hay formulas and other E = modulus of steel = 206,800 N/mm*
(30 x 1 O6 psi)

4-39
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

I = modulus of inertia 4.4.4.1 Crosstie Spacing-Tangent/

= 27.4 x IO6 mm4 (65.9 in’) Curved Track
The above calculations determine the crosstie
Tie Bearing Area = tie width x tie length spacing and affect the track modulus or the
vertical track stiffness. Lateral track stability
Timber = 230 x 2590(9” x 102”)
can also affect crosstie spacing.
= 595700squaremm (918 sq. in.)
Concrete =250 x 2515 (IO” x 99”) The horizontal track alignment for a light rail
transit system can be far more severe than for
= 628750 square mm (990 sq.in)
other railway systems, such as rapid transit,
commuter rail, or freight railroads. Ballasted
Tie Seat Load [Hay, 9821
Ballast Load = track is far more difficult to construct and
2/3Tie Bearing Area
maintain in reduced tight radius curves.
Subballast Load at Tie Centerline = Special consideration should be given to
Seat Load increasing lateral track stability by reducing
x Tie Width
, .23 Tie Bearing Area I the crosstie spacing.
[Talbot 19191
Ballast Depth
Lateral track stability is provided by ballast
Subgrade Load at the Tie Centerline is similar friction contact along the sides and bottom of
to subballast load calculation except depth the tie and by the end area of tie. The end
includes ballast and subballast heights. area of the tie provides a calculated degree of
lateral stability. Increasing the ballast
Using the above formulas, Table 4.4.1 shoulder width beyond a 450-millimeter
presents the values according to the (18-inch) limit provides no increase in stability.
parameters. Reducing crosstie spacing, thereby increasing
the number of ties, can increase lateral track
Tie spacing can be determined from this table. stability. Timber crossties have proven to
Neither the AREMA recommended maximum provide greater lateral stability than concrete
ballast pressure 0.45 MPa (65 psi) nor the ties based on the theory that the ballasts
maximum subgrade pressure 0.14 MPa (20 sharp edges penetrate the tie surfaces
psi) should be exceeded. increasing the friction and locking the tie in
position. On the other hand, the concrete tie’s
The preceding computations are
increased weight also provides increased
representative of the calculations needed to
lateral stability.
design the ballasted track structure. The
parameters that alter the actual design are To improve the lateral stability of concrete
predetermined track modulus; type of tie crossties, some tie manufacturers have
(timber or concrete); depth of ballast and developed a serrated or “scalloped” side tie
subballast; and tie spacing. The challenge for surface increasing the ballasts locking
the engineer is to combine these parameters capabilities.
to achieve the best life-cycle costs and lowest
maintenance costs. Based on the above calculations, the track
designer should consider reducing the
conventional crosstie spacing by 75

4-40
 Table 4.4.1 Ballasted Track Design Parameters
Subgade Load
Ballast +
Subballast
Tie-Ballast Load Subballast Load
Tie Tie Seat Load 230 (9”) Tie 250 (lO”)Tie 255 (IO”) Ballast 455(18")

Track Modulus Spacing (mm) kN (kips) MPa (Psi) MPa (Psi) MPa (Psi) MPa (psi)
17.2 N/mm2 510(20") 50.7 (11 4) 0.127 185 n.a. n a. 0 094 13.7 0096 76
(2500 lb./in/in)
p=O 00093/mm 610 (24") 60.7 (13.6) 0152 221 n.a. n a. 0113 164 0.115 9 1
(0 0237lin)
685(27") 68.2 (15.3) 0.171 249 n.a. na 0127 18.5 0.130 10.3
760(30") 75.6 (17 0) 0.189 276 n.a. n a. 0.141 20.5 0.144 11.4
810 (32") 80.6 (18.1) 0.202 29.4 n.a. n.a. 0.150 21.8 0.153 12.1

34.5Nlmm2 510 (20") 60.0 (13.5) n.a n.a. 0142 204 0.115 16.8 0.115 93
(5000 lb Win)
p=O.OOll /mm 610 (24") 71 8(161) n.a n.a 0.170 243 0.138 200 0138 11.1
(0.0282h)
685(27") 80.6(181) n a. n a 0.191 27.3 0155 22.5 0155 12.5
760(30") 895(201) na n.a 0212 30.3 0172 250 0172 13.9
810 (32") 95.3 (21.4) n.a. n.a. 0.226 32.3 0.183 26.6 0.183 14.8

Note: MPa=Nlmm2

millimeters (3 inches) for track curves with ties are expensive to design, fabricate and
radii less than 300 meters (1000 feet). install. They have not proven to be cost-
effective in light rail applications.
To improve lateral stability, especially with
conventional smooth concrete ties, a tie Turnout standards vary among transit
anchor can be bolted to the tie. The tie agencies. Therefore various concrete tie
anchor is a blade penetrating below the tie geometric layouts and designs would be
into the ballast bed providing additional lateral required to meet the requirements of each
stability. Tie anchors can be attached to agency. Standardization and simplicity in tie
alternate ties in the track curve. design is required to allow the transit industry
to develop a uniform economical standard
4.4.5 Special Trackwork Switch Ties concrete switch tie set for various turnout
sizes.
The current tendency of transit agencies is to
use standard timber hardwood ties for special
trackwork turnout, crossover and double 4.4.5.1 Timber Switch Ties
crossover arrangements for both main line The present standard for timber switch ties is
and maintenance facility and storage yard hardwood, predominantly oak. Tropical
installations. Transit agencies using concrete hardwood ties such as Bonzai, lecki and
crossties on main line and yard installations Azobe have been introduced to the North
also use timber special trackwork ties in both American railway industry with mixed
locations. success.

Concrete switch ties have been developed by The reader is cautioned about using tropical
the railroad industry to reduce maintenance woods. Thorough research on the specific
on heavy haul freight lines. Concrete switch wood selected, and the origin of the wood, is

4-41
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

recommended before a procurement is tie arrangement. Tie spacings are increased

undertaken.
The standard timber switch tie is generally a
180- x 230-millimeter (7- x g-inch) section with
various lengths from 2,750 to 4,880
millimeters (9 to 16 feet).
Extra long timber switch ties, up to 6,710
millimeters (22 feet) and longer may be
required to accommodate special trackwork
locations, such as crossovers and double
crossovers where the track centers remain at
the standard width of 3,810 to 4,420
millimeters (12.5 to 14.5 feet).
Similar to a main line timber crosstie
installation, an insulated switch plate design
may be required to protect against stray
current leakage. Insulated switch and frog
plates are similar in design to main line timber
crossties. The concern for stray current
control has occasionally resulted in the
installation of special trackwork direct fixation
fasteners on timber switch ties. However, this
application is a relatively new design concept
for transit agencies and is proving to be
extremely expensive.
4.4.5.2 Concrete Switch Ties
Concrete switch tie standard designs for
special trackwork installations are evolving.
The railroad industry and transit, commuter
and heavy metro rail systems have been
experimenting and standardizing concrete
switch ties for special trackwork. The special
trackwork concrete ties used to date include
the larger size turnouts, No. 15 and 20, and
high-speed turnouts. Light rail transit systems
generally restrict turnout size to No. 8 or 10;
therefore a minimum of design layout has
occurred to accommodate these sizes.
Standard concrete switch tie designs and
layouts will be different from the timber switch
to allow for a wider than conventional tie crib
opening using a special trackwork concrete tie
approximately 250 millimeters (I 0 inches)
wide.
The lengths of the concrete switch ties will
conform to the special trackwork layout, with a
possible specific length for each tie location in
lieu of groups of specific tie lengths. The
design will include the requirements for
mounting special trackwork fastenings in
switches, frogs and guard rails. The designer
and/or tie manufacturer will choose between
embedded shoulders or single rail fasteners
through the remaining portions of the special
trackwork layout.
Similar to timber switch tie installations, an
insulated special trackwork fastening may be
required to control stray current on concrete
switch ties. Insulated switch, frog and guard
rail fastening plates may be similar to
conventional timber crosstie installations.
Standard concrete tie insulated rail fastenings
are acceptable where individual rails are
installed on the switch timber.
For more information on special trackwork
timber and concrete switch ties refer to
Chapter 5 of this handbook.
4.4.6 Ballast and Subballast
Ballast is an integral material in the support of
the track structure. The quality of the ballast
material has a direct relationship to the overall
performance of the track structures.
The quality, size and type of ballast material
used can improve the performance of the
track substructure by providing an increased
strength to the track system.

4-42
 Track Structure Design

Concrete crosstie installations normally shoulder resists lateral track movement and
require a higher quality ballast, a larger keeps the track from buckling when the rail is
gradation of ballast, and a more restrictive in compression. Continuous welded rail
selection of rock aggregate. For additional requires a 300-millimeter (12-inch) ballast
information on ballast material refer to shoulder measured from the end of the tie to
Chapter 5. the top of ballast shoulder slope. The top
slope of the ballast shoulder should be parallel
to the top of the tie. The side slope of the
4.4.6.1 Ballast Depth ballast shoulder should have a maximum
The variables to be considered in establishing slope of 1:2. As mentioned in Section 4.4.4.1,
the track structure section are discussed the ballast shoulder may be increased in
above and listed in Table 4.4.1. Additional sharp radius curved track to provide additional
variables include the track gauge, depth of tie, lateral stability. The subballast and subgrade
and superelevation of track curves. Figures sections must be increased to provide
4.4.1 and 4 4.2 illustrate and quantify the sufficient support width if the ballast shoulders
general desired design section for ballasted are increased.
track.

The depth of ballast from the bottom of the tie 4.4.6.3 Subballast Depth and Width
to the top of the subballast can be determined Subballast is the lower or base portion of the
by undertaking the aforementioned ballast bed located between the base of the
calculations. The depth of subballast below ballast section and the top of the road bed
the ballast to the top of the subgrade can be subgrade. Subballast is generally a pit run
determined from these calculations. material with smaller, well-graded crushed
stone. The subballast acts as a barrier filter
For tangent track, the minimum depth of separating the ballast section from the
ballast is generally measured from the embankment road bed materials. It provides
underside of the tie to the top of subballast at both separation and support for the ballast.
the centerline of each rail. For curved
superelevated track, the depth of ballast is The depth of the subballast below the ballast
measured below the low rail with respect for can be determined using the preceding
the top of subballast at the centerline of track calculations. The ballast and subballast are
as shown in Figure 4.4.2. integral parts of the track structure. Track
design considers the thickness of both in the
On tangent multiple track installations, the calculations to meet AREMA
minimum ballast depth is measured under the recommendations of 0.14 MPa (20 psi)
rail nearest to the crown of the subballast uniform pressure transmitted to the subgrade.
section as shown in Figure 4.4.3. On curved
multiple track installations it is measured on The width of the subballast section is
each track under the inside rail closest to determined by the width of the road bed
radius point as shown in Figure 4.4.4. embankment subgrade. The subballast
should extend the full width of the
embankment capping the top surface.
4.4.6.2 Ballast Width
The width of ballast section is determined by
the rail installation and tie length. The ballast

4-43
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
The subballast layer acts as a drainage layer
for the subgrade surface allowing water to
flow to the embankment shoulders.
The end slope of the subballast generally
conforms to the slope of the embankment.
To allow for an eventual ballast slope slough
and provide walking or flat area for track
maintenance, the subballast width should
project beyond the toe of the ballast slope a
minimum of 600 millimeters (24 inches).
To support embankment materials under
special trackwork installations and at-grade
road crossings, a geotextile (filter fabric) may
be used at selected locations. The track
designer should review supplier information
on geotextiles and consider the application of
0.54 kilogram/m2 (16 ounce/yd2) geotextiles
and double layers under special trackwork
locations. Geogrid and geoweb material may
be used to stabilize and strengthen the
subgrade materials below turnouts and at
grade crossings. These materials augment
the function of subballast.
4.4.6.4 Subgrade
The subgrade is the finished embankment
surface of the roadbed below the sub-ballast,
which supports the loads transmitted through
the rails, ties, and ballast. The designer
should analyze the subgrade to determine
whether it has both uniform stability and the
strength to carry the expected track loadings.
AREMA recommends that, for most soils,
pressure on subgrade be lower than 0.14 MPa
(20 psi) to maintain subgrade integrity.
Uniformity is important because differential
settlement, rather than total settlement, leads
to unsatisfactory track alignment. The use of
geotextiles or geogrids between the subgrade
and subballast can be advantageous under
some conditions.
4-44
4.4.7 Ballasted Track Drainage
The success of any ballasted track design
depends directly on the efficiency of the
ballasted track to drain well and proper
maintenance of the drainage system This
includes the exposed ballast and subballast
bed that cast off surface runoff and the
designed parallel drainage system, ditch and
culvert piping that carry the runoff.
Drainage of the embankment or excavated
sections is of utmost importance. Ballasted
track, by the nature of its design, is
susceptible to contamination from both track
traffic and the surrounding environment. Dirt,
debris and fines are either dropped or blown
onto the trackway, contaminating the ballast
section. This contamination creates a non-
porous or slow draining ballast bed, which can
lead to eventual deterioration and breakdown
of the track structure.
Many conventional methods are practiced to
maintain ballasted track structure. These
include ballast shoulder cleaning and
complete track undercutting to keep the
ballast bed clean to ensure it drains well.
4.4.8 Stray Current Protection
Requirements
Stray current corrosion protection is a subject
described more fully in Chapter 8 of this
handbook. The track structure design
requires an electrical barrier to insulate the
rail. Ballasted track generally provides this
electrical barrier at the rail fastenings. An
insulating resilient material with a specified
bulk resistivity provides the barrier at the base
of fastening plate on timber ties and at the rail
base on concrete ties.
For more information on electrical barriers at
fastenings refer to Chapter 5.
 Track Structure Design

4.4.9 Ballasted Special Trackwork facilities to provide for special treatments

The ballasted special trackwork portion of any
transit system will require specific designs to
match the size of the components.
Ballasted special trackwork in contemporary
light rail transit systems generally consists of
turnouts paired to act as single crossovers for
alternate main line track operations.
Operating requirements and alignment
restrictions may dictate the installation of a
double crossover consisting of four turnouts
and a crossing (diamond). Turnouts are used
at the ends of transitions from double track to
single track installations as well as at junction
points to alternate transit routes and accesses
to sidings
Cost-effective designs consider the type of
vehicle involved, the soft primary suspensions
that produce ideal levels of ground vibration
above 30 Hz, or the stiff primary suspensions
that produce levels that peak at 22 Hz. Noise
and vibration control is a system problem that
involves the track and the vehicle wheels and
trucks Familiarization with the contents of
Chapter 9 herein, along with American Public
Transit Association (APTA) and/or Federal
Transit Administration (FTA) requirements for
wayside and groundborne noise limits, is
essential to sound designs that limit noise and
vibration.
4.4.11 Transit Signal Work

Turnouts in the maintenance facility and Although the design of the signal control
storage yard areas are generally positioned to system will not greatly impact ballasted track
develop a “ladder track” arrangement that design, it can affect specific parts of the
provides access to a group of parallel tracks design. The prime example of this
with specific track centers For additional interrelationship is the need for the insulated
information on ballasted special trackwork joints in the running rails to accommodate
design, refer to Chapter 6. train control requirements. Such joints are
normally required at the extremities of
interlockings, each end of station platforms,
4.4.10 Noise and Vibration grade crossings, within individual turnouts and
crossovers, and at other locations to be
The vehicle traveling over the track produces determined by the train control requirements.
noise and vibration. The impact of this noise
and vibration may become significant for The light rail transit signaling system may
alignments through otherwise quiet include track circuit signal systems within
neighborhoods. Track design has a ballasted track zones. Impedance bond
significant effect on both noise and wheel installation requirements must be coordinated
squeal, however, to be effective, the control within the track structure design. Insulated
system must consider the wheel and the track joints at limits of track circuits are to be
as a unit. Chapter 9 provides guidelines with opposite and within 1.2 meters (4 feet) of each
respect to trackwork design for low noise and other to facilitate underground ducting and
vibration and introduces various concepts in traction crossbonding.
noise and vibration control.
For additional information on transit signal
Trackwork design can have a substantial work, refer to Chapter 10
effect upon wayside noise and vibration and
should be considered early in the design of

4-45
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
4.4.12 Traction Power
Traction power requirements impact the track
design at two specific locations: the catenary
pole locations in relation to centerline of track
and the running rail, which is used as the
negative return for the traction power system.
The catenary poles impact the track centerline
distance when they are located between the
tracks. Clearance distances pertinent to the
transit vehicle as well as any other potential
users of the track (i e., freight or track
maintenance vehicles) must be considered by
the track and catenary designers. isolation of
the running rail used as the negative return
conduit is essential for both timber and
concrete crosstie ballasted track.
For additional information on traction power
refer to Chapter 11.
4.4.13 Grade Crossings
Track designers must develop an acceptable
interface wherever streets cross the light rail
tracks at grade. Grade crossings are
manufactured as prefabricated units of rubber,
concrete, or wood. These prefabricated units
are designed to resist leakage of DC current,
as well as signal current. They are designed
to be easily installed and replaced during
maintenance of the track. All grade crossings
must create a flangeway between the street
paving and the rail.
Some grade crossings are created by using
flangeway timbers along the rails to form the
flangeway and paving the remainder of the
area with asphalt. Although this style is not as
durable as the prefabricated units, it may be
quite adequate in storage and maintenance
facilities.
The most critical design element of all grade
crossings is adequate drainage for the track.
4-46
Runoff from the street must be directed away
from the track, and the track must be
designed with perforated pipe drains to keep
the trackbed dry. Additional stabilization of
the subgrade with geo-synthetic materials
may be very cost-effective in reducing track
surfacing costs Failure to provide good
drainage will result in pumping track and
broken pavements.
The use of embedded track at grade
crossings is proving to be a very reliable
crossing design. Embedded track provides a
virtually maintenance-free installation with
proper insulating properties for the rail and a
relatively smooth road crossing surface for
automobiles.
Coordination with the street design is also
necessary to match the normally crowned
street cross section with the level grade
crossing.
4.5 DIRECT FIXATION TRACK
(BALLASTLESS OPEN TRACK)
4.5.1 Direct Fixation Track Defined
Direct fixation track is a “ballastless” track
structure in which the rail is mounted on direct
fixation fasteners that are attached to a
concrete deck, slab, or invert. Direct fixation
track is the standard method of construction
for tracks on aerial structures and in tunnels.
It is also used for construction of at-grade
track under unusual circumstances, such as
when there is a short segment of at-grade
track between two direct fixation bridge decks.
Prior to designing direct fixation track, several
vehicle/track related issues must be resolved.
These issues relate to the vehicle’s wheel
gauge, wheel profile, and truck design; the
track gauge and rail section; and the
 Track Structure Design

compatibility of the vehicle with the guideway 4.5.2.4 Track Modulus

geometry. Acoustic concerns are also very Direct fixation track is typically much stiffer
important. vertically than ballasted track. This rigidity
must be attenuated if transmission of noise
and vibration is to be avoided. Careful
4.5.2 Direct Fixation Track Criteria selection of an appropriate track modulus and
specification of direct fixation rail fasteners
To develop direct fixation track design, the
with an appropriate spring rate must be made
following track components and standards
in accordance with Section 4.3 and Chapter 9
must be specified:
of this handbook.
Rail Section

Track Gauge
4.5.3 Direct Fixation Track Structure Types
Guarding of curved track and restraining
rail Direct fixation track construction includes the
The type of direct fixation track structure following designs
to be used (booted tie or a direct fixation l Encased Ties This is the original form for
rail fastener type) direct fixation track, dating to the late 19th
century. Timber crosstie track was
If direct fixation rail fastener construction constructed in skeleton form and then the
is selected, the type of fastener and bottoms of the crossties were encased in
supporting structure to be employed- concrete. Because the concrete held the
cementitious grout pad or concrete track rigidly to gauge, typically only every
reinforced plinth. fourth or fifth tie would be a full-length
crosstie. Intermediate ties would be short
tie blocks that support only a single rail.
4.5.2.1 Direct Fixation Track Rail Section
Such designs incorporated no specific
and Track Gauge
measures to control stray traction power
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 of this
currents or groundborne vibrations.
Handbook for determination of rail section,
Except in very limited circumstances for
track gauge and flangeway requirements.
maintenance of existing systems,
encased timber tie track is no longer
4.5.2.2 Direct Fixation Track with constructed.
Restraining Rail l Cemetitious Grout Pads: This form of
Refer to Section 4.2.8 to determine the direct fixation track mounts each
requirements, locations, and limits for individual rail fastener on an individual
guarding track with restraining rail. grout pad, thereby guaranteeing the
construction tolerances in the final
elevation of the concrete trackbed. The
4.5.2.3 Direct Fixation Track Fastener
fasteners are held in place by anchor
Refer to Chapter 5, Section 5 4 to determine
bolts that are cored into the concrete
the requirements for specifying direct fixation
base.
fasteners.

4-47
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

l Concrete Plinths: This form of direct 4.5.3.1 Cementitious Grout Pads

fixation track forms rectilinear concrete
blocks or plinths that support several
direct fixation fasteners under a single rail.
The plinths can vary in length and
typically support between three and six
fasteners, although longer plinths support
up to twelve fasteners. Periodic
interruptions of the plinths allow cross
track drainage into a trough that is
typically located along the track
centerline.
l Ballastless Booted Tie Blocks: This form
of direct fixation track is an updated
version of the encased tie design. It
typically incorporates two block concrete
crossties that have an elastomeric “boot”
on the bottom of each tie that provides
electrical and acoustic isolation between
the ties and the encasing concrete. As
with the earlier design, most ties would be
single blocks with no crosstie member
between the rails.
Variations of the above designs can be found,
such as direct fixation rail fasteners bolted
directly to structural steel bridge members.
Such arrangements are generally in response
to a site-specific design issue and will not be
addressed in this handbook.
Cementitious grout pad track designs include:
l Short cementitious grout pads of sufficient
width to allow for installation of the direct
fixation fastener that is formed and poured
directly to the concrete deck or invert. A
typical configuration is as shown at the left
rail in Figure 4.5.1.
l Short cementitious grout pads mounted
within a recessed opening in the concrete
deck or invert, as shown at the right rail in
Figure 4.51.
Grout pads typically support only a single
fastener, although current practice is to build
longer pads to support at least four fasteners.
The longer design provides improved integrity
of the pads and ease of maintenance if a
fastener is replaced or repositioned.
4.5.3.1.1 Cementitious Grout Pad on
Concrete Surface
The short cementitious grout pad design acts
as a leveling course between the underside of
the direct fixation fastener and the concrete
deck or invert surface. The anchor bolt
inserts are set in the deck slab to provide the
structural integrity of the fasteners.

DIRECTFIXAnONFASTENER
OlRECTFlXAiW F WTH OR WTHCUT CANT
WHORWITHCUTCAN
MtCHMI EaT INSERT
ANcnoR 8aT INSERT

Figure 4.5.1 Cementitious Grout Pad Design-Direct Fixation Track

4-48

This design requires core drilling of the
concrete invert to grout the anchor bolt in
place The drilling can be undertaken either
prior to or after grout pad installation. The bolt
assemblies are permanently anchored with an
epoxy grout material.
The cementitious grout pad can be formed
and poured before the rail fastener is placed;
however it may be difficult to achieve an
absolutely level and true top surface for the
rail fastener. If the grout pad is slightly too
high, grinding may be required. If it is too low,
it may be necessary to place metallic or
elastomeric shims beneath the rail fasteners.
Alternatively the assembled rail and rail
fasteners can be suspended at proper grade
and alignment above the concrete invert and
the grout either pumped or =dry packed” under
the rail fastener. If this approach, known as
“top down” installation, is taken, it is essential
to ensure that the grout does not enter the
recesses on the bottom surface of the direct
fixation rail fastener which could compromise
the rail fastener spring rate. This can be
avoided by placing a minimum of one shim
beneath the direct fixation rail fastener before
grout placement. It is also necessary to lift the
rail and fasteners after the grout has cured to
locate and fill in any voids or “honeycomb” in
the top surface of the grout pad that are
caused by trapped air or improper grout
placement.
Grout pads typically depend on the strength of
the bond between the concrete invert and the
grout for their stability. Reinforcing steel
typically cannot be used because the pad is
so thin. The concrete invert is typically
roughened before grout placement and epoxy
bonding agents can be used to enhance the
bond between the grout and the concrete.
4-49
Track Structure Design
4.5.3.1.2 Cementitious Grout Pad in
Concrete Recess
Some transit systems have experienced grout
pad delamination, because cementitious grout
pads have a tendency to curl or pull away
from the parent concrete deck or invert during
curing and aging. It is possible to achieve
better bonding with less likelihood of such
failures by forming the grout pad within
recesses in the concrete invert. The recessed
design provides additional deck or invert
bonding by locking the four sides of the pad.
The anchor bolt assembly drilling can be
undertaken either prior to or after grout pad
installation. Prior drilling is recommended as
it results in less disturbance to the bond of the
cast-in-place grout pad.
4.5.3.1.3 Cementitious Grout Material
The selection of a cementitious grout material
must be undertaken carefully. The use of
incompatible special epoxy grouts, bonding
agents and additives can result in pad
delamination and cracking. The material
should be compatible with the deck or invert
concrete and have similar thermal expansion
characteristics. It must also be compatible
with the service environment of the trackway.
Large inaccuracies in the elevation of the
concrete invert and track superelevation can
result in both very thin and very thick grout
pads. Both can be troublesome but thin pads
are particularly prone to early failure.
Cementitious grout pads that are less than 38
millimeters (1.5 inches) thick are generally
more susceptible to fracture.
As a guideline, although the cementitious
grout pad design has and is currently used on
some transit systems, it is not recommended
due to the design’s history of pad failure.
Cementitious grout pads tend to delaminate
and break down, requiring high maintenance,
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

particularly in colder climates subjected to l Concrete plinths of sufficient width and

freeze-thaw cycles. Locations with minimal height for installation of a direct fixation
clearance requiring a low-profile direct fixation fastener within a recessed opening in the
track structure may be the best application of concrete deck or invert, as shown at the
the cementitious grout pad system. right rail in Figure 4.5.2.

4.5.3.2.1.1 Concrete Plinth on Concrete

4.5.3.2 Reinforced Concrete Plinth Surface. The concrete plinth width and height
The recommended direct fixation track design must be sufficient to accept the full length of
is the raised reinforced concrete plinth the fastener and anchor bolt assembly. It
system. The reinforced concrete plinths used must also accommodate the reinforcing steel
for direct fixation track include various designs that is required to confine the concrete mass
to suit tangent track, curved track, that supports the direct fixation rail fastener
superelevated track, and guarded track with and anchor bolt insert.
restraining rail. The designs affect the lengths
and shapes of the plinths and the reinforcing The concrete plinth is connected to the deck
bar configurations as follows. or invert concrete surface with a series of
stirrups or dowels protruding from the deck or
invert. Additional plinth reinforcing steel is
4.5.3.2.1 Concrete Plinth in Tangent Track connected to and supported by these stirrups
Concrete plinth in tangent track generally or dowels.
consists of two designs:
l Concrete plinths of sufficient width and The anchor bolt inserts may be installed by
height for mounting of the direct fixation the cast-in-place method or drilled and epoxy
fastener directly to the concrete deck or grouted in place. Cast-in-place installation is
invert, as shown at the left rail in Figure recommended as it results in less disturbance
4.5.2. to the plinth and eliminates any possible

C RAIL k FASTENER
TRAC%GAUGE1435 (4’-6 l/2’)
4 di
i
i
i -115 IKE RUNNINGRAIL
LATERAL AIJ&STWENT
PROMOEDAT 71%’ DIA.
ANOlOR BOLT LOCAlWi t 6 (l/47
RAIL H&O-DOW ASSEH6l.Y
DIRIC;;yoN FASTENER

mnuu SHIM 3 (l/6-) Ilax WIN

PLMiH CONCRETE

STRUCNRE SLAB

38 (I t/z’) aumcf - 3 soEs

ROUGMENTOP OF SLAB
PRIOR TO RACING PUNlH #5 BARS 0 254 FCR 762 CTRS
CONC APPLY BONDINGAGENT

‘A- DINENSON TO BE ESTABJSHED

USING COUPONENTHEIGHTS
AND TYPE CF GKUT PAB
lNSTALLATlONAT SURFACE
OR RECESSED

Figure 4.5.2 Concrete Plinth Design -Tangent Direct Fixation Track

4-50
 Track Structure Design

problems with drilling through reinforcing
steel. It also eliminates the extra work and
potential problems of dealing with the epoxy
grout materials used in the core drilling
method.
4.5.3.2.1.2 Concrete Plinth in Concrete
Recess. Similar to the grout pad method, the
concrete plinth design has a variant wherein
the second pour concrete can be recessed
into a trough in the base concrete slab. The
recessed design allows a reduced plinth
height above the deck or inverts and provides
additional deck or invert bonding by locking in
the four sides of the plinth.
The recessed design obviously requires that a
trough be formed in the trackway invert, an
additional work activity and hence expense to
the contractor building the trackway. The
extra cost associated with forming the trough
is not insignificant and designers should
carefully weigh the costs and benefits of the
recessed design before deciding on a
preferred method. The trough may also
compromise the structural integrity of the base
slab, particularly on aerial structures, so the
design must be coordinated with the structural
design team.
Some designers object to the placement of
the plinths directly on the concrete base
because it places the top of rail elevation
about 360 millimeters (14 inches) above the
invert. In the event of a derailment, where the
wheels do not end up on top of the plinths,
substantial damage to the underside of the rail
vehicle could result. The placement of the
plinths in a recess minimizes this concern.
4.5.3.2.2 Concrete Plinth on Curved Track
Concrete plinth design for curved track must
consider track superelevation. The track
designer must provide guidance to the
construction contractor for setting the height of
the plinth formwork so that the required
superelevation is achieved. In addition, care
must be taken to ensure that the rotation of
the concrete plinth at the low rail leaves
sufficient room for the anchor insert assembly
The plinth height is established by the
elevation of the low inside rail of the curved
track as shown in Figure 4.5.3. Applying the
profile grade elevation at the low rail of the
curve, the superelevation is established by
rotating the top of rail plane about the gauge
corner of the low rail. The addition of
superelevation alters the cross slope and
thickness of the concrete plinths so that the
typical section is no longer symmetrical.
The embedment of the field side anchor bolt
insert of the low rail fastener establishes the
height of the plinths, The reinforcing bar
requirements and configurations depend on
the plinth heights.
Plinth or second-pour concrete direct fixation
track can be mounted either directly to the
surface or the recessed opening in the
concrete deck or invert. The latter
arrangement can be particularly
advantageous in superelevated curved track
since it can substantially reduce the plinth
height at the high rail.
4.5.3.2.3 Concrete Plinth in Guarded Track
with Restraining Rail or Safety
Guard Rail
The use of either a restraining rail or a safety
guard rail in direct fixation track will require
that the concrete plinths be wider than normal.
Figure 4.5.4 illustrates a typical plinth for use
with restraining rail. A similar arrangement is
required for a safety guard rail system. This
concrete plinth arrangement can be either
mounted directly to the surface or the
recessed opening in the concrete deck or
invert.

4-51
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

l- oi
SJPERfLEVAnONTAG TO BE .- .--- ,-
1. XNL dl
ECMED ON TOP OF PLINTH I FASTENER DIA. Ah’CHPRBOLL
(APPROXINATE
LOCATION)--\ TRACKCAL& 1435 ((‘-6 ,,2-j
LOCATION-6 (1/4 )
1 -II I
,-SUPERELEVATION
RAILHOLO-DOWI ASSEMBLY
~~c;A~.4ncti FASTENER
/-
,-‘XRlICAl MY : i (l/8’) mm
OR INSERT

-VARIES 152 (67 MN (T?P)

. STRUCTURESt~f
3
(1 l/Z’) CLEARANCE - 3 SDES
BARS0 330 (IS) FOR 666 (2f) CTRS
0 254 (lo-) FOR 762 (30’) CTRS

+ PU - PRWlLE GRACi LINE SUB SnRRUPS PRlCRTO PtAQNt FUNTH

TYPICAL KW&EIL #‘FLY BCNOING ‘A- LMlENSONTO BE ESTABLlSiED
U~NG COMPONENT HEIGHTSAm
lWf OF F’LINTHINSTALLAnON
AT SURFACECR RECESSED

Figure 4.5.3 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Direct Fixation Track

.~C_,..-...l.” ..-. _.” r$LG.dnn lur

BRAMETASSEMBLY
115 RE RUNNINGRAlL
6
TRACX 7/ LAmAL AOJJSTNENT

PMlH PimE PARULEL

TO TOPff RfiL PLANE
WEN FASTENER COHSAJNS
CANT RAJt HCUMJO~N ASXNBY
OLlLC~~XA~~ FASTENER
MM C%?
FASTENER
!iDMT
kfmw 5uu 3 w63 micx
EMEWE ANCHORINSERT

3 9DES
REINFCKINGEARS

2x) (9‘)
cm)
EUBEGEOANMOR NSERK
RESKWNINCRflL ERACKET

Figure 4.5.4 Concrete Plinth Design-Curved Superelevated Guarded Direct Fixation Track
with Restraining Rail

4.5.3.2.4 Concrete Plinth Lengths in curved track is curved or chorded, and the
Concrete plinths can be formed in various locations of construction joints and expansion
lengths. Typical plinths of intermediate joints in the invert. Concrete plinths in curved
lengths will accommodate three to six direct track are generally constructed in short
fixation fasteners between drainage chases as tangent segments for ease of formwork.
shown in Figure 4.5.5. Concrete plinth lengths are affected by
differential shrinkage of structure and plinth,
Concrete plinth lengths are dependent on local climate conditions and temperature
several track design factors: whether the ranges.
track is tangent or curved, whether formwork

4-52
 Track Structure Design

685 I
+
127”) ! FASTENERS AT
I
i
i I
‘PI
.- INTH GAP / I /
I
I I n ! n i

L
BRACKET AND i EDGE OF KEYWAY
I
U69 RAIL REMOVED FILLED BETWEEN
FOR CLARITY PLINTHS

TYPICALLAYOUTW-H
RESTRAlNlNGRAIL

20 (0.7874”) OFFSETS

Ll”34’ 04”
/ o”47’ 02”
PLINTH INSTALLATION
BY CHORD METHOD
(25 & 150 METER RADII)

Figure 4.5.5 Concrete Plinth Lengths

4-53
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

4.5.3.2.5 Concrete Plinth Height longitudinal structure slippage, where zero toe
The heights of the rail section and the direct load is the fastener design and the rail and
fixation fastener and the length of the anchor structure are thermally independent.
bolt insert must be determined to establish the
height of the concrete plinth.The track 4.5.3.2.7 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar
structure deck slab or invert slope should Design
generally slope at I:40 towards the centerline The plinth reinforcement begins with the
of track. On curved track, the structure itself construction of the trackway invert. A series
may be superelevated and parallel to the of stirrups or dowels is placed longitudinally in
eventual top of rail plane. In addition, the the concrete plinth, positioned to clear the
longitudinal surface drainage gradient is embedded anchor bolt inserts and the ends of
critical to provide adequate drainage of the plinth openings or gaps. The stirrups should
trackbed. protrude a minimum distance of 75 millimeters
(3 inches) from the deck or invert to allow both
The key dimension to establishing the plinth the transverse reinforcing steel and the plinth
height is dimension “A” shown in Figure 4.5.3 concrete to lock under the stirrups. The
from the top of rail plane to the intersection of stirrup height must be designed to suit the
the deck or invert slopes at the track eventual concrete plinth height and
centerline. reinforcement design.

The plinth heights should be kept to a Different contractors often construct the bridge
minimum to enhance structural stability, deck or trackway invert and the track. The
especially if the deck or invert is relatively invert contractor is normally responsible for
level and the track alignment requires 100 to the proper placement of the stirrup reinforcing
150 millimeters (4 to 6 inches) of steel that projects from the base concrete.
superelevation at the outside rail. This reinforcing steel must be properly
installed and protected from damage after
4.5.3.2.6 Direct Fixation Vertical Tolerances installation. The wheels of construction
The height of the direct fixation fastener is equipment often damage stirrups. The use of
critical to vehicle ride quality and interaction the recessed plinths may help mitigate this
between rail and track structure. To achieve a problem.
near-perfect track surface longitudinally, the
use of shims between the top of plinth and the The plinth reinforcement that is installed by
base of direct fixation fastener is often the trackwork constructor consists of a series
implemented. The maximum difference in of “J” hook bars and longitudinal bars. A
elevation between adjacent fasteners should transverse collector bar is sometimes placed
be less then I-112 millimeters (1116 inch), the at the ends of each concrete plinth for stray
thinnest shim thickness. Shims generally current control as shown in Figure 4.5.6.
range in thickness to 12 millimeters (I/2 inch)
to compensate for either inferior construction The design size of the concrete plinth
or eventual structure settlement. Fastener determines the size and outline of the “J”
shim thicknesses above the 12-millimeter hooks and the length of the longitudinal bars.
range exist and special anchor bolt lengths Tangent track will require a constant height to
are then required. Fasteners installed out of conform to the general height of the concrete
longitudinal surface by more than I-112 plinth Curved track alignments with
millimeters have been known to hinder superelevation will require various sizes and

4-54
 Track Structure Desian

1520 (60”) ,-DIRECT FIXATlON FASTENERS

255 760 (30”) 760 (30’) 255 , 250 , 255 380 LATERAL REINFORCING ‘J”
FASTENER SPACING BAR HOOPS
0~‘) (lo-,-l (9 8”) 1 (10”) (15’)
, 380
DECK OR INVERT REINFORCING
BAR STIRRUPS (SEE NOTE 2)

ONCRETE PLINTH

NGITUDINAL BARS

MLD LOCATION (TYP )

STIRRUP S?ACING 1 508 (20”) 1 508 (20”) 1 508 (20”) ON TRANSVERSE COLLECTOR
I I
BARS (SEE NOTE 3)
3 FASTENERPLINTHLAYOUT

TRANSVERSE COLLECTOR BAR 38 (1.5”) MIN

AT EACH END OF PLINTH TO
BE WELDED TO THE FOUR
LONGITUDINAL BARS
(SEE NOTE 3) ANCHOR BOLT
INSERT (TYP )
c RAIL
\
LLONGITUDINAL BARS

f RANSMRSE “J’ HOOPS

0 BE WELDED TO INSIDE
ONGITUDINAL BAR
DECK STIRRUPS

SECTIONA
LONGITUDINAL BAR

DECK 0IR INVERT STIRRUPS

WELDS (TYP.)
91 / 1-38 (i 5”) MN :

CONCRETE COVER

Ih PRE INSTALLED
DECK OR INVERT
PLAN vlEW STIRRUPS

TRANSVERSE
COLLECTOR
BAR
NOTES:

1 ON CURVES OF LESS THAN 240m RADIUS. MAXMUM PLINTH

LENGTH if FOUR FASTENERS

2 DECK OR INVERT REINFORCING BAR STIRRUPS PRE-INSTALLED

3 ELIMINATE WELDS AND ~RANSMRSE COLLECTOR BARS

IF EPOXY-COATED REINFORCING BARS ARE USED

Figure 4.5.6 Concrete Plinth Reinforcing Bar Design

shapes of reinforcing bar “J” hooks as shown 20-millimeter (0.75inch) clearance at the
in Figure 4.5.6. Design size of reinforcing fastener anchor bolt inserts.
bars and stirrup locations must include the
requirements of providing 38 millimeters (1.5 The reinforcing bar network must be
inches) minimum of concrete cover from the continuous to control stray current corrosion
edge of bar to the face of the concrete and a within the direct fixation track system. The
aerial deck, at-grade slab, or tunnel invert

4-55
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

reinforcing bar system must be continuous
and connected to a negative ground system.
A similar continuous network must be
established and connected to a negative
ground system through the deck or slab
reinforcing system to provide similar
protection to the second pour concrete plinth
reinforcing bar system.
The concrete plinth reinforcing bar system can
be made electrically continuous by the
following methods:
l The deck or invert stirrups installed during
the initial construction must be connected
(welded) to the deck or invert reinforcing
bar network.
l The concrete plinth reinforcing bar system
must be completely connected (welded) to
the protruding deck or invert stirrups.
l When the stirrups or dowels are not
connected (welded) to the deck or invert
reinforcing bar system, then the concrete
plinth reinforcing bar network must be
completely connected (welded) and
connected to a negative ground system.
This requires connections between each
plinth at the concrete plinth openings or
gaps.
l The use of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars
in the stirrups and the concrete plinth
reinforcing bar network provide the
required stray current corrosion
protection. Care must be exercised
during construction to retain complete
protective epoxy coating coverage on the
stirrups and concrete plinth reinforcing bar
network. Chipped or damaged epoxy
coating must be covered in an acceptable
protective paint compatible with the initial
epoxy coating material recommended by
the epoxy coating manufacturer.
In some cases, surface water can penetrate
the joint between the plinth concrete and the
base concrete causing corrosion of the
stirrups. In tunnels that do not have adequate
means of leak control, the potential of surface
water penetrating the separation point may be
unavoidable, leading to reinforcing bar rusting
and corrosion. Various sealants, such as
epoxies, have been used to attempt to seal
this joint but virtually every product available
will eventually dry out, harden and peel away.
The use of a sealant can actually exacerbate
a seepage condition by trapping water
beneath the plinth concrete. As a guideline,
sealants are discouraged and the use of
epoxy-coated reinforcing steel for stirrups is
recommended.
4.5.3.3 Direct Fixation Fastener Details at
the Rail
Typically, the track system will have the rail
positioned with a cant of 1:40 toward the track
centerline. Rail cant in direct fixation track
may be achieved by several methods:
l The top surface of the concrete plinth or
grout pad can be sloped to match the
required cant. In such cases, the direct
fixation fail fastener itself would be flat,
with no built-in cant.
l The plinth concrete or grout pad can be
poured level (or parallel with the top of
rails in superelevated track) and the rail
fasteners can be manufactured with the
desired cant built into the rail seat of the
fastener.
Both methods can produce acceptable results.
Placing the cant in the rail seat of the fastener
simplifies the construction of plinth formwork
and better ensures that the desired cant will
actually be achieved, particularly when
bottom-up construction is anticipated. If top-
down construction is used, rail cant can be
reliably achieved in the concrete if the jigs
used to support the assembled rails and rail
fasteners incorporate cant adjustment

4-56
 Track Structure Desian

capability. If canted fasteners are used, it The individual tie blocks support the rail.
may still be necessary to procure flat Microcellular elastomeric pads support the
fasteners for use in special trackwork areas. blocks. The pads and tie blocks are enclosed
in a rubber boot before installation.
Lateral adjustment capability and fastener
anchor bolt locations are important elements The microcellular pad provides most of the
in the design and configuration of direct tracks elasticity. A rail pad also provides
fixation rail fasteners. The rail cant location some cushioning of impact loads, although it
must be considered when positioning was found that improper rail pad design could
embedded anchors. Rail cant at the base of act in resonance with the underlying
rail or at the top of the concrete alters the microcellular pad to create excessive rail
anchor positions (refer to Figure 4.5.7). corrugation.
Excessive shimming on a canted concrete
surface may tilt the rail head closer to the When properly designed, LVT can be
center of track, which impacts track gauge. engineered to provide whatever track modulus
For additional information on direct fixation or spring rate is required by changing the
fasteners, see Chapter 5. composition or thickness of the microcellular
pad. The most common application has a
spring rate in the range of 15,760 to 24,500
4.5.3.4 Direct Fixation “Ballastless” N/mm (90,000 to 140,000 lb/in) to provide
Concrete Tie Block Track [31 maximum environmental benefits.
Conventional construction for direct fixation
track includes the installation of either LVT, and most encased tie systems, reduce
cementitious grout and concrete plinths with the need for reinforcing steel. LVT does not
elastomeric rail fasteners or encased require a reinforced invert, which often makes
monoblock ties in a concrete embedment as this system more competitive with a plinth
shown in Figure 4.5.8. One alternative to the type of installation.
fastener-on-plinth system to provide a “softer’
track is the Low Vibration Track (LVT) shown The installation of LVT-and almost all
on Figure 4.5.9. Versions of this type of encased tie systems-requires “top-down”
installation and its predecessors date back to construction, where the rail is suspended from
the mid-1960s. It is marketed as a direct temporary supports, with ties and rail
equivalent to the elastomeric rail fastener. fasteners attached, at the final profile
elevation. The encasement concrete is then
Although not new technology, the LVT is poured into the tunnel invert around the track.
relatively new to the transit industry. Earlier When the concrete is cured, the supports are
versions of this type of dual-block concrete tie removed. An undesirable feature of LVT track
trackwork incorporated a steel angle gauge design is the rail’s lack of lateral adjustment
bar between the concrete blocks. The LVT capability once the track is in place.
design does not incorporate the gauge bars,
since the concrete encasement holds gauge.

4-57
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

$ RAIL SEAT MOUNTING 4 RAIL

AT THE TOP OF PLINTH I
$ RAIL SEAT MEASURED
AT BASE OF RAlL
$ RAIL MEASURED
AT GAUGE LINE
B 751.80 (29.5484”)

115 Ri RAiL HEAD

C TO (2 TRACK-

L FASTENER
t TOP OF CONCRETE
PLINTH
HEIGHT
VARIES i DTO~TRACK-

.
CHART FOR CANT 1:40

OF&T CANT ;S$3LILIEO AT CANT EST&IMED AT

c HEAD - Q MOUNTING TOP Cf CONCRETE
0 152.35 3.81 (0.1500”) 755.61 (29.7484’) 755.61 (29.7484')
is.05 (3/4') 171.40 1 4.29 (0.1689') 755.61 (29.7484-l i ._-.--
7.S6.09 _-. -
129.7673-J
25.40 (1') 177.75 4.44 (0.1748.) 755.61 (29.748~ k') 1 756.24 (29.7732') 1
31.75 (1 l/4') 184.10 4.60 (0.1811') 755.61 (29.7481 1') 1 756.40 (29.7795")
--. . " fl, l/73
.38tn _, - , I) 19045
__. .- 4.76
.--- (0.1874-b
\---- I I 75561
" ". " (3974sr
" - . - 1') 756.56 (297858')
44.45 (I 3/4') 1 196.80 4.92 (0.1937') 1 755.61 (29.7484') 756.72 (29.7921')
50.80 (2') 203.15 %na
“.I. m 7imA"\ ,
,“.-““T I 7Wfil
. “W.1. m715Lq
\..... .- 765.89 (29.7988.)
57.15- \-(2 t/4-1
--- , a I 209.M , 524 (42063') 1 755.61 (29.748r ,'I 757.04 129.80477
kT5n
.“... 13
\. l/7'\
., - , I 71585
“.“.“” I
I
540
-..-
fO7176'1
\----- I
I, 7~5.61
__~__ ,.-..
09 74aI.-k-j 1 757.20 i298uo.j J

CHART FOR CANT 1:20

1 ?lzER RAIL + :A~KNER

HEIGHT 1 ~;f-?t~NG
CANT ~S$-~t-E~ AT CANT ESThHED
TOP OF CONCRETE
AT

}rso5(3/0 152.35
171.40 &7
“.. (0.3374')
"".." ,. , 177.75 t , 8.8
-.19 (0.3499') 1 :
31 75 f1 l/A’\
“.-*I ,. ., I ,
1
,
18410
. ” . . . .
1 9.20 (0.3624') 75947 ma984
t1 38.10 I1
--.-. l/Z’)
1-1 I 190.45 I 9.52 (0.3749') :
44.45 (1 3/4') 196.80 } 9.84 (0.3874.) :
50.80 (2') 203.15 f 10.16 (0.3999') " :
57.15 (2 l/4') 209.50 1 IO.48 (0.4124') : -.~ - ,-~
( 63.5'3 (2 l/2") 21585 1 10.79 (0.4249') 759.42 (29.; 6984") 1 76259 (30.0232-j

Figure 4.5.7 Rail Can? and Base of Rail Positioning

4-58
 Track Structure Design

c TIE & TRACK

I
I

IRON SHOULDER

I I
MAXIMUM LEVEL OF
ENCASEMENT CONCRETE
150 (59’) FROM BOTTOM OF TIE

Figure 4.5.8 Encased Concrete Crosstie

$ TRACK

1435 (4--B l/Z’): TRACK GAUGE

CONCRETE BLOCK
MICROCELLULAR

50 (2”) MINIMUM MAXIMUM LEVEL OF

ENCASEMENT ENCASEMENT CONCRETE
150 (5 9’) FROM BOOT BASE
CONCRETE UNDER BOOT J

Figure 4.5.9 Standard LVT System

Encased tie systems vary widely in cost, but
can usually be installed quite rapidly,
compared to plinth type systems. LVT block
replacements are feasible on a small scale,
consisting of a slightly smaller block grouted
in the cavity of a removed tie block.
4.5.4 Direct Fixation Track Drainage
Drainage is as important to the success of a
direct fixation track installation as it is to any
other type of track structure. This includes
both drainage of water from the top surface of
the track and the subsurface support system.
Direct fixation track built on a bridge structure
will obviously not have to directly contend with
any subsurface drainage issues. Direct
fixation track constructed at-grade or in a
tunnel, on the other hand, must be properly
drained beneath the track slab. Standard
underdrain details, similar to those used in
highway design, must be provided to keep
groundwater out of the under-track area. The
successful direct fixation track will include an
efficient surface drainage system. Experience
has shown that foresight in the design of
surface drainage for the direct fixation track
structure is required to avoid accumulation of
standing water or trapped water pockets.

4-59
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
At the interface of ballasted track to direct
fixation track, the direct fixation track system
should include.
l Protection for adjacent ballasted track
segments; the direct fixation track surface
runoff should be directed away from the
ballasted track.
l A transverse drainage chase or diverting
wall directing surface runoff to the
drainage system in lieu of runoff into the
ballasted track area.
l Concrete plinths that do not butt up to the
ballast wall retainer or drainage diverting
wall Lateral drainage chases between
the last plinth face and the ballast wall
retainer are essential.
The design positioning of deck surface
drainage scuppers must consider the rotation
of the deck or invert due to superelevation.
4.55 Stray Current Protection
Requirements
The track structure design requires an
electrical barrier at the rail. Direct fixation
track generally provides this electrical barrier
within the direct fixation fastener body. An
insulating resilient material with a specified
bulk resistivity forms the elastomeric and
insulating portion of the fastener. The coating
of the rail with an epoxy insulating material
should be considered in areas of extensive
tunnel seepage or perpetual dampness.
The electrical barrier for the low vibration
encased tie direct fixation track system is
provided at the rail base. Similar to concrete
tie fastenings, the electrical barrier is
established by an insulated resilient rail seat
pad and spring clip insulators.
For more information on electrical barriers on
direct fixation fasteners, see Chapter 5.
4-60
4.5.6 Direct Fixation Special Trackwork
The direct fixation special trackwork portion of
any transit system will require special
treatment and a different concrete plinth
design than main line direct fixation track.
The supporting plinths or track slabs require
detailed layout, as well as coordination with
the signal and electric traction design of the
fasteners, switch rods, and gauge plates.
Direct fixation special trackwork in
contemporary light rail transit systems
generally consists of turnouts grouped to act
as single crossovers for alternate track
operations. Operating requirements may
dictate the installation of a double crossover
with four turnouts and a crossing (diamond).
Using double crossovers in tunnels and on
bridges may incur higher track costs, but may
be very economical in providing structural cost
savings.
4.5.7 Noise and Vibration
The vehicle traveling over the direct fixation
track produces noise and vibration. The
impact of this noise and vibration generally
becomes significant on alignments through
sensitive areas, such as near hospitals. Track
design has a significant effect on both noise
and wheel squeal, and the designer must
consider the wheels, trucks, and the track as
one integrated system. Chapter 9 provides
guidelines with respect to trackwork design for
low noise and vibration and introduces various
concepts in noise and vibration control.
Trackwork design can have a substantial
effect upon wayside noise and vibration.
Noise and vibration should be considered
early in facilities design to provide for special
treatments. Cost-effective designs consider
the type of vehicle involved, the soft primary
suspensions that produce ideal levels of
 Track Structure Design

ground vibration above 30 Hz, or the stiff fixation track centerline distance and aerial
primary suspensions that produce levels that structure width when they are located
peak at 22 Hz. See Chapter 9 of this between the tracks. Clearance distances
handbook. pertinent to the transit vehicle and any other
potential users (i.e., track maintenance
vehicles) are a design issue that must be
4.5.8 Transit Signal Work considered by the track and catenary
designers together. Isolation of the running
Although design of the signal control system
rail, when used as a negative return conduit,
will not greatly impact direct fixation track
is essential and a specific resistivity in the
design, it can affect specific parts of the
elastomer is a key design issue.
design. The prime example of this
interrelationship is the need for insulated For additional information on traction power
joints in the running rails to accommodate refer to Chapter ? I.
train control requirements. Such joints are
normally required at the extremities of
interlockings, each end of station platforms, 4.6 EMBEDDED TRACK DESIGN
within individual turnouts and crossovers, and
at other locations to be determined by the Embedded track is perhaps the single most
train control design. distinguishing characteristic-the signature
track-of a light rail transit system in a central
The light rail transit signaling system may business district. Deceptively simple in
include track circuit signal systems within the appearance, it is arguably the most difficult
direct fixation track zones. Impedance bond and expensive type of transit track to
installation requirements must be coordinated successfully design and construct. In addition
with concrete plinth track structure design. to typical structural design issues that affect
Insulated joints at the limits of the track any track, embedded track design must also
circuits must be opposite and within 1.2 address difficult questions with respect to
meters (4 feet) of each other to facilitate electrical isolation, acoustic attenuation, and
underground ducting and traction urban design, all in an environment that does
crossbonding. Reinforcing bars in the not facilitate easy maintenance. The “correct
concrete may prevent track circuits from design” may be different for just about every
operating reliably. transit system. Even within a particular
system, it may be prudent to implement two or
For additional information on transit signal more embedded track designs tailored to site-
work, refer to Chapter 10. specific circumstances.

4.59 Traction Power 4.6.1 Embedded Track Defined

Traction power requirements impact the track
design at two specific locations: the catenary
pole locations in relation to the track
centerline and the running rail, which is used
as the negative return for the traction power
system. The catenary poles impact the direct
Embedded track can be described as a track
structure that is completely covered-except
for the top of the rails-within pavement.
Flangeways can be provided either by using
grooved head girder rail or by forming a
flangeway in the embedment material.

4-61
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Embedded track is generally the standard for detailed if the track system is to be functional
light rail transit routes constructed within and have minimal long-term maintenance
public streets, pedestrian/transit malls, or any requirements.
area where rubber-tired traffic must operate.
On several transit systems, both highway Traditional street railway/tramway systems
grade crossings and tracks constructed in used wheels with relatively narrow tread
highway medians have used embedded track. surfaces and narrow wheel flanges. The chief
reason for this was to ensure minimal
Embedded track can be constructed to projection of the wheel tread beyond the rail
various designs, depending on the head where it could contact the adjoining
requirements of the system. Some embedded pavement, damaging both the wheel and the
track designs are very rigid while others are pavement. Such wheels had tread widths as
quite resilient. narrow as 50 millimeters (2 inches) and
overall wheel widths of only 75 millimeters (3
Prior to developing an embedded track inches) Problems with these wheels,
design, several vehicle/track related issues particularly in the vicinity of special trackwork,
must be resolved, including vehicle wheel resulted in most systems adopting wheels with
gauge, wheel profile, and truck design; the much wider treads.
track gauge and rail section; and ability of the
vehicle to negotiate the track in a satisfactory Wheels with an overall width of 133
manner. millimeters (5.25 inches) are common on new
start systems. Increasing the wheel tread
width beyond the rail head introduces an
4.6.2 Embedded Rail and Flangeway overhang with potential for interference
Standards between the outer edge of the wheel and the
embedment materials. To avoid wheel or
To develop embedded track designs, the
pavement damage, either the rail head must
following track components and standards
be raised above the surrounding embedment
must be specified:
material or the pavement immediately
l Rail section to be used: girder groove
adjacent to the rail must be depressed as
(guard) rail or tee rail
shown in Figure 4.6.1.
l Track gauge in the embedded section
l Flangeway width provided in girder rail or Other factors must be considered when
formed section positioning the rail head with respect to the
l Guarding of flangeways in curved track pavement surface. In resilient embedded
and restraining rail track design, a rail head vertical deflection
ranging from 1.5 to 4 millimeters (0.060 to
Refer to Section 4.2 and Chapter 5 to
0.160 inches) must be considered. In
determine rail section, track gauge and
embedded track, eventual vertical rail head
flangeway requirements.
wear of 10 millimeters (0.39 inches) or more
must be accommodated. In addition, the
4.6.2.1 Embedded Details at the Rail Head wheel tread surface will wear and can result in
The rail section and wheel profile used on a a 3-millimeter (0.12-inch) or greater false
transit system must be compatible. Further, flange height. Over the life of the installation,
the rail installation method must be carefully the total required vertical displacement

4-62
 Track Structure Desian

IRANST WHEELMDTHS policies must include a regular wheel truing

program.

When rail head wear has eliminated

approximately half of the projecting 6
millimeter (0.12-inch) vertical head clearance,
the original projecting dimension can be
RAILHEADASOK
S”RRO”NMNGEMBEWENT restored by production grinding of the
embedment material.

TOP OF RAIL POSITIONED

ABOVE EMBEDMENTSURFACE 4.6.2.2 Wheel/Rail Embedment
Interference
TRANSITWEEL MDT%
The width of a light rail vehicle wheel is a
major design issue. Each design option has
certain drawbacks such as:
l Wide wheels increase the weight (mass)
on the unsprung portion of the truck and
project beyond the field side of the head
R*IL HEADABOK
of most rail designs. Wide wheels are
therefore susceptible to developing hollow
treads and false flanges and could require
TOPOF RAIL PO&IONED more frequent wheel truing to maintain
AT EMBEDMENTSURfACE acceptable tracking through special
trackwork.
Figure 4.6.1 Embedded Rail Head Details

l Narrow wheels result in limited tread

between the rail head and the pavement
support at open flangeways and increase
surface immediately adjacent to the rails could
the possibility of wide gauge derailments.
exceed 15 millimeters (0.59 inches).
This typically forces the adoption of either
A 15millimeter (0.59-inch) projection of the flange-bearing special trackwork or the
rail above the pavement would be excessive use of movable point frogs.
for an initial installation. Such a rail projection
l Medium wheels partially reconcile the
could hinder snow plowing operations at
problems noted above, but introduce the
grade crossings and could be hazardous in
possibility of undesirable wheel tread
vehicle and pedestrian areas. A 6-millimeter
protrusion beyond the field side of narrow
(0.24-inch) protrusion is recommended for
rail head designs. They also provide
initial installation, which should accommodate
limited tread support in special trackwork
resilient vertical deflection, some initial vertical
and may require flange-bearing special
rail head wear, and a moderate amount of
trackwork or movable point frogs.
false flange wheel wear.
As stated in Section 4.6.2.1, embedded track
False flanges should not be allowed to
design must consider the surrounding
progress, especially to the 3-millimeter (0.12
embedment material’s exposure to the
inch) height, and the track designer should
overhanging or protruding wheel treads.
stress that the vehicle system maintenance

4-63
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

The following table summarizes head widths positioned below 6 millimeters (0.25 inches) is
of typical girder rail and tee rail sections. not recommended.
These rail sections are illustrated in Figures
52.1, 5.2 2, and 52.3 of this handbook. Trackside appliances such as electrical
connection boxes, clean out drainage boxes,
Rail Section Head Width drainage grates and special trackwork
NP4a 56 mm (2.205 in) housings must be depressed or recessed in
the vicinity of the rail head to provide for
Ri 52N 56 mm (2.205 in)
various wheel tread rail wear and rail grinding
Ri 53N 56 mm (2.205 in) conditions. As a guideline, depressed notch
Ri 59N Girder 56 mm (2.205 in) designs in the covers, sides and mounting
bolts of the track enclosures adjacent to the
Ri 60N Girder 56 mm (2.205 in)
rail head are recommended. A depth of 15
GGR-118 Girder * 56 mm (2.205 in) millimeters (0.6 inches) provides adequate
128RE-7A Girder * 76.2 mm (3 in) clearance throughout the life of the rail
149RE-7A Girder l 76.2 mm (3 in) installation.

115 RE Tee Rail 69.1 mm (2.720 in)

* Rail sections that are not currently rolled. 4.6.3 Embedded Track Types

If wheel tread width exceeds rail head width Chapter 2 documents the types and
on the selected embedded rail, interference magnitudes of loads transferred from the
between the outer edge of the wheel and the vehicle wheel to the rail. The rail must
embedding pavement is inevitable as the rail support the vehicle and the resulting loads by
wears vertically. As a rule, wheel widths from absorbing some of the impact and shock and
127 to 133 millimeters (5 to 5.25 inches) will transferring some of the force back into the
overhang the rail head. The ATEA sought to vehicle via the wheels. The initial impact
avoid such problems by having no standard absorber on the vehicle is the elastomer in the
wheel tread more than 75 millimeters (3 resilient wheel, followed by the primary
inches) wide and no standard plain girder rail suspension chevron springs, then the
section head less than 63 millimeters (2.5 secondary suspension system air bags. The
inches) wide. initial impact absorber on the track is the rail,
specifically the rail head, followed by the
A railway wheel or transit wheel that fastening or supporting system at the rail base
overhangs the rail head must be clear of the and then the remaining track structure. The
surrounding embedment material as shown in track structure’s degree of resiliency dictates
Figure 4.6.1. Raising the rail head will the amount of load distributed to the rail and
facilitate future rail grinding and delay the track structure and the magnitude of force
need for undercutting or grinding the returned to the wheels and vehicle.
surrounding embedment material to provide
clearance for the wheel tread. Embedded
track top of rail tolerances must be realistic 4.6.3.1 Non-Resilient Embedded Track
when considering concrete slab placement Rail supported on a hard base slab, embedded
during track construction. A projection 6 to IO in a solid material such as concrete with no
millimeters (0.25 to 0.375 inches) above the surrounding elastomeric materials, has a high
surface is realistic. Rail modulus of elasticity and will support the
surrounding

4-64
 Track Structure Design

weight of the vehicle and absorb a moderate lose some of its resiliency after roughly 5
amount of the wheel impact and shock. A years. This hardening results in surface
majority of the impact loads will be transferred deterioration from wheel contact, but does not
back into the vehicle via the wheels. Non- progress to the point where it is detrimental to
resilient rail can be considered as surrounding structures or otherwise
continuously supported beam with a minor considered faulty by the general public. Like
amount of rail base surface transfer. all engineered structures, these installations
age and slowly deteriorate to the point where
Non-resilient track has had mixed success. replacement is required.
Eventual spalling of the surrounding
embedment and surface failure are common Bituminous asphaltic embedment materials
problems. This is especially evident in severe provide a minor degree of resiliency, but tend
climates where freeze/thaw cycles contribute to shrink and harden with age, leading to
to track material deterioration. Concrete excessive interface gaps between the rail and
embedment alone does not provide rail asphalt or roadway concrete. When
resiliency. It creates a rigid track structure bituminous asphalt hardens, it tends to
that produces excessive unit stresses below fracture and break down. The resulting water
the rail, causing potential concrete intrusion will accelerate deterioration of the
deterioration. Such designs are highly entire track structure.
dependent on the competency of the concrete
immediately adjacent to the rails. Field quality As a guideline, although concrete embedment
control during concrete placement and and bituminous asphalt materials have been
vibration are very important. Rigid track was used in track paving embedment, they are not
usually successful under relatively lightweight recommended. An elastomeric rail boot or
trams and streetcars, but has often failed other elastomeric components are available to
prematurely under the higher wheel loadings provide resiliency at the rail surface and
of the current generation of light rail transit potential rail deflection both vertically and
vehicles. horizontally.

The size and mass of the base slab, typically

a concrete slab 400 to 600 millimeters (16 to 4.6.3.2 Resilient Embedded Track
24 inches) thick, tends to dampen some Direct fixation transit track and conventional
impacts generated by passing vehicles. This ballasted track are both resilient designs with
results in reduced and usually minor transfers a proven record of success. This success is
of vibration to surrounding structures. due, in no small measure, to their ability to
deflect under load, with those deflections
Several transit systems feature embedded rail being within acceptable operating limits for
suspended in resilient polyurethane materials. track gauge and surface. These rail designs
This rather simple form of embedment are able to distribute loads over a broad area,
completely encapsulates the rail, holding it thereby avoiding-except for the rail-wheel
resiliently in position to provide electrical contact-point loading of the track structure
isolation and full bonding of the rail and trough which could cause track failure. Resilient
to preclude water intrusion. These track has been successful in ballasted track
installations have been successful with no and direct fixation track installations and has
visible defects. Experience has shown that had improved results in embedded track
polyurethane has a tendency to harden and installations Non-resilient embedded track

4-65
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

designs typically fail in excessive loading batts, and resilient fasteners. The decision to
situations, such as a very sharp curve, where use floating slab design is based on site-
the rigid nature of the embedment materials specific critical requirements and is often the
prevents the rail from distributing loads over a preferred method to dampen and control the
broad enough area thereby overstressing transfer of low frequency groundborne noise
portions of the structure. A key goal in and vibration in the embedded track.
embedded track design is to duplicate the rail
deflections and resiliency inherent in ballasted Floating slab design consists of two concrete
and direct fixation track systems to provide an slabs, with the initial base slab constructed on
economical long-term track structure. the subgrade and a second slab that includes
the track structure, with resilient isolators
Rail supported on a resilient base, with a positioned between the two slabs. The base
moderate modulus of elasticity, embedded on slab is usually U-shaped, making the entire
a solid track slab will support the weight of the structure somewhat similar to the “bathtub”
vehicle and absorb and distribute a greater concept.
amount of the wheel impact and shock. Some
of the impact load will be transferred back into The resilient isolators between the base slab
the vehicle via the wheels. Resilient rail and the track slab can take several forms.
evenly distributes vehicle loads along the rail Most common, particularly in older
to the surrounding track structure. The installations, are large diameter elastomer
frequency ranges developed by each light rail “hockey pucks” or “donuts” that are sized,
vehicle will determine the parameters of the spaced, and formed to provide the desired
resilient track structure design and its spring rate and acoustic attenuation. Some
components. newer installations have substituted ballast
mat sheets and rockwool batts for the donuts.
The guidance of a noise and vibration expert In all cases, the secondary isolators must be
is recommended to coordinate the design of placed between the sides of the track slab and
the resilient track structure with light fail the vertical walls of the base slab to limit
vehicles equipped with resilient wheels. Such lateral track movement and to provide
wheels attenuate vibration caused by wheel- acoustic isolation. Those isolators can either
rail contact, reducing the vibrations entering be individual elastomer blocks, continuous
the carbody and affecting the ride quality. elastomer sheeting, or ballast mats extending
They do not provide significant attenuation of up the base slab wall. As with any bathtub
groundborne acoustic effects. design, the exposed joint between the track
slab and the base slab must be well-sealed to
limit water intrusion and accumulation of
4.6.3.3 Super Resilient Embedded Track surface contaminants in the voids around the
(Floating Slab) base isolators, which will degrade the
Groundborne noise and vibration are a system’s performance. Drainage of the void
concern for embedded track sections adjacent area beneath the base slab is critical. The
to or near noise and vibration sensitive design should provide for periodic inspection
facilities, such as hospitals, auditoriums, and flushing out of the void area
recording studios, and symphony halls.
Numerous methods for controlling Based on site-specific rail features, vibration
groundborne noise and vibration exist, radiation, and the distance to surrounding
including floating slabs, ballast mats, rockwool structures, the floating slab, ballast mat or

4-66
 Track Structure Desian

rockwool batt design is best undertaken by a Other German companies in the elastomer
noise and vibration expert experienced in component and product line have similarly
dampening and isolation. For additional been experimenting with encased rail designs.
information on noise and vibration, refer to
Section 4 6.6 and Chapter 9.
4.6.4 Embedded Track Structure Types

4.6.3.4 A Special Resilient Rail Installation There are generally two types of track
for Vibration Sensitive Zones structures in embedded track design:
A relatively new track design concept to l Concrete slab track structure
dampen vibrations is emerging in Germany. 0 Conventional ballasted track with
The continuous elastic embedded rail system embedment
as shown in Figure 4.6.2 consists of
prefabricated sections of rail, rubber and steel
4.6.4.1 Concrete Slab Track Structure
forms, preassembled for track installation.
Concrete slab embedded track designs
The assembled rail is supported under the
consist of various styles that include:
head with no rail base contact, providing
l Continuous single-pour concrete slab with
increased vertical deflection with controlled
two rail pockets or troughs for the
lateral deflection based on the elastomer
installation of the rails (Figure 4.6.3).
tapered configuration. The bolt tension and
Stray current protection is provided at the
compression of the rubber control total
rail or within the trough area.
deflection. The entire assembly is mounted
on a concrete base slab with an intermediate l Two-pour concrete slab with cold joint
grout material at the base of the assembly and between the two pours located at the base
then embedded. of rail (Figure 4.6.4). Stray current
protection is provided at the rail or within
The reduction in vibration emissions in the the trough area.
critical low-frequency range makes the
l Three-pour concrete slab with a bathtub
continuous elastic rail system a viable
design providing stray current protection
alternative to floating slab designs in
below and beside the concrete track slab
environmentally sensitive track zones.
(Figure 4.6.5).

The initial concrete slab width can be

designed to accommodate both single-track
and double-track installations. As a guideline,
the preferred design for ease of installation is
two single-track concrete slab pours with an
expansion or construction joint at the
centerline of both tracks. The required
accuracy of the track alignment and the
finished top of rail concrete surface should
Figure 4.62 Special Resilient Rail
Installation for Vibration Sensitive Zones

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Light Rail Track Design Handbook

STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION

I- WITHIN THE TROUGH AREA

1ST POUR CONCRETE SLAB WITH TWO lNDlVlDLJAL

RAIL TROUGHS FOR SINGLE TRACK. DOUBLE TRACK
SECTIONS ARE ALSO POSSIBLE.

Figure 4.6.3 Concrete Slab with Two individual Rail Troughs

STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION

IN THE RAIL AREA

I
I jJ/
FOLD JOINT

i 2ND POUR
SURFACE
CONCRETE
SECTIONS I jtl

t ST POUR CONCRETE SLAB FOR SINGLE OR DOUBLE TRACK SECTIONS

Figure 4.6.4 Two-Pour Concrete Slab with Two individual Rail Troughs

STRAY CURRENT PROTECTlON AT

THE “BATHTUB” PERIMETER AREA

1ST POUR CONCRETE TRACK SLAB WITH “BATHTUB” DEPRESSION

Figure 4.6.5 Three-Pour Concrete “Bathtub” Installation

control the staging and methods of embedded rail in position without any mechanical
track construction. connections between the rail and the track
slab. The installation design is a two-step
process. First, the rail is either positioned
4.6.4.1.1 Rail Installation
within the trough (Figure 4.6.6A) or on the
The methods of installation, positioning and
initial concrete base slab (Figure 4.6.6B)
retention of the rail depends on the specific
using temporary jigs. Next sufficient trough or
design criteria selected.
base embedment material (concrete or
polyurethane) is placed to completely
Floating rail installation relies on the
encapsulate the base of rail, thereby locking
embedment materials to secure and retain the
the rail in its final position. The temporary jigs

4-68
 Track Structure Design

are then removed and a second application of alignment during the embedment pours can
trough fill material generally encapsulates the be especially difficult in curved track. The
remaining rail to top of rail. contract specifications should require the
contractor to submit a detailed quality control
If girder rail is used, no special surface plan for meeting the tolerances.
finishing is required. If tee rail is employed,
either ,a flangeway can be formed on the Rail fastening installations use mechanical rail
gauge side of the rail or the embedment base connections to secure the rail in position.
material can be deliberately left low. The installation may consist of the following
Regardless of rail section, the surface of the methods:
embedment material must be left low on the l Core drilling and epoxy grouting the
field side of the rail to provide for false flange fastening anchor inserts or bolts to the
relief and future rail wear. initial concrete dab as shown in Figure
4.6.7A.
Meeting construction tolerances for floating
l Cast-in-place fastening anchor inserts into
rail installations depends on the contractor’s
the initial concrete slab as shown in
ability to rigidly hold the rails in proper
Figure 4.6.7B.
alignment during the initial embedment
material pour. Once set, the rail position
Such designs require limited horizontal and
cannot be adjusted to meet construction
vertical alignment adjustment prior to
tolerances or future maintenance needs.
embedment. This is provided by the leveling
Irregularities in the rail alignment due to either
nuts and slotted holes in the rail base plate as
rail manufacturing tolerances or thermal
shown in Figure 4.6.7A . Slotted plate holes
effects during construction can cause
may provide for horizontal adjustment and
misalignments that can only be fixed by
additional shims for vertical adjustment as
removal and replacement. Maintaining the
shown in Figure 4.6.7B.

SECOND FILL
f SECOND FILL
APPLICATION
I. r...re
-?NCRETE
APPLICATION ;ECTlONS

Figure 4.6.6 Initial Rail Installations-Base Material

4-69
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

The use of steel ties or gauge rods is a factor

ANCHOR BOLTS in stray current control design. Individual
DRILLED AND PLATE WlTH ANCHOR
GROUTED 1N PLACE7 BOLTS CAST IN PLACE7 trough isolation is impossible due to the steel
tie or rod extending beyond the trough or rail
area. Gauge rods can usually be insulated
within individual cross troughs; however the
installation is cumbersome and quality control
CONCRETE SLAB is difficult. Steel ties are even more difficult
A B due to their irregular cross section.
Figure 4.6.7 Rail Fastening installations
The use of steel ties and gauge bars in
Rail fastening embedded track designs must embedded track sections tends to produce a
consider the ability of the rail to distribute surface crack in rigid pavements directly
lateral loads to the rail fasteners. If the rails above or near the embedded tie or bar. To
are rigidly secured at centers of 900 to 1000 control surface deterioration, a scored crack
millimeters (approximately 35 to 40 inches), control slot or indentation is recommended.
and the surrounding embedment materials are This may not be specifically necessary in
more flexible, the track will have hard spots installations where the pavement surface
that will cause the rail to wear abnormally. consists of brick or other individual pavers.
Elastomer pads should be considered to
dampen the hard spots. Direct fixation rail
4.6.4.1.2 Stray Current Protection
fasteners may be used to secure the rail to the Requirements
base slab. The fasteners provide resiliency in An effective mitigation barrier against stray
all directions as well as electrical isolation. current corrosion is to protect both the rails
and nearby metallic structures from
Anchor plates may also be used. The benefits
electrolytic corrosion. The track structure
of using anchor plates in embedded track are:
requires an electrical barrier be provided at
l Rigid control of rail position during two-
the rail location as shown in Figure 4.6.8,
pour initial installations
unless the bathtub design (Figure 4.6.5) can
l Anchor plates can be reused during future confine currents within the overall track
rail changeout to control rail position structure. Refer to Chapter 8 for additional
details on the theories of stray current.
l Track can be used in partially completed
installations to either confirm track
Principal measures to minimize traction
installation or maintain revenue service
current leakage are:
l The use of continuous welded rail
Steel ties or gauge rods can be intermixed
providing superior traction power return
with anchor plates in embedded track to assist
over conventional electrically bonded
in controlling the rail and establishing the track
jointed track.
gauge. Gauge bars spaced at 1,500
millimeters (5 feet) on curves and 3,000 l Insulating either individual rails or the
millimeters (10 feet) on tangents are common. entire track structure from the earth.
Steel ties in every fourth fastening position
may also be considered.

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 Track Structure Design

BARRIER SPANS BOTH SURFACES l Ductwork that must be provided in the

TO PROMDE LARGER EQUAL
BONDING SURFACES FOR RETENSION I embedment materials.

0 Provision for rail bond jumpers

exothermically welded to the rail on either
side of a bolted joint or completely around
special trackwork components prior to
embedding the track.

Prior to installation of the embedded track

structure, a corrosion survey should be
bNSULATlNG BARRIER
undertaken to establish the existing baseline
Figure 4.6.8 Insulating Surface Barrier at stray current levels. Periodic monitoring
Trough Edges should be performed after installation of
embedded track to detect current leakage and
Insulating embedded switch machines to control or improve insulation performance.
and any other track system appliances
from the earth. Stray current protection design can include
one or more of the following concepts:
Continuous welding of the steel
Coating of the rail surface (except the
reinforcement in the supporting base slab
head and gauge face) with an insulating
to act as a stray current collector and
dielectric epoxy such as coal tar.
electrical drains to carry intercepted
current back to the traction power Embedding the rail and filling the entire
substation. trough with an insulating dielectric
polyurethane or other suitable insulating
Cross bonding of rails with cables
material.
installed between the rails to maintain
equal potentials for all embedded rails. Lining the rail trough with an insulating
dielectric material, which provides a
Rail bond jumpers at mechanical rail
barrier between the potentially conductive
connections, especially within the special
trough fill material and the concrete track
trackwork installations.
slab.
Key details concerning the above measures Lining the rail in an elastomeric boot,
that affect the track structure design are: thereby totally encapsulating the surface
Type of insulation to be installed, whether except for head and gauge face.
it is located at the rail face, along trough
Insulating the anchor bolts or anchor
edges, or around the entire periphery of
inserts that require insulation due to
the track structure as in the bathtub
penetration beyond the insulated rail
concept.
trough zone into the base concrete track
Type of insulation to be installed at switch slab. This insulating design can be
mechanisms or track mechanisms accomplished by either coating the
Provisions for cross bond cables between penetrating stud or anchor insert to
rails on each track and occasionally provide a continuous seal at the base of
between rails on different tracks. the concrete trough or insulating liner
location.

4-71
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

l insulation at the trough edge containing the rail base not in contact with extruded
the rail is critical in stray current corrosion sections, is an important requirement.
control, including the interface at the top Extruded sections are available in separate
of embedment. A wide band or insulating parts that encase the entire rail as shown in
barrier is required to retard surface Figure 4.6.9 These designs require a
current leakage through water, dirt and specific concrete base installation sequence
debris that may accumulate on the to provide complete support under the base of
surface as shown in Figure 4 6.8. rail. As an insulating material, extruded
elastomer has proven to meet the required
Additional information on corrosion control is
bulk resistivity of IO” ohm-cm that is needed
included in Chapter 8 of this handbook.
to be effective.

4.6.4.1.3 Rail Embedment Materials

Rail embedment or trough fill materials range
from very elaborate and expensive to simple
and moderately priced, including elaborate
extruded elastomer sections, cast-in-place
resilient polyurethane components, concrete
fills of various compositions, and an asphaltic
bituminous mortar FIRST POUR

Embedment designs for resilient track that Figure 4.6.9 Extruded Elastomer Trough
utilize the general track structure, as Components
described above, have incorporated the
4.6.4.1.3.2 Resilient Polyurethane.
following materials to retain and allow for
Polyurethane components can be used as
designated rail deflections with varying
trough fillers. Resilient polyurethane has
success.
proven to be an ideal rail base support
4.6.4.1.3.1 Extruded Elastomeric Trough material that provides a minimum of rail
Components. Extruded elastomeric sections deflection. Altering the urethane compound to
or components are designed to fit the rail adjust its durometer hardness can control the
contour. Generally these materials are only actual amount of deflection.
placed above the base of rail and other
Elastomeric polyurethane is an effective stray
measures must be taken to prevent stray
current protection barrier that binds well to
current migration from the rail base. Using
both cleaned rail surfaces and concrete trough
extruded insulation requires the two-pour
surfaces. It is, however, expensive, both for
method for base slab installation, including
material procurement and the labor
installation of the rail prior to placing the
associated with mixing and installation. To
surrounding extruded component sections.
reduce the volume of polyurethane required,
Finally the top pavement is then placed on the
premolded rail filler blocks shaped to fit the
gauge and field sides of the extrusion. Stray
web of the rails can be used as shown in
current corrosion protection may be provided
Figure 4.6.10. The embedment design must
by the material used to fabricate the extruded
consider rail base deflections. Embedment
sections. Providing insulating protection to
materials for the rail head and web areas
the total rail surface, including any portion of

4-72
 Track Structure Design

MB FtLLER BLOCKS TO damage the elastomer pads, proper drainage

ZND POUR TROUGH FILLER
REDUCE TROUGH FILL
MATERIAL OUANTITY
TO THE TOP Gf RAIL WlTH of the rail trough should improve performance,
FORMED FLANGEWAY
7 provide assurance that the expected life cycle
will be realized, and increase the
effectiveness of the pads as a stray current
deterrent The embedded track design must
consider rail base deflections with matching
L IST POUR TRDUGti FILLER
resilient rail web and head embedment
ABOM THE BASE RAIL materials to atlow for rail movement. Solid or
Figure 4.6. IO Polyurethane Trough Filler non-resilient embedment materials
with Web Blocks surrounding the rail will defeat the elastomer
pad’s resiliency and lead to premature failure
should both be resilient in nature to allow for of the non-resilient materials.
the rail movement. Solid or non-resilient
encasement materials surrounding the rail will As an insulating agent, either synthetic
negate the resilient characteristics of the elastomer compounds or natural rubber have
polyurethane and lead to premature failure of met required bulk resistivity of 10” ohm-cm.
the non-resilient materials.
4.6.4.1.3.4 Elastomeric Fastenings (Direct
Polyurethanes are a difficult and expensive Fixation Fasteners). To duplicate successful
material for in-track construction. Urethanes open direct fixation track design with
are highly susceptible to chemical reaction acceptable rail deflections, embedded track
with moisture in the air, the fine sand additive designs have incorporated direct fixation
for bulk, and surface dampness during concepts. Bonded direct fixation fasteners
application. Their chemical characteristics and component plate and elastomer pad
make it essential that mixing, handling and fastenings may be considered
application be undertaken carefully by
qualified contractors. Polyurethanes in the Successful direct fixation fasteners or
liquid form seek a level surface, adding to the fastening designs are essential to embedded
difficulty of installation in embedded tracks track design. Direct fixation fastener design
with an inclined profile grade line. features are discussed in Chapter 5 of this
Handbook.
As an insulating material, polyurethane has
proven to meet the required bulk resistivity of The embedment design must consider rail
10” ohm-cm. deflection at the fastener. The surrounding
embedment materials must be resilient, with
4.6.4.7.3.3 Elastomer Pads for Rail Base. extruded prefabricated sections that conform
Elastomer pads are a satisfactory rail base to the rail fishing zone with clearance
support material that provide a minimum apertures for the fastener and clip assembly
amount of rail deflection depending on the as shown in Figure 4.6.11. Solid or non-
spring rate of the elastomer and its specific resilient embedment materials surrounding the
durometer hardness. Natural rubber rail will defeat the direct fixation fastener’s
elastomer pads mixed with proper quantities resiliency and potentially lead to premature
of carbon black and wax have exhibited failure of the non-resilient materials.
satisfactory performance and long life.
Although water seepage typically will not

4-73
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

tee rail sections and popular girder groove

APPETURE FOR SPRING CLIP
and guard rail sections. Boots are also
DIRECT FIXATION EMBEDMENT
FASTENER --\ available for dual tee rail and bolted
restraining rail assemblies.

As an insulating material, the rail boots have

met the required bulk resistivity of 1012 ohm-
cm.

4.6.4.1.3.6 Concrete and Bituminous

Asphalt Trough Fillers. Concrete,
RUNOFF PIPE
cementitious grout components are available
Figure 4.6.11 Direct Fixation Fastener with to use as trough fillers. The first-pour trough
In ternal Drain System filler encapsulating the rail base and providing
continuous support below the rail can be a
Direct fixation fasteners with surrounding non-shrink cementitious grout. The
flexible elastomers are subject to infiltration cementitious grout with a reduced aggregate
seepage into the rail seat cavity. Although size, less than 12 millimeters (0.5 inches) to
water seepage may not seriously damage the ensure the rail base cavity is entirely filled,
elastomer components, proper drainage should be placed from one side of the rail to
should improve performance and provide be certain no voids are formed in the base
electrical insulation at the direct fixation cementitious pour.
fastener for stray current control.
The second-pour trough filler, which
As an insulating agent, direct fixation completes the cavity fill, can be a concrete
fasteners meet the required bulk resistivity of mix with a 20-millimeter (0.75inch) aggregate
10j2 ohm-cm. size. Application of silicate fume ash to the
concrete mix has proven beneficial in
4.6.4.1.3.5 Rail Boot for Embedded Track. controlling stray currents. To control eventual
Rail boot designs have proven to be a concrete shrinkage cracks, polyethylene fibers
satisfactory rail base support material that 50 to 65 millimeters (2 to 2.5 inches) long can
provides minimal rail deflection depending on be included in the second-pour surface trough
the design. Natural rubber elastomers mixed filler.
with proper quantities of carbon black and wax
exhibit satisfactory performance. Both filler materials should have a minimum
Configuration of the elastomeric rail boot with concrete strength of 27.6 MPa (4,000 psi) at
voids and the elastomer spring rate allow for a 28 days.
specific magnitude of rail deflection both
vertically and horizontally. Bituminous asphaltic components have been
used as a trough filler material. Similar care
The rail boot installation design is subjected to must be taken during placement to be certain
water seepage entering both inside and that voids are not generated at the rail
outside the boot area. To improve support. Bituminous asphalt materials with
performance, proper drainage of both areas of resistivity characteristics can be used as an
the rail installation should be provided. Rail insulating barrier.
boot designs are currently available for both

4-74
 Track Structure Design

4.6.4.1.4 Embedded Track Drainage pavement is crowned in the conventional

in all but the driest climates, the success of
any embedded track design will depend
directly on the efficiency of the embedded
tracks drainage systems. This includes not
only systems for intercepting surface runoff,
but also methods for draining water that seeps
into the rail cavity zone. Experience has
shown that surface water will seep and
accumulate in the rail area, particularly around
the rail base and web. This moisture can
cause rail corrosion and deterioration of the
surrounding embedment material, eventually
leading to failure of the pavement and the rail
fastening system.
Drainage of the rail embedment trough or
cavity is of the utmost importance. Sealing
the interface between the rail and the
adjoining embedment material is virtually
impossible. Similarly, construction joints
between the rail trough and slab concrete or
surface sealants are susceptible to potential
water seepage. Regardless of how well the
surface sealants are designed and installed,
seepage will eventually occur and possibly
lead to deterioration or disintegration of the fill
components, particularly in climates
susceptible to freeze/thaw cycles. To prevent
this, the embedment trough or rail cavity zone
must be designed with a reliable permanent
drainage system as shown in Figure 4.6.11.
Another penalty of poor drainage or no
drainage is that trapped or standing water can
result in unacceptable levels of stray current
leakage, particularly in areas where streets
are salted.
4.6.4.1.4.1 Surface Drainage. Embedded
track installations complicate pavement
surface drainage because the exposed rail
head and flangeways intercept and redirect
stormwater runoff. The road profile and cross
slopes direct the runoff toward the rail and
flangeways. In addition, if the roadway
manner, the pavement cross slope results in
the track being out of cross level in tangents
and perhaps even negatively superelevated
curves For additional information on
surfacing and cross level refer to Chapter 3.
Whenever possible, the profile and cross
section of the road should be modified to
conform to the optimum track profile and cross
section. This often requires that the roadway
geometry be compromised to accommodate
rail elevations, curb and gutter elevations, and
sidewalk grades.
The surface runoff entering the flangeways
should be minimized and trackway road
surfaces should slope away from the rail
locations. Some transit system designs have
sloped the road surface within the track gauge
area toward the track centerline and the
“dummy gauge” zone to a line of drains
midway between the tracks. The road
surfaces on the field side of the rails should
slope toward the curb line or the surrounding
roadway surfaces.
Inevitably, some runoff will get into the
flangeways. This water must be drained
away. Transverse lateral drainage chases
should always be provided at low points on
vertical curves, immediately up-grade at
embedded special trackwork and at transitions
between embedded track and any open track
design. Additional drainage chases should be
provided periodically along straight track
grade sections so that runoff, debris, sand, or
other material can be carried away and the
flangeway kept relatively clear.
Drains in embedded track areas are typically
transverse drains or drainage chases
perpendicular to the rails. They consist of a
grate-covered chamber that is connected to
the adjacent storm sewer system. The design
of the rail through the drainage chase opening

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Light Rail Track Design Handbook

should consist of the exposed bare rail transverse drain can act as a dividing point
supported on each side of the chase, wherein between the different designs used in
the rail acts as a suspended beam. The embedded main line track and special
bottom of the track flangeway must have an trackwork.
opening wide enough to ensure that it will not
become clogged with leaves or other debris. 4.6.4.1.4.2 Internal Drainage. Embedded
This is easily undertaken with tee rail track systems require internal drainage of the
construction. If girder rail is employed, it is rail cavity zone when loose extruded
common to machine a slot in the bottom of the components or non-adhering trough fill
flangeway. Such slots typically cannot be materials are selected Polyurethane fill
much more than 25 to 30 millimeters (1 to material totally encapsulating the rail and
1.125 inches) wide. They also frequently get bonded to the trough walls does not appear to
clogged. Where clogging is likely, an require internal drainage. Drainage slots
improved design might be to cut away the perpendicular to the rail base should be
girder rail lip in the drainage chase area. provided for adequate drainage at the base of
the rail or the bottom of the rail trough zone.
When the embedded track design includes Longitudinal drain pipes outside of the rail
individual longitudinal troughs in the concrete trough and fastening system should be
for each rail, the transverse track drainage provided to collect and carry accumulated
chases can also drain seepage from the inner water away from the rail cavity zone as shown
rail trough or rail cavity. The design exposes in Figure 4.6.12.
the end faces of the concrete rail troughs on
each side of the drainage chase as shown in
Figure 4.6.12. The exposed faces can be 4.6.4.2 Ballasted Track Structure With
utilized as rail trough or rail cavity drainage Embedment
systems. Frequent drainage chases, spaced Early 20th century embedded track designs
less than 150 meters (500 feet) apart, should for urban trams included ballasted track with
be considered and connected to the internal timber crossties constructed to railway
longitudinal drainage pipe system to provide standards and subsequently embedded to the
adequate drainage and allow periodic top of rail. These standards still exist today
maintenance flushing of the system. and are perpetuated by the original transit
agencies, although contemporary embedded
The transverse trough drains should act as track designs are being contemplated.
lateral drainage collectors for the embedded
longitudinal drain pipes. The longitudinal Embedded track design using standard
drain pipes, opened at the trough drains, can ballasted track design requires use of a fill
also be used for periodic flushing of the material to the top of rail as shown in Figure
embedded pipes. This provides a continuous 4.6.43. In contemporary track design, the
and maintainable drainage system. negative return running rail must be insulated
Transverse trough drains should be placed to control or confine stray current leakage.
immediately in front of switchpoint
Typical ballasted track elements used in
components to protect embedded special
embedded track design include an insulating
trackwork installations. Transverse drains in
barrier at the rail, tie plate and fastening to
these locations collect water that drains
isolate the rail from the timber or concrete
toward the special trackwork In addition, the

4-76
 rCHANNEL GRATES
BOLTED IN POSITION
HIGH DENSITY POLYETHELENE
PROVDES STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION
r RAIL TROUGH

BOOT ENDS EXPOSED

AT DRAINAGE CHASE TO NOTE:
ALLOW LONGITUDINAL
DRAINAGE CHASE AT SPECIAL TRACKWORK
SEEPAGE DRAIN
BOUNDARIES TO BE MODIFIED TO DRAIN
LONGITUDINAL DRAIN PIPE FOR BATHTUB AREAS AND SPECIAL TRACKWORK
DRAINING & FLUSH CLEANING COMPONENTOPENINGS

Figure 4.6.12 Cut Away Section Embedded Track Drainage Chase

POLYETHELENE DMDING SHEET

NOTCHED AT FASTENING -A
INSULATING COVER EMBEDMENT CONCRETE
AT FASTENING p\ (OR OTHER MATERIAL)

lNSULATlNG COVER
FLANGEWAY- \

q -. . . -.
. 0’ Q a 0
*
.
. w
- BALLAST BED BALLAST BED
F. . .

RAILsEcn0tiATTIE RAILSECnON
ATTHECRIB
Figure 4.6.13 Ballasted Track Structure with Embedment

4-77
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

crosstie and the surrounding embedment treatment and quite possibly a different design
concrete or other fill material. concept from the main line embedded track
design.
The embedded ballasted track structure is a
proven standard that provides a long, durable In contemporary light rail transit systems,
track life with minimal maintenance, other than embedded special trackwork generally
rail grinding and occasional road surface consists of turnouts grouped to act as single
repair for more serious deterioration. This crossovers for alternate track operations.
longevity can be attributed to the built-in Operating requirements may dictate the
drainage system provided by the ballast and installation of a double crossover with four
sub-ballast trackbeds. However, this drainage turnouts and a crossing (diamond). An
system also experiences ballast abrasion and extensive embedded track transit system
settlement that degrades track performance. could utilize complex embedded special
Embedded ballasted tie track has a history of trackwork arrangements beyond simple single
inferior rail and road surface alignment. This and double crossovers. For additional
includes rails sinking below the top of the information on embedded special trackwork
embedment or road surface, fracturing of the design, refer to Chapter 6.
embedment surface especially at the
designated crosstie spacings, concrete The magnitude of the components, the
surface fractures, and bituminous concrete requirements for stray current protection, and
surface cracks and sagging between the need to secure the components dictate
crossties. special trackwork embedment design. Stray
current protection at the rail face, as well as
Embedded ballasted tie track installed with an component surfaces with irregular
independent roadway surface such as brick, configurations, potential gauge bars and
pavers or Belgian Block with a sand mortar gauge plates, may be difficult. To simplify the
were relatively successful. The success of installation, the bathtub design concept is
the old systems, it is believed, was due recommended for embedded special
entirely to the flexibility of the brick and trackwork.
blockstone pavements and their resultant
ability to adjust to vehicle loads and thermally The bathtub design allows for stray current
induced movements. The key to this was the protection to be clear of the special trackwork
use of hot tar to seal the joints between the switches, frogs and crossing (diamond)
pavers, thereby excluding most moisture. The components. This simplifies trackwork
down side was extensive electrolytic corrosion installation and improves stray current
due to the base of rail being in contact with protection as shown in Figure 4.6.14.
ballast and the sand bedding of the pavers.
Their performance in this regard might be Embedded special trackwork will also require
improved by an insulated bathtub design. the use of special plates to support the
various track elements. These must be
designed to develop uniform deflections.
4.6.5 Embedded Special Trackwork

The embedded special trackwork portion of

any transit system will require special

4-78

STRAY CURRENT PROTECTION AT
THE “BATHTUB” PERIMETER AREA
ND POUR TROUGH FILLER TO THE TO
F RAIL w1Ti-l FORMED FLANGEWAY
ANCHOR BOLTS DRILLED
I
2ND POUR CONCRETE
SPECIAL TRACKWORK
BASE WITHIN BATHTUB CONCEPT
Figure 4.6.74 Special Trackwork-Embedded
4.6.6 Noise and Vibration
Vehicle wheel loads are transmitted from the
wheel/rail interface to the track structure.
Unlike ballasted or direct fixation track with
load distribution to the ties or fasteners,
embedded track uses a concrete slab and
continuous elastomeric system to distribute
the load throughout the surface of the rail
base. This design concept spreads the load
more evenly along the resilient rail installation.
Embedded track with a fully supported rail
base provides an improved track structure.
Resilient elastomers dampen the rail, reducing
rail vibration and rail-radiated noise. The
resilient elastomer controls the degree of
vibration and deflection. A softer elastomer
provides a lower spring rate in the elastomer
material, leading to reduced vibration in the
rail .
The spring rate is used in determining the
track modulus or track stiffness and the
amount of vertical deflection in the rail. The
elastomer, in conjunction with the vehicle
suspension system, affects the vehicle/rail
interface - specifically, track performance,
noise, and vibration in the immediate rail area.
4-79
Track Structure Design
IST POUR TROUGH FILLER
TO THE BASE OF RAlL
TYPICAL SPECIAL TRACKWORK COMPONENTS
MOUNTED ON LARGE PLATE FASTENINGS
“Bathtub” Design
Noise and vibration control should be
considered in the vehicle truck design,
particularly with respect to the use of resilient
wheels and the details of the primary
suspension system. The primary suspension
is located between the journal and the truck
frame. The primary suspension
characteristics are dependent on the spring
elements, number of layers or total deflection,
and their angular formation. The elastomeric
spring of the suspension reduces noise by
acting as a vibration isolator. It also acts as a
barrier to the transmission of structure borne
noise.
In selecting the suspension characteristics of
the extruded elastomer, elastomeric base pad,
or the rail boot elastomer used to support the
rail, vehicle parameters such as normal
weight and crush loads must be considered.
Each light rail vehicle, with different truck
suspensions, wheel bases and weights, may
require a different track dynamic suspension
system. The advice of a noise and vibration
expert in this endeavor is recommended as
stated in Chapter 9 of this Handbook.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

4.6.7 Transit Signal Work
Transit signal requirements in embedded track
sections differ from the general design
standards for ballasted and direct fixation
track. Embedded track within city streets or
transit malls may be exposed to mixed traffic
conditions and may share the right-of-way
with automobiles, trucks and buses. Signal
equipment, such as switch machines or loops
for train-to-wayside signals, may need to be
installed in this area. Space must be provided
to mount these devices as well as drainage
pipes and conduits for cables to control these
devices. Conduits for power and track circuits
may be needed. Reinforcing bars in the
concrete may impact the reliable operations of
track circuits.
the contact wire remains near the track
centerline.
The traction power return system definitely
impacts the design of the rail installation in
embedded track. Unlike ballasted and direct
fixation track standards, where the rail is
actually insulated from the ground at the base
of rail or within the fastening system, the
entire rail surface except top of rail and gauge
face must be insulated in embedded track
designs This requirement contributes to the
challenge of designing embedded rails that
provide an insulated, resilient and durable
track system using off-the-shelf materials.
Embedded ductwork within the track structure
provides access for power cables and cross
bonds to achieve equalization in the rails.

4.6.8 Traction Power For additional information on stray current

control and traction power, refer to Chapters 8
Traction power requirements in embedded and 11, respectively.
track sections differ from the standards for
ballasted or direct fixation track. The
immediate traction power impacts of catenary 4.6.9 Typical Embedded Concrete Slab
pole location and isolation of the negative Track Design Guideline
return rail play a major part in embedded track
design. Embedded track areas in downtown The previous sections describe the various
business sections, on city streets and in embedded track concepts, designs, and
transit malls generally avoid positioning materials available to the track designer. The
catenary poles between the tracks. The issue track designer must develop a set of
of catenary poles within central business installation drawings and corresponding
districts is so controversial that, in many specifications to allow for construction of the
designs, the contact wire and catenary system embedded track segments of the transit
was suspended from the sides of existing system. These must reflect an understanding
buildings or on poles in sidewalk areas. The of the various track and vehicle parameters.
total system and track design must consider
A typical embedded track design guideline
catenary pole locations that blend into the
follows. The design described herein is
existing environment without severely
arbitrary; actual track design should be
impacting the current roadways, sidewalks
developed by the track designer based on
and general public’s perception of an area.
site-specific requirements, economics, and
The tight track curvature within central
aesthetics to match the environment. The
business districts also impacts the design and
goals of embedded track design are to
installation of the catenary system, because
produce a track system that provides long-
many more poles are needed to ensure that
 Track Structure Design

term performance, with a minimum of individual tie plates, as well as anchor

interference to the neighboring structures, and bolts. This creates a cold joint at the base
is relatively easy to maintain or replace. of rail.

After the base slab is poured and cured,

The embedded track design guideline is
the track is available for vehicle testing
illustrated in Figure 4.6.15. The author, as a
and operation
track designer, selected this embedment
arrangement for the following reasons. The forming of two rail troughs provides a
. This embedded track design allows for joint that facilitates concrete removal for
shared street operation with other replacement of worn rail.
vehicles or may be used in a pedestrian The use of a rail boot or other insulating
mall. elastomeric system is needed to isolate
. The vertical and horizontal position of the rail The rail boot is shown, but any of
concrete base slab is established by these systems may be equally effective.
survey, using the constructed skeleton The elastic spring clip arrangement
track method. simplifies the rail hold down and provides
l The concrete base slab first pour encases a degree of rail base flexure
the steel ties or leveling beams and

(;, OF TRACK

I-
NOTE:

r 1
@J PLATE f
TRACK GAUGE
l-l-+

a
THE ITEM NO’s REFER
TO DESCRIPTIONIN
SECTION 4.6.9 EMBEDDED
TRACK DESIGN GUIDELINE.

i
SLOPE ’ SLOPE

SUBGRADE AND i
@ 0 SUB BALLAST

Figure 4.6.15 Typical Embedded Track Design

4-81
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

l The protective covers over the rail d The concrete base slab
fastening components allow for their encases and secures the
reuse at the time of rail replacement. The embedded track rail fastening
intent is to retain the steel ties and system.
individual plates in the base slab pour, e The base slab has concrete
allowing for similar rail section positioning
placed up to the base of rail or
and rapid replacement. This facilitates a
resilient boot. This provides a
quick return to revenue service
construction cold joint between
operations.
the first and second concrete
pours, just below the trough fill
The following notes are meant to augment the
material embedding the rail.
detailed embedded track design shown in
The finished base slope in the
Figure 4.6.15. The item numbers refer to the
trough zone should be sloped
component number in the figure.
toward formed drainage slots.
Item 1 This includes the well- Item 3 a. The embedded track drainage
compacted subgrade and sub- system built within the concrete
ballast system with an adequate base slab consists of transverse
storm drainage system track drainage chases and a
connected to existing or new longitudinal drainage system at
street storm drains. A the rail cavity zone.
protective barrier sheeting,
b. The transverse track drainage
Styrofoam barrier, or rockwool
chases are placed at 150- to
batts at the top of sub-ballast
200-meter (500- to 650-foot)
system may be considered for
intervals and strategically
vibration and noise attenuation.
positioned at vertical curve
Item 2 a The reinforced concrete base sags, special trackwork
slab (first pour) should have a approaches, and the ends of
minimum thickness of 300 to embedded track locations.
350 millimeters (12 to 14 These control surface runoff and
inches), to act as a vibration internal rail cavity drainage.
absorption barrier and provide
C. The transverse track drainage
support to the track structure.
chases act as lateral runoffs for
b The base slab may be a single- the embedded longitudinal rail
or double-track configuration as cavity drain pipe system.
needed for specific street
d. The concrete base slab contains
configurations. Concrete pours
a longitudinal drain pipe and
may be single or double track,
periodic drain slots parallel and
depending on track centers.
adjacent to the rail to drain the
c The concrete base slab contains rail zone.
an internal longitudinal track
e The longitudinal drain pipe
drainage runoff system with
should be positioned clear of the
provisions for deeper transverse
rail fastening system.
track drainage chases.

4-82
 Track Structure Des&n

f. Drainage systems that are installed providing a void in the

invisible once the construction is trough embedment material.
completed will almost never
d The insulating rubber boot must
receive the maintenance
be a continuously bonded
attention required The ease of
system, utilizing connector
maintenance is critical to a
splices overlapping the boot
successful system.
configuration. To promote
Item 4 a. The rail fastening system internal boot drainage of the
consists of steel ties and zone between the rubber boot
individual steel plates with and rail surface, special drain
appropriate spring clips, welded hoses are incorporated. The
shoulders, protective insulators drain hoses are positioned in
for rubber boot, and a protective the existing drain slots adjacent
housing for the spring clip area. to the rail trough. They project
into the center of the PVC
b. The steel tie is embedded in the
longitudinal drain pipe, to
initial concrete base slab with
provide the required stray
the top of tie level with the top of
current protection.
concrete pour. The steel plates
should similarly be embedded to e. The resilient elastomer rail boot
the top of concrete. The steel must be continuous, providing a
plates are secured to the initial void or holiday free insulation
concrete base slab by anchor system to retard stray electrical
bolts or studs. current leakage.
C. The concrete finish in the rail Item 6 a The surface slab (second pour)
base area between the steel tie is approximately 180 millimeters
and plates is trowelled smooth. (7 inches) high and is placed to
the top of rail Block outs for rail
Item 5 a. The rail is encased in a resilient
troughs are formed. The
elastomer boot or liner,
surface finish is determined by
positioned on the steel tie rail
specific transit requirements,
seat area and the individual
architectural treatment and the
mounting plates. The rubber
type of roadway traffic or
booted rail is fastened to the ties
pedestrian mall.
and plates by spring clips. The
clips have rubber protective rail b. The top surface is finished with
base insulators at each slopes away from the rail cavity
shoulder. toward the centerline of track
and the field side of rail. These
b. Rail deflection is provided
sloped portions within the track
through the resilient rubber boot
gauge drain longitudinally along
liner and minor deflections of
the track to the transverse
the spring clips.
drainage chases.
C To allow for rail deflection and
C. The placement of the surface
movement at the spring clips, a
slab completes the longitudinal
special protective cover is

4-83
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

drainage slots from the rail the rail and fastenings

cavity to the longitudinal drain completing the surface roadway.
pipe.
b. The surface finish includes a
d. The top concrete surface slab gauge side flangeway for tee rail
requires embedded PVC or entire capsulation to the top
casings for traction power or of the girder rail lip. The field
signal connections between the side has a depression of 6-
rails or tracks. Provision should millimeter depression (0.2- inch)
be made for rail connection throughout, with special
boxes, drainage boxes and depressions in the fixed
periodic transverse drainage adjacent trackwork accessories.
chases. This allows for rail grinding.

Item 7 a. The running rail is insulated for C. The surface slopes beyond the
stray current control utilizing the flangeway and wheel tread
rail boot concept The running depressions slope away from
rails can be either tee rail or the rail head. Track gauge
girder groove rail. pavement slopes intersect at the
center of track. Field side
b. The running rail is continuously
pavement slopes away from the
welded rail (thermite welded or
rail area towards the curb lines.
flash butt) wherever practical.
Precurving of the rail may be
These design concepts are representative of
required to facilitate restricted
the type of considerations required to design
street alignments that result in
embedded track. An alternate set of
sharp track curvature. The weld
parameters will require a similar design
finish is flush with the parent rail
process to coordinate and interface the
steel surface to allow for proper
various disciplines involved. The key design
boot fit. features of any track installation include
c. Various trackwork accessories adequate drainage, corrosion control,
adjacent to the rail must be insulating protection, noise and vibration
individually designed to suit the abatement measures, and accommodation for
rail boot insulation in order to signal and traction power components.
minimize electrical stray current. Understandably, the track design and vehicle
design must be compatible for the
d. The booted rail is checked for
development of a successful transit system.
insulation, clip application, and
the track position is confirmed
prior to application of the 4.6.10 Turf Track: Another Type of
protective housing and the Embedded Track
installation of trough fill.
Item 8 a. The rail trough embedment Over the years, European light rail transit
concrete fill (third pour) is systems have found a need to blend the
placed only after confirmation transit track and system into the landscape.
that rail installation is correct. To fulfill this requirement, a specific track
The embedment encapsulates design similar to embedded track or partially

4-84
 Track Structure Design

embedded track has evolved, recognized as main standards. Landscape embedded track
“turf track II The turf track standard consists of was developed for selected purposes:
concrete plinths or beams running parallel l Reduce the visual effect of ballasted track
under the rail to support the track The rail is l Reduce the noise from trams to the
installed on elastomer base pads. The rails utmost extent
are connected to retain gauge with l Provide year-round greenery in the vicinity
conventional gauge rod bolted to the web of of the track
the rail. The base of rail is not connected to
the concrete plinth. The rail web area is filled A select turf is required to grow to a maximum
with a prefabricated filler block that adheres to height of 30 to 40 millimeters (1.2 to 1 6
the rail. The top of the rail and the filler block inches) requiring minimal watering and
is sealed with a bituminous sealant. The maintenance Landscape track has proven to
vegetation is a special blend of plants reduce noise by 6 to 8 dBA. Other types of
expected to retain a stunted growth and landscape track structure can be designed to
require minimal cutting. The filler blocks and suit the needs of specific locations. To ease
the bituminous sealant provide the stray the concerns of communities and residents
current protection. Figure 4.6.16 shows a along certain sections of the light rail system
typical turf track installation. about transit-related impacts, turf track or
some specific track design may prove to be
Many European cities appear to be adopting very beneficial.
turf track or track landscaping as one of their

r CONCRETE EDGING AND

TURF SURFACE LEVEL WITH
TOP OF RAIL
-SECOND
I
/,-DOWEL
POUR

PINS
($ TRACK
I
1435 TRACK GAUGE
ORGANIC

F’LL gL TuRF 1

SAND w
4 I\ :i

STEEL LEVELLING BEAM I IeF

\COMPACiED -FIRST PC-. .-

LFIRST POUR. . ~I-MJ-
vv., .INUOUS CONTINUUUS
CONCRETE PLINTH SLAB ROAD BED
CONCRETE
PLINTH SLAB
_ SIDE WITH PLINW _f _ SIDE WTH TRACK
1 TIE CONNECTION

Figure 4.6.16 Turf Track-Another Type of Embedded Track

4-85
Lioht Rail Track Desion Handbook

4.7 REFERENCES [4] AREA Manual of Railway Engineering

(1984) Chapter 22.
[I] Albert S. Rickey, Electric Railway
Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill [5] A.N. Talbot, “Stresses in Railroad
Book Company, Inc., 1924. Track”, Reports of the Special
Committee on Stresses in Railroad
[2] William W. Hay, Railroad Engineering Track, Proceedings of the AREA, First
Second Edition, A Wiley - Interscience Progress Report, Vol. 19, 1918, pp.
Publication ISBN O-471-36400-2. 873-l 062, ibid., Second Progress
Report, Vol. 21, 1920, pp. 645814.
[3] Wilson, lhrig & Associates, Inc.,
“Theoretical Analysis of Embedded
Track Vibration Radiation, San
Francisco Municipal Railway,” Technical
Memorandum to Iron Horse Engineering
co.. 7/l 7197.

4-86
Chapter 5-Track Components and Materials

Table of Contents

5.1 INTRODUCTION 5-1

5.2 TEE RAIL AND GIRDER GROOVE RAIL 5-I
52.1 Introduction 5-l
52.2 Tee Rail 5-2
5.2.2.1 Rail Section - 115 RE or 124 BC 5-2
5.2.2.1 .l AREMA Rail Sections 5-2
5.2.2.1.2 124 BC Rail Section 5-3
5.2.2.2 Rail Strength-Standard/High-Strength Tee Rail 5-3
5.2.2.2.1 Rail Metallurgyr31 5-5
5.2.2.3 Precurving of Tee Rail 5-5
5.2.2.4 Procurement of Rail 5-6
5.2.3 Girder Groove Rail, “Rillenschiene”, and Girder Guard Rail 5-6
5.2.3.1 Girder Rail Sections 5-6
5.2.3.2 Rail Strength - Girder Rail 5-6
5.2.3.3 Precurving of Girder Rail 5-9
5.2.3.4 Procurement of Girder Rail 5-l 0
5.2.4 Rail Wear 5-10
5.2.5 Wear-Resistant Rail 5-11
5.251 Riflex Welding 5-11

5.3 RESTRAINING RAIL DESIGNS FOR GUARDED TRACK 5-12

5.3.1 Girder Guard Rail for Embedded Track 5-12
5.3.2 Tee Rail for Guarded Ballasted and Direct Fixation Track 5-13
5.3.2.1 Vertically Mounted Restraining Rails 5-l 3
5.3.2.2 Horizontally Mounted Restraining Rails 5-14
5.3.2.3 Strap Guard Rail 5-14
5.3.2.4 UIC33 (U69) Restraining Rail 5-l 5
5.3.3 Restraining Rail Recommendations 5-l 5
5.3.4 Restraining Rail Thermal Expansion and Contraction 5-16
5.4 FASTENINGS AND FASTENERS 5-16
5.4.1 Insulated Fastenings and Fasteners 5-16
5.4.1 .I Isolation at the Rail Base 5-l 7
5.4.1.2 Isolation at the Fastening or Fastener Base 5-l 7
5.4.2 Fastenings for Timber and Concrete Crossties
for Ballasted Track 5-18
5.4.3 Fasteners for Direct Fixation Track 5-18
5.4.3.1 Fastener Design Consideration 5-20
5.4.3.1.1 Vertical Static Stiffness 5-20
5.4.3.1.2 Ratio of Dynamic to Static Stiffness (Vertical) 5-20
5.4.3.1.3 Lateral Restraint 5-20
5.4.3.1.4 Lateral Stiffness at the Rail Head 5-20

5-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

5.5 CROSSTIES AND SWITCH TIES 5-21

5.5 1 Timber Crossties 5-21
5.52 Concrete Crossties 5-22
5.5.2.1 Concrete Crosstie Design 5-22
5.5.2.2 Concrete Crosstie Testing 5-23
5.5.3 Switch Ties-Timber and Concrete 5-23
5.5.3.1 Timber Switch Ties 5-23
5.5.3.2 Concrete Switch Ties 5-23

5.6 TRACK (RAIL) JOINTS 5-24

5.6.1 Welded Joints 5-24
5.6.1.1 Pressure Electric Flash Butt Weld 5-24
5.6.1.2 Thermite Weld 5-25
5.6.2 Insulated and Non-Insulated Joints 5-25
5.6.2.1 Non-glued Insulated Joints 5-25
5.6.2.2 Glued Bolted Insulated Joints 5-25
5.6.2.3 Bolted Joints 5-26
5.6.3 Compromise Joints 5-26

5.7 BALLAST AND SUBBALLAST m 5-26

5.7.1 Ballast Materials 5-26
5.7.1.1 Testing Ballast Materials 5-27
5.7.2 Subballast Materials 5-30

5.8 TRACK DERAILS 5-30

5.9 RAIL EXPANSION JOINTS 5-31

5.10 END OF TRACK STOPS 5-31

5.10 1 Warning Signs 5-32
5.10.2 Fixed Non-energy Absorbing Devices 5-33
5.10.3 Fixed Energy Absorbing Devices 5-33
5.10.3.1 Non-resetting fixed devices 5-33
5.10.3.2 besetting Fixed Devices 5-33
5.10.4 Friction (or Sliding) End Stops 5-33

5.11 REFERENCES 5-34

List of Figures
Figure 5.2.1 Typical Rail Sections Tee Rail (lJ69, 115 RE Strap Guard,
ZlJ I-60) 5-4

Figure 5.2.2 Typical Rail Section-Girder Groove and Guard

Rail Sections 5-7
Figure 5.2.3 Typical Rail Sections-Girder Groove Rail Sections 5-8
Figure 5.3.1 Typical Restraining (Guard) Rail Arrangements
(U69 Restraining Rail) 5-14

Figure 5.4.1 Isolation at the Rail Base 5-18

5-ii
 Track Components and Materials

Figure 5.4.2 Isolation at the Fastening or Fastener Base 5-18

Figure 5.10. I Friction Element Buffer Stop 5-34

List of Tables
Table 5.1 Chemical Composition of the Steels used for European
Girder Rails 5-9
Table 5.2 Relationship of Brine11 and Rockwell Hardness Numbers to
Tensile Strength S-10

Table 5.3 Ballast Gradations 5-28

Table 5.4 Limiting Values of Testing for Ballast Material 5-29

5iii

CHAPTER 5-TRACK COMPONENTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The track components that form the track
structure generally include rail, fastenings,
crossties, and ballast. This chapter includes
these and other sundry components and
elaborates on their various designs and
requirements.
Many standard track components and other
track material (OTM) are usable for freight
railway, commuter railway, and heavy transit
(metro) systems. The information provided in
this chapter pertains to light rail transit
systems with overhead catenary or contact
wire distribution that use the running rail as a
negative return for the traction power system.
5.2 TEE RAIL AND GIRDER GROOVE RAIL
5.2.1 Introduction
Rail is the most important-and most
expensive-element of the track structure. It
is the point of contact with the vehicle wheel,
the structural beam supporting the vehicle
load, and one location where noise is
generated. Hundreds of different rail sections
have been created since the first strip of iron
was placed on a timber beam. Each new rail
section has been developed to satisfy a
particular combination of wheel/rail loading.
Tee rails were developed for ballasted track.
When rails were placed in streets, girder rails
were developed to provide the needed
flangeway.
North American tee rail sections have evolved
over the years into the current American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way
Association (AREMA) standards-l 15 RE,
132 RE, and 136 RE. Many other rail sections
are still in use today.
5-l
Track ComDonents and Materials
AND MATERIALS
The rail section identification 115 RE refers to:
l 115 = mass (weight) 57.0 kilograms per
meter (114.7 pounds per yard).
l RE = AREMA standard rail section.
Rail sections and steel composition continue
to evolve and be improved worldwide. The
115 RE rail section is the primary section
used on contemporary light rail track systems
because it provides a recognized standard
section, as well as a guaranteed continuous
supply. The 115 RE rail easily supports light
rail vehicle loads and has sufficient end area
to act as a low-resistance negative return
conductor in the traction power circuitry.
The standards for rail lengths have improved
from the customary 11 .&meter (39-foot)
length to 23.8-, 24.4-, and 25-meter (78, 80
and 82-foot) lengths. European rail mills have
recently produced rail in 122-meter (400-foot)
lengths. This is not a standard in North
American rail mills.
Joints between rails have always been the
weak link in the track system. Welding of the
rolled rail lengths into continuous welded rail
(CWR) is customary to eliminate joints and to
improve the performance of rail in track. The
development of thermite and flash butt
welding allows the track to be constructed in
CWR strings. CWR is the general standard for
all transit except for locations, such as very
sharp precurved track, where jointed rail may
be more practical to suit specific site
conditions and future maintenance
procedures.
Precurving of rail is a requirement on light rail
systems at locations where the radii of curved
track exceeds the elastic limit of the rail.
The two prime maintenance issues associated
with rail are head wear in curves and rail
corrugation. These issues are discussed at standard rail or high-strength rail
length in this section. requirements. The section has more than
adequate beam strength to support the wheel
Girder rail is needed to support rail in streets on standard crosstie and direct fixation
and to form a flangeway for the wheel. The fastener spacing.
rail can then have pavement around the rail to
allow motor vehicles to share the road with Wheel/rail interface is one of the most
trains. Girder groove rail and girder guard rail important issues in the design of the wheel
sections are no longer manufactured in North profile and the railhead section.
America. The popular girder rail sections in Contemporary light rail transit systems
use and available from European provide the opportunity to customize design
manufacturers are the Ri 59N, Ri 60N, IC, and maintain an optimal wheel/rail interface
Ri52N, Ri53N, NP4a, and 35G sections. due to the single standard for wheels and rail
Previous popular sections no longer available
include 128 RE--/A, 149 RE-7A and the GGR- Although rail wear and fatigue are
118. There is a limited selection of girder considerations on transit systems, the primary
groove rail and girder guard rail in today’s design concerns are: optimizing vehicle
market. Few girder rails have the minimal operation, controlling noise and vibration, and
transit flangeway widths, which complicates improving ride quality.
the issue of railway wheel gauge and track
gauge. For additional information on girder A better understanding of and major
rail and flangeways refer to Chapter 4 herein. improvements to wheel and rail design and
interface issues are evolving. The optimized
Girder groove rail installed to improve track wheel/rail interface (OWRI) system considers
performance should be welded where both vehicle suspension characteristics and
possible. Girder groove rail requires track and rail standards.
precurving of rail for nominal radii curved track
alignments due to the section. Modifications in the rail head radius will
improve the current rail profile of AREMA
sections. The current 115 RE rail section
5.2.2 Tee Rail includes a 254-millimeter (1 O-inch) crown
head radius. To improve the wheel tread to
The standard section for running rail on rail contact zone, a 203-millimeter (8-inch)
contemporary light rail systems for the three head radius is recommended. This will
types of track structure are generally similar reduce and control the contact band along the
unless specifically stated otherwise. rail to a well-defined 12- to 15-millimeter (l/2-
to 5/8-inch) width. Several transit agencies
have incorporated more radical
5.2.2.1 Rail Section - 115 RE or 124 BC
improvements, such as asymmetrical rail
grindings for outside and inside rail in track
5.2.2.1.1 AREMA Rail Sections
curves, with documented operational
Selection of the running rail section must be
improvements in wheel/rail performance.
performed with consideration for economy,
strength, and availability. The current
Vehicle performance is based on the primary
selection in North America is limited and the
and secondary suspension systems that allow
simplest solution is to select an off-the-shelf
the vehicle to negotiate curves. The wheel
115 RE rail section conforming to AREMA

5-2
 Track Components and Materials

and rail profiles control how well the vehicle
truck steers in curves and how much the truck
will hunt on tangent track. The concentrated
contact zone between the wheel and rail can
be positioned at the gauge corner on the high
outside rail of curves to improve steering. The
contact zone on the low rail is best located
toward the field side of the rail head. These
positions of the contact zones take advantage
of the wheel rolling radius differential and
improved axle steering in conical wheels.
Wheel and rail design that produces a
conformal contact zone, or wider wear pattern,
after a short period of service life exacerbates
poor vehicle tracking performance through
curved track. It also introduces early wheel
hunting and leads to corrugation in the rail
head. Conformal contact conditions are
produced when the rail head radius is worn to
a flat condition and the wheel is worn to a
similar flat or hollow condition. This simulates
rail head configuration, producing a wear zone
across the head of the rail.
The current 115 RE rail section consists of a
crown radius of 254 millimeters (10 inches)
and gauge corner radii of 38.1 and 9.5
millimeters (1-X and 318 inches). The rail
head width is 69.1 millimeters (2-23/32
inches) and the rail height is 168.3 millimeters
(6-518 inches) as shown in Figure 5.2.1.
Railroads, including BC Rail, have been
searching for an improved rail section or
profile-one with increased wear life and
performance. Undesirable wear patterns such
as gauge corner lip formation and shelling on
the standard 136 RE rail section have
required early gauge corner and field corner
grinding. Dr. J. Kalousek (JK) proposed a
203-millimeter (8-inch) head radius for the
standard 136 JK rail section instead of the
standard 254-millimeter (1 O-inch) radius to
improve the contact location as previously
described.
5.2.2.1.2 124 BC Rail Section
BC Rail, to improve the standard 115 RE rail
section and retain the OTM currently in
service opted to change the rail head portion
of the 115 RE rail section. BC Rail mated the
115 RE rail web and base section to the 136
JK rail head section to create the 124 BC
section.[‘l The 124 BC rail section provides
additional steel in the rail head wear area as
shown in Figure 5.2.1.
The 124 BC rail section improves on rail head
radius and provides additional rail life due to
increased steel in the rail head wear area. A
rail section of this size may be especially
effective if tee rail is to be used in embedded
track where replacement of worn rail is more
labor intensive.
An imbalanced track/vehicle system
contributes to excessive wear of both the
wheel and rail. A combination of wheel/rail
vehicle track incompatibilities contribute to
high lateral over vertical (L/V) ratios,
excessive flanging action, and gauge face
wear of more than 20 degrees on the high
rails of sharp curves. Corrective rail section
design, rail profile grinding, and an effective
wheel truing program along with flange-
mounted lubricators will improve rail
performance, reduce maintenance, and
increase rail life. [*I
The transit industry and freight railroads will
continue to push for improvements to the
current standard rail sections such as
standardization of the 124 BC section and a
compatible wheel profile. For details on the
wheel profile development refer to Chapter 2.
5.2.2.2 Rail Strength-StandardlHigh-
Strength Tee Rail
Chemical composition guidelines for running
rail are standardized in the AREMA Manual,

5-3
 9.53 R
I24 BC RNL '33isISlS (‘/a” R)
of II5 RE me t.4BASE
WH I36 J( HEM
f-31.74 R
(f/4” R)
j-77194 A

(16” R 6” RI

Y-Y NEUTRiQ.
!-----AXIS
; 80mm
V-Y .lrlllO.l :(3.15o”l 1
h.. Elf

K: ALL tWKNSlOi4SARE

UIC-33 OR U69
RESTRAINING RAIL 2.1654
5.5118

UIC 608 (Zul-60) 115 RE RAIL AND

STRAP GUARD ASSY.
 Track Components and Materiais

Chapter 4, for both standard rail and high- high-hardness low-carbon bainitic steel offers
strength rail. The use of alloy rail is not wear resistance superior to pearlitic steel
recommended to obtain the high-strength
standards because of the additional As a guideline for transit installations the
complexities of welding alloy rail. Current recommendation is to install clean rail steel
standard and high-strength rail hardness, with a hardness of:
including the head hardening procedure, l 300-320 BHN (standard rail) in tangent
obtain the following standards: tracks, except at station stops and severe
l Standard Rail: 300 minimum Brinell profile grades greater than 4%.
Hardness Number (BHN) l 380-390 BHN in tangent tracks at station
. High Strength Rail: 341 to 388 BHN (may stops, severe profile grades greater than
be exceeded provided a fully pearlitic 4% , curved track with radii less than 500
microstructure is maintained.) meters (1,640 feet), and all special
trackwork components including switch
points, stock rails, guard rails, frog rails
5.2.2.2.1 Rail Merallurg~J and rails within the special trackwork
The life of the rail can be extended by area.
increasing the rail’s resistance to:
0 Wear These hardnesses may prove to be difficult to
l Surface fatigue-damage obtain in European girder rail sections. As a
. Fatigue defects guideline, the girder groove rail should have a
hardness of 300 BHN and greater.
Rail steel hardness, cleanliness, and fracture
toughness can increase this resistance. The
effect of rail hardness in resisting gauge face 5.2.2.3 Precurving of Tee Rail
wear is a known fact. increased rail hardness Where the track radius is sharp enough to
in combination with minimized sulfide exceed the elastic limit of the rail, the rail must
inclusions reduces the likelihood of surface be precurved. These are the general
fatigue cracking. This, in turn, reduces guidelines for precurving tee rail:
development of subsequent defects such as l Standard Rail
head checks, flaking, and shelly spots. Oxide - Precurve rail horizontally for curve
inclusion clean steel, combined with good radius below 120 meters (400 feet).
fracture toughness, reduces the likelihood of - Precurve rail vertically for curve
deep-seated shell formations. Both shelly radius below 300 meters (984 feet).
spots and deep-seated shells can initiate l High-Strength Rail
transverse defects, which ultimately cause - Precurve rail horizontally for curve
broken rails. radius below 100 meters (325 feet).
- Precurve rail vertically for curve
The current rail standards include increased
radius below 230 meters (755 feet).
rail hardness and improved rail steel
cleanliness, with the pearlitic steels peaking at Precurved rails are often in high wear
390 BHN. Recent research has focused on locations where the rail is replaced more
other structures such as bainitic steels. frequently. These locations often have
Although bainitic steels of the same hardness standard joints rather than CWR to facilitate
as pearlitic steel are not as wear resistant, maintenance.

5-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
5.2.2.4 Procurement of Rail
Procurement of rail should be in accordance
with AREMA Standard Specification Chapter
4, Part 2, Section 2.1, which includes specifics
pertaining to transit agency requirements.
There is no standard rail or girder rail section
for embedded track. The 115 RE rail section
has been used for embedded track, with the
bolted Pittsburgh strap-guard, with formed
flangeways in either asphalt or concrete, or
with the forming of a flangeway in the street.
All of these have been used by various light
rail transit systems. The ideal rail section for
embedded track would be girder groove rail,
with girder guard rail for the curved sections
and more pronounced sharper radius curves.
5.2.3 Girder Groove Rail, “Rillenschiene”,
and Girder Guard Rail
The most commonly used running rail in
embedded track (if tee rail is not used) is
girder groove rail for tangent track and girder
guard rail for curved track. The selection of
girder groove rail currently available is limited
to the European standards: Ri59N, RiGON
Ri52N, Ri53N, NP4a, and 35G as shown in
Figures 5.2.2 and 5.2.3. To use these narrow
flange girder rails, the wheel gauge and track
gauge must be compatible with a reduced
gauge clearance between wheel and rail to
allow for wheel passage. The wheel flange
profile may also be specialized, conforming to
a transit wheel profile in lieu of the Association
of American Railway (AAR) AAR-IB wheel
profile. For additional information on wheel
profiles and girder rail, refer to Chapter 2.
5.2.3.1 Girder Rail Sections
Grooved rail is known as “Rillenschiene” in
Germany. Current popular German grooved
rail sections are Ri59N and RiGON. The rail
identification Ri59N refers to:
l Ri: Rillenschiene for groove rail
5-6
l 59: mass (weight) 58.96 kilograms per
meter (118.6 pounds per yard)
l N (or -13): 13-millimeter (0.51-inch)
gauge corner radius
A recent revision to the Ri59 and Ri60 girder
rails has been to change the radius of the rail
head gauge corner from IO to 13 millimeters
(0.39 to 0.51 inches) and introduce the head
configuration as a 1:40 cant position when the
rail base is level. This rail section has been
designated Ri59N or Ri59-13. RiGON rail also
has a 13-millimeter (0.51-inch) gauge corner
radius. These modified rail head sections
match the 115 RE rail head section. The
latest development by an Austrian rail
manufacturer is the rolling of the RiGON girder
groove rail with a 4-millimeter (0.16-inch)
raised lip section to provide additional girder
guard lip protection.
The new Ri girder rail head profiles match the
115 RE tee rail section. Wheel compatibility
based on head radii and wheel contact zone is
possible if the wheel profile is designed to suit
both tee rail and girder rail sections. The
wheel designer and the track designer must
consider the impacts of wheel/rail
performance resulting from standardized rail
sections. For additional information on
wheel/rail conformance refer to Chapter 2.
5.2.3.2 Rail Strength - Girder Rail
The customary European steel manufacturing
practice is to roll standard rail sections in
accordance with current UIC-860 V standards.
The standard girder rails are produced with
relatively soft rail steel in the normal grade,
with a tensile strength (TS) of 685 Newtons
per square millimeter (N/mm’) as shown in
Table 5.1.
0 European steel manufacturers also roll rail
sections in a wear-resistant grade with a
minimum TS of 885 N/mm’. This grade of
 180
t
 .-.-.I.-.-.-.-.-. NEUTRAL AMS
.I0

40.75
116 (4 9/W)

: 75.25 c IM (5 7/S’)
-I

~ 56 i ,a 34
RI 52-13 GIRDER GROOVE RAIL RI 53-13 GIRDER GROOVE RAIL

NP 4a GIRDER GROOVE RAIL

 Track Components and Materials

standard steel is available in three classes: A,
B, and C, where:
l C = Class is the wear-resistant
l B = Class is the primary class for girder
rails, which provides a hardness of
approximately 266 BHN
l A = Class rail is a very soft steel
A girder rail section to meet North American
BHN standards requires a tensile strength of
1,080 N/mm2 which equates to approximately
320 to 340 BHN according to Table 5.2.
Recent investigations with European steel
manufacturers have indicated that girder rail in
this class can be made available in alloy steel
girder rail.
An alternative to the alloy steel is to use the
standard European girder rail steel and
provide wear resistance treatments consisting
of wear-resistant weld inserts at the gauge
corner, top of rail, and/or girder rail lip (see
Section 52.5).
5.2.3.3 Precurving of Girder Rail
Like tee rail, girder rail must be precurved if
the curve radius is sharp enough to exceed
the elastic limit in the base or guarding face.
The guideline for precurving girder rails:
l Horizontal: precurve girder rail for curve
radii below 200 meters (650 feet).
l Vertical: precurve girder rail for vertical
curve radii below 300 meters (984 feet).
Horizontal bending of girder rail will require
vertical bending to obtain proper configuration
due to the asymmetrical shape of the rail.
These operations are best performed in roller
straighteners at the mill.

Table 5.1
Chemical Composition of the Steels used for European Girder Rails

Grade with minimum TS of

Wear-resistant grade with

minimum T.S. of 885 N/mm2 I
0.4510.65 = 0.4 1.70/2.10 =0.03 =0.03
C
Chrome - manganese special 0.65lO.80 = 0.8 0.80/i .30 =0.03 = 0.03 0.80/l .30
grade steel with minimum TS
of 1080 N/mm2
(1) C = Carbon
Si = Silicon
Mn = Maganese
P = Phosphorus
S = Sulfur
Cr = Chromium

5-9
 Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Table 5.2
Relationship of Brine11 and Rockwell
Hardness Numbers to Tensile Strength

Rockwell Rockwell Suoetficial

Brine11 Hardness Hardness Hardness Numbe;, Superficial
Number Number Diamond Penetrator
Brine11 Tunasten
Indentation Standard Car&de 15-N 30-N 45-N Tensile Strength
Diameter (mm) Ball Ball B Scale C Scale Scale Scale Scale (Mpa) (N/mm2)
2.50 601 57 3 89.0 75 1 63 5 2262
2.60 555 547 87 8 72 7 60.6 2055
2 70 514 52.1 86 5 70 3 47 6 1890
2 80 477 49.5 85 3 68 2 545 1738
2.90 444 47.1 840 65.8 51.5 1586
3.00 416 415 445 82.8 63.5 48.4 1462
310 388 388 41 8 81.4 61 1 45 3 1331
3 20 363 363 39.1 80 0 58 7 42.0 1220
3 30 341 341 36.6 78.6 564 39.1 1131
340 321 321 34.3 77.3 54 3 36 4 1055
3.50 302 302 32.1 76 1 522 33.8 1007
3 60 285 285 29.9 75 0 50 3 31.2 952
3 70 269 269 27.6 73 7 48.3 285 897
3.80 255 255 254 72.5 46.2 26 0 855
3.90 241 241 100.0 22.8 70 9 43 9 22 8 800
4.00 229 229 98.2 20.5 69 7 41 9 20.1 766
4.10 217 217 964 710
4.20 207 207 94.6 682

5.2.3.4 Procurement of Girder Rail
Procurement of girder rail by North American
transit agencies requires a special contract
specification stating the specifics as to rail
section, strength, special treatments and
potential precurving requirements in specific
lengths of rail. The use of European standard
UIC 860 V as a reference is acceptable, as
long as additional special provisions are
included.
As a guideline, the special provisions for
procurement of girder rail should include: the
ultimate tensile strength of the rail in particular
the Brine11 Hardness Number at the wearing
surfaces, the compatibility of welding,
precurving requirements, specific length of
rails, and the method of corrosive protection
during shipping.
5.2.4 Rail Wear
Rail has continually suffered from abrasive
wear due to the steel wheel running on and
against it. Surface head wear is due to the
constant running of the wheels and is further
compounded by the additional forces
generated by braking and traction during
deceleration and acceleration, respectively.
In curved track there is added surface wear,
where wheel slippage and load transfers
occur due to superelevation and changing
direction of the vehicle truck. Gauge face rail
wear occurs due to the steering function of the
rail. Steering contact is at the outer rail of a
curve, which guides the outside wheel of the
lead axle The action commences when the
vehicle wheels negotiate the outside rail of the
curve to the point where the wheel flange
makes contact with the side of the rail head.
This contact is referred to and measured as
the “angle of attack.” r4]
This attack on the outer rail is not caused by
the vehicle’s centrifugal force, but by the
constant change in the vehicle’s direction.
The outer rail constantly steers the outer
leading wheel inwards towards the curve
center.

5-10

The wheel acts as a cutting edge, or grinding
stone, that actually machines the gauge
corner and face of the running rail. This is
caused by several factors, such as the
severity of the wheel’s angle of attack to the
rail, the stiffness of the vehicle truck which
retards the curving action, and the velocity of
the vehicle.
Another rail wear phenomenom is the
formation of metal flow. The wheel/rail
interaction causes the rail and steel surfaces
to deform at the point of contact due to the
concentrated load. This contact pressure is
extreme to the point where the stress is
greater than the yield point of the rail steel,
which causes plastic deformation of the
surrounding steel. This action leads to metal
flow accumulation on the surface edges of the
rail head. Metal flow collects at the gauge
corner of rail in tangent track, where the wheel
is seldom in contact with the rail gauge corner
or face. This also occurs on the field side of
the inside rail of curves, where the rail head
metal flow migrates toward the field side and
accumulates as a pronounced lip.
Corrugation of rail is another rail wear
phenomenom that impacts ride quality and
noise generation. Corrugation is discussed in
Chapter 9, Noise and Vibration Control.
5.2.5 Wear-Resistant Rail
Transit systems have historically suffered
from worn rails and the need for premature rail
replacement due to accumulative wear limits
of the rail head and/or gauge face. To combat
the wheel machining of the rail gauge face
and loss of metal, an abrasion-resistant steel
is required. Improvements in the chemical
composition and treating process of rail steel
have led to the development of wear-resistant
types of steel. Research has shown that
pearlitic steel with sufficient hardness retards
5-11
Track Components and Materials
the wear and abrasion (or machining) of steel
and the formation of corrugation. r5]
The hardness of rail steel is proportional to its
toughness or its ultimate tensile strength
(UTS). UTS is used to measure the quality of
the steel.
As stated earlier, rail producers in Europe are
not accustomed to supplying non-alloy special
groove rail and other rail sections in the range
of 1,100 UTS (320 to 340 HBN). To
overcome this deficiency in the rail, a special
welding procedure has been used to provide a
wear-resistant surface to the rail. The special
welding known as Riflexf6] also features anti-
squeal characteristics.
5.2.5.1 Riflex Welding
The Riflex welding procedure includes three
types of rail welding as follows:
l Riflex--corrugation reduction or elimina-
tion and head wear reduction
l Eteka 5-rail gauge corner and face wear
reduction
l Riflex AQ-anti-screech weld material
developed to control noise
The Riflex process includes four steps:
1. A groove is machine cut into the ball or
the gauge face of the rail.
2. Using submerged arc welding techniques,
an alloy is welded into the groove.
3. The rail is ground smooth.
4. The rail is roller straightened and
ultrasonically inspected. Riflex welding
can also be field applied with rail in place.
The three types of weld materials used in the
Riflex process have different hardnesses.
The Riflex anti-corrugating material is applied
in a very hard state-approximately 600
BHN-and develops a final hardness of about
700 BHN. The Eteka 5 material is applied to
the rail in a fairly soft form, but develops a
hardness of 550 to 600 BHN very quickly.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
The AQ anti-screech material is applied in a
soft state and develops a hardness of about
80 BHN. Although the AQ material is soft, it is
protected by and designed to wear at the
same rate as the surrounding rail. Additional
information on Riflex welding is included in
Chapter 9.
Riflex welding applications have had mixed
success in North America. The carbon
content of rail specified in North America has
resulted from adverse performance in the
welding procedure and long-term
performance. The use of the Riflex process
requires a detailed specification procedure
that matches the rail steel.
5.3 RESTRAINING RAIL DESIGNS FOR
GUARDED TRACK
Guarded track in light rail transit design, as
described in Chapter 4, reduces curve wear
on sharp curves by restraining the wheels
away from the outer rail. The guard (or
restraining) rail is close to the inside rail of the
curve and contacts the back of the inside
wheel flange. The design of guarded or
restraining rail differs, and over the years
various designs have been used.
Traditionally, curve guarding on street railway
systems was frequently achieved using a
girder guard rail section similar to the rail
sections illustrated in Figure 52.2. Ballasted
and direct fixation track requiring guarding
used a separate restraining rail mounted
adjacent to the running rail. Exceptions can
be found, depending on the requirements and
circumstances of a particular system.
The following sections discuss the various
designs for guarded track or restraining rail.
Sharp curves with restraining rail are very
complicated to fabricate and construct in the
field. Prefabricating curves on a shop floor
5-12
can improve quality and reduce field
installation time.
5.3.1 Girder Guard Rail for Embedded
Track
Many historic North American girder guard rail
sections were either 140ER7B or 152ER9B
and, more recently, 149 RE7A. These
sections were developed specifically for
embedded street track to provide a substantial
restraining rail guard lip or tram on the rail to
act as the restraining guard face. In tangent
track a mating girder groove rail section of
similar height with a reduced girder rail lip was
available to complete the embedded track
installation.
These girder groove rail and girder guard rail
sections were developed to suit specific wheel
profile sections and transit wheel gauge
resulting in a reduced flangeway. The last
section rolled in North America, the 149 RE-
7A, was a railroad girder guard rail with a
wider flangeway that was compatible to the
AAR wheel and wheel gauge. Earlier
contemporary light rail systems adopted this
girder guard rail section as standard to suit the
AAR vehicle wheel gauge. These sections
are no longer manufactured or rolled.
To fill the availability void in girder groove and
girder guard rail, European girder groove rail
sections have been used. The most popular
European sections are Ri59, Ri60, and GGR-
118. These sections are all pure transit girder
rail sections with reduced flangeway widths as
shown on Figure 52.2. The GGR-118 girder
groove rail section is no longer available.
Other girder groove rail sections rolled in
Europe that can be considered for transit use
in North America are the IC, Ri52N, Ri53N,
NP4a, and G35. European girder rails are not
compatible with freight operations. Recently
the Ri60 girder groove rail was modified to

increase the girder lip height to introduce a
section conforming to girder guard rail
requirements.
The dilemma confronting the North American
light rail track designers is the lack of a
suitable girder guard rail section with the
increased flangeway width required to provide
guarded track in embedded sharp radius
curved track sections. The European girder
groove rail sections are adaptable if a transit
wheel gauge is selected for the wheel set.
The AAR wheel gauge of 1414 millimeters
(55.6875 inches) is not compatible with these
girder rail sections.
Alternate design methods have been used in
embedded track to overcome the flangeway
width issue. These designs included the
“Pittsburgh” strap guard with 115 RE rail, the
use of conventional tee rail restraining rail,
and the use of 115 RE rail with a formed
flangeway with no restraining rail protection.
Unfortunately, none of these design concepts
provides the ultimate rail section, and they
have proven to be adequate at best.
As a guideline, a transit wheel profile and
transit wheel gauge of 1421 millimeters (55.94
inches) are recommended and the modified Ri
59N girder groove rail section with a hardened
girder tram lip can be used in sharp radius
curved track. This combination of transit-
related standards provides an adequate
guarded track system. A wider wheel gauge
of 1429 millimeters (56.25 inches) would allow
the use of RiGON girder groove rail with the
proper truck wheel set (axle spacing).
5.3.2 Tee Rail for Guarded Ballasted and
Direct Fixation Track
Ballasted and direct fixation track with sharp
curves have used various designs to provide
the required restraint. Guarding is typically
provided by mounting a separate “restraining
5-I 3
Track Components and Materials
rail” parallel and concentric to the inside
running rail, with the horizontal distance
between the two rails set at the required
flangeway dimension.
The restraining rail can be fabricated from one
of several steel shapes and may or may not
be physically attached to the running rail. In
versions that are physically bolted to the
running rail, the restraining rail/running rail
assembly must be designed as a unit so that
curvature is consistent and bolt holes in both
rails are aligned.
5.3.2.1 Vertically Mounted Restraining
Rails
The most common type of restraining rail is a
vertically mounted tee rail as shown in Figure
5.3.1. The restraining rail is fabricated by
planing away a portion of the base of a
standard tee rail, which is then bolted to the
running rail at intervals of 600 to 900
millimeters (24 to 36 inches). Cast or
machined steel spacer blocks are placed
between the running rail and the restraining
rail to provide the desired flangeway. Some
designs fabricate the spacer blocks in two
pieces and insert shims between them to
adjust the flangeway width so that the
flangeway can be restored to the design
dimension as the guard rail face wears.
Although this design feature appears sound,
few transit systems actually take advantage of
this maintenance feature.
The restraining rail and the running rail webs
must be drilled to insert connecting bolts. The
bolt hole spacing must be detailed on the
shop drawings because the restraining rail is
on a slightly larger horizontal radius than the
running rail to which it is attached. In addition,
the bolt hole spacing will be different on each
rail. While this differential is minor between
any pair of bolt holes, it will become significant
when accumulated over the full length of a
rail.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

crosstie or rail fastener should be coordinated

to ensure that the bolt assembly will not
interfere with insertion of the elastic rail clip.
The bolt must be able to be tightened without
CfflWTioNAL MRTICAL RfSTTWNlNG RAILS
requiring removal of the rail clip.

The combined running rail/restraining rail

STRAP GUARD REJR*ININC RAlL
assembly will usually be installed on a
common extended rail fastener or tie plate
unlike those used under single running rails.
HORIZCNTAL RESTRAJNINGRPJL
Restraining rail installed on concrete crossties
will require a special restraining rail crosstie
with a wider shoulder mounting.

Vertically mounted restraining rails have been

U69 RESTRAININGRAlL
Figure 5.3. I Typicai Restraining
Rail Arrangements
For curves with radii less than 100 meters
(328 feet), combined running and restraining
rails are typically precurved and fabricated
together on a shop floor. For ease of
shipment, these precurved segments are
usually 12 meters (39 feet) long or less. For
curves with radii greater than 100 meters as
well as through curve spirals, where the
running rail can usually be field sprung (bent)
to the desired curve, shop curving of both
running and restraining rails is typically not
performed. To eliminate the need to drill
countless holes in the field conditions, only
the restraining rail is drilled. The restraining
rail is often the same rail section as the
running rail. In cases where the restraining
rail is elevated above the head of the running
rail, the restraining rail is fabricated from the
next larger rail section (e.g., 115 RE running
rail would be paired with a 132 RE restraining
rail). In other designs, the same rail section is
used, but a riser shim is welded to the rail
fastening plate beneath the restraining rail to
elevate it.
If elastic rail fastenings are used, the spacing
between the restraining rail bolts and the
used in all the types of track structures. When
employed in embedded track, it is necessary
(Guard)
to seal the flangeway to keep out moisture
and debris. A restraining rail assembly in
embedded track will have multiple paths for
seepage. Even with sealants, it is critical to
provide sub-drainage to keep the track dry.
5.3.2.2 Horizontally Mounted Restraining
Rails
Transit systems have used horizontal designs
where the restraining rail is mounted with the
rails Y axis oriented horizontally, as shown on
Figure 53.1. This is a relatively old design
that is currently used only in older transit
installations.
As a guideline, horizontally mounted
restraining rail is not recommended for light
rail transit use although some traditional
streetcar systems used it at one time.
Horizontally mounted restraining rail cannot
be used in embedded track areas.
5.3.2.3 Strap Guard Rail
A relatively recent restraining rail design uses
a special rolled section, known as the
Pittsburgh strap guard, with 115 RE rail as
shown in Figure 53.1. The strap guard
section can be bolted directly to the web area

5-14
 Track Components and Materials

of the running rail. The strap guard section
was developed for the Pittsburgh light rail
transit system in the early 1980s based on
similar sections that were roiled for ASCE
rails in the early 20ti century. This section, as
presently designed, accommodates only small
streetcar-sized wheel flanges. Where it was
used with railroad wheel flanges, it was
necessary to insert shims between the web of
the running rail and the strap guard to obtain a
wider flangeway.
One advantage of the strap guard rail is that it
does not require special rail fasteners or
crossties. The only requirement is a specially
designed rail clip that can bear on the lower
flange of the guard on the gauge side of the
assembly. The field-side rail holddown device
can be the same as that used in single rail
installations, which facilitates adding strap
guards to an existing curve that is
experiencing rail wear.
used for frog guardrails on several North
American light rail transit systems.
The major advantage of using the U69 section
as a restraining rail is the capability of
independent mounting from the running rail as
shown in Figure 53.1. To improve on its
function as a restraining rail, the U69 section
features a raised design The restraining rail
face is positioned 20 millimeters (0.7887
inches) above the top of the running rail, to
allow additional contact with the flat vertical
face of the back of wheel.
The independent mounting is provided by a
mounting bracket that allows the restraining
rail to be mounted adjacent to the running rail,
providing the required flangeway width. The
mounting bracket design can either be
separate from the running rail fastening plate,
direct fixation fastener, or an integral part of
the fastening plate.

The main disadvantage of the strap guard is

that a large number of holes must be drilled in 5.3.3 Restraining Rail Recommendations
both the strap guard and the running rail and a
As a guideline the following mountings are
large number of threaded fastenings must be
recommended:
maintained.
Concrete Crosstie Track-a separate U69
As a guideline, the strap guard rail assembly mounting is provided by two additional
should be used only as a last resort for either anchor bolt inserts that are cast in the
girder rail or girder guard rail light rail transit concrete crosstie during tie production.
installations. The installation should be insulated and
the bracket designed to clear the running
rail fastening.
5.3.2.4 UK33 (U69) Restraining Rail
Direct Fixation Track-a separate U69
A new restraining rail design for use in North
mounting is provided by two additional
American light rail transit system is the
anchor bolt inserts cast in the direct
popular UIC33 section from Europe. The UIC
fixation concrete plinth during plinth
33 section is also referred to as the U69 or
installation. The installation should be
RL-160 section. For standardization,
insulated and the bracket designed to
hereinafter the section will be referred to as
clear the direct fixation fastener
the U69 restraining rail section. The U69
components.
section in Europe has primarily been used as
a guardrail for special trackwork frog Timber Crosstie Track-joint U69
locations. The U69 section has also been mounting with the running rail fastening
plate. A welded assembly or cast steel

5-l 5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
fastening plate can be used. The single
unit fastening plate with a bracket
provides improved holding by using the
weight of the vehicle to retain the plate
bracket position. The installation should
be insulated, and the bracket designed to
clear the running rail fastenings.
The U69 restraining rail assembly provides for
flangeway width adjustment by adding shims
directly behind the U69 restraining rail. This
adjustment can be undertaken without
disturbing the running rail installation.
The U69 restraining rail can be provided in 15
and 18-meter (49- and 59-foot) lengths.
Special four bolt joint bar assemblies are used
to join these lengths. To allow for minor
thermal expansion in the U69 section, it is
recommended that slotted holes be made in
the joint bars.
On aerial structure installations where thermal
expansion of the structure must be
accommodated, the U69 restraining rail
mounting bolt holes at each mounting bracket
should be slotted to allow the structure to
move longitudinally.
On sharp radius curved track installations, the
precurving of the U69 section is preferred in
lieu of springing (bending) the U69 restraining
rail into position. Design and shop drawing
layout of the curved track to conform to the
various installations is required.
5.3.4 Restraining Rail Thermal Expansion
and Contraction
Restraining rails undergo thermal adjustment
as do running rails. They should not be
continuously welded because it would be
virtually impossible to install them at the same
zero thermal stress temperature as the
adjacent running rails. It is customary,
therefore, to fabricate restraining rail in 9- and
5-16
12-meter (30- and 39-foot)-long segments and
provide expansion gaps at bolted restraining
rail joints. If the adjoining running rail is
continuously welded, any connections
between the restraining rail and the running
rails should allow for some longitudinal
movement between the two rails. This can be
accomplished by drilling oversized bolt holes.
5.4 FASTENINGS AND FASTENERS
The fastening is the device that holds the rail
in place on either a tie plate, direct fixation
fastener, or concrete crosstie. While the
original spike was used to provide lateral
support, new elastic fasteners also restrain
longitudinal forces in CWR.
Track designers are continuously striving to
improve rail fastenings and fasteners. Current
popular fastenings include:
l Conventional rolled tie plates with cut
spikes, used on timber ties (no insulation).
l Rolled formed shoulder tie plates with
elastic rail fastenings and cut or screw
plate holddown spikes, used on timber
ties (with or without insulation).
l Plates with rigid crane rail clips, used in
embedded and direct fixation track.
l Insulated elastomer direct fixation
fasteners used on direct fixation track and
occasionally in embedded track.
5.4.1 Insulated Fastenings and Fasteners
The light rail vehicle draws power from the
overhead catenary wire and returns it through
the running rails to the power substation. The
use of the running rails as an electrical
conductor is one of the main differences
between freight railroads and light rail transit
systems. The negative return current must be
controlled at the rail to retard or reduce stray

current leakage, which causes corrosion of
transit track structures, utilities, and nearby
structures. For additional information on stray
current protection refer to Chapter 8.
The rail fasteners and fastenings are used to
insulate the rail from the ground Ballasted
track often relies on timber ties to insulate
rails from the ground. Although wood is
considered a non-conducting material, the
timber crosstie does not provide total
insulation for the negative return running rail.
Additional insulation may be provided to
further isolate the rail and/or fastening plate
from the timber crossties where stray current
corrosion is an issue.
On concrete and steel ties, elastic clip
fastenings are used. The clips are insulated
from the rail by plastic insulators and the rail is
placed on an insulating pad. Insulated track
fastenings or fasteners are needed to attach
rails in ballasted, direct fixation and embedded
track. However, track fastenings may be
omitted in embedded track designs where the
rails are supported by embedment materials.
5.4.1.1 Isolation at the Rail Base
To provide electrical isolation of the rail from
the surrounding track components, the
insulating barrier must be installed at the base
of the rail or mounting surface. The insulating
barrier consists of a rail base pad and
insulators for the edges of the rail base. The
rail base may be fully insulated from the
mounting surface, as shown in Figure 5.4.1.
5.4.1.2 Isolation at the Fastening or
Fastener Base
To provide electrical isolation of the fastening
from the surrounding track components, the
insulating barrier must be installed at the base
of fastening or mounting surface. The
insulating barrier consists of an insulated base
5-17
Track ComDonents and Materials
Eusnc FASTENING
l- MOUNTING
SURFACE
Figure 5.4.1 Isolation at the Rail Base
fastening pad and insulating thimble-collars
for the anchoring screws or bolts, as shown in
Figure 5.4.2.
5.4.2 Fastenings for Timber and Concrete
Crossties for Ballasted Track
The current standard for light rail transit
ballasted track is to use either timber or
concrete crossties. For additional information
on ballasted track refer to Chapter 4.
Traditionally, track constructed with timber
crossties, CWR, and cut spikes also included
rail anchors to restrain the rail from
movement. This style of track installation has
been economically replaced with elastic
spring clips to hold the rail to the tie plate.
The elastic clip now provides the longitudinal
restraint as well as holding the rail down.
These clips eliminate rail anchors that
protrude into the ballast and are virtually
impossible to insulate to provide stray current
protection.
The trend in design of main line LRT track
appears to be toward the use of concrete
crossties. Concrete crossties provide superior
gauge, line, and surface retention over timber
crossties and the simple fastening method of
elastic clips holds the rails and electrically
isolates them from the ground as shown in
Figure 5.4.1. Main line transit track with
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

For additional information on direct fixation

track design, refer to Chapter 4.

Although rails can be attached to concrete

decks as shown in Figure 54.1, the common
practice in direct fixation track is to use a
bonded (or unbonded) direct fixation (DF)
ENLARGED‘JEW fastener plate as shown in Figure 5.4.2.

The terms fastening and direct fixation

FASTENING PAD
MOUNTING SURFACE
Figure 5.4.2 Isolation at the Fastening
Fastener Base
timber crossties must consider the insulation
method shown in Figure 5.4.2 with screw
spikes used to secure the tie plate.
Economically, concrete and timber crossties
with insulated tie plates are approximately
equal in cost for large-volume procurements.
This may change depending on the availability
of timber.
Special trackwork installations on timber and
concrete switch ties must consider the
insulating method shown in Figure 54.2. This
is similar to main line timber crosstie
installations, which use larger special
trackwork fastening plates at the switch and
frog areas. Insulated plates, screwed to the
timber or concrete crosstie insert with an
elastic spring clip for rail support, have a
proven service record.
5.4.3 Fasteners for Direct Fixation
fastener refer to two distinct track
components. Fastenings are the individual
components, or series of components,
mounted separately to hold the rail tight in
place, such as on a concrete crosstie with no
or plate. Direct fixation fasteners consist of a
vulcanized/bonded steel plate and elastomer
pad or a steel plate mounted on an unbonded
elastomer pad. The direct fixation fastener
plate often provides lateral rail adjustment in
the anchor bolt area.
All modern heavy rail transit systems, starting
with Toronto in 1964 and BART in 1968, have
used resilient DF fasteners in subway track
and aerial track. DF fasteners have been
redesigned and improved to the point where
there are numerous styles from which to
choose.
One of the earliest DF fastener designs is the
Toronto Transit Commission’s (TX)
unbonded fastener with a natural rubber pad.
Later designs included vulcanize bonded
fasteners with rolled steel top and bottom
plates. More recently, fasteners with either
rolled steel, cast top plates, or cast bases are
being used. Fasteners with a soft elastomer
material are available to provide an extra
Track measure of groundborne noise reduction.

Direct fixation track is most often constructed DF fastener designs have used various
on: fastenings including bolted rail connections,
l Concrete slab track at-grade rigid clips and spring wedges, and elastic
l Concrete invert in tunnels spring clips with variable toe loads. The
l Concrete deck on aerial structures elastomer pad has been manufactured with

5-I 8
 Track Components and Materials

synthetic elastomers, natural rubber
elastomers, and polyurethane materials.
These materials have been formulated to
provide both high- and low-spring rates for the
track. Fasteners are held to the invert with
anchor bolts consisting of embedded studs
with spring washers and nuts or female
anchor inserts with spring washers and bolts.
Some of the earlier designs were inadequate
because of problems in design, material,
installation, or overloading,
Resilient DF fasteners have long been used
by U.S. transit systems. These fasteners
provide a moderate degree of vibration
isolation, require less maintenance,
produce better rail alignment than ballasted
track. The typical static stiffness of DF
fasteners used by various U.S. systems is on
the order of 20 to 50 MN/m (112,000 to
280,000 pounds per inch), with spacing
ranging from about 760 to 900 millimeters (2.5
to 3 feet). Recent concerns over the control of
rail corrugation and the desirability
approximating the stiffness of ballast and
crosstie track have modified the design of DF
fasteners such that the stiffness is on the
order of 19 MN/m (106,000 pounds per inch).
These fasteners incorporate elastomer
bonded between a cast iron or steel top plate
and stamped steel base. A snubber is
installed between the top and bottom plates,
beneath the rail seat, to limit lateral motion of
the top plate. Lateral rail head stiffness is on
the order of 5 MN/m (30,000 pounds per inch).
Fasteners have been supplied with vertical
stiffness on the order of 20 MN/m, but with
very low lateral stiffness on the order of 1.75
MN/m (9,800 pounds per inch), due to lack of
a snubber or other lateral restraint.
differences in lateral stiffness
differences in design philosophy.
Fastener designs that control structure-
radiated noise often feature an anchoring
system with anchor bolts that directly attach
the base plate to the concrete invert or
crosstie, without passing through the top
plate. This approach eliminates lateral
bending moments, which would otherwise be
applied to the anchor bolts due to lateral rail
forces
5.4.3.1 Fastener Design Consideration
The principal design parameters for direct
fixation fasteners are discussed in the
following paragraphs:
5.4.3.1.1 Vertical Static Stiffness
Vertical static stiffness is often called spring
and rate, and represents the slope of the load
versus deflection over a prescribed range of
5,000 to 55,000 N (1,000 to 12,000 pounds).
Current light rail track designs include a static
stiffness of about 18 to 21 MN/m (100,000 to
120,000 pounds per inch), which, with a 760-
millimeter (30-inch) fastener spacing, gives a
rail support modulus of about 26 MN/m* (3,700
of pounds per square inch). One feature of low
stiffness fasteners is that they distribute rail
static deflection over a larger number of
fasteners, making the rail appear more
uniformly supported. Low rail support
stiffness reduces the pinned-pinned mode
resonance frequency due to discrete rail
supports, as well as the rail-on-fastener
vertical resonance frequency. Static stiffness
in the 18 to 21 NM/m range provides
reasonable control of track deflection in the
vertical direction without unduly compromising
lateral stiffness.
5.4.3.1.2 Ratio of Dynamic to Static
Stiffness (Vertical)
These
The ratio of vertical dynamic to static stiffness
reflect
is a very important quantity that describes the
quality of the elastomer. A low ratio is
desirable to maintain a high degree of
vibration isolation. A desirable upper limit on
the ratio is 1.4, which is easily obtained with

5-19
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

fasteners manufactured with a natural rubber
elastomer or a rubber derivative. Ratios of 1.3
are not uncommon with natural rubber
elastomer in shear designs. As a rule,
elastomers capable of meeting the limit of 1.4
must be of high quality and generally exhibit
low creep.
5.4.3.1.3 Lateral Restraint
Lateral restraint is the ability of the fastener to
horizontally restrain the rail. High lateral
restraint is often incompatible with vibration
isolation design requirements. Therefore,
fasteners that provide adequate stiffness to
guarantee both an adequate degree of
horizontal position control as well as vibration
isolation are desirable. Snubbers are
protruding portions of metal plate that
penetrate the adjoining plate to act as a limit
flange in controlling lateral displacement. The
guiding design principle is to provide a three
degree-of-freedom isolator. Hard snubbers
are undesirable in fasteners, because they
limit vibration isolation only in the vertical
direction.
5.4.3.1.4 Lateral Stiffness at the Rail Head
Lateral stiffness is measured at the rail head
and includes the effect of fastener top-plate
rotation. Light rail track design must maintain
rail head position within tight tolerances on
both curves and tangent track. This is
potentially in conflict with the requirement for
horizontal vibration isolation. The lateral
deflection of the top plate of typical sandwich
fasteners is limited by the snubbers and to a
lesser extent by the elastomer in shear. If the
snubber is located beneath the rail, a low
fastener with low vertical stiffness will have
low rotational stiffness and thus poor rail head
control. This conflict has been overcome by
one European design, which incorporates
elastomer in shear with a large lateral
dimension to resist overturning. Another way
of overcoming this potential conflict is to move
most of the elastomer to the ends of the
fastener, away from the rail center, thus
maximizing the reaction moment to
overturning forces. A snubber should not be
installed at the center of the fastener. If a
snubber is required, it should be located
towards the lateral ends of the fastener to
minimize rotation of the rail by forcing the rail
to rotate about a point located towards the
field side of the rail in response to gauge face
forces.
5.5 CROSSTIES AND SWITCH TIES
Ballasted track requires crossties to support
the rail. Chapter 4 discusses crossties in the
design of ballasted track. Crossties are used
mainly for ballasted track, although they are
occasionally used in both direct fixation
encased track, where a crosstie or sections
thereof are encased in a concrete track
structure, and in embedded track, where the
crosstie is embedded with the track structure
Crossties are generally made of three specific
materials: timber, concrete or steel. There
has been some experimenting with composite
crossties consisting of epoxy composites and
plastics. These composite ties have seen
little service and are not discussed further
herein.
The development of pre-stressed precast
concrete at reasonable prices has led to the
current concrete crosstie design, which
features encased rail shoulders and sundry
inserts for the application of trackwork
components. The concrete crosstie designs
have been refined to suit light rail transit use.
A recent innovation is the design of the
serrated side (scalloped) concrete crossties
that improve lateral stability.
Light rail transit systems use both timber and
concrete crossties. The predominant

5-20

standard appears to be concrete crossties for
the main line track, with timber ties for
maintenance facility and yard tracks. Special
trackwork installations for both main line and
yard track use timber ties, although concrete
ties have been considered and recently
implemented on a transit system.
55.1 Timber Crossties
The timber currently used in crossties
includes selected hardwoods, with tropical
species also being considered. The reduced
availability of this timber has driven up the
cost of ties, as has the environmental aspects
of treating the wood. For new light rail transit
systems constructed in early 198Os, timber
ties (wood is a non-conductor) provided
sufficient electrical isolation. Today, many
believe that additional insulation is required in
locations where stray current corrosion is an
issue. Recent timber tie fastening designs
include a tie plate that adds a layer of
insulation between the bottom of the tie plate
and the top of the tie.
The requirement for an insulated tie plate to
be mounted on the timber tie dictates the
general width of the tie. Standard tie plate
widths range from l&O to 190 millimeters (7
to7-% inches), with an insulated tie pad
protruding a minimum of 12 millimeters (l/2
inch) on all sides of the tie plate results in a
minimum width of 204 millimeters (8 inches).
A 230-millimeter (g-inch) wide timber tie
provides sufficient surface to support the total
insulator pad with no overhang beyond the
edge of tie. Skewed tie plates at special
trackwork locations must consider the
overhang issue in relation to degree of the
skew angle.
The length of crosstie relates to the standard
track gauge of 1435 millimeters (56-X inches)
and is generally 2590 millimeters (8 feet 6
5-21
Track Components and Materials
inches) long. Transit systems with a wider
track gauge require a longer timber crosstie.
Timber crossties are generally required to
conform with the current specifications of the
AREMA Manual, Chapter 30 (formerly 3) Ties
and Wood Preservation.
As a guideline, timber crossties for light rail
transit use should be hardwood-preferably
oak-and generally 180 x 230 millimeters (7x9
inch) wide x 2.6 meters (8 feet, 6 inches) long.
Tie length may vary depending on the track
gauge selected. The 7-inch tie depth is
referred to as a 7-inch grade crosstie. (The
metric system has not been used to classify
tie sizes).
When using timber crossties conforming to
AREMA recommendations, the type of wood,
tie size, anti-splitting device, wood
preservative treatment, and machining should
be specified in the procurement contract.
55.2 Concrete Crossties
Concrete crossties are becoming more
common in light rail transit designs as life
cycle costing makes them competitive with
timber crossties. The most common concrete
crosstie is the monoblock tie with embedded
cast steel shoulders and pre-tensioned wires.
The rail fastening system consists of an
elastic clip with insulating rail seat pad and
clip insulators, as shown in Figure 5.4.1.
In addition to the conventional crosstie that
holds the two running rails, a special crosstie
is needed to hold the restraining rail in
guarded track at sharp curves. The size of
the two ties is similar. The configuration of
the restraining rail crosstie provides a
relatively level surface between the rails to
support the specific design of the restraining
rail assembly.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

The standard size of light rail transit concrete the determined calculated load limits. The
crossties is generally 255 millimeters (10 tests should be conducted in accordance with
inches) wide and 2515 millimeters (99 inches) the procedures outlined in the AREMA
long at the base of tie. The tie is tapered to a Manual, Chapter 30.
190-millimeter (7.5-inch) height at the rail seat
and a 165-millimeter (6.5-inch) height at the
center of the tie. The height at the center of 5.5.3 Switch Ties-Timber and Concrete
the tie will increase to suit the restraining rail
Special trackwork switch ties for light rail
design. The length of concrete crossties may
transit system installations have been
vary between transit systems; however, 2515
primarily timber based on conventional
millimeters (8 feet 3 inches) appears to be the
railroad standards
most common length for standard track
gauge. Concrete switch ties have been developed by
the railroad industry to meet heavy haul freight
The concrete crosstie design for light rail
maintenance requirements. History has
transit track is based on the light rail vehicle
shown that high engineering design and
weight, anticipated loads and vehicle
fabrication costs contributed to the limited use
operating velocity. It is generally a smaller
of concrete switch tie sets, with timber being
version of the concrete railroad crosstie with
more economical.
less reinforcement and a reduced cross
section sufficient to meet the positive and The transit industry’s minimal use of concrete
negative rail seat and tie center bending test switch ties has been primarily on commuter
requirements. Specifications for concrete
railroad lines utilizing large-size turnouts and
crossties in light rail transit track differ from
high-speed turnouts.
standard railroad track crosstie specifications
due to the different vehicle loads and resultant Various turnout standards exist among light
forces on the crossties. The concrete railroad rail transit agencies; therefore various
crosstie is a sturdier tie in conformance with concrete tie geometric layouts and designs
the specifications of AREMA Manual, Chapter would be required to meet all requirements.
30. Standardization and simplicity in tie design is
required to provide the light rail transit industry
with a uniform standard concrete switch tie set
5.5.2.1 Concrete Crosstie Design
for the various turnout sizes.
The design of concrete crossties for light rail
transit track is based on performance
specifications that consider: 5.5.3.1 Timber Switch Ties
l Tie spacing Timber hardwood switch ties is the standard
l Tie size for light rail transit special trackwork turnouts
l Wheel loads and crossovers. In locations where stray
0 Impact factor current corrosion is an issue, added insulation
is needed.
5.5.2.2 Concrete Crosstie Testing
Similar to main line timber crossties, the
Prior to acceptance of the concrete crosstie
requirement for an insulated switch tie plate to
design, the manufactured crosstie should be
be mounted on the tie dictates the general
tested for compliance with specifications and
width of the tie. A 230-millimeter (g-inch) wide

5-22

timber switch tie provides adequate surface to
support the entire insulator pad with no
overhang beyond the edge of the tie. Special
trackwork plates or fastenings are subjected
to skewing of the plates to provide a
perpendicular mounting at the rail base.
Otherwise, special provisions within the plate
design must allow the plate to mount parallel
to, and entirely on, the tie surface. Skewed
plates or insulation should not project beyond
the edge of tie.
Timber switch ties should be supplied in
accordance with current recommendations, of
the AREMA Manual, Chapter 30.
As a guideline, timber switch ties for light rail
transit use should be hardwood-preferably
oak-and generally 180 x 230 millimeters (7 x
9 inches) wide and of a suitable length for the
turnout installation. The switch tie sets
generally conform to AREMA Standard Plan
No. 912.
When using timber switch ties conforming to
AREMA Manual recommendations, the type of
wood, tie size, anti-splitting device, wood
preservative treatment, and machining should
be specified in the procurement contract.
5.5.3.2 Concrete Switch Ties
Current concrete switch tie designs have
generally been a joint effort between the
transit authorities and the concrete tie
manufacturers through various technical
committees. The turnout design provides the
geometric layout establishing the tie spacing
and the corresponding tie lengths. The
spacing for concrete ties must deviate from
AREMA standards for timber switch ties due
to the increased width of the concrete switch
tie. Threaded anchor inserts in the tie are a
requirement for standard switch plates, frog
plates and guard rail plates. Areas of the
turnout layout where single rail installation is
5-23
Track Cumponen ts and Materials
required, such as the closure curve zone
between the heel of switch and toe of frog, will
require an alternate rail mounting method.
The standard conventional embedded
shoulder and elastic clip, with proper
insulation, may be used at locations on the
switch tie where clearance allows the four
rails to be mounted individually. The height
differentials between switch, frog and guard
rail plates and the standard conventional rail
installation must be considered in the design.
Generally the single rail locations have a built-
up concrete base to match the plated top of
rail height.
Standards for concrete switch ties should be
developed for various turnout and crossover
arrangements in light rail transit track.
Standardization will allow for more economical
engineering and manufacturing and increased
use of concrete switch ties, which are more
compatible with concrete main line crossties.
As a guideline, concrete switch ties for light
rail transit use should be approximately 255
millimeters (10 inches) wide at the top of tie,
285 millimeters (11.25 inches) wide at the
base of the tie, and 240 millimeters (9.5
inches) high throughout. The length should
be sufficient to suit the turnout geometry and
provide sufficient shoulder length. The
fastenings and switch, frog, guardrail, and
turnout plates should be insulated to retard
stray current leakage. The concrete switch
ties should comply with the appropriate
specifications for concrete ties, as outlined in
AREMA Manual, Chapter 30.
5.6 TRACK (RAIL) JOINTS
Rail joints are the weakest component in the
track structure, and are unavoidable on any
track structure. To connect the short lengths
of rolled rail, a rail joint is required. There are
various types of rail joints grouped as follows:
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

1. Welded Joints length to facilitate transport of the rail to the

- Pressure electric flash butt weld site.
- Thermite (kit) weld
2. Insulated joints Electric flash butt welding is defined as a
- Standard non glued bolted insulated forged weld where an electrical charge is
joint passed between the rails until the steel is
+ 4-Hole plastic. The rails are then forced together to
+ 6-Hole the point at which the steel refuses further
- Glued Bolted Insulated joint plastic deformation.
+ 4-Hole
+ g-Hole
5.6.1.2 Thermite Weld
3. Bolted Joints
Thermite welds are produced with molten
- Standard (Non Glued) Bolted Joint
steel, cast from a crucible, and poured into the
+ 4-Hole
gap between two rails. The molten steel is
+ 6-Hole
produced with a chemical “exothermic”
- Glued Bolted Joint
reaction between aluminum and iron oxides.
+ 4-Hole
Additives in the mix create the other
+ 6-Hole
components needed to make the steel.
5.6.1 Welded Joints Thermite welding requires preheating the rail
ends in order to create a good bond between
Welded rail joints forming continuous welded the old and new steel. It is important that the
rail out of many short lengths of the rail has resultant steel plug has the same hardness as
been standard in the railroad industry for over the parent rail steel. Manufacturers can
40 years. Elimination of bolted rail joints has produce welds with different hardnesses to
improved the track structure and reduced the ensure compatibility.
excessive maintenance required at bolted rail
joints. Rail welding in North America is CWR rail strings are generally joined or
generally accomplished using either the welded together by the thermite weld process.
pressure electric flash butt weld or the
Portable flash butt welding is an alternative to
thermite weld method.. CWR strings allow the
the thermite weld process. A flash butt
DC current to be carried efficiently through the
welding head is transported to the installation
rails.
site to join the CWR strings. Either weld
method is acceptable.
5.6.1.1 Pressure Electric Flash Butt Weld
Most rail strings are welded together by the Welding rail eliminates bolted joints and most
pressure welding process (flash butt welding) of the associated joint maintenance.
in a welding plant operation. The rolled rail However, CWR creates other issues, such as
sticks are welded continuously in various structural interaction on bridges which must
predetermined rail lengths capable of being be addressed by the designer (refer to
transported to the track laying location by Chapter 7).
special rail trains. CWR lengths are nominally
439 meters (1440 feet). Rail strings used in
light rail transit construction are often half this

5-24

5.62 Insulated and Non-Insulated Joints
Although bolted rail joints are the weakest
points in the track structure, some bolted
joints are required. These include insulated
rail joints that provide the necessary signal
sections for track operations to detect vehicle
locations, tripping signal circuits, clearance
points, and other specific detection networks.
An insulated joint separates the ends of the
rails to break the signal continuity by use of an
insulated end post.
Both non-glued and epoxy glued rail joints
have become standard for various conditions.
5.6.2.1 Non-glued Insulated Joints
Standard bolted insulated joints (non-glued)
consist of two coated insulated joint bars,
thimbles and end post bolted similar to a
regular track joint. Standard bolted insulation
joints are recommended for use only in bolted
jointed track, to provide electrical circuit
isolation.
5.6.2.2 Glued Bolted Insulated Joints
Standard glued insulated joints are similar to
non-glued joints, except the joint bars are
shaped to fit the rail fishing to allow the bars to
be glued to the web of the rail. The glued
joints provide a longitudinal connection at the
rail ends to withstand a rail joint pull-apart in
CWR. The glued insulated joints carry the
CWR forces through the adjoining insulated
bars, and do not rely on the shear forces on
the joint bolts.
5.6.2.3 Bolted Joints
In light rail transit systems, jointed track is
used only for very sharp curves with
restraining rail, maintenance yard facilities, or
secondary non-revenue track. Rail joints
consist of two joint bars on each side of the
rail and a series of track bolts with spring lock
5-25
Track ComDonents and Materials
washers and heavy square nuts. While joint
bar standards vary, there are two general
standards: the 4-hole joint bar and the 6-hole
joint bar.
At one time, various railroads had different rail
drilling spacing for the bolt holes; however,
over the years, rail drilling spacing was
standardized, as documented in the AREMA
Manual. The hole spacing recommended in
AREMA should be followed for jointed rails.
5.6.3 Compromise Joints
Compromise joint bars are required to join two
dissimilar rail sections. The compromise joint
bars are machined or forged to the shape
necessary to join the two dissimilar rails. The
shape allows both rails to align at the top of
rail and the gauge face of both rails.
Compromise joint bars, due to design shape,
are right- and left-hand installations. The
hand designation is defined by the location of
the larger rail as seen from the center of the
track. To overcome the use of bolted
compromise joints in main line track, welding
of the two dissimilar sections is considered
when the sections are almost identical.
Thermite weld kits are manufactured for this
situation. A recent design in tee rail-to-girder
rail joints is the use of a compromise rail
block, in which the rail sections of each rail
are machined at each end of a block of steel
and a common top of rail and gauge line is
developed in the machining process. The
compromise block is then welded into the
track providing a boltless connection.
5.7 BALLAST AND SUBBALLAST m
Ballast, the material used to support the ties
and rail, is an important component in the
track structure. It is the integral part of the
track structure in the roadbed and the quality
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

of the ballast material has a direct relationship - Granite

to the track support system.
Light rail transit vehicles often exceed 45,500
kilograms (100,000 pounds) placing increased
importance on the track structure, particularly
the ballast quality and quantity. Superior
ballast materials improve the track structure
performance and are an economical method
of increasing the track strength and the
modulus of elasticity
The importance of the quality and type of
ballast material, along with standard test
methods for evaluating the ballast material,
cannot be overstated.
The quality of the ballast will be determined by
the choice of rock and the eventual testing of
the rock, followed by observing
performance in the track structure. The
physical and chemical properties of the ballast
rock or stone can be determined by many
material tests and performance evaluations.
However, the true test of ballast performance
is to observe it in the real-life track structure.
57.1 Ballast Materials
Ballast should be a hard, dense mineral
aggregate with a specific configuration of
many fractured faces, angular structure with
sharp edges, and with the minimum of
elongation.
As a guideline, ballast material for light rail
transit use shall be as follows:
l With Concrete Crossties
- Granite: a plutonic rock with an even
texture consisting of feldspar and
quartz.
- Traprock: a dark-colored fine grain
non-granitic hypabyssal or extrusive
rock.
l With Timber Crossties
- Traprock
- Quartzite: granoblastic metamorphic
rock consisting of quartz and formed
by recrystallization of sandstone or
chert by metamorphism.
- Carbonate: sedimentary rock
consisting of carbonate materials
such as limestone and dolomite.
Ballast size or gradation is important to match
the type of crosstie to be used. The gradation
of the ballast determines the sieve size to be
used in the process of ballast grading.
Table 5.3 lists the recommended gradations
for light rail transit use with concrete and
timber crossties.
the No. 5 ballast has been used for yard
applications with timber crossties to provide
an easier walking surface. The smaller
gradation may lead to earlier fouling of the
ballast and eventual lack of drainage. No. 5
ballast is only recommended when the yard
area is honeycombed with an underlying
drainage system and substantial surface
drainage channels. Yard personnel, walking
within the yard area to service vehicles, will
most probably be provided with a paved
surface walkway.
57.1 .I Testing Ballast Materials
Ballast material should be tested for quality
through a series of tests undertaken by a
certified testing laboratory. The tests should
include:
1. ASTM C88: Soundness of Aggregates by
use of Sodium Sulfate (NaSOJ. The
sodium sulfate soundness test is
conducted with the test sample saturated
with a solution of sodium sulfate. This
test will appraise the soundness of the
aggregate. Materials that do not meet
applicable test limits can be expected to

5-26
 Track ComDonents and Materials

Table 5.3 Ballast Gradations

Percent Passing

Size No Nominal Size Square 76 (3”) 64 (2%“) 51 (2”) 38 (1%) 25 (1”) 19 (?A”) 13 (‘x”) 10(3/8”) No

Opening 4

Concrete Crossties

24 w-19(2%"-%") 100 90-100 2560 O-IO O-5

3 5%25(2" -1") 100 95-100 35-70 o-15 - o-5

Timber Crossties

4A 51-19 (2" -T) 100 90-100 60-90 IO-35 O-IO o-3

4 38-19 (iv-v) 100 90-100 20-55 o-15 o-5

deteriorate rapidly from weathering and Aggregates. The test for friable materials
freezing and thawing. identifies materials that are soft and
poorly bonded and results in separate
1. ASTM Cl 17: Tesf Method for Material particles being detached from the mass.
Finer than 75 micro-inch (No. 200 Sieve) The test can identify materials that will
in Aggregates by Washing (including Dust deteriorate rapidly. Clay in the ballast
and Fracture). The concentration of fine material is determined by the same test
material below the 200 sieve in the ballast method. Excessive clay can restrict
material is determined by this ASTM test. drainage and will promote the growth of
Excessive fines are produced in some vegetation in the ballast section.
types of crushing and processing
bperations and could restrict drainage and 4. ASTM C535: Test Method for
foul the ballast section. Resistance to Degradation of Large-
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion
2. ASTM C127: Specific Gravity and and Impact in the Los Angeles
Absorption. Specific gravity and Machine. The Los Angeles abrasion
absorption are measured by this test test is a factor in determining the wear
method. Specific gravity in the Imperial characteristics of ballast material.
(English) measurement system relates to The larger ballast gradations should
weight and in the metric system to be tested in accordance with ASTM
density. A higher specific gravity C535, while ASTM C 131 is the wear
indicates a heavier material. A stable test for smaller gradations. Excessive
ballast material should possess the abrasion of an aggregate will result in
density properties shown in Table 5.4 to reduction of particle size, fouling,
provide suitable weight and mass to decreased drainage, and loss of
provide support and alignment to the track supporting strength of the ballast
structure. Absorption measures the ability section. The Los Angeles abrasion
of the material to absorb water. test can, however, produce laboratory
Excessive absorption can result in rapid test results that are not indicative of
deterioration during wetting and drying the field performance of ballast
and freezing and thawing cycles. materials.

3. ASTM C142: Test Method for Clay

Lumps and Friable Particles in

5-27
LightRailTrackDesign Handbook

Table 5.4 Limiting Values of Testing for Ballast Material

Ballast Material
Property Granite Traprock Quartzite Limestone Dolomitic Blast Steel ASTM
Limestone Furnace Furnace Test
Slag Slag
Percent Material 1 .O% 1 .O% 1.O% 1.O% 1 0% 1 .O% 1.O% Cl17
Passing No. 200 Sieve
(maximum)
Bulk Specific Gravity 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.65 2.30 2.90 Cl27
(minimum)
Absorption Percent 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 5.0 2.0 Cl27
(maximum)
Clay Lumps and 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% Cl42
Friable Particles
(maximum)
Degradation 35% 25% 30% 30% 30% 40% 30% c535
(maximum)
Soundness (Sodium 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% C88
Sulfate) 5 Cycles
(maximum)
Flat and/or Elongated 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% D4791
Particles (maximum)

I. ASTM D4791: Test Method for F/at and resulting in a higher crushing degradation load
Elongated Particles. The test for flat and on the ballast particles. The selection of
elongated particles uses one of three material for ballasted concrete crosstie track
dimension ratios. Track stability is is more restrictive and must be limited to
enhanced by eliminating flat or elongated granites and traprock. The selection of
particles that exceed 5% of ballast weight. materials for ballast for timber crosstie track
Flat or elongated particles are defined as can include all the materials listed in
particles that have a width to thickness or Table 5.4.
length to width ratio greater than 3.
Other test procedures exist for testing
Table 5.4 lists the recommended limiting potential ballast materials, such as the
values for the ballast material tests. The Petrographic Analysis and the Ballast Box
ballast guidelines for timber and concrete Test performed at the University of
crosstie applications are based on Massachusetts campus. The services of a
experiences with concrete crosstie ballasted qualified certified specialist and testing
track. The concrete crosstie load laboratory in the field of geological materials is
characteristics are quite different from the recommended to further refine the material
timber crosstie loadings on ballasted track. selection process and verify the suitability of a
The concrete crosstie is heavier and less quarry for potentially supplying ballast.
flexible in absorbing impact loads, thus
transmitting a greater load to the ballast

5-28

5.7.2 Subballast Materials
Subballast material can be classified as
crushed stone natural or crushed gravel and
sands or a mixture of these
materials.Subballast should be a granular
base material placed over the top of the entire
embankment or roadbed. It is graded and
compacted to prevent penetration of the
ballast. Subballast material that is impervious
should divert most of the water falling on the
track to the side ditches to prevent saturation
of the subgrade. Subballast material that is
impervious requires a layer of sand to be
placed between the subballast and the
subgrade to release the capillary water or
seepage of water below the subballast.
layer of non-woven geotextile will accomplish
this as well.
The subballast layer must be of sufficient
shear strength to support and transfer the load
from the ballast to the subgrade.
5.8 TRACK DERAILS
Track derails are operating protective devices
designed to stop (derail) unauthorized
vehicles from entering a specific track zone.
Generally the track zone is the operating
segment of the main line. The protection is
placed at all strategic track locations where
secondary non-main line operating side
tracks,such as pocket tracks, storage or
maintenance tracks, and, in some instances,
yard lead entry tracks connect to the main
line. Derails are occasionally used to prevent
vehicle or equipment movement onto portions
of track where vehicles, work crews, or
equipment are utilizing the designated track
space.
Derails should be considered at track
connections to the main line where:
Track Components and Materials
l The prevailing track grade of the
connecting track is descending toward the
main line. The secondary track is used
for the storage of unattended (parked)
vehicles.
l The secondary track is a storage track for
track maintenance vehicles only.
l The connecting track is a railroad
industrial siding or at-grade crossing
track.
Derails are placed at the clearance point
(centers to be determined) of all railroad
industrial tracks that connect to either an LRT
joint use track or to a railroad main track.
Derails are also used at other track locations
A where they would be likely to prevent or
minimize injury to passengers and personnel
and/or damage to equipment.
Derails are located so as to derail equipment
in the direction away from the main track.
Derails are available in various designs:
sliding block derail, hinged block derail, and
switch point derail. Derails are generally
designed to derail the vehicle in a single
direction either to the right or left side of the
track.
The sliding and hinged block derails consist of
essentially two parts: the steel housing and
the derailing guide block. The sliding derail is
generally operated with a connecting switch
stand. The hinged derail is operated manually
by lifting the derailing block out of the way or
off the rail head.
The switch point derail is exactly as
described, a complete switch point (or two
points) placed in the track to derail when the
switch point is open.
As a guideline, the type of derail to be used
depends upon the site-specific conditions and
type of protection to be provided. Main line
5-29
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
track exposed to the intrusion of heavily
loaded cars, multiple car trains, physical track
conditions that permit the intruding cars to
gain momentum in advance of the derail, and
tight curvature on the siding track lead to the
occasional failure of block derails. The switch
point derail provides the greatest assurance
that all wheels of the vehicle will be derailed.
5.9 RAIL EXPANSION JOINTS
Continuously welded rail in long strings does
not expand or contract with changes in
temperature, unless there is a break in the
rail. This type of installation introduces high
thermal stress in the rail as the temperature
changes.
In certain structures, the interaction between
the CWR and the structure makes it desirable
to limit rail stresses from thermal forces. This
can be accomplished by allowing the rail to
move freely within defined zones.
combination of low-restraint track fasteners
and rail expansion joints allows this
movement to take place safely. The use of
low-restraint fasteners at structural expansion
joints allows the structure to “breathe” without
overstressing the rails. The rails must also be
anchored between expansion zones with high-
restraint fasteners, in order to transfer
acceleration and braking forces into the
structure.
In high-restraint areas, a conventional direct
fixation fastener is utilized, and the structure is
designed to accept the thermal stress loads
generated by movement of the structure. The
expansion or contraction of low-restraint rail
emanates from the high-restraint zone and is
bounded on the other end by a rail expansion
joint.
Rail expansion joints are designed to allow for
a specific length of thermal rail expansion and
contraction to occur. One end of the
expansion joint is fixed and connected to a
rigid no-movement portion of rail. The other
end consists of the expandable moveable rail
which is allowed to slide in and out of a
designed guideway. The expansion joint
simulates a switch point and stock rail type of
installation with the expansion rail being the
curved stock rail.
Expansion joints in the track system present
problems, from both a track maintenance and
an environmental perspective. Due to the
discontinuous running rail surface and the
special trackwork sliding rail joint component,
extra maintenance is required to maintain the
joint and adjacent rails and to monitor the
position of the loose rail end to ensure that
sufficient space is available for further
expansion. The specific design of the
expansion joint within the discontinuous
running rail surface introduces additional
noise and vibration.
A As a guideline, rail expansion joints in
ballasted track or direct fixation track are only
recommended for long bridges or aerial
structures. They are also needed at the fixed
span approach to a movable bridge.
Exceptions to this guideline include embedded
track on an aerial structure, wherein the rail is
an integral part of the deck structure and the
design does not allow the structure to move
independently from the rail. In this situation,
an embedded expansion rail joint at the
expansion end of the structure is a definite
requirement. For this reason, the use of
embedded track on an aerial structure is not
recommended and should be avoided in the
initial planning phase when considering the
types of transit operation modes.
5.10 END OF TRACK STOPS
As important as the tangent and curved track
is throughout the transit system, the end of
5-30
 Track Components and Materials

track cannot be overlooked. There is a third parties, and surrounding structures.

requirement to protect the passengers and Each agency’s requirements are studied
pedestrians (on and off the vehicles), the individually and are site specific
operators, the vehicles, the track and
surrounding structures. Bumping posts, Assuming the 0.39 deceleration rate is
stops, and retarders are used to prevent an selected, the next decision is to determine the
accidental overrun vehicle derailment at the type of end stop capable of providing this
end of track. The capabilities of the track deceleration rate.
stops are limited to halting the vehicle entirely
with minimal damage to the vehicle and To absorb 1,998 kJ of kinetic energy at a
stopping the vehicle with the minimum of deceleration rate of 0.3 g, the distance
impact to the passengers on board. traveled after initial impact would have to be
3.39 meters (11.12 feet) calculated in the
The end stop is the point of impact, the following manner
location where kinetic energy has to be
2
dissipated. The kinetic energy is determined Distance = Vat+%
considering the mass or weight of the vehicle 2
or vehicles (train) and the velocity of the V= velocity of train in m/set
vehicle or train. The kinetic energy (KE) can t= time to stop in seconds
be calculated using the following formula: d= deceleration rate(-x l 9.81 m/set*)
x = deceleration negative rate (selected)
MxV*
KE=- 4.47
2 t=L
d* 0.3 x 9.81 mlsec’
200,OOOkgx (4.47)* = 1 52 seconds
=
2
dot2
= 1,998,09OJ or 1,998kJ From Above Distance =V l t+ -
2
where : M = mass of the vehicle or train
= 200 Tonnes (1 Tonne = 1000 kg)
44.47*,.52)+ (-o.~y4*w2
V =velocity of vehicle or train = 3.39 meters (ll.l*feet)
4.47 meter/seccnd (10 MPH)
The standards for end stops consist of the
To safely absorb this amount of energy with following:
little damage to the vehicle (train) or injury to 0 Warning Signs
passengers or the operator requires an l Fixed Non-Energy Absorbing Devices
elaborate end stop with extensive capacity. l Fixed Energy Absorbing Devices
l Friction Energy Absorbing Devices
To absorb this amount of energy without
causing severe injury to operator or
passengers, an acceptable deceleration rate 5.10.1 Warning Signs
must be selected. The transit agency should
select the rate of deceleration; a rate of 0.3 g Ideal conditions, alert operators, no
is an acceptable deceleration. The mechanical vehicle or signal failures, and a
establishment of a deceleration rate will well-illuminated warning sign should be
consider the likelihood of injury to passengers adequate for the train operator to bring the
and operators and damage to the vehicles, vehicle or train to a safe controlled stop.

5-31
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
510.2 Fixed Non-energy Absorbing
Devices
Most fixed non-energy absorbing end stops
(bumping posts) do no more than delineate
the end of track. The end stops appear sturdy
since they are bolted to the rail, however, they
have little ability to absorb anything but a very
minimal amount of kinetic energy. impact
often results in breaking of the rail, potential
derailment, and damage to the vehicle.
A positive fixed non-energy stop will halt
heavy vehicles or trains exists at the expense
of vehicle damage and personnel injury.
These stops consist of a solid concrete and
steel barriers generally located at end of
tracks in the older railroad stations.
5.10.3 Fixed Energy Absorbing Devices
Fixed energy absorbing devices can be either
non-resetting or resetting.
5.10.3.1 Non-resetting fixed devices
Non-resetting fixed devices (bumping posts)
include sand traps, ballast mounds and timber
tie stops. These devices dissipate the kinetic
energy upon vehicle impact. Sand traps and
ballast mounds are effective in stopping large
loads or trains; however, derailment of the
initial vehicle is inevitable. Under severe cold
weather conditions the sand and ballast can
freeze, reducing the cushioning effect and
possibly causing additional vehicle damage.
The barrier would have to be rebuilt after
experiencing an impact.
5.10.3.2 Resetting Fixed Devices
Resetting fixed devices are self-resetting and
contain an energy-absorbing feature, such as
a hydraulic, elastomeric, or spring shock
absorber. Resetting stops are limited in
amount of energy the shock absorber can
dissipate and the stop structure’s capability to
5-32
withstand the forces at impact. As noted
above, the displacement distance of the stop
at impact governs the magnitude of g force-
the longer the distance the lower the g force
The anchoring stability of the end stop to the
substrata governs the amount of energy that
can be absorbed by the stroke of the shock
absorber.
5.10.4 Friction (or Sliding) End Stops
Friction type end stops absorb the kinetic
energy of stopping a vehicle or train by sliding
along the end of track (see Figure 5.10.1).
This sliding action converts the energy to
friction heat at the rail surface. The friction
end stops consist of two types:
l Units that are clamped to the rail
l Units that are mounted on skids that slide
with the weight of vehicle upon them,
dissipating the energy between the
wooden skids and the concrete base of
track structure.
Friction end stops have the highest energy
absorption of all regularly installed structures.
Friction stops can be designed to cover a wide
range of energy absorption situations from
single vehicle to multi-vehicle trains of various
mass. The combination of resetting shock
absorbers and friction end stops can allow a
friction end stop to accept light impacts
without negotiating the friction end stop while
providing the higher friction end stop
protection for ultimate situations.
Transit conditions have potential use for the
various end of track stops, as follows:
l Main Line End of Track (Ballasted-Direct
Fixation): friction/sliding end stop with
resetting shock absorber, if track sliding
distance available.
 Track Components and Materials

6A

GUIDE FRICTION
CLAW ELEMENT
MOUNTING DEVICE

SECTKH A scam B

c GAUGE 1435
(4’-8 l/2”)
GUIDE CLAW FRICTION ELEMENT

FRONT MEW

Figure 510.1 Friction Element Buffer Stop i8J

5-33
Light Rail Track Design Manual

Main Line End of Track (Embedded): PI The Rail Wheel Interface: Refining
Same as above, if conditions warrant, or a profiles to transit applications, Joe
resetting track stop anchored to the Kalousek & Eric Mogel, Railway Track
substrata. & Structures - Sept 1997.

Main Line End of Track (Aerial-Direct

[31 Managing Rail Resources, Joe
Fixation): friction/sliding end stop with
Kalousek & Eric Magel, American
resetting shock absorber; track distance Railway Engineering Association,
must be provided. Volume 98 Bulletin 760, May 1997.
Yard Tracks (Maintenance Tracks): fixed
non-energy absorbing devices, bumping [41 Performance of High Strength Rails in
posts anchored to the track Track-Curico/Marich/Nisich, Rail
Research Papers, Vol. 1 - BHP Steel.
Storage Tracks: resetting fixed devices
anchored to the track. Development of Improved Rail and
Fl
Maintenance Shop Tracks: Fixed Wheel Materials - Marich, BHP
Resetting Energy Absorbing Device Melbourne Research, Vol. 1.
anchored to the structure floor. (Non-
movable). PI Riflex comes to America, Modem
Railroads, July 1985.
5.11 REFERENCES
[71 AREA Manual, Chapter 1, Roadway
Ill Reducing Rail costs Through and Ballast, Part 2 Ballast, 1996.
Innovative Methods, Norm Harper BC
Rail Railway Track and Structures July PI H. J. Skelton, Illustration.
1993.

5-34
Chapter (i-special Trackwork

Table of Contents

6.1 INTRODUCTION 6-1

6.2 DEFINITION OF SPECIAL TRACKWORK 6-1

6.2.1 Basic Special Trackwork Principles 6-2

6.3 LOCATION OF TURNOUTS AND CROSSOVERS 6-7

6.3.1 Horizontal Track Geometry Restrictions 6-9
6.3.1 .I Adjacent Horizontal Track Geometry in the Vicinity
of a Switch 6-9
6.3.1.2 Turnouts on Curves 6-9
6.3.1.3 Track Crossings on Curves 6-l 0
6.3.1 4 Superelevation in Special Trackwork 6-l 0
6.3.2 Vertical Track Geometry Restrictions 6-10
6.3.3 Track Design Restrictions on Location of Special Trackwork 6-l 1
6.3.4 Interdisciplinary Restrictions on Location of
Special Trackwork 6-l 1
6.3.4.1 Overhead Contact System Interface 6-l 1
6.3.4.2 Train Control/Signaling Interface 6-12
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Restrictions on Location of
Special Trackwork 6-12
6.351 Construction Restrictions 6-12
6.3.5.2 Clearance Restrictions 6-12
6.353 High Volume of Diverging Movements 6-12
6.3.5.4 Track Stiffness 6-13
6.3.5.5 Noise and Vibration Issues ’ 6-l 3

6.4 TURNOUT SIZE SELECTION 6-13

6.4.1 Diverging Speed Criteria 6-l 9
6.4.2 Turnout Size Selection Guidelines 6-19
6.4.3 Sharp Frog Angle/Tight Radius Turnouts 6-20
6.4.4 Equilateral Turnouts 6-20
6.45 Curved Frog 6-21
6.4.6 Slip Switches and Lapped Turnouts 6-21
6.4.7 Track Crossings 6-21

6.5 SWITCH DESIGN 6-22

6.51 Conventional Tee Rail Split Switches 6-22
6.5.2 Tangential Geometry Switches 6-22
6.5.3 Uniform and Graduated Risers 6-24
6.5.4 Switches for Embedded Track 6-25
654.1 North American Tongue Switch Designs 6-26
6.5.4.2 European Tongue Switch Designs 6-28
6.5.4.3 Switch Tongue Operation and Control 6-28

6-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

6.5.4.4 Embedded Switch Drainage 6-29

6.545 Design Guidelines for Embedded Switches 6-29
6.55 Fully Guarded Tee Rail Switch Designs 6-30
6.5.6 Switch Point Detail 6-31

6.6 FROGS 6-32

6.6.1 Frog Design 6-32
6.6.2 Frog Design Modifications 6-33
6.6.3 Flange-Bearing Frogs 6-34
6.6.3.1 Flangeway Depth 6-34
6.6.3.2 Flangeway Ramping 6-34
6.6.3.3 Flange-Bearing Frog Construction 6-35
6.6.3.4 Speed Considerations at Flange-Bearing Frogs 6-35
6.6.3.5 Wheel Flange Interface 6-35
6.6.4 Spring and Movable Point Frogs 6-36
6.6.5 Lift Over (“Jump”) Frogs 6-36
6.6.6 Frog Running Surface Hardness 6-36

6.7 FROG GUARD RAILS 6-36

6.8 WHEEL TREAD CLEARANCE 6-39

6.9 SWITCH TIES 6-39

6.10 RESTRAINING RAIL FOR GUARDED TRACK 6-40

6.11 PRECURVINGISHOP CURVING OF RAIL 6-40

6.11 .l Shop Curving Rail Horizontally 6-40
6.11.2 Shop Curving Rail Vertically for Special Trackwork 6-40

6.12 PROPRIETARY SPECIAL TRACKWORK DESIGNS AND

LIMITED SOURCES OF SUPPLY 6-44

6.13 SHOP ASSEMBLY 6-44

6.14 REFERENCES 6-U

List of Figures

Figure 6.2.1 Turnout Layout 63

Figure 6.2.2 Single Crossover Track-Two Turnouts 6-6

Figure 6.2.3 Double Crossover Track-Four Turnouts and Crossing 6-6

Figure 6.2.4 Single-Track and Double-Track Crossings 6-7

Figure 6.2.5 Single Slip Switch 6-8

Figure 6.2.6 Double Switch Lap Turnout-Three Frogs 6-8

Figure 6.2.7 Full Grand Union 6-8

Figure 6.2.8 Half Grand Union 6-9

6-ii
 Special Trackwork

Figure 6.4.1 Turnout and Crossover Data and Arrangement 6-15

Figure 6.4.2 Number 6 Turnout-Ballasted Timber Ties with

13’ Curved Switch Points 6-16

Figure 6.4.3 Number 8 Turnout-Ballasted Timber Ties with

19’-6” Curved Switch Points 6-l 7

Figure 6.4.4 Number 10 Turnout-Ballasted Timber Ties with

19’-6” Curved Switch Points 6-18

Figure 6.4.5 Typical Curved Frog Turnout 6-23

Figure 6.5.1 2~1-60 Rail Section for Switch Point 6-24

Figure 6.5.2 Tongue Switch and Mate-Non-embedded 149 RE

7A Rail 6-26

Figure 6.5.3 ATEA 75’ Radius Solid Manganese Tongue Switch 6-27

Figure 6.5.4 European Fabricated Steel Double Tongue Switch 6-28

Figure 6.5.5 Embedded Tee Rail Switch-Equilateral Turnout,

Steel Cover Plates, Epoxy Filler 6-29

Figure 6.5.6 Fully Guarded House Top Switch 6-30

Figure 6.5.7 Fully Guarded Turnout-l 15 RE Rail Switch with

House Top and Double Point Guarding 6-31

Figure 6.5.8 Switch Point and Stock Rail Details 6-32

Figure 6.6.1 Monoblock Frog Details 6-33

Figure 6.6.2 Plan View at Frog Area with 45-mm Flangeway 6-33

Figure 6.6.3 Section at 15-mm Frog Point 6-34

Figure 6.6.4 Section at 15mm Frog Point, Flange Bearing 6-34

Figure 6.6.5 Lift Over Frog Design 637

Figure 6.9.1 No. 8 Turnout-Ballasted Concrete Ties with

5944 Curved Switch 6-42

Figure 6.9.2 No. 10 Turnout-Ballasted Concrete Ties with

5944 Curved Switch 6-43

6-iii
CHAPTER 6-SPECIAL TRACKWORK

6.1 INTRODUCTION Light rail systems that are located in urban

streets, particularly those that are located in
Light rail vehicles, like all steel flange wheeled Central Business Districts with narrow rights-
railway equipment, need to be able to transfer of-way, often have sharp curves. This
from one track to another or to cross other constraint often requires light rail special
tracks. The fabricated track systems needed trackwork to be designed for a specific
to support and steer the car at these locations location, with unique parts.
are collectively called special trackwork. It is
presumed that most readers of this chapter
are generally familiar with the layout and use 6.2 DEFINITION OF SPECIAL
of common special trackwork terms. Readers TRACKWORK
who are new to the topic can find a brief
primer on basic concepts and terminology in Special trackwork is customarily defined as
Section 6.2.1. “all rails, track structures and fittings, other
than plain unguarded track, that is neither
Readers with a background in railway track curved nor fabricated before laying.” ~1Hence,
design will note pronounced differences any track can be considered special trackwork
between requirements for special trackwork that is built in whole or part using rails that are
for light rail transit (LRT) systems and those machined, bent, or otherwise modified from
for other types of railways. In general, their as-rolled condition. This includes any
designers can expect to find that special additional track components that may take the
trackwork design requirements on a light rail place of rails in supporting and guiding the
system will be more numerous and more wheels, as well as miscellaneous components
complex than those encountered on other that may be attached to the rails to fulfill the
types of railways. In addition, sources of functions required. The term is often
supply will be more limited than they may be contracted and called simply “specialwork.”
used to.
In general, the following items are customarily
Most turnouts that are available for tangent included in special trackwork:
track are standardized for simplified l Turnouts and crossovers, including
manufacture and installation, both of original switches, frogs, guard rails, stock rails
equipment and replacements for worn and closure rails; rail fastening
components. These turnouts are intended for assemblies unique to turnouts; and
installation in tangent track, without any miscellaneous components associated
vertical curvature. One of the most common with turnouts, including switch rods and
design deficiencies is the placement of gauge plates. Crossover tracks, double
turnouts within horizontal or vertical curves. crossovers, and single and double slip
Construction and maintenance of curved track switches are included in this category.
is difficult and expensive. Superimposed l Track crossings that permit one track to
special trackwork only exacerbates those cross another at grade. Such crossings
problems. It is recommended that can be designed as a rigid block or can
standardized trackwork be used on flat include movable center points. By
tangent track whenever possible.

6-1
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

definition, slip switches include
crossing.
l Restraining rail, either bolted to a parallel
running rail or supported independent of
the running rail.
l Shop curved rail of any type, including
rails that are precurved in the horizontal
plane, the vertical orientation, or both.
Turnouts, crossovers, and track crossings will
be addressed directly in this chapter.
Information on restraining rail and shop
curved rail can be found in Chapters 4 and 5.
6.2.1 Basic Special Trackwork Principles
The most common form of special trackwork
is the turnout, which permits two tracks to
merge with each other. A simplified layout of
a turnout is illustrated in Figure 6.2.1. The
turnout itself consists of several fundamental
elements:
l The switch point rails (often called either
the switch points or the point rails) are the
a track movable rails that flex back and forth and
intercept the wheel flanges to direct them
to the appropriate track. In its usual form,
a switch point rail consists of a plain rail
that has been machined and bent into an
elongated wedge shape that is sharp on
one end. This pointed end is known as
the “point of switch.” The opposite end is
known as the “heel of switch.” Switches
come in various lengths and can be either
straight or curved. In general, the longer
the switch point rail, the more gradual the
angle of divergence from the main track
and the faster the rail vehicle can travel
through it. The switch point rails, together
with the stock rails (described below) and
associated fastenings and mechanisms,
are collectively called the switch.
l The stock rails are the rails which the
switch point rails lay against when in the
closed position. The stock rails are
otherwise ordinary rails that are
machined, drilled and bent as required to
suit the design of the switch point rails.

POINT OF SWlTCH THEORETICAL POINT OF FROG

I

CURVED SWlTCH
L THEORETICAL LEAD DISTANCE

POINT RAIL -7
LS
\ /- HEEL OF SIMIC)-CLOSURE RAILS

STRAIGHT S
POINT RAIL
______-____-____
S’MTCH THROWN
MECHANISM-

CURVED STOCK RAI

RUNNING RAILS
INTERMEDIATE RAILS

Figure 6.2.1 Turnout Layout

6-2

l The frog is an assembly placed where
one rail of a track must cross a rail of
another. Openings called flangeways
must be provided through the top surface
of the frog so that the flanges on the
vehicle wheel can pass through. The
intersection of the gauge lines of the two
intersecting rails is known as the
theoretical point of frog. The theoretical
point of frog would be a razor sharp tip
that would quickly wear and fracture in
service. Therefore, the intersecting rails
are cut back a short distance to a location
known as the actual point of frog, where
the metal will have enough rigidity to
withstand the effects of service wear. The
end of the frog closest to the switch rails
is known as the toe of frog; the opposite
end is known as the “heel of frog.”
Typically, both rails passing through a frog
are straight, although it is possible for one
or both rails to be curved. Straight frogs
are commonly designated by a number
that indicates the ratio of divergence of
one rail to the other. In a Number IO frog,
the two rails will diverge at a ratio of one
unit laterally for every ten units of frog
length. In a Number 8 frog, the
divergence ratio will be one to eight, etc.
The higher the frog number, the more
acute the angle of divergence and the
faster the rail vehicle will be able to travel
through it.
l The closure rails are the straight or curved
rails that are positioned in between the
switch and the frog. The length and
radius of the closure rails are dictated by
the angles of the switch and the frog.
Combinations of short switches with large
angles and similar frogs will result in a
sharp radius curve through the closure rail
areas that will limit vehicle speed. The
distance between the point of switch and
the point of the frog measured along the
6-3
Special Trackwork
straight or main track closure rail is known
as the turnout lead distance.
Additional components that are common on a
turnout include:
. Guard Rails are supplemental rails,
placed inboard of the main running rails
that support the railcar wheels. They
define a narrow flangeway to steer and
control the path of the flanged wheel.
Guard rails are positioned opposite the
frogs so as to ensure that the wheel
flange does not strike the point of frog or
take the “wrong” flangeway.
l Heel Blocks are splicing units placed at
the heel of the switch that provide a
location for the switch to pivot as well as
a fixed connection between the
intersecting rails.
l A switch operating device. Switch rails
can move from one orientation to another
by either a hand-operated switch stand or
a mechanically or electro-mechanically
operated switch machine. In both cases,
the switch machines are positioned at the
beginning of the turnout opposite the tips
of the switch rails.
Various arrangements of individual turnouts
create various track layouts, thereby
permitting alternative train operation
scenarios:
A single crossover (Figure 6.22) consists
of two turnouts positioned in two tracks
that allow the vehicle to go from one track
to another. The two tracks are usually,
but not always, parallel, and the turnouts
are usually identical.
A double crossover (Figure 6.2.3)
consists of two crossovers of opposite
hand orientation superimposed upon each
other. In addition to the four turnouts
involved, a track crossing (see below) is
needed between the two main tracks. A
double crossover is used only when it is
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

necessary to be able to switch from one
track to another in either direction and
there is insufficient space to install two
independent single crossovers of opposite
hand orientation.
then the four frogs will be identical. If the
angle is not 90°, then the crossing will be
elongated along one diagonal axis called the
“long diagonal” and the “end frogs” will be
different from the “center frogs.”

Another common type of special trackwork is
the track crossing. As the name implies, this
specialwork permits two tracks to cross each
other. Track crossings are often called
crossing diamonds or simply diamoncfs, due to
the plan view shape that they have when
looking diagonally across the tracks (see
Figure 6.2.4). The intersecting angle
between the two tracks can be 90” or less, but
crossings under approximately 15” are rarely
encountered. In its simplest form, a track
crossing is simply four frogs arranged in a
square or parallelogram. The tracks through a
crossing can be either straight or curved.
Straight tracks are preferred since it makes
the unit symmetrical, thereby simplifying
design, fabrication and maintenance. If the
crossing angle between straight tracks is 90”,
If the angle of the intersecting tracks is less
than that in a Number 6 frog (9’ 31’ 38”) it is
usually necessary to use a movable point
crossing. Movable point crossings
incorporate movable rails in the two frogs
closest to the center of the crossing.
Depending on the position of these movable
rails, a flangeway will be provided for one
track or the other, but not both simultaneously.
Movable point frogs are needed on flat-angle
crossings since it is otherwise impossible to
ensure that the wheel flange will follow the
correct flangeway path through the center
frogs of the crossing diamond. The movable
rails in a movable point crossing are called
knuckle rails and are usually operated by the
same type of equipment used to move
switches.

TURNOUT B

TURNOUT A

Figure 6.2.2 Single Crossover-Two Turnouts

TURNOUT C
r CROSSING (DIAMOND) E

TURNOUT B

TURNOUT D TURNOUT A

Figure 6.2.3 Double Crossover-Four Turnouts and Crossing

6-4

SINGLE TRACK
CROSSING(DIAMOND)
Figure 62.4 Single-Track
If it is necessary to be able to switch from one
track to another at a flat-angle crossing and
space constraints make it impossible to
provide separate turnouts outside of the limits
of the diamond, a slip swifch can be installed.
A slip switch superimposes two switches and
curved closure rails on top of an elongated
track crossing as shown in Figure 6.2.5. A
double slip switch provides that same routing
capability along both sides of a track crossing
as shown in phantom line on the figure.
Combinations of turnouts and track crossings
are used to produce route junctions.
Junctions can range from very simple to very
complex as seen in Figures 6.2.6 to 6.2.8.
The most complex junctions can occur in the
central business districts of urban areas when
two double-track routes cross one another.
Figure 6.2.7 illustrates a “Grand Union,” an
extremely complex arrangement that permits
a vehicle entering a junction from any
direction to exit it on any of the other three
legs. A junction that resembles a “T
intersection would require a “half grand union”
(see Figure 6.2.8) to provide the same routing
flexibility. Such complex junction layouts were
common on traditional streetcar systems and
Special Trackwork
DOUBLE TRACK
CROSSING (DIAMONDS)
and Double-Track Crossings
have been used on some modern light rail
systems when space was extremely limited.
Lap turnouts can be used to achieve a more
compact track layout in constrained locations.
In a lap turnout, as seen in Figure 6.2.6, the
switch rails for a second turnout will be placed
between the switch and the frog of the initial
turnout. This introduces a third frog where a
closure rail of the first turnout crosses a
closure rail of the second.
Lap turnouts, movable point crossings, slip
switches, and double slip switches are all very
costly to design, fabricate, install, and
maintain, A more economical track system is
achieved when the special trackwork consists
only of turnouts and simple track crossings.
6.3 LOCATION OF TURNOUTS AND
CROSSOVERS
The ideal location for turnouts, crossings and
crossovers is in flat and straight sections of
track. If special trackwork is installed in track
with horizontal curves, superelevation, or
6-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

SINGLE SLIP

MOVABLE CENTER END SWITCH

POINTS POINTS

__.____ ___-.---------- _.__-.---

____.____________ -----0----_______
______________------- __.___.-___
._.-.-.-.-.-.-, __.-.-.-_-.-.-_ --.-.-.-.-.
_____.__e -.-----

(PHANTOM INCLUDED)

Figure 6.2.5 Single Slip Switch

TURNOUT A

Figure 6.2.6 Double Switch Lap Turnout-Three Frogs

Figure 6.2.7 Full Grand Union


Figure 6.2.8 Half Grand Union
vertical curves, the ability of the trackwork to
perform in a satisfactory manner is
compromised. Trackwork designers should
work closely with their counterparts who are
defining transit operations requirements and
setting route geometry, so that turnouts and
crossovers are not placed in difficult locations
and the overall requirements for special
trackwork are minimized.
6.3.1 Horizontal Track Geometry
Restrictions
6.3.1 .I Adjacent Horizontal Track
Geometry in the Vicinity of a
Switch
Switch point rails direct vehicle wheelsets in
an abrupt change of direction, making it highly
desirable that wheels be rolling smoothly as
they approach the switch. To best ensure that
wheel flanges can be smoothly intercepted by
switch point rails, tangent track should be
placed immediately in front of the switch. The
absolute minimum length of tangent track in
advance of the point of the switch should be
no less than 3 meters (10 feet) and much
greater distances -10 to 15 meters (33 to 50
feet)-are desirable. If a guarded curve is
6-7
Special Trackwork
located in advance of the switch, the turnout
should be positioned with the point of switch
beyond the limits of the restraining rail.
Horizontal curves that are located beyond the
heel of the frog should generally be positioned
beyond the last long tie of the switch set.
Horizontal curves can be placed on the long
timbers within 0.5 meters (20 inches) of the
heel joint of the frog. However, special switch
tie or track concrete layout will be required. If
the curve is guarded, and the restraining rail is
on the frog side of the alignment, the curve
should be located so that the restraining rail
terminates prior to the heel joint of the frog. If
this is not possible, the restraining rail should
be run into the frog and be continuous with the
frog wing rail to provide continuous guarding
action.
6.3.1.2 Turnouts on Curves
Turnouts can be constructed within curved
track in difficult alignment conditions.
Railroad operating personnel will state,
however, that turnouts on curves provide a
poor quality ride. Track maintenance
personnel contend that the curved turnouts
consume a disproportionate amount of their
maintenance budgets. Therefore, turnouts
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

and crossovers should only be located in the main track is located on a curve. The
horizontally tangent track, except under the correct amount of superelevation for one hand
most unusual and constrained conditions. of the turnout will be incorrect for the other
This will ensure that the track geometry and an excessive underbalance or
through the special trackwork unit will be as overbalance could result. A particularly
uniform as possible, thereby improving wheel dangerous situation occurs with a turnout to
tracking and extending the life of both the the outside of the curve, where a severe
special trackwork unit and the vehicle that negative superelevation situation could be
operates over it. created on the diverging track. In ballasted
track, normal deterioration of the track surface
A turnout on a curve must be custom could quickly result in the diverging track
designed. The design objective should be to becoming operationally unsafe.
provide an alignment that is as smooth and
uniform as possible. Designers should note When a superelevated curve is required
that this turnout geometry will differ beyond the frog of a turnout, the
appreciably from ordinary turnouts located superelevation should begin beyond the last
along tangent track. Parameters such as long tie of the switch set in a ballasted track
turnout lead distance and closure rail offsets turnout. In a direct fixation track turnout,
will be distinctly different from those of a superelevation can physically begin earlier,
standard lateral turnout with the same frog although typically not within 500 millimeters
number. Several good books exist on the (20 inches) of the heel joint of the frog.
subject, including Allen’s Railroad Curves &
Earthwork.
6.3.2 Vertical Track Geometry Restrictions

6.3.1.3 Track Crossings on Curves Turnouts, crossovers and track crossings

Either one or both tracks of a crossing
(diamond) may be located in horizontally
curved track if required by the selected
alignment. This is often a requirement at a
route junction. At such locations, it is typically
allowable to have one or both sides of the
track crossing on a curved alignment. In
general, however, curved crossings should be
avoided because they are typically one-of-a-
kind units and hence very expensive to
procure, maintain, and ultimately replace. In
addition, the crossing must be flat, without
superelevation. This has a detrimental impact
on the operation of trains over curved track.
6.3.1.4 Superelevation in Special
Trackwork
Superelevation should not be used within any
turnout, crossover, or track crossing, even if
should be located on tangent profile grades
whenever possible. This is because the
critical portions of a turnout-the switch and
the frog-are too rigid to conform to a vertical
curve, which will cause the switch points to
bind. The area between the switch and the
frog can theoretically be curved vertically, but
this practice is discouraged since ordinary
construction tolerances make it difficult to
confine the curvature to the closure rail area.
Vertical track curvature outside of the turnout
area should also be restricted; the absolute
minimum distance from the switch and frog
will depend on the type of track structure. In
the case of ballasted track, for example, it is
not practical to introduce any vertical
curvature until after the last long tie of the
switch set.

6-8

In difficult alignment conditions, vertical
curvature at or near a turnout location may be
necessary. If it is not possible to avoid a
vertical curve within a turnout, every effort
should be made to avoid non-standard track
components, such as switch point rails or
frogs, that must be shop-fabricated with a
vertical curve. Generally, special designs can
be avoided if the middle ordinate of the
vertical curve in the length of any switch point
rail or frog is less than 1 millimeter (0.040
inches).
6.3.3 Track Design Restrictions on
Location of Special Trackwork
While special trackwork can be required in
ballasted, direct fixation, and embedded track
sections, turnouts are most economical to
procure, construct and maintain in ballasted
track. Alignment design should minimize
special trackwork requirements in direct
fixation and embedded track environments,
because these elements are expensive to
procure, construct and maintain. Exceptions
can be made, for example, when route
geometry forces a particularly complex special
trackwork layout with multiple turnouts and
track crossings. It is often particularly difficult
to design a satisfactory switch tie layout under
such complex layouts and even more difficult
to renew defective switch ties during
subsequent maintenance cycles. In such
special circumstances, the use of direct
fixation special trackwork track may be
preferable to a ballasted configuration.
Yard trackage, which is usually ballasted,
often requires that successive turnouts be
constructed close to each other. The track
designer should verify that turnouts are
sufficiently spaced to permit standard switch
ties to be installed and to permit maintenance
personnel to renew individual switch ties.
When special switch tie arrangements are
6-9
Special Trackwork
required, the track designer should either
detail the tie layout or require the track
fabricator to provide a submittal of the
proposed layout In the latter case, the track
designers should be certain ahead of time that
a workable tie layout is possible. It is
absolutely essential that switch ties supporting
switches are perpendicular to the straight
track. This is a problem when switches are
placed immediately beyond a frog on the
curved side of a turnout.
Special trackwork in embedded track can be
particularly complicated and should be
minimized. Route intersections within street
intersections can be phenomenally complex
and require intricate plans and pre-delivery
assembly on the factory floor. When special
trackwork must be located in embedded track,
it should be positioned so that pedestrians are
not exposed to switch point rails and switch
operating mechanisms and frogs are not
positioned in pedestrian paths. Reliable
signal systems and switch operating
mechanisms for embedded track turnouts are
also difficult to procure and maintain as noted
in Sections 6.3.4.1 and 6.5.4.3.
6.3.4 Interdisciplinary Restrictions on
Location of Special Trackwork
Special trackwork should be located so as to
minimize requirements for special Overhead
Contact System (OCS) and train control/
signaling system structures and devices.
6.3.4.1 Overhead Contact System Interface
The installation of catenaty is complicated by
the presence of turnouts and crossovers.
Additional wires, pull off poles, and insulating
sections are needed to provide a smooth ride
for the pantograph. Electrically isolating the
opposite bound main tracks is particularly
difficult at double crossovers if the adjacent
tracks are close together. These conditions
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

should be discussed with the catenary special trackwork unit, including guarded
designer to ensure that the catenary can be curved track. This will ensure that one
economically constructed. contractor will be responsible for the
uniformity of the horizontal and vertical track
alignment through the special trackwork unit.
6.3.4.2 Train Control/Signaling Interface
Switch machines that comply with North
American signal system standards are difficult 6.3.5.2 Clearance Restrictions
to obtain for fully guarded open track turnouts Special trackwork should be located with
and are not available for tongue switch adequate clearances from trackside
embedded track turnouts. The principal obstructions. For example, unless the
problem is that proper switch locking is vehicles are equipped with automatic bridge
required for automatic routing at design track plates for pedestrian access, tangent track is
speed. Many rail transit systems require train required alongside platforms to meet the tight
operators to stop, verify switch position, and tolerances required by Americans with
then proceed at any turnout that is not Disabilities Act (ADA). If a station platform is
equipped with a locking switch device. This located ahead of a point of switch, the
causes delays and, for this reason alone, minimum tangent distance between the end of
designers are strongly encouraged to avoid the platform and the point of switch should be
these types of turnouts. In addition, the track equal to the truck center length of the LRV
circuits that are needed to determine track plus the car body end overhang. Refer to
occupancy are more difficult to install and Chapter 3 for additional guidance on special
maintain in embedded track since the trackwork clearances.
embedment material will restrict access to key
areas where unintended shunts can cause
signals to drop. Accordingly, embedded track 6.3.5.3 High Volume of Diverging
switches should be avoided to the maximum Movements
degree possible. Track designers should be very cautious
whenever the route geometry results in a
Insulated rail joints in special trackwork can preponderance of the traffic passing through
be especially complicated, particularly if they the curved side of a turnout. High traffic
must be located in guarded track or in and volumes through the curved side of a switch
around crossing diamonds. The trackwork will result in accelerated wear of the switch
designer should coordinate with the signal point and the adjoining stock rail. Whenever
designers to verify that a workable insulated possible, turnouts at junctions should be
joint layout is possible. In many cases, a oriented to guide the branch with the more
workable track plan cannot be properly frequent or heavier traffic over the straight part
signaled and the route geometry must be of the switch.. If the traffic is (or will
redesigned. eventually be) approximately equal,
consideration should be given to an
equilateral turnout design as discussed in
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Restrictions on Section 6.4.4. This will reduce maintenance
Location of Special Trackwork of the switch points.

6.3.5.1 Construction Restrictions Turnouts at the end of a double-track segment

The construction limits of any trackwork should be oriented to guide the facing point
contracts should not be located within any

6-10

movement over the straight side of the
turnout. If this results in an unsatisfactory
operating speed for the trailing movement, the
designer should consider using either a
equilateral turnout design or a turnout with a
flatter divergence angle and curve than might
ordinarily be provided. Ordinarily, facing point
diverging movements should be limited to
situations where the single-track section is
temporary and the double-track section is to
be extended.
6.3.5.4 Track Stiffness
Ballasted turnouts, crossovers, and crossing
diamonds have a considerably higher track
modulus than ordinary ballasted track due to
their mass and the frequent interconnections
between rails. Nevertheless, they are still
more resilient than either direct fixation or
embedded track layouts. Because of this
differential, ballasted track turnouts located
close to interfaces with stiffer track structures
will ride poorly and require more frequent
surfacing, particularly if vehicle speeds are
relatively high. To avoid these circumstances,
main tracks where vehicles operate at speeds
greater than 100 kph (62 mph) should not
have specialwork units located within 75
meters (233 feet) of a transition between
ballasted track and a more rigid track
structure. As a guideline, this distance can be
reduced in areas where modest operating
speeds are contemplated. A minimum travel
time of 3 to 5 seconds between the special
trackwork unit and a more rigid structure is
recommended. Design exceptions will require
stiffening of the ballasted track or retrofitting of
the adjoining track to be more resilient.
6.3.5.5 Noise and Vibration Issues
Even well-designed special trackwork can be
a source of noise and vibration. As such,
special trackwork installations are undesirable
in the vicinity of residential buildings, schools,
6-l 1
Special Trackwork
hospitals, concert halls, and other sensitive
noise and vibration receptors. If special
trackwork must be located in such areas,
investigation of possible noise and vibration
mitigation measures should be undertaken.
Such investigations should include the
ramifications of repositioning the special
trackwork away from the area of concern.
6.4 TURNOUT SIZE SELECTION
Track designers have a wide array of standard
turnout geometric configurations to choose
from when considering route alignment. While
not all transit systems can use the same menu
of turnouts and crossovers, the designer can
usually achieve an acceptable route alignment
without resorting to special designs. Using
standard, off-the-shelf, and service-proven
materials will reduce the probability that future
maintenance will be complicated by the need
to purchase expensive one-of-a-kind products.
This also avoids the situation where essential
replacement parts may not be available when
needed. Figures 6.4.1 to 6.4.4 show
standard turnouts and crossovers. Situations
will arise when a non-standard turnout design
is needed. In such cases, justification should
be documented. This validation should
include: the reasons why a particular turnout
size is required; what alternatives were
investigated; why standard options were
unacceptable; and the ramifications of using a
smaller turnout, including its affect on vehicle
operations, signaling systems, and OCS
systems. Consideratibn should also be given
to procurement of a spare assembly along
with the original unit, so as to save the design
and tooling costs that would be incurred to
purchase the unit at a later date. This
provides an immediate replacement part if one
is needed.
T GEOMETRIC SCHEMATIC - SINGLE OR DOUBLE CROSSOVER
w TO Y1‘

CROSSOVER DATA TABLE -

BALLASTED OR DIRECT FIXATION TRACK I
 fUUL lAYOUT DIAGRAM -----
ICKY.%” . r-0’

NO. 6 BALLASTED TURNOm

BILL OF MATERIAL I
BILL OF MATERIAL
TIMBER SWTCH TIES 180 x 230 U’B-,
 I.

4.

5
6.

7.

1.

9.
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
6.4.1 Diverging Speed Criteria
Turnout size (by either frog number or radius)
should be selected to provide the highest
diverging movement speed possible that is
consistent with adjoining track geometry.
high speed turnout is not needed if the
adjoining track geometry restricts operating
speed. Similarly, a sharp turnout should
generally not be used in a track segment that
has no restrictions on operating speed. Limits
on operating speeds through the curved side
of turnouts are typically based on the turnout
geometry and the maximum unbalanced
superelevation criteria adopted for the system.
In many cases, the closure rail zone will
impose a greater restriction on operating
speed than the switch, particularly if tangential
switch geometry is not used. There are
typically no operating speed restrictions on
the straight through side of a turnout.
While larger number/radius turnouts will
generally have higher initial costs, they will
incur less wear and tear and can be more
economical in the long run. There are
reasonable limits to this rule of course-it
makes little sense, for example, to install a
Number 20 turnout that will never be traversed
at more than 40 km/hr (25 mph). In general,
trackwork designers will find that Number 8,
10 and possibly Number 15 turnouts will
typically be the most economical choices for
main line track on virtually any light rail
system.
6.4.2 Turnout Size Selection Guidelines
The following criteria recommend various
turnout sizes for various track applications.
The typical conditions and operating speed
objectives are based on a rule of thumb which
states that the frog number should be about
one-third of the desired diverging movement
operating speed in kilometers per hour (one-
half of the desired speed in miles per hour).
Handbook users should keep in mind that
operating speed objectives vary among light
rail operations, as well as from one portion of
an LRT system to another.
A
High speed on one system may be low speed
on another. Accordingly, the
recommendations that follow should be
modified to suit on site-specific requirements.
l Route junctions between primary tracks
should use No. 15 turnouts. A larger
number turnout should be employed if the
route geometry in proximity to the turnout
does not restrict higher speed operations.
When sufficient space is not available for
a No. 15 turnout, or if there are nearby
speed restrictions-such as station stops
or roadway crossings-a sharper turnout,
such as a No. IO, may be considered.
l Connections between primary main line
tracks and slower speed yard and
secondary tracks, including center pocket
tracks, should typically use No. 10
turnouts. When design space for a No. 10
turnout is not available, a No. 8 turnout
may be sufficient.
l Seldom-used crossover tracks that are
provided for emergency and maintenance
use only should use No. 8 turnouts.
When sufficient design space for a No. 8
turnout is not available, a No. 6 turnout
may be considered.
l Turnouts within maintenance facilities and
storage yards should use either No. 8 or
No. 6 turnouts. Main line connections to
the maintenance facility and storage yard
should use Number 10 turnouts
l Turnouts that are located in embedded
track are often in odd geometric layouts
and thus must be sized in accordance
with the use and function of the turnout.
Alternatives to the use of an embedded
turnout should always be investigated
6-16

6.4.3 Sharp Frog Angle/Tight Radius
Turnouts
Many light rail systems, particularly older
street railway operations, use turnouts that are
sharper than those suggested above. Frogs
as low as number 5 and 4 are not uncommon.
Many difficult alignment conditions may be
resolved using turnouts that are curved
through both the switch and the frog. Some
transit agencies have curved frog turnouts
with radii as sharp as 15 meters. In virtually
all cases, these sharp turnouts were required
due to unique site conditions and the
particular requirements of the system. While
such sharp turnouts are not recommended for
general application, there is nothing inherently
wrong with their use provided that they meet
the requirements of the transit operation and
the transit agency understands and accepts
the limitations that sharp turnouts impose.
Some of the restrictions imposed by sharp
turnouts are:
l Vehicle fleet must be designed to be able
to negotiate them. This may reduce the
number of candidate light rail vehicles that
can be considered for the system.
l Operations will be slower. Operating
personnel must be made aware of the
speed restrictions that the sharp turnouts
impose and systems must be in place to
limit speeds to the allowable limit. This
can be a significant problem on a system,
or portion of a system, where vehicle
speed is entirely under the operator’s
control. Most vehicle storage yard tracks,
which are the most likely location for
sharp turnouts, do not have signal
systems that provide speed control. This
makes it highly probable that sharp
turnouts will be negotiated at higher-than-
design speeds, leading to excessive wear,
more frequent maintenance, and an
increased risk of derailments. A common
problem in this regard, known as
6-l 7
Special Trackwork
“cracking the whip,” is a distressingly
common operating practice on many
systems where the LRV operator may
docilely enter the turnout at the posted
speed limit but then accelerate. The result
is that the rear truck enters the curve and
travels through the turnout at a much
higher speed than intended. High rail and
wheel wear will result and derailments of
rear trucks and trucks on rear cars of
multiple car trains are not uncommon.
l Maintenance expenses will be higher.
Even if vehicle speed is controlled, either
through the signal system or by strict
enforcement of operating rules, sharp
turnouts will incur more wear than flatter
turnouts. If the associated maintenance
expense is preferable to the additional
first cost of a right-of-way that would
permit the use of flatter turnouts, then
sharp turnouts may be a prudent choice.
If, on the other hand, a life-cycle cost
analysis shows that procuring additional
right-of-way that allows flatter turnouts will
reduce the overall expense, then that
course should be pursued.
6.4.4 Equilateral Turnouts
Equilateral turnouts split the frog angle in half
between both sides of the turnout, thereby
producing two lateral diverging routes. Both
sides of the turnout are curved. Equilateral
turnouts are occasionally suggested for the
end of double-track locations and for locations
where a turnout must be installed on a curve.
The track designer should consider the
following characteristics.
l A perfectly symmetrical equilateral turnout
will evenly divide not only the frog angle
but also the switch angle. The division of
the switch angle will require a custom set
of stock rails, each with half the normal
stock rail bend. This is the preferred
arrangement when both hands are used in
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
the facing point direction, such as the
diverging turnout at a route junction.
l An alternative to customized stock rails is
to configure the switch in an ordinary
lateral turnout, thereby giving one
movement the straight route through the
switch and the other movement the lateral
route. The frog does not need to be
oriented symmetrically and the optimum
alignment for each route may be achieved
by rotating it by an amount equal to the
switch angle. This switch and frog
orientation would be a preferred
arrangement for an end of double-track
location where extension of the double
track is not expected to occur in the near
future.
l If the switch angle is to be split equally,
curved switch points will need to be
specially designed and fabricated since
each point must not only have a concave
curve on its gauge face, but also a
concave vertical surface on its back face.
Such points are not off-the-shelf items
and the transit system will have to procure
spare points for future replacement.
Straight switch points on the other hand,
such as the AREMA 5029-millimeter
(16.5foot) design, can be obtained off-
the-shelf although they still must be
matched to custom stock rails. If the
switch is oriented as in an ordinary lateral
turnout, standard switch point rails can be
used.
l The lead distance of the equilateral
turnout need not have any direct
correlation to the customary lead for a
lateral turnout. The closure curves
between the switch and frog can be
configured to any geometry that is
suitable to meet the speed objectives of
the turnout.
6-18
The use of an equilateral turnout on a curve
usually does not provide satisfactory ride
quality and is, therefore, not recommended.
6.4.5 Curved Frog
A straight frog is standard for most turnouts,
for both normal and diverging train
movements. This creates a “broken back
curve” alignment for the diverging movement
that can provide a disagreeable ride quality,
particularly in lower numbered (sharp radius)
turnouts. If a system will have a large number
of lower numbered turnouts, such as for yard
tracks, and there are approximately equal
quantities of right-hand and left-hand turnouts,
it may be beneficial to consider curved frogs
that allow a uniform turnout curve. A superior
yard layout may be possible using curved frog
turnouts, as shown in Figure 6.4.5, without
incurring excessive costs.
6.4.6 Slip Switches and Lapped Turnouts
Slip switches and lapped turnouts are often
suggested as a means of concentrating a
large number of train movements into a
constrained site. Such components are very
expensive to procure and maintain and are
seldom justifiable in a life-cycle cost analysis.
They should only be considered in cases
where extremely restrictive rights-of-way
leave no other design options.
6.4.7 Track Crossings
Whenever possible, track crossings
(diamonds) should have angles that do not
require movable point design. Movable point
crossings have high initial costs and require
more frequent maintenance and, therefore,
should be used only as a last resort. To
provide for the use of rigid crossings only, the
route geometry engineer will be required to
configure the tracks so that crossing tracks
 Special Trackwork

intersect at an angle at least equal to that of a 6.5.1 Conventional Tee Rail Split Switches
No. 6 frog (9’31’38”). Some systems have
successfully used crossings with flatter Most rail transit systems in North America use
angles, but they are not recommended switch point rails that are identical or similar to
because of the increased potential of designs used by North American freight
derailment at the unguarded center frog railroads. Such switches, known as split
points. If a flat-angle movable point crossing switches, generally conform to designs
appears to be required at a location such as a promulgated by the American Railway
route junction, a detailed investigation of Engineering & Maintenance-of-Way
alternatives should be conducted before Association (AREMA). Split switches are
trackwork final design commences. These produced by planing and bending a piece of
alternatives could include spreading track standard tee rail to a knife edge point on one
centers to permit one track to cross the other end. The sharpened point then lays up
at a sharper angle or substituting a crossover against a section of standard rail and diverts
track in advance of the junction for the the flanged wheel from one track to another.
crossing diamond. Simulations may be Split switches are relatively inexpensive to
required to determine if the operational produce and provide satisfactory service
scenarios resulting from an alternative track under most operating scenarios.
plan are acceptable. The maintenance
requirements of the baseline movable point Split switch point rails can be either straight or
crossing should be included in the analysis, curved. Straight switch point rails can be
including the operational restrictions that may used universally within a turnout, but are
be enforced during such maintenance. almost always an inferior choice for a
diverging route. As a guideline, curved switch
point rails are recommended for all transit
6.5 SWITCH DESIGN designs to provide a much smoother transition
through a turnout.
The switch area is the most critical portion of
any turnout. Most turnout maintenance is
switch related, requiring both trackwork and 6.5.2 Tangential Geometry Switches
signal maintenance. Most derailments occur
at and are caused by unmaintained or Conventional North American curved switch
neglected switches. As such, they are one of points still require the wheels to make a
the most important locations to examine for somewhat abrupt change of direction near the
the interaction between the wheel and the rail. point of switch. The actual angle at the point
As a guideline, the following sections will rail will vary depending on the length from the
discuss the various types of switch designs switch point to the heel of switch, but it
that can be used on light rail systems, and will typically ranges between 1 and 3 degrees.
provide guidelines to follow in selecting what Depending on the speed of the transit vehicle,
design to implement. this change in direction can produce an
uncomfortable ride. In addition, a switch point
used for diverging movement will frequently
incur a much greater amount of wear due to
the abrasive impact associated with
redirecting the vehicle wheels.

6-19
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Figure 6.4.5 Typical Curved Frog Turnout

6-20

To improve switch performance and service
life, European track designers developed
“tangential geometry” switches. In a
tangential geometry switch, the switch point
that deflects the diverging movement is not
only curved but also oriented so that the curve
is tangential to the main track The wheel is
not required to make an abrupt change of
direction; instead it encounters a flatter
circular curve that gradually redirects the
wheel. The lead distance for a tangential
geometry turnout is typically much longer than
for an ordinary turnout with the same frog
number
European tangential geometry switch point
rails are usually manufactured from special
rolled rail sections that are not symmetrical
about their vertical axes. These asymmetrical
switch point rail sections are also usually
shorter in height than switch stock rails,
thereby permitting the switch slide plate to
anchor the stock rail to resist rollover. The
difference in rail configuration and height
usually requires a shop-forged connection
between the asymmetrical switch point rail
and the common tee rail used in the turnout
closure curve. The Zu I-60 section (Figure
6.5.1) is a typical asymmetrical point rail
section. Nearly all tangential design switches
also employ a floating.heel design. .
Figure 6.5.1 201-60 Rail Section for Switch
Point
Tangential geometry turnouts should be
considered whenever high speeds or a large
number of movements must be made through
6-21
Special Trackwork
the diverging side of a turnout. A few North
American manufacturers are now producing
proprietary tangential geometry switch point
rail designs. These may be appropriate for
some applications on a light rail transit system
but are not generally warranted.
6.5.3 Uniform and Graduated Risers
Split switch designs, whether using
conventional AREMA geometry or tangential
alignment, typically elevate the top of the
switch point rail approximately 6 millimeters
(l/4 inch) above the top of the stock rail. This
prevents false flanges on worn wheels from
contacting the top of the stock rail and
possibly lifting the wheel off the top of the
switch rail. To achieve this elevation, special
riser switch plates are incorporated beneath
the switch rails. This additional elevation can
be eliminated once the switch rail has
diverged sufficiently from the stock rail such
that false flanges on wheels are no longer a
concern. The two design details that achieve
this transition are called uniform risers and
graduated risers.
A uniform riser switch maintains the additional
6 millimeters of height through the heel block
of the switch and then ramps it out over a
distance of 4 to 5 switch ties beyond the heel.
At each of these ties, a special rail fastening
plate must be installed that provides
progressively less riser elevation until the
base of the closure rails beyond the switch are
in the same plane as the stock rails. Such
turnout plates must be specially fabricated
and each will fit in only one location within the
turnout.
A graduated riser switch maintains the
additional elevation only as long as absolutely
necessary and then ramps it out prior to the
heel block of the switch. Two vertical bends
are required in the switch rail-one concave
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

and the next convex-so that the 6 millimeters impractical. The switch point “throw,” the
of riser elevation is eliminated in increments of distance the switch point rail needs to move
2 or 3 millimeters. Special plates are not from one orientation to another, results in an
required beyond the switch heel block; most unacceptably large void in the pavement
timber tie ballasted track turnouts with surface. This void is dangerous to roadway
graduated risers use hook-twin tie plates in vehicles and pedestrians. Voids also tend to
that area. collect debris and dirt, which impair switch
operations. To deal with these difficulties,
As a guideline, uniform risers will usually trackwork designers long ago developed what
provide the best and most economical service are known as tongue switches.
for turnouts in main track or where insulation
is required. Uniformity of maintenance A tongue switch consists of a housing that
suggests that switches in yard and secondary incorporates the three rails that converge at
tracks on the same transit system should also any switch The switch tongue is usually
use uniform risers. Graduated risers should located in a roughly triangular opening in the
only be considered for use in maintenance center of the housing . The switch tongue is
and storage yard tracks-areas where special typically grooved on its top surface and either
plates for stray current isolation are typically pivots or flexes on its heel end. This
not required. movement directs the wheel flange to either
the straight track or the diverging track.
European switch point design does not
consider the raised switch point concept. Tongue switches can either be used in pairs
Therefore, the selection of either uniform or (a “double-tongue” switch) or a single tongue
graduated risers is not a concern. However, switch can be paired with a “mate.” A mate is
both raised switch point and level switch point a rigid assembly that has no moving parts but
design perform best during operation with the rather only two intersecting flangeways in the
regular maintenance of wheel truing. This will top surface. The mate does not steer the
eliminate the false flange and secondary wheels, it only provides a path for the wheel
batter caused by the false flange. The flange. All guidance must therefore come
standards for vehicle wheel maintenance from the companion tongue switch. Traditional
plays an important part in the switch point North American street railway operations used
design and must be considered when tongue switches and mates almost exclusively
contemplating the interface between the until very recently.
wheel and switch point.
In a street environment, tongue switches are
far easier to keep clean than conventional tee
6.5.4 Switches for Embedded Track rail split switches. The mate component,
having no moving parts, is especially well
Turnouts in embedded track are a signature suited to a street environment; since the
characteristic of light rail transit systems. flangeways are no deeper than those in the
Whenever the railroad or rail transit track must adjoining track and are thus easy to keep
be paved or embedded to permit either clean.
rubber-tired vehicles or pedestrians to travel
along or across the track area, conventional
ballasted track split switches-either
conventional or tangential design-are

6-22
 Special Trackwork

6.5.4.1 North American Tongue Switch with the point of the tongue recessed into
Designs the switch housing. The nearly tangential
North American tongue switches are typically geometry results in turnout lead distances
constructed of solid manganese steel and are much shorter than straight tongue
designed as illustrated in the 980 series of switches. Tongues with radii as short as
drawings in the AREMA Potiolio of Trackwork about 15 meters (50 feet) were not
Plans Those drawings show both double- uncommon.
tongue switches and a tongue switch/mate
l The flangeway widths in traditional street
design. While these examples are
railway tongue switches and mates were
conveniently available, a detailed examination narrower than those for railroad service.
is required to appreciate the differences
Track gauge was also usually unchanged
between the AREMA designs and the
from tangent track. The AREMA designs,
configurations used by traditional street
on the other hand, have extremely wide
railway operations. Figure 6.5.2 illustrates a
flangeways and widened track gauge‘to
typical tongue switch designed in accordance accommodate steam locomotives with
with the practices of the former American
multiple axles and large diameter driving
Transit Engineering Association (ATEA).
wheels. These factors make railroad
These design differences include the
tongue switch designs ill-suited for light
following:
rail vehicles that have narrower wheel
treads and almost always have small
wheel diameters. The wide flangeways
are also hazardous to pedestrians.

Typically, the switch tongue is placed on the

inside rail leading to the diverging curve, so
that truck steering action is provided by the
interaction between the back side of the wheel
flange and the tongue This produces reliable
Figure 6.52 Tongue Switch and Mate- steering of the truck due to the curve being
Non-embedded 149 RE 7A Rail continuously guarded. Some tongue switch
designs amplified this guarding by depressing
l Traditional street railways (transit the wheel tread level of the diverging
systems) in North America typically movement immediately beyond the point of
employed tongue switches and mates switch, as shown in Figure 6.5.3. This
rather than double-tongue switches which causes the tongue to become an even more
were more common for railroad service. effective guard because it is higher than the
This was probably due to a desire to wheel tread.
reduce the number of moving parts to be
maintained, a key factor on large streetcar Switch tongues require frequent maintenance
systems that could have hundreds of to keep them clean and tight. Traffic riding on
switches in embedded track. top of a rigid tongue tends to loosen and rattle
it. For that reason, many properties
l Tongue switch and mate designs for
positioned tongue switches on the outside of
street railway service, as well as modern
the curve for turnouts that were used either
flexible double-tongue switches, are
infrequently or only for converging
typically curved throughout their length,
movements. With the tongue positioned on

6-23
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

the outside of the curve and the mate on the
inside, straight through LRV wheel
movements do not ride on the tongue,
providing a quieter street environment. Note,
however, that with the mate on the inside of
the curve, outside tongue switch turnouts are
not fully guarded. The deletion of a
continuous guard through the critical switch
area can result in derailments under some
circumstances. Accordingly, outside tongue
switches were typically not employed on
switches with radii of less than about 30
meters (100 feet).
The AREMA switch tongue design pivots on
an integral cylinder that is positioned beneath
the heel of the tongue. This cylinder is held in
place by wedges on either side that are
tightened by large diameter bolts. These
wedges tend to work loose as both they and
the cylinder wear, causing the tongue to rattle
and rock which leads to noise and accelerated
wear. Tightening the wedges will only
temporarily correct the problem and over-
tightening can make the switch difficult to
throw.
The ATEA standard tongue switch included a
tongue heel design that could be locked down
by lever action. American special trackwork
fabricators produced several other proprietary
heel designs. These alternative heel designs
generally required less maintenance and
performed better in street railway use than the
AREMA designs, but may have been ill-suited
to the heavy axle load demands of railroad
service. Manufacturers of these alternative
designs are no longer in the transit industry
and the patents on their designs may have
lapsed, placing them in the public arena.
Standard American-designed tongue switches
and mates were typically fabricated from
manganese steel castings, similar to the solid
manganese steel frogs. Some alternative
designs were partially fabricated from either
girder or tee rail sections. Tongue switches
and mates have always been expensive items

SNGUE POINT DETPJL

Figure 6.5.3 ATEA 75’ Radius Solid Manganese Tongue Switch

6-24
 Special Trackwork

because it is difficult to produce large castings A number of North American light rail
to precise tolerances. operators have procured such switches. In-
track performance of these installations has
varied. Traditional street railway operations
6.5.4.2 European Tongue Switch Designs rate fabricated flexible tongue switches as
European light rail manufacturers developed inferior to the robust design of the cast
flexible tongue switches in the post-WII era. manganese steel tongue switches and mates,
A typical flexible tongue switch is illustrated in particularly with respect to wear. This poor
Figure 6.5.4. performance could be due to the use of
relatively soft European girder rail steels.
Newer LRT operations, on the other hand,
have no problems with the European designs,
perhaps because they have no basis for
comparison. Special surface hardening weld
treatments can be incorporated in the design
of flexible tongue switches to provide
enhanced protection against wear. Refer to
Section 5.2.4.

6.5.4.3 Switch Tongue Operation and

Control
The switch throw of a tongue switch must be
extremely short to preserve the switch
tongue’s ability to perform as an effective
Figure 6.5.4 European Fabricated Steel guard and to keep the open point flangeway
Double Tongue Switch as narrow as possible. The ATEA switch
throw was only 64 millimeters (2-l/2 inches)
Fabricated from rolled and machined rails and long; a steel company designed an even
flat steel plate sections, these designs are shorter throw, 57 millimeters (2-l/4 inches).
considerably less expensive to manufacture Such small switch throws are completely
than the solid manganese steel castings used outside of the adjustment range of any
in North American tongue switches and standard railroad power switch machine of
mates. The European design also typically North American design. Instead, traditional
employs double tongues (no mate) so that North American street railway properties
both wheels provide the steering action. employed switch machines that are
Some European designs provide a rigid mate essentially a large solenoid. Depending on
in lieu of an outside tongue switch, but usually the current flow direction in the solenoid field,
only in complex layouts where overlapping the switch will be thrown in one direction or
turnouts make it impossible to provide the another. Once thrown, the tongue is held in
second tongue. In nearly all cases the place by a spring loaded toggle. The toggle
tongues are rigidly fastened at the heel and keeps the tongue in place until the solenoid is
flex, rather than pivot as is the case with North activated to throw the switch in the opposite _
American design. direction. It also makes the switch trailable
without having to first throw the switch. The
most common design, which is stilt in

6-25
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

production, was known as a Cheatham switch, Corrosion of threaded fastenings in embedded

after its original manufacturer. A major switches can make them impossible to adjust.
drawback of the solenoid design is that the All threaded fastenings in embedded switches
spring toggle does not lock the switch tongue should be made of corrosion-resistant
in place. This makes it possible for a switch materials, such as bronze or stainless steel, to
tongue to accidentally throw under a rail car. avoid corrosion problems.
Some North American operators have
equipped Cheatham switches with point
6.5.4.5 Design Guidelines for Embedded
detection relays that verify electronically that
the switch tongue has been completely Switches
thrown. If pedestrians can be reliably restricted from
the location, embedded track switch designs
European suppliers have developed more identical to those used on open track turnouts
modern switch machines for tongue switches can be considered, as shown in Figure 6.5.5,
that do provide point locking. Their design since conventional North American
philosophy, however, does not comply with interlocked switch operating mechanisms can
conventional North American signal practice. be used. If pedestrians cannot be reliably
excluded from the vicinity of an embedded
turnout-which is usually the case-
6.5.4.4 Embedded Switch Drainage embedded switches should use either
Tongue switches, regardless of design, create traditional North American street railway
an opening in the street surface that will tongue switches and mates or European
inevitably fill with water and miscellaneous fabricated flexible double-tongue switches.
debris that is blown or washed into the switch. AREMA tongue switch and mate and double-
A positive drainage system must be installed tongue switch designs should not be used, as
that will also permit solid debris to be flushed the flangeway openings are too large for
away. The switch design should promote free areas where the general public has access.
drainage of any cavity and should also allow
access into all cavities to enable cleaning out
any solid material that may accumulate.
Leaving such materials in place can interfere
with the operation of the switch, promote
corrosion, and facilitate stray currents. If the
design includes cavities that are not essential
to operation of the switch, but are likely to
cause problems if they become filled with
water or debris, the designers should consider
filling such areas with a non-conductive
material, such as an epoxy grout, prior to
installation in track. The maintenance
program should include sweeping, vacuuming, Figure 6.5.5 Embedded Tee Rail Switch-
flushing, or blowing out embedded switches Equilateral Turnout, Steel Cover Plates,
on an as-needed basis, as well as an Epoxy Filler
inspection to verifiy that the drainage systems
are clear and functional.

6-26
 Special Trackwork

6.55 Fully Guarded Tee Rail Switch l The house top guard piece, which is
Designs positioned above the straight switch point,
protects the critical first 300 to 450
Readers will have noted that tongue switch millimeters (12 to 18 inches) of the
and mate turnouts provide a continuous diverging switch point by pulling the wheel
restraining rail through the entire turnout. This set away from it. Because the house top
includes the critical switch area, where the is rigidly fixed and must allow the passage
vehicle trucks must first make a change of of a wheel that is traveling on the straight
direction. The preponderance of derailments switch rail, it does not provide any
occurs at switches. Providing a guard in the guarding action for lateral moves beyond
switch area can be very beneficial, particularly the immediate vicinity of the point of the
if the turnout curve immediately beyond the switch. The house top is usually a
switch is sharp and protected with a continuation of a conventionally designed
restraining rail. Rail transit systems that have restraining rail that is placed in the
extremely sharp turnouts in open track often tangent track ahead of the switch point.
employ what are variously known as either
The “double point” for the straight switch
“house top” or “cover guard” switches. These
rail provides a continuation of the
switch designs are the signature component
restraining rail along the curved stock rail
of “fully guarded” turnouts. A typical house
from the house top to the heel of the
top double-point switch is illustrated in
switch. This restraining rail is fastened
Figures 6.5.6 and Figure 6.5.7. As the name
directly to the back face of the switch
implies, a fully guarded turnout is one in which
point and extends the restraining face
the diverging movement through the turnout
through the switch area beyond where the
includes continuous guarding from ahead of
house top provides guarding action.
the point of switch through the frog.
Note that the spread at the heel of the
The switch area provides the unique
switch is much larger than in conventional
characteristics of a fully guarded turnout,
AREMA split switch design. This is
including:
required so that the connection can be
made between the double-point switch
~GUbJXl RAILS

r
,-ADJUSTABLE RAIL BRACES
UNDERCUT CURVED
STRAIGHT SWITCH
S’IOCK RPU. POINT R&L

HOUSE TOP OR COVER CUM?0

----.-.-.______
m m L*mrol F Dr-wWT Ddll

LUNoER CUT
CURVED CAST STEEL TY-
STOCK R&L HEEL BLOCKS

Figure 6.5.6 Fully Guarded House Top Switch

6-27
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
Figure 6.5.7 Fully Guarded Turnout-
115 RE Rail Switch with House Top and
Double Point Guarding
and the restraining rail. Some transit
agencies have installed house tops without a
double point, thereby protecting the point of
the switch but not the remainder of the
diverging switch rail.
In order for the double point to act as an
effective restraining rail, the switch throw must
be as short as possible. A throw distance no
greater than 89 mm (3-l/2 inches) is required
and a shorter throw dimension would be
preferred. The normal throw distance for a
powered switch in accordance with standard
North American railroad practice
approximately 121 mm (4-314 inches). Most
conventional North American power switch
machine designs allow for an adjustment of 89
to 140 millimeters (3-l/2 to 5-l/2 inches).
they were set to the smaller dimension, they
would have no adjustment left for wear.
Hence, a power switch machine for a house
top switch must be custom designed.
American signal equipment manufacturers
can provide machines with short throws;
however, the locking rod design cannot be as
robust as those provided with ordinary switch
machines. This makes them a high
maintenance item that requires frequent
adjustment.
A large amount of freeplay between wheel
gauge and track gauge is essential for a
house top to be an effective guard and to
protect an appreciable portion of the curved
switch rail. Therefore, house tops are most
effective when used with railroad standard
wheel gauges. If conventional transit
standard wheel gauge is used as the standard
on a light rail system, track gauge will need to
be widened through the switch area.
Fully guarded turnouts with house top
switches are rarely justified and should be
used only as a last resort in cases where
sufficient right-of-way cannot be acquired to
permit the use of flatter turnouts.
6.5.6 Switch Point Detail
Very careful attention must be given to the
cross section of the switch point rail at the
point of the switch, particularly if the wheel
contour is not a standard railroad design. If
the transit system includes a street railway
wheel profile with a narrow or short wheel
flange (generally less than 25 millimeters (1
inch) in either dimension}, there is a real
danger that the wheel will either “pick” or ride
up on the switch point. This is a particular
problem in facing point diverging movements.
is
In general, the top of the tip of the switch point
rail should be at least 8 to 13 millimeters (3/8
to l/2 inch) above the bottom of the wheel
If flange and should rise to the full height of the
flange as rapidly as possible. Special
attention must be given if the wheel flange, in
either the new or maximum-wear condition,
North has either a flat bottom or a sharp bottom
corner. Such wheels can readily ride up the
flat surface provided by the second machined
cut in the AREMA 5100 switch point detail. If
the light rail system employs such wheels, it
may be necessary to use switch point details
other than the 4000, 5100, and 6100 designs
6-28
 Special Trackwork

contained in the AREMA Porffolio of accomplished by either grinding or planing

Trackwork Plans (see Figure 6.5.8). away a portion of the head of the stock rail for
a distance of approximately 300 millimeters
(12 inches) ahead of and beyond the point of
the switch. This “stock rail tread depression”
lowers the relative position of the tip of the
wheel flange so that it cannot easily climb on
top of the point. The gauge corner radius of
the stock rail is reduced to approximately 15
millimeters (about 9/16 inch) through the
depressed area. While the stock rails with the
AREMA AREMA
DETAJL 5100 DFTAJL 6100 depressed tread must be custom fabricated,
this technique enables the use of off-the-shelf
AREMA 5100 detail switch points. An
alternate design where the undercut stock rail
and switch point machining of the 5100 point
detail actually places the switch point l/4 to
318 inches below the top of the stock rail has
recently been implemented to improve gauge
point contact. For future transit design of
switch points, a 7200 point detail number
AREA AREA
DFTAIL 1000 DETAIL ZOOQ should be considered.
(OBSOLETE1 (OBSOLETE)

Trackwork designers on new systems should

strongly encourage the adoption of wheel
profiles with flange contours that are no less
than 25 millimeters (1 inch) high. In addition
to the above mentioned problems with switch
points, short wheel flanges also concentrate
the lateral component of the wheel-to-rail
ATEA DETAIL FOR
SHALLOW FLANGES loading onto a narrower band than taller
(OBSOLETE)
flanges. This higher contact pressure leads to
accelerated wear on both wheels and rails.
Figure 6.5.8 Switch Point and Stock Rail Refer to Chapter 2 for additional discussion on
Details this topic.

The ATEA had a switch point standard for use

with American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) rails that placed the top of the switch
a mere 6 millimeters (l/4 inch) below the top
of the stock rail as shown in Figure 6.58.
These dimensions are not achievable with
more modern rails that have broader gauge
corner radii. Some light rail operations have
reduced the distance between the wheel tread
and the top of the switch point. This is
6.6 FROGS
6.6.1 Frog Design
Track and vehicle design teams must carefully
consider frog design in conjunction with the
selection of a preferred wheel profile.
If the light rail vehicle wheel is generally
identical to the AAR I-B wheel, then frog

6-29
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

designs can generally conform to AREMA

standards as cited in the Porffolio of
Trackwork Plans. Suggested revisions are
noted below. Such frogs should comply with
the following standards:
Frogs in primary track can ordinarily be
railbound manganese steel, heavy wall
design, conforming to details given in the
AREMA Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
Frogs in secondary track can be either
railbound manganese steel or solid
manganese steel construction conforming
to the details given in the AREMA
Figure 6.6.1 Monoblock Frog Details
PorIfolio of Trackwork Plans.
Railbound manganese frogs tend to l Frog arms should be longer than the
introduce more noise and vibration at the current (1997) AREMA standard to ensure
interface between the wing rail and the that the toe and heel spreads are wide
manganese irregular running surface. enough to permit field thermite welding.
Joint LRT/railroad systems should Additional length may be required to make
consider solid manganese frogs with it possible to crop off a failed thermite
welded rail joints to eliminate irregularities weld and make a second weld.
in the rail surface to improve on reducing
l Consideration should be given to
special trackwork noise.
depressing the point of frog slightly below
the top of rail plane for a distance of
Monoblock welded frog construction is
approximately 100 millimeters beyond the
extremely popular in Europe and has seen
actual point of the frog. This will minimize
increased use in North America. Monoblock
frog point batter from the wheel’s gauge
frogs have a central portion that is machined
corner fillet, particularly on a transit
from a block of either rolled steel or cast steel
system that features a compound radius
that is metallurgically consistent with normal
wheel tread design, such as the AAR 1-B
rail steel. Rolled steel rails are then welded to
wheel (see Figures 6.6.2 and 6.6.3).
the central portion to form the frog arms This
design can be advantageous for production of POSITION OF WHEELEXTREMERIGHT -
AT LocAnoN OF LOAD TRANSFERFROM
small quantities or one-of-a-kind frogs such as WHEELPOSITION \ FROG WlNC TO POINT
CENTERED POSITION OF WHEELEXTREMELEFT
those required for crossing diamonds. See BETWEENGAUGE--\

Figure 6.6.1 for the arrangement of a typical

monoblock frog.

POINT
r-r m-c
6.6.2 Frog Design Modifications

Even if AREMA frogs are chosen, track

L LNO. 6 FROG POINT DEPRESSED
953mm IN 1524mm (3/a’ IN
NO 6 FROG POiNT DEPRESSED
9.53mm IN 1524mm (3/8” IN 6’)
6’)

designers should consider several Figure 6.6.2 Plan View at Frog Area with
modifications, including: 45-mm Flangeway

6-30

Figure 6.6.3 Section at 15-mm Frog Point
l If the light rail vehicle wheel has a tread
that is less than 100 millimeters (4 inches)
wide, it may not have continuous support
while passing over the opposite flangeway
of the frog. Excessive impacts can occur
if the wheel tread has less than 25
millimeters (1 inch) of support width as it
over the open
passes flangeway,
particularly if the operating speed is
relatively high. If tight control can be
maintained on both track gauge and
wheel gauge, it is usually possible to
correct this situation by narrowing the
flangeway widths from the customary 48
millimeters (l-7/8 inches) to about 40
millimeters (l-9/16 inches) as shown in
Figures 6.6.3 and 6.6.4).
Figure 6.6.4 Section at 75-mm Frog Point,
Flange Bearing
If open point frogs are not possible, then
either flange-bearing frogs, spring frogs, or
movable point frogs are needed.
6-31
Special Trackwork
6.6.3 Flange-Bearing Frogs
Flange-bearing frogs are typically provided
whenever continuous wheel support cannot
be provided by the wheel tread. This
condition is most prevalent on light rail
systems that employ a narrow wheel tread but
also can occur on a transit system with wider
wheels. Inadequate support often occurs in
sharp angle frogs and crossing diamonds and
is a universal problem as crossing frog angles
approach 90 degrees. It can also occur at the
mate opposite a tongue switch.
6.6.3.1 Flangeway Depth
Flange-bearing design carries the wheel load
past the point of inadequate wheel tread
support by transferring the load to the wheel
flange tip. Typically, the tread is elevated a
few millimeters above the normal top of rail
elevation as this occurs. As the flangeway
floor wears, equilibrium of both the flange and
tread bearing may be achieved. This may or
may not be acceptable depending on how
uniformly the system’s vehicle wheels are
maintained. The depth of the flange-bearing
portion of the frog should be 3 millimeters (l/8
inch) less than the nominal height of the LRV
wheel flange. The flange-bearing section
should extend longitudinally from about 300
millimeters (12 inches) ahead of the
theoretical frog point to a location 200
millimeters (8 inches) beyond the actual frog
point (see Figure 6.6.4) to ensure that the
wheel is carried well past the point of non-
tread support.
6.6.3.2 Flangeway Ramping
The wheel flanges on most rail systems tend
to get higher as the wheels wear since the
wheel tread experiences virtually all of the
wheel wear. In order for a flange-bearing frog
to accommodate normal maintenance
tolerances in wheel flange height, there must
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

be a transition ramp from the ordinary
flangeway depth of perhaps 50 millimeters (l-
7/8 inches) to the flange-bearing depth. The
slope of this ramp should be varied depending
on the desired vehicle speed so as to
minimize the impact. A taper as flat as I:60 is
not unusual in situations where a Range-
bearing frog is used in a main line track. As a
guideline, the ramp ratio should be no steeper
than 1 divided by twice the design speed in
kilometers per hour
6.6.3.3 Flange-Bearing Frog Construction
Flange-bearing frogs are typically fabricated
as solid manganese steel castings or welded
monoblocks. Hardened steel inserts have
also been used in bolted rail frog construction.
The center manganese steel insert in a
railbound maganese (RBM) frog may not be
long enough to obtain ramps of appropriate
length for typical transit operating speeds.
Flange-bearing frogs tend to develop a wheel
wear groove in the floor of the flangeway that
can steer the wheels. If one side of the frog is
only used rarely, this groove can become
deep enough to possibly cause wheel tracking
problems when a vehicle passes through the
rarely used flangeway. Flange-bearing frogs
may therefore require additional flangeway
floor maintenance, including grinding away
sharp edges and occasional welding to build
up the groove.
6.6.3.4 Speed Considerations at Flange-
Bearing Frogs
The support between the wheel flange and the
flangeway floor can cause moderately
disagreeable noise and vibration. For this
reason, flange-bearing design is usually
limited to relatively slow speed operations
(less than 25 Whr is common). The 1998
revisions to the Track Safety Standards of the
U.S. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA)
recognizes flange-bearing design for the first
time, but limits operation over such frogs to
FRA Class 1 speeds of 16 klhr freight and 24
Whr passenger (10 mph freight and 15 mph
passenger). While the FRA standards do not
apply to most rail transit operations, they will
in segments of light rail systems where
railroad freight operations are permitted. If
any flange-bearing construction is considered
for joint use areas, system designers should
be aware that the operating speed of both
freight and light rail passenger equipment will
be restricted by federal mandate. If such
speed restrictions compromise the transit
system’s operations plan, it may be necessary
to forgo flange-bearing design and adopt other
approaches to provide wheel support.
6.6.3.5 Wheel Flange Interface
A light rail system with a minor amount of
flange-bearing special trackwork can typically
use a conventional wheel contour with a
rounded flange. On the other hand, if there is
a significant amount of flange-bearing special
trackwork, a rounded flange tip tends to flatten
due to wear and metal flow under impact.
This results in flanges that are shorter than
design, which in turn could cause problems at
switch points. If a large amount of flange-
bearing specialwork is expected,
consideration should be given to a wheel
flange design that is flat or nearly flat on the
bottom. This will minimize the likelihood that
wheel flanges will experience damaging metal
flow from traversing flange-bearing frogs.
Refer to Chapter 2, Figure 2.6.5F, for a typical
wheel design intended for use with flange-
bearing special trackwork.
It is important for track designers to recognize
that when an LRV wheel is running on a
flange tip, its forward velocity is slightly
greater than when it is operating on the wheel
tread even though the rotational velocity in
terms of revolutions per unit time is

6-32
 Special Trackwork

unchanged. Thus, if one wheel is running on many locations. In locations where an

its flange and the other wheel on the same embedded turnout is used only very
axle is rolling on the tread surface, the flange- infrequently, such as an emergency
bearing wheel will attempt to travel slightly crossover, some light rail systems have
further ahead. This condition cannot persist employed what is known as either a “lift over’
for long before wheel slip will force both or “jump frog” (see Figure 6.6.5)
wheels to resume their normal orientation
opposite each other. This is rarely a problem A jump frog provides a flangeway only for the
provided that each axle is independently main line movement. When a movement
powered. However, if the LRV truck design occurs on the diverging route, the frog
powers both axles from a single motor flangeway and wing rail portion is ramped up
(“monomotor” truck design) flange-bearing to a level that allows the wheel to pass over
design can introduce loadings that may the main line open flangeway and running rail
overstress mechanical portions of the LRV head. To protect the direction of the raised
drive train as one wheel attempts to travel wheel, a restraining guard rail is provided on
further than the other three to which it is rigidly the opposite wheel. The lift over action will
connected. Failures of gearbox connections introduce noise and vibration comparable to a
between the axles and the monomotors have flange-bearing frog. However the more
been common and vehicle manufacturers in frequent straight through main line
part blame flange-bearing special trackwork. movements will have a continuous wheel
To minimize this problem, some European tread support and the overall amount of street
track designers include a flange-bearing noise attributable to the light rail system will
grooved head girder rail opposite any flange- be reduced.
bearing frog.
6.6.6 Frog Running Surface Hardness

6.6.4 Spring and Movable Point Frogs
When continuous support is required and
flange-bearing design is not appropriate due
to operating speed or.other conditions, either
spring frogs or movable point frogs can be
considered. Such components are costly,
high maintenance items and should be used
only when unavoidable. If the system
includes tracks where high vehicle speeds are
required, system designers should seriously
reconsider whether the use of narrow wheel
treads is advisable.
6.6.5 Lift Over (“Jump”) Frogs
Any frog will generate noise and vibration,
which can be an environmental concern at
Regardless of frog design, the portions of the
frog that support the wheels should have a
minimum surface hardness of 385 BHN. This
can either be inherent in the material from
which the frog is fabricated or achieved by
post-fabrication treatments such as explosive
hardening. If flange-bearing design is
employed, the flangeway floor should also be
hardened.
6.7 FROG GUARD RAILS
Guard rails must be installed opposite from
frog points both to protect the fragile frog point
and to prevent wheel flanges from tracking on
the wrong flangeway through the frogs.
If transit wheel gauge standards are followed,
it may be necessary to provide a very narrow

6-33 ’
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

p-6’/,’ SPECIM
TOE LENCTN WJNLINE

-SLOPE 0.675” N 12”

NO. 8 TURNOUT FROG - LIFT OVER DESIGN- RIGHT HAND (SHOWN)

SLOPE 0.125” N 2.5”

SLWE 0.878 I
1N R&SE0 mC TREK) RISER)

FL*NGEWAT
20- LEVEL
L FLOOR OF FLYlCEWAY
’ TOP OF RIL
RISER I’ SLOPE OS N l2-
SLOPE 05’ N 12” 5- LEVEL
TOP OF RM- -SLOPE IN FLANGEWAy
SLOPE H FLYK;EWAY FLOOR 0.679 N 17.5’
FLOOR 0.875” N 173-

SECTION ALONG LIFTOVER FROG FLANGEWAY

(LIFTOVER DESIGN)

Figure 6.6.5 Lift Over Frog Design

6-34
 Special Trackwork

guard rail flangeway in order to ensure that
the wheel flange remains in the proper path
through the frog. Widened track gauge may
be required. Guard rails should extend ahead
of the point of frog for a distance not less than
that given in the AREMA Potiolio of
Trackwork Hans. They should extend beyond
the frog point to at least the location of the
heel end of the frog wing rail. Where the
closure curve radius of the turnout is sharp
enough that curve guarding is required, the
required restraining rail system and the frog
guard rail on the diverging side of the turnout
should be continuous.
wheel tread. The designer must not only
consider the as-new width of the wheel tread,
but also the allowable wear limits on both the
side of the wheel flange and on the gauge line
of the rail as well as any allowable metal
overflow on the outer edge of the wheel.
Wheel tread clearance will rarely be less than
125 mm (5 inches) except for systems with
narrow wheel treads. For additional
information on wheel profiles refer to Section
2.6.4.
6.9 SWITCH TIES

Frog guard rails should be adjustable and While domestic hardwoods are the most
generally compatible with the restraining rail popular materials for North American switch
design adopted for the project. ties, significant advances have been made in
the design of concrete switch ties. Particularly
Installing an adjustable guard rail in on any system that elects to use concrete
embedded track is difficult; therefore crossties for main line ballasted track,
traditional street railway operations typically consideration should be given to the
installed a section of girder guard rail in lieu of employment of alternative materials for switch
a conventional guard rail. Some ties.
contemporary embedded track installations
provide a segment of U69 guard rail fastened Tropical hardwoods from forests in Africa and
to chairs in a manner that nominally permits South America, such as Azobe, Jarrah, and
adjustment (provided that the fastenings do Quebraco, were briefly popular in North
not become corroded and unusable). If the America for switch ties and crossties in
guard rail cannot be adjusted in the installed special applications. They have fallen out
environment, complete removal and favor in recent years due to environmental
replacement of both the pavement and the concerns relative to rain forest depletion and
guard rail may be required. In addition, frog unsatisfactory experiences that some
guard rail rarely need adjustments if properly railroads and transit agencies have had with
installed. Designers should carefully consider these products. They remain in common use,
whether frequent guard rail wear is likely however, on railways and transit systems in
before selecting a complex design that may countries that do not have large hardwood
have limited value. forests.

Trackwork designers must consider

6.8 WHEEL TREAD CLEARANCE requirements for stray current control when
choosing the type of switch tie to be used. If
Throughout any special trackwork unit, it is insulated installations are required, the
important to be certain that nothing projects designer must consider the dielectric
above the top of rail plane into a zone where it properties at each rail seat and the switch
might be struck by the outer edge of the LRV plate must be evaluated on both timber and

6-35
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
concrete switch ties. For more information on
rail seat insulation refer to Chapter 5.
Concrete switch ties can improve the stability
of turnout and crossing installations and will
provide a track modulus comparable to main
line concrete crosstie track. Concrete switch
ties must be individually designed to fit at
each specific location within a turnout. Hence,
a concrete switch tie designed for use at a
particular location in a No. 6 turnout will likely
not be usable in a No. 10 turnout. However,
because of their size-they generally are 250
millimeters (10 inches) wide-concrete switch
ties require a spacing layout that is distinctly
different from that used with timber switch ties.
The new tie layout can impact turnout switch
design by requiring alternate switch rod
positions. The two ties at the point of switch
area that support the switch machine must
remain at the 559-millimeter (22-inch) AREMA
standard center distance if they are to
accommodate power standard North
American switch machines. Figures 6.9.1
and 6.9.2 illustrate typical Number 8 and 10
concrete tie ballasted turnouts using SI units.
For addition information on switch ties, refer to
Chapter 5.
6.10 RESTRAININGRAIL FOR GUARDED
TRACK
As noted in the beginning of this chapter, the
broad definition of special trackwork includes
restraining rail systems for guarded track. For
details concerning these topics refer to the
following:
l For additional information on guarded
trackwork, refer to Chapter 4.
l For addition information on restraining rail
designs for guarded track, refer to
Chapter 5.
When curves with restraining rails are
adjacent to turnouts and track crossings, the
6-36
track designer should consider integrating the
restraining rail into the turnout by design to
avoid makeshift connections between them in
the field.
6.11 PRECURVlNGlSHOP CURVING OF
RAIL
Precurved rail is also considered special
trackwork since shop fabrication or special
processing is required to bend the rail steel
beyond its elastic limit.
6.11-l Shop Curving Rail Horizontally
For additional information on precurving of tee
rail and girder groove rail refer to Chapter 5.
6.11.2 Shop Curving Rail Vertically for
Special Trackwork
If a special trackwork unit is within a vertical
curve, as often happens when embedded
trackwork must conform to existing street
geometry, it may be necessary to shop curve
rails vertically so that they lay uniformly
without kinked joints or welds to adjoining
rails. This is particularly true when it is
necessary to field weld adjoining rails.
An 1189-mm (39-foot) long 115 RE rail is
supported only at its ends, can assume a sag
vertical radius of about 1524 meters (5,000
feet). A similar crest radius can be achieved
by a rail supported only in the center. These
equate to a mid-ordinate deflection of about
25 mm (1 inch) over the length of the rail. If
the requisite vertical radius is sharper than
this, the rails should be shop curved vertically
to avoid assembly problems in the field.
Technically, the shapes assumed by such
simply supported rails are neither circular
curves nor parabolic curves, but are close
enough for practical field purposes.
NO. 10 llJRNOU1 BAllASlEO AND m P.1.
EllC I -50
 Special Trackwork

In extremely sharp horizontal curves, it will be Regardless of the source of supply, special
necessary to account for rail cant when trackwork units should be standardized to the
bending the rails. This requires that the rails maximum degree possible so that economies
be cambered vertically prior to horizontal of scale are possible during both initial project
bending construction and subsequent long-term
maintenance. One-of-a-kind assemblies
should be avoided.
6.12 PROPRIETARY SPECIAL
TRACKWORK DESIGNS AND
LIMITED SOURCES OF SUPPLY 6.13 SHOP ASSEMBLY

Many of the innovative transit-specific special Special trackwork layouts, particularly

trackwork designs developed by European complex layouts involving more than one
fabricators are not produced by North turnout, should be preassembled at the
American special trackwork manufacturers. fabrication shop. This will enable inspectors
Some of these designs are proprietary, but, in to verify that all components fit together as
general, North American special trackwork specified and are in accordance with
manufacturers have been disinterested in approved shop drawings. Any allowable
undertaking the investment necessary to deviations from the approved shop drawings
satisfy the limited demand for such products. should also be noted on assembly plans so
Instead, they concentrate on the materials that field installation crews can make any
customarily required by their largest necessary adjustments to the trackwork.
customers-North American freight railroads.
The trackwork designer must carefully During shop assembly all components should
consider the prudence of designing a system be fully assembled ready for installation in the
where essential trackwork products will be field. The only exception would be insulated
difficult to obtain at reasonable cost through joints that are glued during field installation,
competitive bidding. Use of sole-source which can be assembled dry in the shop. If
products or proprietary designs should crossties and rail fastenings are to be
generally be avoided. Because complex furnished with the layout, they should be
interrelationships can exist between the installed during shop assembly. If timber
various elements of the overall trackwork switch ties are included as a part of the
design, this evaluation should be performed assembly, they can be permanently preplated
before design details are selected and during the shop assembly, particularly if
procurement and construction contracts are elastic rail fastenings are being used.
advertised. The designer should also
consider whether the same products or
6.14 REFERENCES
interchangeable substitutes are likely to be
available for future maintenance and
[I] American Railway Engineering and
expansion of the system. Caution is
Maintenance of Way Association,
recommended if special trackwork sources
Manual for Railway Engineering, 1964.
are limited solely to overseas manufacturers
or a single domestic supplier.

6-39
Chapter 7-Aerial Structures/Bridges

Table of Contents

7.1 INTRODUCTION 7-1

7.2 DESIGN CODES 7-l

7.3 VEHICLE FORCES 7-2

7.4 TRACK CONFIGURATION 7-2

7.5 RAIL/STRUCTURE INTERACTION 7-4

7.5.1 General 7-4
7.5.2 Bearing Arrangement at the Piers 7-6
7.5.3 Rail/Structure Interaction Analysis 7-6
7.54 Rail Break/Rail Gap Occurrences 7-7
7.5.5 Terminating CWR on Aerial Structures 7-10
7.5.6 Types of Deck Construction 7-l 1
7.5.6.1 Ballast Deck Construction 7-12
7.5.6.2 Direct Fixation Deck Construction 7-12
7.6 DIRECT FIXATION FASTENERS 7-13
7.7 TYPES OF SUPERSTRUCTURE 7-14
7.8 REFERENCES 7-17

List of Figures
Figure 7.21 Vehicle Bending Moments on Simple Spans 7-1
Figure 7.5.1 Radial Rail/Structure Interaction Forces 7-s
Figure 7.5.2 Bearing Configurations for Elevated Structure Girders 7-6
Figure 7.53 Rail Break Gap Size predicted by Finite Computer Model 7-9
Figure 7.54 Tie Bar on Aerial Crossover 7-l I
Figure 7.7.1 Typical Section of Elevated Structure Studied 7-15
Figure 7.7.2 Range of Deck Costs as a Function of Span Length and
Beam Spacing of Structure 7-15
Figure 7.7.3 Range of Supporting Bent Costs as a Function of
Span Length of Structure 7-15
Figure 7.7.4 Range of Foundation Costs for Different Soil Conditions
as a Function of Span Length of Structure 7-15
Figure 7.7.5 Range of Total Costs of Elevated Structural System
as a Function of Span Length for Different
Soil Conditions 7-16
Figure 7.7.6 Average Ratio of Cost of Each Structural Subsystem
to Total Cost of Structure-Founded in Good Soils 7-16

7-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Figure 7.7.7 Average Ratio of Cost of Each Structural Subsystem

to Total Cost of Structure-Founded in Poor Soils 7-16
Figure 7.7.8 Average Ratio of Cost of Supporting Structure and
Foundation to Cost of Deck Structure for Different
Soil Conditions 7-17

List of Tables
Table 7.1 Effects of Unbroken Rail and Column Longitudinal Stiffness
on Loads Transferred to the Substructure 7-8
Table 7.2 Comparison of Rail Break Gap Size by Different Formulas 7-10

7-ii
CHAPTER 7-AERIAL STRUCTURES/BRIDGES

7.1 INTRODUCTION structures. In addition to local design codes,

designers must choose between the Standard
Railway aerial structures started as ballasted Specifications for Highway Bridges, published
track structures that had little structural by the American Association of State Highway
interaction between the rails and the structure. and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and
Urban railways and long span lift bridges have the Manual for Railway Engineering issued by
been constructed with open deck designs. the American Railway Engineering and
These lighter structures used jointed rail to Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA).
limit the interaction between the rail and the Unfortunately, neither the AASHTO nor
structure. CWR direct fixation track on a AREMA code accurately defines the
concrete deck is typical of modern light rail requirements of an aerial structure to resist
aerial structures. These structures can have light rail transit loads, although the AASHTO
significant interaction between the rail, which code is probably more applicable.
does not move, and the structure, which must
expand and contract with changes in Most light rail loads are greater than the HS20
temperature. This chapter discusses the truck load used by AASHTO, but they are
resolution of rail/structure interaction issues much less than the Cooper E80 railroad
and presents the items to be considered loading cited in the AREMA code. Figure
during the design of aerial structures. 7.2.1 plots bending moment versus span
length for the Cooper E80 train load, the HS20
The design of aerial structures for light rail truck load, and the LRV load from the Dallas
transit systems involves choosing a design and St. Louis transit systems. As shown in
code, determining light rail vehicle (LRV) the figure, for a 305meter (lOO-foot) span,
forces, confirming track configuration the LRV produces a bending moment
requirements, and applying rail/structure approximately 50 percent higher than that
interaction forces. This interaction is affected produced by the HS20 truck load, but less
by such factors as the bearing arrangement at than 20 percent of the bending moment
the substructure units, trackwork terminating caused by the Cooper E80 train load.
on the aerial structure, type of deck
construction, and type of rail fasteners.

The structural engineer must coordinate with

the trackwork engineer to fully understand the
s-
issues that affect the design of an aerial z. trrm ! I
..=i;SZO HIGHWAY-\
structure. The details of the trackwork design _--’ --LIGHT RAIL MHICX
-
significantly affect the magnitude of the forces
that must be resisted by the aerial structure.
Figure 7.2.1 Vehicle Bending Moments on
Simple Spans [‘I
7.2 DESIGN CODES
The AREMA code, although applicable to
At present there is no nationally accepted railroad structures, is too restrictive for light
design code that has been developed rail transit structures due to the great
specifically for light rail transit aerial difference in loadings. Wheel spacings for

7-1
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
AREMA loading do not correspond to those
found on LRVs, and the AREMA impact
criterion is not consistent with the suspension
and drive systems used on LRVs. The
service conditions, frequencies, and types of
loading applicable to freight railroad bridges
are not consistent with those items on
dedicated light rail transit systems. [‘,*I
Alternately, a strong similarity exists between
light rail transit design requirements and the
AASHTO code. For light rail transit aerial
structures, the ratio of live load to dead load
more closely approximates that of highway
loadings than freight railroad loadings. In
addition, since the magnitude of the transit live
load can be more accurately predicted, the
conservatism inherent in the AREMA code is
not required in light rail transit structures.
It is interesting to note that the older transit
systems (Chicago, Philadelphia, New York)
often refer to the AREMA code for design of
their bridges, but the newer systems (Atlanta,
Washington, Baltimore) base their designs on
AASHTO specifications. This is partly due to
an increased understanding of an aerial
structure’s behavior and the designers
confidence in the ability to more accurately
predict the transit loads. Both heavy rail and
light rail transit systems can use AASHTO as
a guide since their axle loads and car weights
are similar.
Although there is no current bridge design
code that is completely applicable to light rail
transit bridges, the use of the AASHTO code
will result in a conservative design that is not
overly restrictive or uneconomical. (‘,2,31
7.3 VEHICLE FORCES
The vehicle forces applied to an aerial
structure are often set by the transit agency’s
design criteria for site-specific circumstances.
Many transit properties include alternative
7-2
heavier vehicles in the design criteria for
aerial structures These alternative
maintenance/construction vehicles include a
crane car, maintenance car, work train with
locomotive, and even highway vehicles
(during construction). On the other hand,
some transit properties establish the LRV as
the basis of design for the aerial structures.
In addition to the LRV and alternative vehicle
live loads applied to the aerial structure, the
following vehicle forces are considered:
0 Vertical impact
l Transverse horizontal impact
0 Centrifugal force
l Rolling force (vertical force applied at
each rail, one up and one down)
l Longitudinal force from braking and
tractive effort
l Derailment force
Combinations of vehicle forces, in conjunction
with dead loads, wind loads, and seismic
loads, are developed to generate the load
cases that govern the design of an aerial
structure.
7.4 TRACK CONFIGURATION
The majority of the early transit systems used
trackwork comprised of jointed rail supported
on elevated, simple-span guideway structures.
Alternatives have been developed for light rail
transit trackwork. Rather than the classical
jointed rail with bolted connections every 12
meters (39 feet), the trackwork is normally
constructed with continuous welded rail. With
either rail configuration, the rails can be
fastened directly to the aerial structure’s deck
or installed on ties and ballast.
The bolted connections used with jointed rail
allow sufficient longitudinal expansion and
contraction to reduce the accumulation of
thermal stresses along the rails. But bolted
joints have the following disadvantages:[41
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

l Generate noise and vibration and contracts, while the CWR remains in
l Are troublesome to maintain a fixed position
l Contribute to derailments l Providing a connection between the CWR
l Cause rail fatigue in the proximity of the
and aerial structure (direct fixation
rail joints
fasteners) that is resilient enough to
l Cause wear of the rolling stock permit the structure to expand and
l Reduce ride quality
contract without overstressing the
l Increase the dynamic impact forces fasteners
applied to the aerial structure
An important element in the design of
Over the past 20 years, CWR has been the trackwork using CWR is the consideration of
most common track configuration for light rail rail breaks. Rail breaks often occur at
transit systems. This is mainly due to its
structural expansion joints in the aerial
ability to overcome many of the disadvantages structure and must be accommodated without
of jointed rail. Specifically, CWR? 61 catastrophic effects such as derailment of the
l Minimizes noise and vibration vehicle. Depending on the length of the aerial
l Reduces track maintenance
structure, the CWR has to be sufficiently
l Improves track safety restrained on the aerial structure to limit the
l Eliminates the joints that cause rail fatigue
length of the gap if the rail does break.
l Limits wear of the rolling stock
l Provides a smooth, quiet ride CWR is a standard now employed in the
l Limits the dynamic impact forces applied transit industry. Therefore, transit system
to the aerial structure designers must understand how it interacts
with aerial structures as the temperature
The use of CWR, combined with direct fixation changes in order to provide a safe track and
of the rails to the supporting structure, is an structure.
improvement in the support and geometric
stability of the trackwork. As a result, rider Expansion (sliding) rail joints are used in
comfort and safety is enhanced and track certain circumstances to reduce the
maintenance requirements are decreased. interactive forces between the CWR and the
structure. These include locations where
The use of CWR requires designers of special trackwork is installed on the aerial
trackwork and aerial structures to consider structure, where signal track circuits need to
items that are neglected with the use of be accommodated, and where the aerial
jointed rail, such as? **‘I structure includes very long spans.
Providing sufficient rail restraint to prevent
horizontal or vertical buckling of the rails Rails can be attached to the structure in a
Providing anchorage of the CWR to variety of ways. The most common
prevent excessive rail gaps from forming if mechanism is the use of direct fixation
the rail breaks at low temperature fasteners with spring clips. Rigid rail clips
have also been used in the vicinity of
Determining the effect a rail break could substructure units (piers and abutments) with
have on an aerial structure fixed bearings, as well as adjacent to special
Calculating the thermal forces applied to trackwork. Also, zero longitudinal restraint
the aerial structure, the rail, and the fasteners have been installed to minimize the
fasteners as the aerial structure expands

7-3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

interaction forces between CWR and an installation temperature cause tensile forces
existing aerial structure. that increase the probability of a rail break
(pull-apart). A rail break creates unbalanced
forces and moments in the aerial structure
7.5 RAIL/STRUCTURE INTERACTION and results in a gap in the rail that could
cause a derailment. Rail breaks are
discussed in further detail in Section 7.5.4.
7.51 General

Based on these thermal effects, there are

With widespread use of CWR, the designer of
three problems to address in the design of
an aerial structure must be aware of trackwork
aerial structures with CWR:
design and installation procedures, as well as
1. Controlling the stresses in the rail
vehicle performance and ride comfort issues.
attributed to the differential longitudinal
Trackwork design and installation procedures
motions between the rail and the
are especially critical in establishing the
superstructure because of temperature
magnitude of the interaction forces between
changes or other causes
the rail and aerial structure.
2. Controlling the rail break gap size and
As the temperature changes, the resulting loads into the superstructure
superstructure (deck and girders) expands or
3. Transferring of superstructure loads and
contracts. The rails are basically stationary
moments into the substructure
because of their continuity throughout the
length of the bridge and because they are A structural system is formed when CWR
anchored off the bridge. The movement of the track is installed on an aerial structure. The
superstructure as the temperature changes major components of this system include:‘61
imposes deformation on the fastening system
Long, elastic CWR, whose ends are
that attaches the rails to the bridge deck. anchored in ballasted track beyond the
abutments
This thermal action exerts additional
interactive axial forces and deformations on Elastic rail fasteners that attach the rails
the rails and superstructure. Reaction loads directly to the superstructure
are applied to the substructure (piers and The elastic superstructure
abutments) through the fixed bearings and by
shear or friction through the expansion Elastic bearings connecting the girders to
bearings. The aerial structure must also resist the substructure
lateral components of the longitudinal loads The elastic substructure anchored to rigid
on curved track. When the cumulative foundations
resistance of the fastening devices (rail clips)
along a length of superstructure is overcome, There are a number of principal design factors
the superstructure slides relative to the rail. that affect the magnitude of the interaction
movement and forces between the rails and
Since CWR is not able to expand or contract, the structure, including:nO~ “I
temperature increases above the rail l The composition of the girder material
installation temperature cause compressive (steel or concrete) will affect the
forces that could buckle the rail. Rail expansion/contraction response to
fasteners prevent buckling of the rail. temperature changes
Temperature decreases below the rail

7-4
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

The girder length and type (simple span
or continuous) will affect the magnitude of
the structure’s thermal movement that the
rail fasteners must accommodate
The girders support pattern of fixed and
expansion bearings from adjacent spans
on the piers (refer to Section 7.5.2)
The magnitude of the temperature change
The rail fastener layout and longitudinal
restraint characteristics; there are at least
four concepts of fastener and restraint
1. Frictional restraint developed
mechanical fasteners
2. Elastic restraint developed in elastic
fasteners
3. Elastic restraint developed in elastic
fasteners with controlled rail slip
4. Elastic and slip fasteners installed in
where: F, = thermal rail force
A, = cross sectional area of the rail
E, = modulus of elasticity of steel
a = coefficient of thermal expansion
Ti = final rail temperature
T, = effective construction
temperature of the rail
On horizontal curves, the axial forces in the
rail and superstructure result in radial forces.
These radial forces are transferred to the
substructure by the bearings. The magnitude
of the radial force is a function of rail
in
temperature, rail size, curve radius, and
longitudinal fastener restraint. Refer to Figure
7.5.1 as well as other pertinent publications
for the equation to calculate the radial
rail/structure interaction force.
RPSIN FORCEPER FWT

accordance with the expected relative r

movements between girder and rail;
install sufficient elastic fasteners near
the fixed bearing to control rail creep;
install slip fasteners over the balance RAOIALFORCEPER FOOT PER RAJL= E aAT ‘k : KF ‘CCNT
R 4
of the girder length to provide full MEINN + INTERACTlCN
CWWT CCMPONENT
lateral restraint and minimal
WERE: E = YMJULUSff ELASTICITY
OF RNL STEEL
longitudinal restraint a = CWFICJWT OF THERUN EXPANSCtN
OF RAi!. STEEL
AT = OIANCXR RfiL TENPERAT’JRE
FROUSTRESS-FREETEYPERATURE
+ = AREA ff RAlL SECTION
Depending on the method used to attach the R = RADIUSff HCRIZONTALC’JRX
rails to the structure, the structural engineer KF = FASiENERsup VALUEMWDEOBY FASTENERSPAONG

must design the structure for longitudinal I~,= LENGWIOF WW3UP.E 8ETWEN EXPANSCNJOINTS

restraint loads induced by the fasteners, Figure 7.5.1 Radial Rail/Structure Inter-
horizontal forces due to a rail break, and radial action Forces WI
forces caused by thermal changes in rails on
Various solutions have been implemented in
curved alignments. Today’s designer can use
an attempt to minimize the interaction forces
computer models to simulate the entire
caused by placing CWR on aerial structures,
structure/trackwork system to account for
including the use of
variations in the stiffness of the substructure
l Ballasted track instead of direct fixation
and the dissipation of rail/structure interaction
forces due to the substructure’s deflection track (refer to Section 7.56)
(see Section 7.53). l Zero longitudinal restraint fasteners (refer
to Section 7.6)
The thermal force in the rail is calculated by
l High-restraint fasteners near the
the following equation: r4,‘, ‘I
structure’s point of fixity and low-restraint
Fr =ArEra(Ti-To) (Ew 1) fasteners on the remainder of the

7-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

structure (Note: it has been reported that

this solution results in problems with rail
creep and excessive rail gaps at breaks in
the rail)
(DNFIGURATION A
l A series of rail expansion joints and low-
restraint fasteners to allow the rail to
move independent of the structure;
requires highly restrained zones to
transfer traction and braking forces to the
structure. CONFIGURATION 6

/-RAIL (‘X7) ,-QRMR ,-FASTENERS

7.5.2 Bearing Arrangement at the Piers

The magnitude of rail/structure interaction

forces transferred to the substructure depends 0 EXPANSION BEARING
A FIXED BEARING
heavily on the bearing arrangement used. As
~FIGURATION C
shown in Figure 7.5.2, there are three
commonly used bearing arrangements. Figure 7.5.2 Bearing Configurations for
Configuration A is a symmetrical bearing Elevated Structure Girders WI
arrangement, with fixed bearings (or
expansion bearings) from adjacent spans at engineer must still design the bearings and
the same pier. Configurations A and B are their anchor bolts to resist these forces.
commonly used on modern transit systems
that utilize CWR. Configuration C is a non-
7.5.3 Rail/Structure interaction Analysis
symmetrical bearing arrangement typically
used on railroad and highway bridges.
Opinions differ throughout the transit design
“community” regarding the level of complexity
As a guideline for light rail transit systems with
required to design aerial structures subjected
CWR, the symmetrical bearing arrangement is
to thermal interaction forces from CWR. The
the most desirable. In this arrangement, the
interaction of the rails and supporting structure
thermal interactive forces induced into the rail
involves the control of rail creep, broken rail
tend to cancel out each other. This is true as
gaps, stresses induced in the CWR, axial
long as the adjacent spans are of similar
stresses induced in the guideway structure,
length and geometry. On the contrary, if an
and longitudinal and transverse forces
expansion bearing at the end of one span is
developed in the supporting substructure.[*l
coupled with a fixed bearing at the end of the
adjacent span on the shared pier
Some suggest that hand calculations are
(Configuration C), then the thermal interactive
adequate and provide a good understanding
forces would have a cumulative effect.
of the important considerations of rail/structure
interaction. Today’s structural engineer has
Although the interactive forces at symmetrical
the advantage of being able to use computer
bearing arrangements tend to cancel out
software to more “exactly” analyze this
before loading the piers, the structural
complex interaction.

7-6
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

Others have found that simpler analysis flexural stresses in the rail and the tensile
methods are unreliable in predicting stresses stress already in the rail is likely to be at its
and structural behavior critical to significant maximum value at this location.” ‘. I21
W/R-related design elements.[51 These
design elements include: A broken rail on a light rail transit bridge is an
The control of stresses in rails attributed important consideration because of the
to thermally induced differential potential to transfer a large force to the bridge
movements between the rail and or for a derailment because of the formation of
supporting superstructure a rail gap. As a result, aerial structure
designers must consider the rail break
The control of the rail break gap size and
condition. Limits on the size of the rail gap
the resulting loads transferred into
have to be established, usually based on the
structures during low-temperature rail pull-
light rail vehicle’s wheel diameter. It is
apart failures
commonly assumed that only one rail of a
The transfer of thermally induced loads single- or double-track alignment will break at
from the superstructure, through the any one time.
bearings, into the substructure
When the rail breaks, the pads of the
The choice of the method used to analyze fasteners situated between the break and the
rail/structure interaction forces is clearly at the thermal neutral point are realigned in the
discretion of the experienced structural opposite direction. Then, the rail slips through
engineer. Depending on the length of the the fasteners whose pads have deformed
aerial structure and other considerations, beyond their elastic limit, engaging enough
simple formulas may be used to determine the fasteners to resist the remaining thermal
structural requirements. Alternately, force. Once the required number of fasteners
complexities such as curved alignments, is engaged to balance the thermal force in the
varying span lengths, and the type of rail, the rail ceases to move.
structural elements may require that a
rigorous three-dimensional structural analysis The unbalanced force from the broken rail is
be performed. At times, the transit agency’s resisted by the other unbroken rail(s) and the
design criteria will include the required aerial structure. The portion of the rail break
analysis methodology. force that is resisted by the unbroken rail(s)
versus the aerial structure is significantly
affected by the substructure’s longitudinal
7.5.4 Rail Break/Rail Gap Occurrences stiffness (the force required to induce a unit
deformation in a component), the bearing
A rail break occurs when a thermally induced configuration, and the rail fasteners restraint
tensile force, resulting from a significant characteristics.[51
decrease in temperature, exceeds the ultimate
tensile strength of the rail. The rail break is Refer to Table 7.1 for a comparison of the rail
likely to occur at or near an expansion joint in gap size for different column stiffnesses and
the superstructure or at a bad weld, a rail flaw, levels of fastener restraint. Note that
or other weak spot in the rail. progressively lower loads are transferred to
the columns as column stiffness decreases.
The structure’s expansion joint is a likely As a result, higher loads are transferred to the
general area where a rail break can occur unbroken rails. This increases the thermally
because the girder’s end rotations increase

7-7
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

induced stress in this rail and raises the where:

possibility of a second rail break. With higher G = rail gap, cm (in.)
restraint fasteners, more load is transferred to X Cl = P,& the maximum longitudinal
the unbroken rail and less to the column than deflection of the non-slip fastener
with medium-restraint fasteners. X c2 = aATL,, the nominal rail contraction
X c3 = W, + Vfns) WNC, the
Researchers found that the superstructure’s reduction in rail contraction
bearing arrangement, as discussed in Section caused by fastener constraint
7.52, has little effect on rail gap size. But a = coefficient of expansion, 1.17x1 Oe5
decreasing the fastener’s longitudinal stiffness cm/cm/% (6.5 x IO” in.lin./“F) for
or slip force limit, or both, will result in an steel
increased rail gap size. AT = temperature change, “C (“F)
L = length of span (fixed to expansion
The redistribution of the rail break force to the point), cm (in.)
substructure causes a longitudinal deflection = minimum longitudinal restraint
P fS
in the substructure. The resulting force in controlled slip fastener
substructure deflection, with the thermal slip of kg (lb.1
the broken rail, combine to create the total P fns = minimum longitudinal restraint
gap in the broken rail. force in non-stip fastener, kg (lb.)
& = fastener longitudinal stiffness
Several methods can be used to calculate the kg/cm (lb./in.)
potential rail gap size. Following are the
n ns = number of non-slip fasteners in
equations discussed herein?]
span
n, = number of controlled-slip
Rail gap size is generally estimated by the
fasteners in span
following equation:
A, = cross-sectional area of rail (72.58
G=~(XCI+XC~-XC~) (Eqn. 2) cm2 [I 1.25 in.2] for 115 RE rail)
6 = rail modulus of elasticity, 2.1 X lo6
kg/cm2 (30 X lo6 Ib./in.2)

TABLE 7.1
EFFECTS OF UNBROKEN RAIL AND COLUMN LONGITUDINAL
STIFFNESS ON LOADS TRANSFERRED TO THE SUBSTRUCTURE [S]

* Assuming a symmetrical girder bearing configuration of E-F/F-E/E-F and a 600 F temperature

drop.

7-8
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

A simplified form of Equation 2 has been used

to estimate rail gap size, based on a length, L, 5 I I I I I I Y
I I I I I I I I1
I I I I I II

on either side of the break over which full rail :ASE 6 (btt.dAT~)/I , , , , ,
anchorage is provided, so that: I ! ! ! !I! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1

G = (wIT)~ AEJR, (Ew. 3)

where R, is the longitudinal restraint per
centimeter of rail in kilograms per centimeter I i i i i i iii i
:F
(pounds per inch).
CL
Equation 2 provides a reasonable estimate of
:2
rail gap size for medium- and high-restraint a
cc
fasteners, but significantly underestimates the
rail gap size for low-restraint fasteners. Low-
1
restraint fasteners generally do not adequately I i i i
control the size of the rail gap. Equation 3
provides relatively accurate estimates in many I I I I I I I I I I I
0
cases, except where high-restraint fasteners 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
are used. Improved accuracy can be obtained TEMPERATUREDROP, DEGREE F
with Equation 2 if the term &, is modified to
Figure 7.5.3 Rail Break Gap Size Predicted
.use the estimated total number of fasteners
by Finite Computer Model fg
over which the locked-in load is distributed.
Therefore: Table 7.2 summarizes estimated rail gap size
G = WL + &, - W 0% 4) using different equations and software.
where:
= 0.5 aAT nxLs Once the rail gap size has been estimated,
&2

= PJPfmax = PfmcJwPTKf the variables affecting the magnitude of the

n,
= aAT AE,, the thermal load, kg (lb.) gap (such as rail fastener spacing and
PT
P fmax stiffness) should be adjusted to limit the size
= hsPfns + n,h)4n,, + n,>, the
average fastener restraint limit of the gap. This will minimize the chance of a
light rail vehicle derailment caused by a rail
kg (lb-1
= AE&, the rail spring, kg/cm gap. The size of the rail gap is usually limited
Y
(lb./in.) based on the diameter of the vehicle’s wheel.
= fastener longitudinal stiffness Typically accepted rail gaps are in the range
Kf
kg/cm (Ib.in.) of 50 millimeters (2 inches) for a 400-
millimeter (16-inch) diameter wheel. [41
Equations 2 and 3 estimate rail gap size
assuming linear load distributions. Typically, It is interesting to note that efforts to control
finite-element computer models show the rail gap size offer opposing solutions. For
fastener load distributions to be nonlinear. safety reasons, the length of the rail gap
Refer to Figure 7.5.3 for the rail gap sizes should be minimized to reduce the possibility
predicted using a finite-element model. of a derailment. In addition, the forces and

7-9
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

TABLE 7.2
COMPARISON OF RAIL BREAK GAP SIZE BY DIFFERENT FORMULASm

Note: AT, = Temperature change in the girder; the girder bearing configuration = E-F/F-E/E-F;
the length of the span = 80 ft.; the length of the fastener = 30 in.; and the temperature
change in the rail = 60” F (temperature drop).
a Using average of R, = n,h + nnsPhsY(ns + nns) where n, = the number of slip fasteners, and nns
= the number of non-slip fasteners.
bTBTRACK and TRKTHRM are programs developed to calculate rail-break gap size.

moments transferred to the structure due to a specialwork locations due to discontinuities in

rail break should be minimized to achieve an the rail. Standard turnout units, by design,
economical structure. To resolve safety transfer high forces through the units on an
issues, fasteners with relatively high aerial structure which causes misalignment
longitudinal restraint should be used. To and wear.h2]
address the structural issues, fasteners with a
relatively low longitudinal restraint should be To accommodate the large forces occurring at
used. The trackwork and structural engineers locations of specialwork, rail anchors or rail
must coordinate the opposing design expansion joints could be used. Rail anchors
requirements to balance the needs for each create a zero force condition through the
transit system. specialwork, but pass the rail termination
force to the structure. The massiveness of the
resulting substructure, however, may be
7.55 Terminating CWR on Aerial aesthetically and economically undesirable.
Structures The use of sliding rail expansion joints must
consider the following:
As much as possible, CWR should not be l The construction length of the sliding rail
terminated on an aerial structure due to the joints
large termination force transferred to the
structure. Problems arise when specialwork l The length of structure required to
must be located on an aerial structure due to accommodate the specialwork and sliding
the length of the structure, the needs of the rail joint
transit operations, or other occurrences. l The design, location, and installation
Unbalanced thermal forces exist in details of the rail anchors

7-l 0

Some transit systems have used a tie bar
device to accommodate specialwork on their
aerial structures. See Figure 7.5.4 for a
picture of a tie bar installation at an aerial
structure crossover.
Figure 7.54 Tie Bar on Aerial Crossover Iq
With a tie bar system, the CWR is interrupted
at the crossover and the rail ends are
attached as rigidly as possible to special
“AXO” girders adjacent to the outer ends of
the specialwork. The AX0 girders are similar
to standard girders except for the addition of
an embedded steel plate to which the tie bar
is attached by welding. The tie bar, a
structural steel member with a cross section
equal to two rails, is located on the centerline
of each track and is welded to the embedded
plates on the centerline of the two AX0
girders. The tie bar rests on Teflon bearing
pads placed directly on the concrete deck for
the length of the crossover.
When the temperature changes, the thermal
force built up at the end of the CWR is
transferred to an AX0 girder through a group
of rail fasteners equally spaced along the
7-11
Aerial Structures/Bridges
girder. An equal and opposite thermal force is
developed in the tie bar and transferred to the
AX0 girder through a welded connection.
Therefore, the net longitudinal thermal force is
directed through the tie bar instead of the
piers or the specialwork, where the trackwork
could be damaged.
Designers should avoid specialwork on aerial
structures. When this cannot be avoided,
there are ways to accommodate the
specialwork without causing it to malfunction.
7.56 Types of Deck Construction
Traditionally, three distinctly different types of
deck construction have been used in rail
transit construction. The earliest elevated
transit track featured open deck construction,
where timber crossties were attached directly
to the steel superstructure. This type of
construction was used to eliminate the cost
and dead load of the ballast, as well as the
deck structure required to support/contain the
ballast. Ballast deck construction was then
used to address the public’s complaints about
the noise and vibration generated by the
transit vehicles as they traveled along the
open deck structures, among other issues.
Over the last 30 years, a mixture of ballast
deck and direct fixation deck construction has
been used. The direct fixation deck was
developed to resolve the shortcomings of the
ballast deck.
The decision concerning which type of deck
construction to use with CVVR has profound
construction cost implications. Based on the
difference in cost of aerial structures with and
without CWR and the resultant thermal effects
considered in the structural design, the most
conservative design using CWR could
increase structure costs by 23 percent.i51 But
there are many variables to consider when
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
choosing the type of deck to use on any
particular transit structure.
7.5.6.1 Ballast Deck Construction
Ballast deck construction is still considered a
valuable choice by some transit agencies. It
is usually used on moderate length bridges,
generally 91 meters (300 feet) or less.
Advantages of the ballast deck incIude:[2~4.‘01
l Provides an intermediate cushion
between the rails and the structure to
enhance ride quality
l Limits the thermal forces associated with
rail/structure interaction
l Uses typical rail track fasteners
l Reduces noise and vibration
l Permits standard track maintenance to
adjust alignment and profile
l Provides good live load distribution
l Offers good track support
Disadvantages of the ballast deck include:
l The cost of deck waterproofing and the
ballast layer
l The heavy deck load
l The greater depth of deck required
l The cost of maintenance of the ballast
layer, including cleaning and tamping
(although not light rail, some Japanese
railways require maintenance and
tamping operations on their ballast deck
structures two to three times a year. In
addition, their overall maintenance costs
for ballast deck structures
approximately five times greater than for
direct-fixation structures 1131)
l The development of rail breaks with
horizontal, vertical, and angular
displacements
7.5.6.2 Direct Fixation Deck Construction
Direct fixation deck construction has now
become the accepted standard practice for
many transit properties. Developed in the
1960s for new light rail transit projects, the
rails are attached directly to the concrete deck
by elastic fasteners. The advantages of this
type of construction include?*, “I
l Elastic fasteners absorb noise and
vibration and provide vertical flexibility
l Improves aesthetics by using shallower,
less massive structures
l Generates a relatively low dead load
l Rail fasteners provide electrical isolation
and a means to efficiently adjust the line
and grade of the track
l Requires less maintenance and is easier
to maintain
l Retains track geometry much longer than
ballasted track
l Provides relatively good ride quality
l Offers relatively good live load distribution
The use of direct fixation track construction
has been credited with saving millions of
dollars on a transit project by eliminating the
need for crossties and ballast.r’41 MTA New
York City Transit discusses the difficulty in
identifying any specific increased cost for the
rail/structure interaction associated with the
thermal effects.r’] The construction cost
impacts are unclear since thermal forces are
combined with live loads, dead loads, and
other loads in various combinations according
to the design codes and criteria.
Disadvantages of direct fixation deck include:
l Rail/structure interaction must address
is thermal forces
l High initial cost
0 Tight construction control required
l Specialized rail fasteners required
Although direct fixation deck is presently the
most common construction method on light
rail transit structures, it is clear that the
decision to use ballast deck or direct fixation
deck construction on a transit property’s aerial
structures is based on technical requirements,
7-12
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

aesthetics, construction cost, maintenance l Vertical fastener stiffness:

cost, and individual preference. 13,300 to 26,600 N/mm
(75,000 to 150,000 lb./in.)

7.6 DIRECT FIXATION FASTENERS l Lateral fastener stiffness:

3,900 to 11,400 N/mm
Since the majority of transit properties now (22,000 to 64,000 lb./in.)
use CWR with direct fixation deck l Longitudinal fastener stiffness
construction, the aerial structure designer
600 to 3,200 N/mm
should understand the types of rail fasteners (3,400 to 18,000 lb./in.)
presently available. Rail fasteners secure the
CWR to the deck of the aerial structure; the l Longitudinal restraint
bottom portion of the fastener is bolted to the 9,000 to 15,750 N
deck and the top portion is bolted or clipped to (2,000 to 3,500 lb.)
the bottom flange of the rail.
Direct fixation fasteners are commonly spaced
Low-restraint, moderate-restraint, and high- at 762 millimeters (30 inches) on center. This
restraint fastener clips are available. In spacing is determined by analysis of rail
addition, some transit properties have utilized bending stresses, interaction forces of the rait
zero longitudinal restraint (ZLR) fasteners in and rail fasteners, and the rail gap size at a
certain circumstances. Although ZLR rail break location. Trackwork and structural
fasteners allow the superstructure to move engineers need to carefully coordinate
longitudinally without generating thermal fastener spacing on sharply skewed bridges to
interaction forces, the rail gap size at a rail ensure that the fasteners are adequately
break has to be carefully considered when it is supported on each side of the joints in the
used. deck.

With a conventional direct fixation fastener, Most light rail transit systems use a concrete
the elastomer provides isolation of the high pad, or plinth, to support the direct fixation
wheel/rail impact forces from the deck; fasteners and attach them to the
electrical isolation; vertical elasticity to superstructure. Intermittent gaps are provided
dampen noise and vibration; longitudinal along the length of the plinths to
elasticity to accommodate rail/structure accommodate deck drainage and to provide
interaction movements; and distribution of the openings for electrical (systems) conduits
wheel loads longitudinally along the rail. The placed on the deck.
fastener also provides full restraint in the
Reinforcing steel dowels project from the
lateral direction, maintains the desired rail
bridge deck, anchoring the second-pour
tolerances, and prevents rail buckling under
concrete plinths to the deck. Alternately,
high temperature. The level of longitudinal
threaded female inserts are embedded in the
restraint chosen for the fastener is a
concrete deck and threaded reinforcing steel
compromise between the restraint required to
is installed prior to pouring the plinths. In
limit the rail gap size and the desire to
addition, the deck slab is usually recessed for
minimize rail/structure interaction forces.r6~*l
the second-pour plinths, forming a shear key
The following are typical ranges of direct to help resist the lateral loads from the rail and
fixation fastener properties: vehicles. The installation of direct fixation
trackwork requires tight tolerances for the

7-13
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

support structure The second-pour concrete l Site working conditions, including

plinths are carefully constructed to meet the weather, local ordinances, and working
alignment and profile requirements of the restrictions
CWR and fasteners. l Aesthetics
0 Owners preference
7.7 TYPES OF SUPERSTRUCTURE
l Urban constraints
During the early stages of design, the l Durability
designer must determine the type of
l Construction schedule
superstructure to be used for a specific aerial
transit structure. Whether the superstructure For comparison of the many variables
is comprised of steel or concrete girders, as involved in evaluating a type of
well as the configuration of the girders, must superstructure, a structural system was
be evaluated with respect to the project and selected that includes a cast-in-place
site constraints. reinforced concrete slab supported by
standard precast, prestressed concrete
Commonly considered superstructure types
girders, whose substructure included concrete
include:
pier columns and a concrete footing (see
0 Cast-in-place concrete
Figure 7.7.1). The goal is to select a span
0 Precast concrete
length that minimizes the sum of the
0 Segmental precast concrete
construction costs for the deck, girders, and
l Steel girders with cast-in-place or precast
substructure. The cost optimization effort can
deck slab
be based on a typical span or an entire transit
l Steel box section with either cast-in-place
line.r161
or precast deck
The relative costs of different structural
The following factors are used to
components considered for each span are
comparatively study superstructure types:r’r 4,
151
shown as plots of cost versus span length in
Figures 7.7.2 through 7.7.8. Although this
. Effectiveness of structural function (span
comparison was performed in 1976, the
lengths, vertical clearances, span-to-
following conclusions still apply to present
depth ratio, etc.)
aerial structure design efforts:
. Constructibility issues, such as erection l Economically attractive span lengths vary
and construction convenience, including from 9 meters (30 feet) to 21.4 meters (70
transportation of the structural elements to feet).
the site
l The effect of beam spacing increases with
. Production schedule constraints span length; within other design
. Capital cost constraints, the largest beam spacing
possible should be used.
. Maintenance cost
. Availability of materials and finished
product
. Availability of construction expertise

7-14
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

80 -
I $/FT. = 328 f/M

0 I
40 60 80 100 120

SPAN. FEET (10 FT = 305 M)

Figure 7.7.3 Range of Supporting Bent

Costs as a Function of Span Length of
l-l
Structure r16l
II (1FT.
=0.305
“I I
v

10
Figure 7.7.1 Typical Section of Elevated 200 1 f/FT. = 328 S/M
1 s/F?= 1075 $/HZ
Structure Studied rw

500
1 f/FT. = 3.28 t/M
= 10.75 $/M2 -20
1I f/FT2
5
g 400

8
s
z 300

2
ii
= 200 (1
SPACING .1
z 0
40 60 80 loo 120
-5
* 100 SPAN. FEET (10 FT. = 305 M)

Figure 7.7.4 Range of Foundation Costs

40 60 80 100 120 for Different Soil Conditions as a Function
SPAN, FEET (10 FT. = 3.05 M) of Span Length of Structuren61
Figure 7.7.2 Range of Deck Costs as a
Function of Span Length and Beam soil conditions exist and spread footer
Spacing of Structure rw foundations are more economical.
l The minimum cost span derived from
l In poor soil conditions, foundation costs minimizing the total construction cost is
increase sharply with increasing span generally different than that obtained by
length, up to a point where deep minimizing the cost of one component
foundations should be considered instead (deck, girders, substructure, or
of spread footings; therefore, shorter spans foundations).
are recommended when unfavorable

7-15
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

600 .
EARING CAFAUTY W
FCWDATION SW 5 KSF (2.5 KG / CN2)

BEARINGCAPAClM OF 500 -25

FOUNDATIONSW 2 KSF (1 KG / OA2)
1
-20 -20
400

R BEAM
NG
-15 -15
300

BEARINGCAPACITY OF FOUNDATIONON PkES

25 130 g
FOUNDAWN SOIL: 10 KSF (5 KG / CU*) 1 cnn -
HIGHER BEAM
SPACIN

u 40 60 80 100 120 --- 1 40 60 80 100 120

SPAN. FEET

Figure 7.7.5 Range of Total Costs of Elevated Structural System as a Function of $oan
Length for Different Soil Conditions f761

I-
BEARING CAPACITY OF
FOUNDATION SOIL = 10 KSF (5 KG/CM’)
f'OIJNDATION ON PILES

DECK

FOOTING + PILES

BENT - PIER

BENT - PIER

40 60 80 loo 120

SPAN, FEET (10 FT = 3.05 M)

SPAN, FEET (10 FT. = 3.05 M)

Figure 7.7.6 Average Ratio of Cost of Each Figure 7.7.7 Average Ratio of Cost of Each
Structural Subsystem to Total Cost of Structural Subsystem to Total Cost of
Structur+Founded in Good Soils [W Structure-Founded in Poor Soils WV

7-16
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

7.8 REFERENCES

PI Harrington, G., Dunn, P.C ,

Investigation of Design Standards for
Urban Rail Transit Elevated Structures,
UMTA, June, 1981.

PI Niemietz, R.D., Neimeyer, A.W., Light

Rail Transit Bridge Design Issues,
Transportation Research Board, Light
Rail Transit: Planning, Design, and
Operating Experience, Transportation
Research Record No. 1361, 1992.

80 100 120
I 131 Nowak,
“Development
AS., Grouni, H.N.,
of Design Criteria for
Transit Guideways”, AC/ Journal,
SPAN, FEET (10 FT. = 3.05 M) September-October, 1983.
Figure 7.7.8 Average Ratio of Cost of
Supporting Structure and Foundation to I41 AC1 Committee 358, Analysis and
Cost of Deck Structure for Different Soil Design of Reinforced Concrete
Conditions f’s1 Guideway Structures, ACI 358.1 R-86.

El Ahlbeck, D.R., Kish, A., Sluz, A., An

It is important to note that in planning for aerial Assessment of Design Criteria for
structures, any economical span range can be Continuous- Welded Rail on Elevated
considered in the design. The final span Transit Structures, Transportation
length selection should be weighted by other Research Board, Rail Track and
considerations such as aesthetics and Structures, Transportation Research
community factors. Record No. 1071, 1986.

Many times in an urban setting, the span I31 Clemons, R.E., Continuous Welded Rail
lengths are specified that provide the required on BART Aerial Structures,
horizontal and vertical clearances to existing Transportation Research Board, Rail
facilities along the light rail system’s Track and Structures, Transportation
alignment. The location of existing railroad Research Record No. 1071, 1986.
tracks, roadways, highway bridges, Grouni, H.N., Sadler, C., Thermal
[71
waterways, and major utilities can restrict interaction of Continuously Welded Rail
substructure locations, thereby limiting the and Elevated Transit Guideways,
choices for span lengths. Ontario Ministry of Transportation and
Communications.
As part of a preliminary design effort for an
aerial structure, a study should be performed PI Guarre, J.S., Gathard, D R.,
to determine the most desirable structure implications of Continuously Welded
configuration based on economic, social, Rail on Aerial Structure Design and
environmental, and technical needs. Construction, June, 1985.

7-l 7
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

PI New York City Transit Authority, v91 Beaver, J.F., Southern Railway
Metropolitan Transportation Authority, System’s Use of Sliding Joints, AREA
Continuous Welded Rail on Elevated Bulletin 584, February, 1964
Structures, August, 1991.
PO1 Billing, J.R., Grouni, H.N., Design of
1101Clemons, R.E., Continuous Welded Rail Elevated Guideway Structures for Light
on Aerial Structure: Examples of Rail Transit, Transportation Research
Transit Practice, APTA, January, 1985. Record, Journal 627, 1977.

1111 Fine, D.F., Design and Construction of WI Casey, J., “Green Light”, Civil
Aerial Structures of the Washington Engineering, May, 1996.
Metropolitan Area Rapid Transit
PI Deenik, J.F., Eisses, J.A., Fastening
System, Concrete International, July, Rails to Concrete Deck, The Railway
1980. Gazette, March 18, 1966.
t121 Lee, R. J., Designing Precast Aerial
t231 Dorton, R.A., Grouni, H.N., Review of
Structures to Meet Track and Vehicle
Guideway Design Criteria in Existing
Geometry Needs, 1994 Rail Transit Transit System Codes, ACI Jounral,
Conference.
April 1978.
iI31 Eisenmann, J., Leykauf, G., Mattner, L.,
[241 Fox, G.F., Design of Steel Bridges for
“Recent Developments in German
Rapid Transit Systems, Canadian
Railway Track Design,” Proceedings of
Structural Engineering Conference,
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
1982.
Transport. Vol. 105, No. 2 (May, 1994)
1251 International Civil Engineering
[I41 Meyers, B.L., Tso, S.H., “Bay Area
Consultants, Inc., Task Report on a
Rapid Transit: Concrete in the 196Os”, Study to Determine the Dynamic Rail
Concrete International, February, 1993. Rupture Gaps Resulting from a
[151 Desai, D.B., Sharma, M., Chang, B., Temperature Drop for BART Extension
Design of Aerial Structure for the Program, July 26, 1991.
Baltimore Metro, APTA Rapid Transit
1261 Jackson, B., “Ballastless Track, A Rapid
Conference, June 1986. Transit Wave of the Future?“, Railway
[If31 Naaman, A.E., Silver, M.L., “Minimum Track and Structures, April, 1984.
Cost Design of Elevated Transit
v71 Kaess, G., Schultheiss, H., “Germany’s
Structures”, Journal of Construction
New High-Speed Railways, DB
Division, March, 1976.
Chooses Tried and Tested Track
iI71 Fassmann, S., Merali, A.S., Light Rail Design”, International Railway Journal,
Transit Direct Fixation Track September, 1985.
Rehabilitation: The Calgary Experience,
PI Magee, G.M., Welded Rail on Bridges,
Transportation Research Board, Light Railway Track and Structures,
Rail Transit: Planning, Design, and
November, 1965.
Operating Experience, Transportation
Research Record No., 1361, 1992. WI Mansfield, D.J., “Segmental Aerial
Structures for Atlanta’s Rail Transit
1181AREA Manual for Railway Engineering, System”, Transportation Research
Section 8.3, “Anchorage of Decks and
Board, Rail Track and Structures,
Rails on Steel Bridges,” 1995

7-18
 Aerial Structures/Bridges

Transportation Research Record No. 1361 PBQD, Thermal Study of Bridge-

1071, 1986. Continuous Rail Interaction, Metro
Pasadena Project, Los Angeles River
[301 “Philadelphia’s El Gets Major Facelift”,
Bridge, August, 1994.
Mass Transit, May/June, 1995.
I371 Swindlehurst, J., “Frankford Elevated
1311 McLachlan, L.J., “University Boosts
Reconstruction Project,” lntemational
Light Rail Traffic”, Developing Metros,
Bridge Conference, June, 1984.
1994.
1381 Thorpe, R.D., San Diego LRT System:
~321 Middleton, W.D., “Engineering the
Ten Years of Design Lessons,
Renaissance of Transit in Southern
Transportation Research Board, Light
California”, Railway Track and
Rail Transit, Planning, Design, and
Structures, March, 1993.
Operating Experience, Transportation
c331 Middleton, W.D., “DART: Innovative Research Record No. 1361, 1992.
Engineering, innovative Construction”,
Varga, O.H., The Thermal Elongation of
Railway Track and Structures,
Rails on Elastic Mountings, AREA
December, 1994.
Bulletin 626, February, 1970.
WI Patel, N.P., Brach, J R., “Atlanta Transit
Yu, s., “Closing the Gaps in Track
Structures”, Concfe te lntema tional,
Design,” Railway Gazette International,
February, 1993.
January, 1981.
t351 PBQD, Rail/Structure interaction
Zellner, W., Saul, R., “Long Span
Analysis - Retrofit of Direct Fixation
Bridges of the New Railroad Lines in
Fasteners with Spring C/ips, WMATA -
Germany, Bridges: interaction Between
Rhode Island Avenue, February, 1995.
Construction Technology and Design.”

7-l 9
Chapter 8-Corrosion Control

Table of Contents

8.1 GENERAL 8-l

8.2 TRANSIT STRAY CURRENT 8-2

8.2.1 Stray Current Circuitry 8-2
8.2.2 Stray Current Effects 8-2
8.2.3 Design Protection Components 8-3
8.2.3.1 Traction Power 8-4
8.2.3.2 Track and Structure Bonding 8-4
8.2.3.3 Drain Cables 8-4
8.2.3.4 Trackwork 8-5

8.3 TRACKWORK DESIGN 8-5

8.3.1 Rail Continuity 8-6
8.3.2 Crossties 8-6
8.3.2.1 Concrete Crossties 8-6
8.3.2.2 Timber Crossties 8-6
8.3.3 Ballast 8-7
8.3.4 Embedded Track 8-7
8.35 Cross Bonds 8-7
8.3.6 Direct Fixation Track 8-8
8.3.7 Impedance Bonds 8-8
8.3.8 Rigid Bumping Post 8-8
8.3.9 Stray Current Tests and Procedures 8-9

8.4 SUMMARY 8-9

8.5 REFERENCES 88

8-i
CHAPTER 8-CORROSION CONTROL
8.1 GENERAL
Electrified rail transit systems, both light and
heavy rail, typically utilize the track system as
the negative side of an electrical circuit in the
system’s traction power network. In light rail
transit systems, the positive side, which
carries DC electrical current from the
substation to the transit vehicle, is typically an
overhead contact wire system or catenary.
Because perfect electrical insulators do not
exist, electrical currents will leak out of this
circuit and escape into the soil to find the path
of least resistance back to the substation.
The amount of such stray currents will be
inversely proportional to the efficiency of the
electrical insulation provided and directly
related to the conductivity of the soil and any
alternative current paths back to the
substation such as pipes, cables, reinforcing
steel, etc.
Typically, unless a fault has occurred in an
insulator, stray currents from the positive side
of the light rail transit traction power circuit are
minuscule. Stray currents from the track, on
the other hand, are common and can get quite
large due in no small part to the proximity of
the track to the ground. Once in the soil, stray
currents will follow any available conductor to
get back to the traction power substation.
These paths can include the soil itself, buried
utility pipelines and cables, or other metallic
structures, such as bridges, along the way. If
an alternative path offers less electrical
resistance than another route, then the better
conductor will carry proportionally more of the
stray current. In extreme examples,
particularly when the electrical continuity of
the track structure is poor, more electricity will
return as stray current than through the
running rails. Some older elevated systems
were actually designed for this occurrence.
8-1
The problem with stray currents evolves from
the fact that whenever electric current leaves
a metallic conductor (i.e., a water pipe) and
returns to the soil (perhaps because it is
attracted to a nearby gas line), it causes
corrosion on the surface of the conductor it is
leaving. This is the same phenomenon that
occurs when a metallic object is electroplated,
such as when construction materials are zinc
plated. In the case of stray currents, the
typical current path can involve several
different conductors as the electricity wends
its way back to the substation; therefore
corrosion can occur at multiple locations. This
can create conditions that range from leaking
water lines to gas line explosions. The rail
itself will also corrode wherever the current
jumps from it to reach the first alternative
conductor. Structures along the transit line,
particularly steel bridges and embedded
reinforcing steel, are also at risk. Hence,
multiple parties have an interest in controlling
or eliminating the leakage of stray currents
and minimizing the damage they inflict.
Stray currents are common on a light rail
transit system because its track structures are
typically close to the ground. Grade
crossings, embedded track, and fouled or
muddy ballast are common locations for
propagation of stray currents. Because of the
maze of underground utility lines typically
found in urban and suburban areas where
light rail transit systems are built, abundant
alternative electrical paths exist. Predicting
the likely path of potential stray currents and
defining methods to protect against them can
be extremely complex. Because of this
complexity, it is essential that the advice of a
certified corrosion control specialist with stray
current experience be sought from the
beginning of design.

In his book Corrosion Engineering, Mars G.
Fontana states:
‘. . . The term stray current refers
to extraneous direct currents in
the earth. If a metallic object is
p/aced in a strong current field, a
potential difference develops
across it and accelerated
corrosion occurs at points where
current leaves the object and
enters the soil. Stray current
problems were quite common in
previous years due to current
leakage from trolley tracks.
Pipelines and tanks under tracks
were rapidly corroded. However,
since this type of transportation is
now obsolete, stray currents from
this source are no longer a
problem.” [‘I
This text requires updating since the “trolley
tracks” have evolved into light rail transit
(LRT) lines and the stray currents from LRT
will re-introduce potential corrosion problems.
Some of the principal measures that can be
taken to minimize traction current leakage
include:
If jointed track is used, install electrical
bonding across the joints. One of the
many advantages of continuous welded
rail (CWR) is that it offers a superior
traction power return.
insulate rails from their fastenings and
encase rails in embedded track in an
insulating material. The steel
reinforcement in the underlying concrete
slab can be continuously welded to act as
a stray current collector.
In ballasted track areas the ballast should
be clean, well-drained and not in contact
with the rail.
Conduct corrosion surveys on susceptible
metal structures before service begins
8-2
Corrosion Con fro/
and perform regular monitoring and
maintenance afterwards.
l Provide auxiliary conductors to improve
the ampacity of the rail return system.
This can be accomplished by connecting
all rails together or by adding cable
conductors.
Existing pipes and cables in the vicinity of the
tracks must be investigated and protective
action taken as necessary to protect them
from stray current corrosion.
Whether the light rail operator or the local
utility takes responsibility, it is imperative that
strategic action is required to mitigate the
effects of stray current corrosion in the design
phase and during construction. This will avoid
corrosion from becoming a costly and
dangerous maintenance issue later.
8.2 TRANSIT STRAY CURRENT
8.2.1 Stray Current Circuitry
Traction power is normally supplied to light rail
vehicles (LRV) by a positive overhead
catenary system. The direct current is picked
up by a vehicle pantograph to power the
motor and then returns to the substation via
the running rails, which become the negative
part of the circuit. Unfortunately, a portion of
the current strays from the running rails and
flows onto parallel metallic structures such as
reinforcing steel, utility pipes and cables, and
other structures such as pilings, ground grids,
and foundation reinforcing bars.
8.2.2 Stray Current Effects
Corrosion of metallic structures is an
electrochemical process that usually involves
small amounts of direct electrical current (dc).
It is an “electro” process because of the flow
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
of electrical current. It is a “chemical” process
because of the chemical reaction that occurs
on the surface and corrodes the metal. One
ampere of direct current flowing for 1 year will
corrode 20 pounds of iron, 46 pounds of
copper, or 74 pounds of lead. Natural
galvanic corrosion involves milliamperes of
current so many buried structures can last
several years before structural failure.
Unlike the very small currents associated with
galvanic corrosion, stray current corrosion
from a transit system can involve several
hundred amperes. The same physical laws
apply for corrosion of the metal, electron flow,
chemical reactions, etc., but metal loss is
much faster because of the larger amounts of
current involved. For example, with 200
amperes of current discharging from an
underground steel structure, 2 tons of metal
will be corroded in 1 year (20 pounds per
ampere per year x 200 amperes = 4,000
pounds of steel corroded).
Thus, stray current from a light rail system will
corrode transit rails, rebar, and steel structural
members and all adjacent underground
metallic structures unless protective measures
are provided.
82.3 Design Protection Components
The phenomenon of stray currents from
electrified street railways was first observed
when trolley systems were constructed in the
1880s. The importance of maintaining good
electrical continuity of the rails was quickly
recognized and many trolley systems welded
rail joints 60 years before the process was
widely accepted on “steam” railroads. Where
rails could not be welded, they were
electrically bonded to each other with copper
cables. These measures reduce stray
currents, but cannot eliminate them. No
matter how good a conductor the track system
8-3
is, some portion of the traction power current
will always seek an alternative path back to
the substation.
Utility companies fought this problem, both in
the courts and in the field. Once the legal
issues were resolved, the most effective
means of minimizing stray current damage
was to make the buried utility network as
electrically continuous as possible. Copper
bonds were placed around joints in buried
pipes and crossing utility lines were
electrically bonded to each other. Finally, the
entire utility network was directly connected to
the negative bus of the traction power
substation by “drain cables” so that any stray
currents could return without causing
significant corrosion along the way. All big
city utility companies participated in a
“corrosion control committee” with the trolley
company to ensure that all new facilities were
properly integrated into the system, thereby
preserving the delicate balance of the
network. (Since in many cities, a single
holding company might own most of the utility
companies and the trolley company as well,
such committees were not necessarily
combative congregations.) Such methods
were generally effective; however a side effect
of the improved underground electrical
continuity was that the utility grid typically
became better bonded than the track
structure. As such, a significant portion of the
traction power current would perversely elect
to stray from the rails and use the buried
utilities to get back to the substation.
When trolley systems were abandoned in
most cities, the corrosion committees were
disbanded and the utility companies became
less zealous about bonding their networks. In
many cases, the introduction of non-metallic
piping created significant electrical
discontinuities in utility systems. Such gaps
were of no consequence in a city without a
local originator of significant stray currents
 Corrosion Control

and associated corrosion protection improvement in stray current control.

measures. With no trolley network in the Nevertheless, stray currents are still possible
neighborhood, corrosion potential could in an ungrounded system as the electricity can
typically be neutralized using sacrificial leave and return to the track structure from the
anodes. However, if a light rail system is ground. It is entirely possible for current to
introduced into such a city, the sacrificial leak out of the track, travel along alternative
anodes are insufficient. The result can be paths in the ground, and then return to the
corrosion problems not unlike those that track at another location. Since the track itself
occurred a hundred years ago with stray must eventually be directly connected to the
currents leaping off metal pipes when they negative substation bus, stray currents can
reach an electrical dead-end at a non-metallic circumvent substation isolation systems.
conduit.

Reverting to the continuous utility bonding and 8.2.3.2 Track and Structure Bonding
drain cable methods of the past is typically not Achieving electrical continuity of the track
a completely effective methodology of structure is of paramount importance in
achieving stray current control. Because of keeping negative return current in the rails.
the widespread use of non-metallic buried The use of continuously welded rail, together
pipe, and the subsequent high expense of re- with the installation of bonding cables around
creating an electrically continuous path unavoidable bolted joints, provides most rail
through the utilities, it is typically much transit systems with an excellent current path
cheaper-and arguably easier-to attempt to through the rails. Stray current corrosion of
effectively insulate the track structure from the transit structures can typically be controlled
ground so that stray currents are minimized through electrical bonding. Since the 1960s it
from the beginning. Such insulation, coupled has been common practice to also bond
with other protective measures, including reinforcing steel in concrete structures so as
selective bonding of utilities and drain cabling, to provide a continuous electrical path. The
is the foundation of stray current corrosion bonding is typically concentrated in reinforcing
control measures of modern light rail transit bars in the lowest portions of the structure and
systems. This controlled approach also those surfaces in contact with rail such as
protects rails and other transit structures that retaining walls.
would be subjected to these stray currents.
Many light rail systems have been built with
heavily reinforced slabs beneath the track to
8.2.3.1 Traction Power provide both structural support and a barrier
Since the 1960s increased efforts to reduce against migration of stray currents into the
stray currents have been made through ground. Bonded reinforcing steel networks
modifications to traction power substations. can provide a shielding effect for outside utility
Typical modern substations are either structures.
ungrounded or “floating” above ground
potential, or are grounded through diodes that
prevent stray currents from passing from the 8.2.3.3 Drain Cables
negative bus to the ground. This frequently Drain cables are sometimes provided for
reduces stray currents from hundreds of future use on modern light rail systems, but
amperes to near zero. Completely are not necessarily connected to the utility
ungrounded systems exhibit the greatest system. Utility companies monitor their

8-4
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

pipelines for any stray currents and, if each require individual attention. Electrical
problems are detected, they have the option isolation of the rail using insulation is
of connecting to the drain cable as a last necessary for utility pipelines and steel
resort. Coupled with other protective systems, structures.[21 In addition, if the track is shared
such cabling provides a secondary approach by railroad freight traffic during non-revenue
to corrosion protection in the event that the hours, insulated rail joints are required at all
primary measures are ineffective at locations rail sidings and connections to adjacent rail
where excessive leakage from the rails facilities.
occurs.
The essence of state-of-the-art technology in
the design of modern transit systems is the
8.2.3.4 Trackwork concept of controlling stray current at the rails.
Ultimately, electrical insulation of the track Operation of the traction power system with
structure offers the first line of defense against the substation negatives isolated from ground
stray currents. Keeping the rails clean and (floating) will result in a higher overall system-
dry is important, as is good insulators between to-earth resistance. The goal is to maximize
the rail and the ties. Good drainage is also the conductivity of the rail return system and
critical. Rail laid in streets may also have the electrical isolation between the rails and
insulating coatings to maintain electrical their support systems.
isolation. Since track design is the focus of
this handbook, track insulation will be The following are generally accepted design
discussed in detail in Section 8.3. It must be measures for the various track types to create
emphasized, however, that track insulation is an electrically isolated rail system that
not a panacea, particularly if the track controls stray currents at the source:
insulation systems are not regularly Continuous welded rail
maintained and cleaned. If track insulation
Rail bond jumpers at mechanical rail
systems are compromised, such as by fouled
connections (especially special trackwork)
ballast or dirty insulators, stray current
leakage is inevitable. Thus, the required level Insulating pads and clips on concrete
of maintenance should be considered during crossties
design. Insulated rail fastening system for timber
crossties and switch timber

8.3 TRACKWORK DESIGN Maintaining a minimum separation of 25

millimeters (1 inch) between the bottom of
LRT systems utilize dc electrical power that is the rail and the ballast on ballasted track
normally returned from the LRV to the
Insulated direct fixation fasteners on
substations through the rails. Stray current
concrete structures
control is a necessary element in the design of
the track system. Modern designs for dc Coating the rail with coal tar epoxy or
transit systems include the concept of “source other insulating material at all roadway
control” at the base of the rail or rail surface to and pedestrian crossings
minimize the generation of stray currents. Coating embedded rails with an
The route of an LRT system is not generally insulating material and encasing the track
within a totally dedicated right-of-way;
slab with an insulating membrane
therefore, the various types of rail construction

8-S
 Corrosion Control

Providing an insulated rubber boot around special trackwork components. The use of
the rail in embedded sections jumpers must be carefully coordinated with
the design of the signal system _
Cross-bonding cables installed between
the rails to maintain equal potentials of all
rails and reduce resistance back to the 8.3.2 Crossties
substation
Insulation of the impedance bond tap 8.3.2.1 Concrete Crossties
connections from the housing case Concrete crossties with an insulating base
consisting of a rail pad and clip insulators
Insulation of switch machines at the provide good rail insulation. The rail seat pad
switch rods is generally constructed of thermo-plastic
Installation of rail insulated joints to isolate rubber, ethylvinyl acetate, or natural rubber. It
rail-mounted bumping posts is approximately 6 to 16 millimeters (0.25 to
0.62 inches) thick and is formed to fit around
Installation of insulated rail joints to isolate the iron shoulder embedded in the concrete
the main line from the yard and the yard crosstie. The clip insulator may be a glass
from the usually grounded maintenance reinforced nylon material formed to sit on the
shop area
rail and under the steel anchoring clip. This
Separate traction power substations to affords electrical insulation between the rail
supply operating currents for the main and the concrete tie anchoring clip. Insulating
line, yard and shop the rail base is important because concrete
crossties, with their reinforcing steel, are not
Rail insulated joints to isolate the main
good insulators.
line rails from freight sidings or
connections to other rail systems
8.3.2.2 Timber Crossties
8.3.1 Rail Continuity While wood is generally a good insulating
material, timber crossties are only marginal
Continuous welded rail is the generally insulators when they are treated with
accepted standard for main line light rail preservative chemicals or as they age and
construction. CWR creates an electrically absorb moisture. While they provide sufficient
continuous negative return path to the insulation against low-voltage, low-amperage
substation, in addition to other well-known signal system currents, they also offer a
benefits. leakage path for high-voltage, high-amperage
traction power current. Timber crossties with
The rail configuration at special trackwork, insulating components at the fastening plate,
turnouts, sharp curves, or crossovers may as shown in Chapter 5 (Figure 5.4.2), can be
require jointed rails. Jumper cables, used on main line track and at special
exothermically welded to the rail on either side trackwork turnouts and crossovers to reduce
of the bolted rail joint connections, ensure a leakage.
continuous electrical path across the
mechanical connections. Jumper cables may Electrical insulation can be achieved by
be used to bypass complex special trackwork inserting a polyethylene pad between the
to provide continuity. Jumpers can also metal rail plate and the timber tie, installing an
protect track maintenance workers from insulating collar thimble to electrically isolate
electrical shock when they are replacing the steel plate from the anchoring lag screw,

8-6
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

and applying coal tar epoxy to the hole for the requirement pertains to rail on both concrete
lag screw. The insulating pad and collar and timber crossties for both main line and
thimble afford insulation directly between the yard trackage. This is essential to increase
two materials. Coal tar epoxy applied to the the rail-to-earth resistance and assist in
drilled tie hole fills any void between the end minimizing the stray current leakage to earth.
of the collar thimble and timber tie and affords Ballast should be clean and well-drained. The
some insulation between the lag screw and use of metallic slags as ballast is not
wood tie. The insulated tie plate pad should recommended. Rail grinding should be done
extend a minimum of 12 millimeters (0.5 with vacuum systems to minimize
inches) beyond the tie plate edges to afford a contaminating ballast with metallic grindings.
higher resistance path for surface tracking of
stray currents. Chemical compatibility
between the pad and epoxy material must be 8.3.4 Embedded Track
verified during design. Embedded track is generally located in the
central business district (CBD) street-running
Maintenance shop tracks are grounded to section of a light rail system. Electrical
protect workers. Maintenance yard tracks are isolation of the rails can be provided by
generally floating or non-grounded, and insulating the rail face and rail base, insulating
insulation is rarely included between the rails the trough that the rail sits in, or a combination
and the timber crossties. This design decision of both. Track may also be isolated by
is based on economic considerations, as well insulating the perimeter of the entire concrete
as the fact that the rails are only used base slab, using the “bathtub” stray current
sporadically and a separate traction power isolation concept. The materials used to
substation is used to supply operating current provide this insulation generally consist of
for train movement in the yard. The only time polyethylene sheeting, epoxy coal tar coating,
the yard rails become electrically connected to polyurethane grout (Icosit), or natural rubber
the main line or shop rails is when a train sheeting, such as pads or rail boots. All these
enters or leaves the yard or shop. This is a materials have been used successfully. The
short period and does not result in any specific design for stray current control is
harmful sustained current leaking into the selected by the track designer with
earth. Note that transit system structures recommendations from the corrosion control
within a yard complex may have to be specialists.
protected against locally originated stray
currents between yard trackage and the yard
8.3.5 Cross Bonds
substation. Consequently, underground
Periodic cross bonding of the rails and parallel
utilities in yards are constructed with non-
tracks provides equivalent rail-to-earth
metallic materials such as PVC, FRE, and
potentials for all rails along the system. Using
polyethylene.
all parallel rails to return current provides a
lower negative return resistance to the
8.3.3 Ballast substation, since the return circuit consists of
multiple paths rather than individual rails.
To eliminate the path for stray current leakage
from rail to ballast, the ballast section should Cross bonds are generally installed at
be a minimum of 25 millimeters (1 inch) below impedance bond locations on rails to avoid
the bottom of the rails. The clearance interference with rail signal circuitry. Cross

8-7
 Corrosion Con fro/

bonding is accomplished by exothermically are subject to seepage. This coats the

welding insulated cables to the rails. Both
rails are connected in single-track locations,
with all four rails cross bonded in double-track
areas.
Cross bonding in embedded track sections
requires an alternative design approach since
the signaling system is not carried through the
embedded track area. This is typically the
case as most embedded track light rail
systems run on “line-of-sight” operating rules
coordinated with street traffic signal patterns.
To provide cross bonding of embedded tracks,
insulated conduits are generally installed
between track rail troughs prior to installation
of the concrete for the initial track slab.
Insulated cables are exothermicaiiy welded to
each rail to obtain electrical continuity.
Smaller cables may be used to provide an
easier turning radius to the rails in the rail
trough zone and facilitate exothermic welding
of the cables to the rails in constrained
spaces. It is common design practice to
install the cables at 305-meter (l,OOO-foot)
intervals throughout the CBD, with one
location being directly adjacent to each
substation.
fastener with a wet conductive film, which can
be mitigated by periodic cleaning.
8.3.7 Impedance Bonds
Leakage of stray currents into the earth can
be a significant problem if the cables from the
rails are electrically connected to an
impedance bond housing case that is in
contact with the earth. This type of grounded
installation can result in a continuous
maintenance problem if an effectively high
rail-to-earth resistance is to be achieved.
Instead, the housing case should be mounted
clear of any concrete slab conduits,
reinforcing bar and contact with the earth.
Impedance bond housing cases for a light rail
transit line are generally located at-grade
along the right-of-way. The cases are
mounted on timber tie supports in the
ballasted area either between or directly
adjacent to the rails. In order to eliminate
possible points of contact with the earth, the
center taps of the impedance bonds are
insulated from the mounting case by installing
a clear adhesive silicone sealant between the
center taps and the case.

8.3.6 Direct Fixation Track

8.3.8 Rigid Bumping Post
Direct fixation (DF) track is generally located
on aerial sections or in tunnels in light rail In order to reduce the frequency of
transit systems. The direct fixation fasteners maintenance required and maintain a higher
provide electrical insulation between the rails degree of rail-to-earth resistance, rail
and the concrete structure. The elastomer insulating joints are installed in the rails to
design consists of a component of natural isolate the bumping post. The insulating joints
rubber bonded between the metal base plate eliminate the electrical connection between
and the top surface metal plate. An elastomer the bumping posts and the running rails and
of the proper resistivity provides excellent prevent leakage of stray currents into the
insulation and deters current leakage. earth.
Fastener inserts are often epoxy coated to
Most of the methods discussed above
further isolate the rails from the concrete slab.
(Sections 8.3.2 through 8.3.8) provide good
Leakage may occur in DF track in tunnels that
initial values of rail-to-earth resistance. As

8-8
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

these components deteriorate, they become system operators and builders to either avoid
dirty and require maintenance to maintain or mitigate the effects of stray current
their original resistivity. Periodic tests are corrosion. The designer must seek the advice
also required to locate and remove direct of experts in this complex field, as well as
shorts that occasionally occur as discussed in coordinate with the utility companies and the
the following section. Stray currents can rise signal system designer. It is also important to
to harmful levels if short circuits to ground are recognize that track component specifications
not detected and removed. should include appropriate electrical
resistance features to accomplish the
corrosion protection plan. If such
8.3.9 Stray Current Tests and Procedures specifications are provided, the designer
should not specify performance requirements
Regularly scheduled tests are required to
for earth-to-ground resistance of the entire
maintain the integrity of stray current control
track system.
systems once they are in operation. The most
common tests are rail-to-earth resistance
tests, substation-to-earth voltage tests, and 8.5 REFERENCES
structure-to-earth tests. Research shows a
broad spectrum of approaches are used PI Fontana, Mars G. Corrosion
ranging from infrequent use of consultants to Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book
permanent in-house corrosion control Company, Third Edition, Fontana
personnel. The greatest efforts seem to be Corrosion Center, Ohio State University
put forth when stray current problems have 1988.
already damaged piping, utility structures,
PI Sidoriak, William & McCaffrey Kevin,
trackwork components, or signal circuits.
Source Control for Stray Current
Such troubleshooting can be effective, but
Mitigation, APTA Rapid Transit
conducting regularly scheduled, routine
Conference 1992, Los Angeles,
monitoring for stray currents problems can
California, June 1992.
allow detection and correction before they
manifest themselves in the form of 131 Moody, Kenneth J., A Cookbook for
measurable corrosion or degraded signal Transit System Stray Current Control
system performance. NACE Corrosion 93, paper No 14, New
Orleans, Louisiana, February 1993.

t41 NACE International, “Stray Current

8.4 SUMMARY
Corrosion: The Fast, Present, and
Corrosion from stray electrical currents is an Future of Rail Transit Systems,” NACE
important issue that requires the attention of International Handbook, Houston,
the design team. There are several effective Texas, 1994.
methods that have been used by the light rail

8-9
Chapter g-Noise and Vibration Control

Table of Contents

9.1. INTRODUCTION 9-l

9.1 .I Acoustics 9-l
9.1.2 Scope 9-2

9.2. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL DESIGN GUIDELINES 9-2

9.2.1 Groundborne Noise and Vibration Criteria 9-4
9.2.2 Wheel/Rail Rolling Noise 9-6
9.2.2.1 Normal Rolling Noise 9-7
9.2.2.1 .I Generating Mechanisms 9-7
9.2.2.1.2 Wheel Dynamics 9-9
9.2.2.1.3 Rail Dynamics 9-9
9.2.2.1.4 Resilient Direct Fixation Fasteners 9-10
9.2.2.1.5 Contact Stiffness 9-10
9.2.2.2 Impact Noise 9-l 1
9.2.2.3 Rail Corrugation Noise 9-11
9.2.2.4 Treatments for Rolling Noise Control 9-11
9.2.2.4.1 Continuous Welded Rail 9-12
9.2.2.4.2 Rail Grinding 9-12
9.2.2.4.3 Rail Support Spacing 9-13
9.2.2.4.4 Direct Fixation Fastener Design 9-l 3
9.2.2.4.5 Trackbed Acoustical Absorption 9-14
9.2.2.4.6 Rail Vibration Absorbers 9-14
9.2.2.4.7 Wear-Resistant Hardfacing 9-15
9.2.2.4.8 Low Height Sound Barriers 9-15
9.2.3 Special Trackwork Noise 9-15
9.2.3.1 Frogs 9-15
9.2.3.1.1 Solid Manganese Frog 9-15
9.2.3.1.2 Flange-Bearing Frog 9-l 5
9.2.3.1.3 Liftover Frog 9-l 6
9.2.3.1.4 Railbound Manganese Frogs 9-16
9.2.3.1.5 Movable Point Frogs 9-16
9.2.3.1.6 Spring Frogs 9-16
9.2.4 Wheel Squeal Noise 9-16
9.2.4.1 Causes of Wheel Squeal 9-17
9.2.4.2 Treatments 9-18
9.2.4.2.1 Dry-Stick Friction Modifiers 9-18
9.2.4.2.2 Lubrication 9-18
9.2.4.2.3 Water Sprays 9-l 9
9.2.4.2.4 Rail Head Inlays 9-19
9.2.4.2.5 Rail Head Damping Inlays 9-19
9.2.4.2.6 Track Gauge 9-l 9
9.2.4.2.7 Asymmetrical Rail Profile 9-20

9-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

9.2.4.2.8 Rail Vibration Dampers 9-20

9.2.4.2.9 Rail Vibration Absorbers 9-20
9.2.4.2.10 Double Restrained Curves 9-20
9.2 5 Groundborne Noise and Vibration Mitigation 9-21
9.251 Vibration Generation 9-21
9.2.5.2 Groundborne Noise and Vibration Prediction 9-22
9.2.5.3 Vibration Control Provisions 9-22
9.2.5.3.1 Floating Slab Track 9-22
9.2.5.3.2 Resiliently Supported Two-Block Ties 9-23
9.2.5.3.3 Ballast Mats 9-24
9.2.5.3.4 Resilient Direct Fixation Fasteners 9-25
9.2.5.3.5 Rail Grinding 9-26
9.2.5.3.6 Rail Straightness 9-26
9.2.5.3.7 Vehicle Primary Suspension Design 9-27
9.2.5.3.8 Resilient Wheels and Rail Head Ball Radius 9-27
9.2.5.3.9 Subgrade Treatment 9-27
9.2.5.3.10 Special Trackwork 9-28
9.2.5.3.11 Distance 9-28
9.2.5.3.12 Trenching and Barriers 9-28
9.2.5.3.13 Pile-Supported Track 9-28

9.3 REFERENCES 9-28

List of Figures
Figure 9.1 Change in Elastic Modulus and Rail Head Curvature Required to
Generate Wheel/Rail Excitation Equivalent to Roughness Excitation 98
Figure 9.2 Vertical Pinned-Pinned Resonance Frequency vs. Rail Support
Separation for Various Rails 9-9
Figure 9.3 Geometry of Curve Negotiation and Lateral Slip 9-18
Figure 9.4 Track Crabbing Under Actual Conditions 9-18

List of Tables

Table 9.1 Criteria For Maximum Airborne Noise From Train Operations 9-3

Table 9.2 Guidelines For Noise From Transit System Ancillary Facilities 94

Table 9.3 Groundborne Vibration And Noise Impact Criteria 9-5

Table 9.4 Criteria For Maximum Groundborne Vibration From

Train Operations By Land-Use Category 9-8

Table 9.5 Criteria For Maximum Groundborne Noise From

Train Operations 9-7

g-ii
CHAPTER 9: NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL

9.1. INTRODUCTION prepared in Transit Cooperative Research

Program (TCRP) Report 23, which
Noise and vibration can cause significant includes numerous references to
adverse environmental impacts on wayside technical reports and other literature.[*]
communities and, as a result, noise and l A review of groundborne noise and
vibration impact mitigation must be vibration prediction and control was
considered in track design. With appropriate performed in 1980, including preparation
design and maintenance provisions, noise of an annotated bibliography 13]
and vibration from light rail transit can usually l A handbook on all aspects of rail transit
be held to acceptable levels at reasonable noise and vibration control has also been
cost. Effective noise control must consider the prepared.‘”
vehicle and track as a system rather than as
separate, independent components. For
example, expensive track vibration isolation 9.1 .I Acoustics
systems might be avoided where vehicles with
low primary suspension vertical stiffness are Sound in the form of noise is often included
used, whereas vehicles with high primary among the most significant negative
suspension stiffness might produce vibration environmental effects of new transit systems.
that can only be controlled by a floating slab The impact of noise will increase with
track-an expensive proposition. The track tightness of track curvature, operation in city
and vehicle design teams must coordinate centers, speed, and other general track and
their designs in the early stages of any operating conditions, unless noise and
project. Mitigation could involve considerable vibration control provisions are implemented
expense, weight, space, or special in the track and vehicle designs.
procurements Late consideration of noise
Wayside noise primarily originates at the
and vibration isolation may preclude some
wheel/rail interface. During the passage of a
treatments simply because insufficient time
train, the surface roughness of both the
exists to obtain them or to implement design
wheels and rails combined at the point of
changes.
rolling contact (the contact patch) generates
Many studies of rail transportation noise and vibration in the rails, crossties, supporting
vibration have been conducted, producing track structure, wheels, and other vehicle
detailed technical reports containing components. These vibrating surfaces radiate
comprehensive information concerning rail sound to a greater or lesser extent, depending
transit noise and vibration prediction and on the magnitude of vibration and the
control. Particularly useful sources of radiation or sending efficiency of the
literature include: component. This is an area of active research
l The proceedings of the International in the European community, though primarily
Workshop on Railway and Tracked with respect to high-speed rail. The physics
Transit System Noise (IWRN), which are of noise and vibration generation and
usually published in the Journal of Sound transmission for transit systems is similar or
and Vibration.t’f identical to that of high-speed rail.
l A review of the state-of-the-art in
wheel/rail noise control has been

9-l
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
Noise or sound pressure is conventionally
described with a logarithmic decibel scale
(dB). An approximation of the response of the
human ear can be imposed on this scale by
applying the ‘A’ frequency weighting network,
which results in the A-weighted sound level
(dBA).
The wheels and rails radiate approximately
equal amounts of sound energy to the
wayside or surrounding areas. The nature of
sound is such that halving a sound energy
emission produces only a 3-dB reduction in
noise level, a difference that may be barely
perceptible if frequency characteristics remain
unchanged. This condition would be equal to
no sound energy transmitted by the wheels
while leaving the rails untreated, or vice versa.
Therefore, noise control techniques have to
be applied to both components to achieve a
satisfactory reduction in sound level.
9.1.2 Scope
The purpose of this chapter is to provide
guidelines with respect to track design for
acceptable levels of noise and vibration.
While many of the treatments considered here
can be designed by the transit track engineer,
the design of specific noise and vibration
treatments, such as floating slabs, should be
conducted by those who have considerable
experience with designing and specifying
vibration isolation systems. The noise and
vibration designer should have an engineering
or physics background and understand basic
concepts in noise and vibration control.
The design of vehicle “on-board” and wayside
treatments such as sound barriers are not
included here, as these are beyond the limits
of track design.
The following sections include guidelines for
criteria on noise and vibration control at both
the track wayside and vehicle interior,
9-2
wheel/rail rolling noise, and wheel squeal.
Rolling noise and wheel squeal are
fundamentally different processes, hence their
separation The final section concerns
groundbome noise and vibration.
9.2. NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL
DESIGN GUIDELINES
Guidelines have been developed by the
Federal Transit Administration (FTA) and the
American Public Transit Association (APTA).
These standards or guidelines can be used as
criteria for both airborne and groundborne
noise in a transit corridor. The APTA
guidelines recommend limits on maximum
passby noise levels (i.e. the maximum noise
levels that occur during an individual vehicle
or train passby), as well as limits on the noise
caused by ancillary facilities (i.e., fixed
services associated with the transit system).
The FTA guidance manual provides criteria
for environmental impact analysis and
mitigation in terms of the day-night level (L&
for both pre- and post-build conditions.t5’ The
FTA guidelines integrate the noise impact
analysis for rail operations with that for other
modes of transportation, such as highway or
aircraft. The FTA guidance manual should be
used to assess impacts for federally funded
projects, and is recommended by the FTA for
all rail transit projects. Refer to the FTA
guidance manual for detailed description of
the standards. For most practical situations,
the wayside noise levels resulting from
applying the FTA and APTA guidelines are
very similar, though not identical.
The APTA guidelines are discussed below,
because they may be used immediately by
the track designer without detailed knowledge
of existing ambient noise levels. The APTA
guidelines pertain to standards that are
typically adopted by transit agencies for the
design of new rail facilities to determine the
 Noise and Vibration Control

location and extent of mitigation measures IIIHigh-density urban residential, average

necessary to avoid noise impacts. The design semi-residential/commercial areas, parks,
goals can be used directly without any museums, and non-commercial public
assumptions regarding schedule, total number building areas.
of trains or pre-existing ambient noise, as IV Commercial areas with office buildings,
would be required when criteria are stated in retail stores, etc., with primarily daytime
terms of a noise exposure level metric. This occupancy; central business districts.
results in a consistent design with similar V Industrial areas or freeway/highway
mitigation being installed in areas with similar corridors
land uses or occupancies.
The guidelines in Table 9.1 indicate maximum
The various track structure types-ballast noise emissions from trains applicable to the
track, direct fixation track and embedded land uses and types of buildings and
track-must be considered in meeting the occupancies along the transit route. The
criteria as each track type responds differently maximum passby noise level is the level in
to wheel passage, and potential noise and decibels relative to 20 micro-Pascal of the
vibration issues must be considered during average root-mean-square (RMS) A-weighted
the initial planning stages. The services of a sound pressure amplitude occurring during a
recognized noise, vibration and acoustical train passby, usually for a I- to 4-second
expert in this field are recommended. average period.

The APTA guidelines as listed in Table 9.1 This is not to be confused with the single-
apply to different types of communities along event noise exposure level (SENEL). Specific
the transit alignment as follows: criteria are provided for various building types
I Low-density urban residential, open in the APTA guidelines.
space park, suburban residential, or quiet
recreational areas with no nearby The guidelines in Table 9.2 indicate criteria
highways or boulevards. for transit system ancillary facilities. Transient
II Average urban residential, quiet noise criteria apply to short duration events
apartments and hotels, open space, such as train passby noise transmitted
suburban residential or occupied outdoor through tunnel vent shaft openings.
areas near busy streets.
Table 9.1
Criteria for Maximum Airborne Noise from Train Operations*

Maximum Single Event Noise Levels (dBA)

Single-Family Multi-Family Hotels and
Category Community Area Dwellings Buildings Motels
I Low-Density Residential 70 75 80
II Average Residential 75 75 80
Ill High-Density Residential 75 80 85
IV Commercial 80 80 85
V Industrial/Highway 80 85 85
* These criteria are generally applicable at the near side of the nearest dwelling or occupied building under
consideration or 50 feet from the track centerline, whichever is furthest from the track center.
Source. “Guidelines and Principles for Design of Rapid Transit Facilities; Noise and Vibration,” APTA 1979

9-3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Continuous noise design criteria apply to The environmental impact criteria

noises such as fans, cooling towers, and other
long duration or stationary noises, except
electrical transformers or substation facilities
For transformers and substation facilities (i.e.,
noise with tonal quality) the design criteria
should be lowered by 5 dBA from the values
in Table 9.2.
9.2.1 Groundborne Noise and Vibration
Criteria
Guidelines are presented below
groundborne vibration impacts in buildings.
The guidelines use the RMS vibration velocity
level in dBV relative to 1 micro-inch/second as
the principal descriptor of vibration impacts on
building occupants. The RMS vibration
velocity metric is incorporated in various
standards and specifications.t6.71 Vibration
prediction procedures are described in the
FTA guidance manual and other literature.
The FTA guidance manual recommends
criteria for wayside overall vibration velocity.
These criteria are presented in Table 9.3
recommended by the FTA for ground vibration
are similar to American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) standards for vibration in
buildings.‘*’ The ANSI standard gives a
baseline criterion curve for l/3 octave band
RMS vibration velocity of 100 micro-
meters/second (4,000 micro-inches/ second),
corresponding to a vibration velocity level of
72 dBV re 1 micro-inch/second. Where l/3
octave analyses are not performed, the
standard recommends a limit of 72 dB re 1
micro-inch/second for a frequency weighting
that approximates the criterion curve for 113
for
octave levels. This latter limit is very similar to
the vibration impact criterion of 72 dBV
recommended by the FTA for floor vibration
velocity levels in residences. For rail transit
ground vibration, there is no practical
difference between the weighted vibration
velocity described in ANSI standard S3.29
and the overall, or unweighted, vibration
velocity level, because most of the vibration
energy occurs at frequencies above 8 Hz.
The vibration should be measured as the
RMS vibration velocity occurring during
vehicle consist passage. Thus, if a vehicle
consist requires 4 seconds to pass, the RMS

Table 9.2
Guidelines for Noise from Transit System Ancillary Facilities*

Maximum Noise Level Design Criterion (dBA)

Category Community Area Transient Noises Continuous Noises
I Low-Density Residential 50 40
II Average Residential 55 45
III High-Density Residential 60 50
IV Commercial 65 55
V Industrial/Highway 70 65
* The design goal noise levels should be applied at 50 feet from the shaft outlet or other ancillary facility or should be
applied at the setback line of the nearest line of the nearest buildings or occupied area, whichever is closer. For
transfomlers or substation noise, reduce “Continuous Noises” by 5 dB.

9-4
 Noise and Vibration Control

Table 9.3
Groundborne Vibration and Noise Impact Criteria

Groundborne Vibration
Impact Levels (dBV re Groundborne Noise
1 micro-inch/second) Impact Levels (dBA re
20 micro-Pascal)
Frequevt l;frequent Frequeyt InfrequeFt
Land Use Category Events Events Events Events
5 3 4 4 -
Category 1: Buildings where low 65 65 NA NA
ambient vibration is essential for interior
operations
Category 2: Residences and buildings 72 80 35 43
where people normally sleep
Category 3: Institutional land uses with 75 83 40 48
primarily daytime use
Notes
’ “Frequent Events” is defined as more than 70 vibration events per day.

* “infrequent Events” is defined as fewer than 70 vibration events per day

3 This criterion limit is based on levels that are acceptable for most moderately sensitive equipment such as optical

microscopes Vibration-sensitive manufacturing or research will require detailed evaluation to define the acceptable
vibration levels.
4 Vibration-sensitive equipment is not sensitive to groundbome noise.
Source: Transit Noise and Vibration Impact Assessment, Federal Transit Administration, USDOT, April 1995

vibration should be measured over a duration Typical design criteria for floor vibration are
approximately equal to 4 seconds. (The listed in Table 9.4, for the land use categories
actual duration will depend on the integration identified in the APTA Guidelines. These
times available from the analyzer.) The result design criteria are not part of the APTA
obtained for the maximum vibration using a Guidelines, but have been applied to several
vibration meter with a slow response, transit systems, both heavy rail and light rail,
equivalent to a l-second averaging time, in the United States. They are very similar to
would be slightly higher than that obtained the FTA criteria described above. The
over the train passby duration by a fraction of guidelines for maximum groundborne
a decibel at distances greater than about 15 vibration are presented in terms of dBV
meters (50 feet) from the track, and should be relative to 1 .O micro-inch/second.
acceptable. A “fast” meter response, or
integrating time shorter than 1 second, should Groundborne vibration that complies with
not be used, because the vibration level may these design criteria would not be
fluctuate considerably during vehicle passage, imperceptible in all cases. However, the level
giving an unrepresentative reading. would be sufficiently low so that no significant
Fluctuation of vibration amplitudes and levels intrusion or annoyance should occur. In most
is a normal result of the random nature of low cases, there would be vibration from street
frequency ground vibration. traffic, other occupants of a building, or other
sources that would create vibration that is

9-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Table 9.4
Criteria for Maximum Groundborne Vibration
from Train Operations by Land-Use Category*

* Criteria apply to the vertical vibration of floor surfaces within buildings.

equivalent to or greater than vibration from l Normal roiling noise

transit train passbys. l Impact noise due to loss of contact
between the wheel and rail
The APTA guidelines recommend limits on l Rail corrugation noise
groundborne noise transmitted into building l Grinding artifact noise
structures (see Table 9.5). They have been
employed as design criteria for many heavy Normal rolling noise is broadband noise
and light rail transit systems in the United produced by reasonably smooth rail and
States and are similar to the FTA criteria. wheel treads. Departures from this “normal”
condition include impact noise, corrugation
noise, and grinding artifact noise. Impact and
9.2.2 Wheel/Rail Rolling Noise corrugation noise are more raucous and are
usually the cause of community concerns
Rolling noise is associated with the action of
about transit noise. While impact noise
the wheel rolling over tangent or curved track,
occurs at special trackwork, flat wheels,
and is produced primarily by rail and wheel
excessive rail roughness, undulation,
surface roughness. Rolling noise is distinct
corrugation, and rail joints also cause impact
from wheel squeal, which may occur at
noise. Rail corrugation involves periodic rail
curves, both in nature and in generating
roughness with wavelengths from 25
mechanism. Rolling noise may be radiated by
millimeters to 150 millimeters (1 to 6 inches),
the wheels and rails, and may also be
may be low amplitude, as during its initial
radiated by the structure supporting the track,
stages, or may involve deep corrugation and
such as elevated steel or concrete structures.
contact separation. Grinding artifact noise is
caused by a grinding pattern left in the rail by
For the purpose of this chapter, wheel/rail
rail grinding machines, and has been
noise is categorized into
confused with corrugation noise.

9-6
 Noise and Vibration Control

Table 9.5
Criteria for Maximum Groundborne Noise from Train Operations*

*Source: Guidelines and Principles for Design of Rapid Transit Facilities, Noise and Vibration, APTA 1979

9.2.2.1 Normal Rolling Noise should not produce as much noise as longer
wavelength components, unless the milling
9.2-2.7.7 Generating Mechanisms marks are non-uniform.
The following generating mechanisms have
been identified as sources of normal roiling Increasing the conformity of the wheel and rail
noise: contact has been proposed as a noise
l Wheel and rail roughness reduction technique that takes advantage of
l Parameter variation of rail head geometry uncorrelated roughnesses between various
or moduli parallel paths along the rail in the longitudinal
l Dynamic creep direction. rgl Significant noise reductions on
l Aerodynamic noise the order of 3 to 5 dB are predicted for
frequencies on the order of 500 Hz. However,
Wheel and Rail Roughness. Wheel and rail excessive wheel/rail conformity due to wear
surface roughnesses are believed to be the has been identified as a cause of spin-creep
most significant cause of wheel/rail noise. corrugation, leading to increased noise.“01
The greater the roughness amplitudes, the Therefore, care should be exercised before
greater the wayside noise and vibration. increasing the conformity of wheel and rail
Assuming that the contact stiffness is infinite, profiles. Excessive wheel/rail conformity from
the rail and wheel would displace relative to wear (and false flanging) will result if wheel
each other by an amplitude equal to their profile truing is not conducted frequently.
combined roughness amplitudes. The ratio of Further, good low-noise performance has
rail motion relative to wheel motion at a been obtained with 115RE rail with a 250-
specific frequency will depend on the dynamic millimeter (IO-inch) head radius and
characteristics of the rail and wheel. cylindrical wheels.

At short wavelengths relative to the contact Parameter Parameter variation

patch dimension, the surface roughness is
attenuated by averaging the roughness
across the contact patch in a direction parallel
with the rail, an effect known as contact patch
filtering. Thus, fine regular grinding or milling
marks less than 1 or 2 millimeters wide,
Variation.
refers to the variation of rail and wheel steel
moduli, rail support stiffness, and contact
stiffness due to variation in rail head ball
radius. The influence of fractional changes in
Young’s elastic modulus and of radius-of-
curvature of the rail head as a function of

9-7
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
wavelength necessary to generate wheel/rail
noise equivalent to that generated by surface
roughness are illustrated in Figure 9.1. The
wavelength of greatest interest is 25 to 50
millimeters (1 to 2 inches), corresponding to a
frequency of about 500 to 1,000 Hz for a
vehicle speed of about 97 km/hr (60 mph).
Over this range, a variation in modulus of 3 to
10% is required to produce the same noise as
that produced by rail roughness.
10
--w-- MODULUS
0.001
1 10 100
WAVELENGTH - mm
Figure 9.1 Change in Elastic Modulus and
Rail Head Curvature Required to Generate
Wheel/Rail Excitation Equivalent to
Roughness Excitation
Rail head ball radius variation also induces a
dynamic response in the wheel and rail. A
variation of rail head curvature of the order of
IO to 50% produces noise levels similar to
those produced by rail height variation alone.
Rail head ball radius variation will normally
accompany rail height variation. Maintaining
a uniform rail head ball radius is necessary to
realize the advantages of grinding rail to
maintain uniform head height. Irregular
definition of the contact wear strip is indicative
of excessive ball radius variation. Thus, rail
profile grinding with a vertical axis grinder to
produce a distinct head curvature rather than
simple grinding with a parallel axis grinder or
block grinder is preferred.
Dynamic Creep. Dynamic creep may include
both longitudinal and lateral dynamic creep,
roll-slip parallel with the rail, and spin-creep of
the wheel about a vertical axis normal to the
wheel/rail contact area. Longitudinal creep is
wheel creep in a direction parallel with the rail
and is not considered significant by some
researchers, who claim that rolling noise
levels do not increase significantly during
braking or acceleration on smooth ground rail.
However, qualitative changes in wheel/rail
noise on newly ground rail with an irregular
transverse grinding pattern in the rail surface
are audible as a train accelerates or
decelerates, suggesting that longitudinal
creep may play a role. Lateral creep is wheel
slip across the rail running surface in a
direction transverse to the rail during curve
negotiation and is often accompanied by
wheel squeal. Lateral creep may not be
significant at tangent track, but may occur
during unloading cycles at high frequencies
1000 on abnormally rough or corrugated rail, and
may be responsible for short-pitch corrugation
at tangent track. Spin-creep is caused by
wheel taper that produces a rolling radius
differential between the field and gauge sides
of the contact patch. Roll-slip refers to rolling
contact with slip at the edges of the contact
zone. Some slip, continuous or otherwise, is
required at the edges of the contact zone, as
with Heathcote slip of a bearing in its groove,
required by the conformal contact of curved
contact surfaces.
Aerodynamic Noise. Aerodynamic noise
due to high velocity air jets emanating from
grinding grooves in the rail has been claimed
to produce a high frequency whistling noise.
No test data have been obtained to confirm
this claim. It is further claimed that fine rail
grinding removes course grinding marks and
thus the noise. This is important if grinding is
9-8
 Noise and Vibration Control

specified during construction to eliminate mill
scale from the rail to obtain better traction and
electrical conductivity. The grinding must
have the fine quality mentioned previously
and must maintain the design head radius for
the rail.
respectively. It has not been determined if the
pinned-pinned mode is directly responsible for
peaks in the wayside noise spectrum, but it is
expected to have a bearing on wayside noise
and possibly rail corrugation.

Other sources of aerodynamic noise include

air turbulence about the wheels and trucks,
and traction motor blower noise. Neither of
these is controllable by the track designer, but
traction motor blower noise can, under certain
circumstances, dominate the wayside noise
spectrum if not properly treated. Aerodynamic
noise due to air turbulence about the wheels
and trucks at light rail transit speeds is not
significant. cl
-12 18 24 30 36 42

RAIL WF’ORT SEPARATION

- INCHES
9.2.2.1.2 Wheel Dynamics
O 132 tB/uo Aloo LB/M
The dynamic response of the wheel has a
l 115 LB/M) O 90 LB/Yu
substantial effect on rolling noise and
vibration. The response is affected by axle Figure 9.2 Vertical Pinned-Pinned
bending modes beginning at about 80 or 90 Resonance Frequency vs. Rail Support
Hz, tire resonances, spring-mass resonances Separation for Various Rails
of resilient wheels, and so forth. Up to about
400 Hz, the wheel is considered a rigid mass. Bending waves will propagate in the rail up to
At higher frequencies, these resonances a frequency corresponding to l/2 the pinned-
cause a very complex response that is not pinned mode frequency in the case of rigid rail
easily described here. supports. Between this frequency and the
pinned-pinned mode frequency, vibration
transmissions along the rail may be
9.2.2.q.3 Rail Dynamics
attenuated, depending on the rail support
The dynamic response of the rail also
dynamic characteristics, producing what is
influences the radiation of noise. Up to about
termed a “stop band.” Between the pinned-
500 Hz, the rail behaves as a simple beam on
pinned mode frequency and another cutoff
an elastic foundation. At higher frequencies,
frequency, bending waves may propagate
standing waves may occur in the rail due to freely, resulting in a “pass band.” The
resonance between the rail supports. The
response of the rail and its ability to radiate
first of these is the pinned-pinned mode of rail
noise will be affected by the widths of the stop
vibration. Estimates of the pinned-pinned
and pass bands, A slight randomness in the
mode resonance frequencies based on
support separation may significantly alter the
Timoshenko beam theory are presented in
stop and pass band characteristics.
Figure 9.2. The pinned-pinned mode
Shortening the rail support pitch will increase
resonance frequencies of a rail supported at
the stop band frequency range, and thus
900- and 750-millimeter (36- and 30-inch)
reduce noise. Thus, 600 millimeter (24 inch)
spacing are about 500 Hz and 800 Hz,

9-9
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
spacing is probably preferable to 750- or 900-
millimeter (30-or 364nch) spacing.
The main point here is that the response of
the wheel and rail above 500 Hz is very
complicated, and that the propensity for
adverse interaction between these elements,
leading to tonal components of wayside noise
and possibly corrugation, is high. Track
design should, ideally, be directed toward
minimizing this possible interaction by
ensuring that the pinned-pinned mode
frequency is not coincident with an anti-
resonance or resonance of the wheel.
Reducing rail support spacing and introducing
damping into the track support system may be
useful for this purpose.
9.2.2.1.4 Resilient Direct Fixation
Fasteners
Resilient direct fixation fasteners are used for
rail support and provide modest vibration
isolation. The most common form of resilient
direct fixation fastener consists of top and
bottom steel plates bonded to an elastomer
pad. Modern designs incorporate anchor
bolts that engage the bottom plate, so that the
top plate is retained entirely by the elastomer
vulcanized bond. The top plate contains
recesses to retain the rail clips.
A direct fixation fastener is a complex
mechanical element, even when considering
only vertical motion. There are two
frequencies that affect performance. One is
the top plate resonating on the elastomer pad
in rigid body motion and the other is the
bending resonance of the top plate. The first
of these can be thought of as a single-degree-
of-freedom oscillator with mass equal to the
top plate mass and spring equal to the top
plate stiffness, and may occur at frequencies
as low as 250 Hz. The second is influenced
by the vertical stiffness per unit area of the
elastomer and the bending stiffness of the top
plate, and occurs at frequencies on the order
9-10
of 650 Hz and higher. The fastener behaves
as a pure spring below the single-degree-of-
freedom resonance frequency. At higher
frequencies, top plate bending amplifies the
transmission of forces to the invert and
produces a high reaction to rail motion that
tends to “pin” the rail at this frequency,
possibly interacting with the “pinned-pinned”
mode. At higher frequencies the transmitted
force declines significantly.
As with the pinned-pinned mode, the
significance of fastener top plate bending on
rail radiated wayside noise has not been
determined. However, from the standpoint of
track design, introduction of damping into the
system and exploiting the top plate resonance
may be beneficial. This would be achieved by
incorporating a neoprene elastomer with high
loss factor and tuning the top plate resonance
to absorb vibration energy at the pinned-
pinned mode frequency. Tuning the plate can
be accomplished by changing the thickness.
More research and testing are required to
determine which approach is best.
9.2.2.1.5 Contact Stiffness
Contact stiffness is the ratio of the contact
vertical force to the relative vertical deflection
of the wheel and rail running surface. If the
contact stiffness is small relative to the
stiffness of the wheel or rail, wheel/rail forces
will be controlled partially by the contact
stiffness, in which case both the wheel and
rail vibration will decrease in response to
roughness. The contact stiffness does not
vary greatly over the range of rail head ball
radii. The ball contact stiffness varies about
16% for radii between 150 millimeters (6
inches) and 375 millimeters (15 inches).
Under the most optimistic scenario, this
variation would increase contact forces, and
thus noise, by at most 1.5 dB. However,
contact stresses may also increase as a result
of a smaller contact area, and rail head

geometry should be designed to minimize
stress and wear. Also, some investigators
have identified that high wheel/rail conformity
with spin-slip corrugation and large ball radii
may promote conformity. Corrugation
notwithstanding, rail wear is not considered a
serious problem at tangent track due to low
transit wheel loads. Wheel tread concavity
due to wear increases the lateral contact
patch dimension. Although the rail head
radius may be optimized for noise control,
wheel tread wear may frustrate maintaining a
specific contact geometry unless a vigorous
wheel truing program is in place.
9.2.2.2 Impact Noise
Impact noise is a special type of wheel/rail
noise occurring on tangent track with high
amplitude roughness, rail joints, rail defects,
or other discontinuities in the rail running
surface and wheel flats. Impact noise is
probably the most apparent noise on older
transit systems that do not practice regular rail
grinding and wheel truing.
Remingtont”1 provides a summary of impact
noise generation that involves non-linear
wheel/rail interaction due to contact
separation, and is closely related to impact
noise generation theory at special trackwork.
I. L. Verns categorizes impact noise by type
of rail irregularity, train direction, and speed.
Modern transit systems employing continuous
welded rail will likely not be concerned with
impact noise generated by rail joints, though
impact noise will be generated by rough rail,
wheel flats, turnout frogs, and crossover
diamonds. Even with continuous welded rail,
rail welds and insulating joints must be
carefully formed to reduce impact noise
generation. Further, rail joint maintenance is
important on older systems employing jointed
rail. All systems must be concerned with rail
grinding and wheel truing to eliminate
9-l 1
Noise and Vibration Control
associated impact noise. Impact noise due to
rough wheels and rails is probably the most
significant and irritating noise on older transit
systems where rail grinding and wheel truing
are not practiced.
9.2.2.3 Rail Corrugation Noise
Rail corrugation is a series of longitudinal high
and low points or a wave formed in the rail
head surface. Rail corrugation causes
excessive rolling noise of a particularly harsh
character and very high sound level. The
terms “roaring rail,” “roar,” “wheel howl” or
“wheel/rail howl” describe noise produced by
corrugated rail. If rail corrugation exists, the
wayside noise level will be much higher than
that of normal rolling noise, and the frequency
spectrum will contain discrete frequency
components and associated harmonics.
Rail corrugation is more difficult to control on
rail transit systems than railroads because of
the lower contact static loads and uniformity of
transit vehicle types and speeds, which
prevent randomization of wheel/rail force
signatures. Thus, maintaining rail
smoothness is probably more important for
transit systems than heavy freight systems.
Rail corrugation is the principal cause of
excessive noise levels on many transit
systems, and controlling rail corrugation is key
to minimizing rail transit system noise. At
present, the most effective means of
controlling rail corrugation is rail grinding.
Detailed discussions of rail corrugation noise
are included in TCRP Report 23.“’
9.2.2.4 Treatments for Rolling Noise
Control
Continuous welded rail, rail grinding, fastener
support spacing, rail vibration absorbers and
dampers, and rail head hardfacing are track-
oriented treatments for controlling rolling
noise Rail grinding is included because it
pertains to track maintenance. Even though
Light RailTrack Design Handbook
rail grinding is usually the task of the transit
system operator, the initial grind may be
performed during track construction to remove
mill scale from the rail for better traction and
electrical conductivity. The grinding must
have the fine quality mentioned previously,
and must maintain the design or specified
head radius for the rail.
9.2.2.4.1 Continuous Welded Rail
Rolling noise levels with properly ground
continuous welded rail and trued wheels in
good condition are the lowest that can be
achieved without resorting to extraordinary
noise control measures. There are no rail
joints to produce impact noise, which can be
clearly audible with moderately maintained
track. Noise from jointed rail may be as much
as 5 dB higher than from continuous welded
rail. Continuous welded rail requires less
maintenance than jointed rail, so that the
benefits of low noise are more easily
obtained.
9.2.2.4.2 Rail Grinding
Rail grinding combined with wheel truing is
the most effective method for controlling
wheel/rail noise and maintaining track in good
working condition. With ground rail and trued
wheels, wheel/rail noise levels at tangent
ballasted track are comparable with the
combined noise levels from traction motors,
gears, and fans.
As a track designer, it is important to plan for
maintenance activities that must be performed
to keep the system working well. Rail grinding
to control noise is one of these activities.
Consideration should be given to where
grinding equipment (as well as other track
maintenance equipment) can be staged to
access the system. Short track shutdowns for
maintenance are the norm in the industry.
Therefore it is important to have practical
9-12
solutions to providing access to work
equipment.
Some grinders may have difficulty negotiating
curves in tunnels or may be unable to grind
rail on very short radius curves. Adequate
clearance must be included in track and
system designs to accommodate rail grinding
machines. Rail grinding can be performed
only if there is adequate access to the track
during non-revenue hours. Grinding time can
be optimized by minimizing travel time to and
from the grinder storage location and the
treatment section. Pocket tracks capable of
storing the grinder during revenue periods will
minimize travel time.
Vertical axis grinders with special provision
may be able to grind embedded girder rail.
Using standard T-rail sections provides the
greatest flexibility with respect to grinding,
especially on embedded curves.
The optimal grinding procedure includes
grinding the rail to achieve a head radius
profile with a 12- to 16-millimeter (l/2- to 5/8-
inch) contact zone. This should be achieved
with grinding facets of about 2 millimeters
(l/l6 inch). Multiple head grinders reduce the
grinding time necessary to produce the
desired contour. Computer controlled grinders
with various grinding profiles stored in
memory can simplify setup and further
increase grinding time. The gauge corner can
be finished in a manner consistent with the
wheel profile. Grinding car speeds should be
as slow as possible to reduce the wavelength
of grinding patterns to a minimum. However,
the speed should not be so slow as to
produce excessive heating of the rail.
Rail grinding should be performed at intervals
short enough to avoid the development of rail
corrugation. Periodic track inspections for
corrugation growth and noise increase should
be conducted to identify appropriate grinding

intervals. A grinding interval equal to the
exponential growth time of corrugation (time
for corrugation to grow by 167%) gives a
rough estimate of the optimum grinding
interval. Varying the location of the contact
zone is used by some systems to reduce
rutting of the wheel tread, and thus reduce
wear resulting in conformal contact and spin-
slip.
9.2.2.4.3 Rail Support Spacing
Rail support stiffness and damping, fastener
resonances, and fastener spacing all directly
influence high-frequency vibration of the rail.
One of the most common sources of noise is
short-pitch rail corrugation. Modification of rail
support parameters may offer an opportunity
to influence and possibly control the formation
of rail corrugation, which has been related to
the pinned-pinned mode of rail vibration. The
pinned-pinned mode is, in turn, controlled by
fastener spacing. The pinned-pinned mode
resonance frequency is on the order of 800
and 500 Hz for fastener spacing of 750 to 900
millimeters (30 and 36 inches), respectively.
Reducing the fastener spacing to 600
millimeters (24 inches) would drive the
pinned-pinned mode resonance frequency to
above 1,000 Hz, possibly high enough to
smooth-out short-pitch corrugation at the
contact patch, and thus reduce
corrugation rates. A second concern with
respect to rail fastener spacing is a “singing
rail” phenomenon associated with regularly
spaced (concrete) crossties, rail seat pads,
and spring clips. The transmission
vibration along the rail is subject to certain
stop bands and pass bands in the frequency
domain, which are closely related to the
pinned-pinned mode resonance. Very precise
fastener spacing may contribute to singing rail
and pinned-pinned modes, and a slight
randomization of crossties or fastener spacing
may be beneficial. Reduction of concrete
crosstie spacing to 600 millimeters (24 inches)
Noise and Vibration Control
will also raise the pinned-pinned mode
resonance frequency above the anti-
resonance frequency of the Bochum tire
wheel, thus placing the maximum driving
frequency of the tire in the stop band region of
the rail vibration transmission spectrum This
design provision should be investigated
further. A 600-millimeter (2-foot) rail support
spacing is now being considered by one
transit system overseas with high volume and
strict noise control requirements.
9.2.2.4.4 Direct Fixation Fastener Design
Resilient rail fasteners are effective in
controlling structure-radiated wheel/rail noise
by providing vibration isolation between the
rail and structure and eliminating looseness in
the rail fixation. Resilient elastomeric
fasteners significantly reduce wayside noise
from steel elevated structures relative to
levels for conventional timber tie and cut-spike
track. Softening the fastener further produces
a marginal reduction of A-weighted noise.
The best performing fasteners would include
those that had the lowest static and dynamic
stiffness with a top plate bending resonance in
excess of about 800 Hz.
Noise radiated by rail in resilient direct fixation
track is usually greater than for ballasted track
the due to the high acoustic reflectivity of concrete
plinths and inverts. The character of wayside
noise from resilient direct fixation track also
differs significantly from that produced at
ballasted track, probably due to differing
of dynamic characteristics of the rail support and
rail support separation, as well as the amount
of trackbed sound absorption.
Soft natural rubber fasteners support efficient
propagation of bending waves that radiate
noise. Incorporation of damped elastomers
may be desirable to absorb rail vibration
energy, thus reducing noise radiation. An
attractive elastomer for this purpose is
neoprene, which has an added advantage of
9-l 3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
resistance to ozone and oils, and is common
in track construction. However, neoprene
should not be used where vibration isolation is
required to control structure-radiated or
groundborne noise radiation. Where vibration
isolation is needed more than airborne noise
control, such as on steel elevated structures
or in subway tunnels, natural rubber is the
preferred elastomer, providing a dynamic-to-
static stiffness ratio of less than 1.4.
The load vs. deflection curve of the fastener
should be reasonably linear within +/- 15% of
the mean static stiffness over the load range
to maintain its dynamic properties over the
load range. Specifying this linearity in an
unambiguous is critical in the
way
procurement process. The fastener should
provide full 3-degree-of-freedom isolation.
Fasteners with hard horizontal snubbers can
exhibit high non-linearity and compromise the
vibration isolation that might be otherwise
achievable. Fasteners with elastomer in
shear are some of the best performing
fasteners in this regard.
The tendency today in direct fixation track
design is to provide fasteners with stiffness on
the order of 15 to 20 MN/m, utilizing natural
rubber elastomers in addition to neoprene and
other synthetics. As noted above, while
natural rubber has desirable properties for
vibration isolation, the low damping capacity
of these materials may promote bending wave
propagation and noise radiation by the rail.
For additional information on direct fixation rail
fasteners refer to Section 54.3.
9.2.2.4.5 Trackbed Acoustical Absorption
Ballasted track is well known to produce about
5 dB less wayside noise than direct fixation
track, due to the sound absorption provided
by the ballast and differences in the track-
support characteristics. Acoustically
absorptive concrete and wood blocks placed
9-14
very close to the track are claimed to provide
a noise reduction of 3 dB when installed on
direct fixation track, which is consistent with
that obtained with ballasted track relative to
direct fixation track. This treatment has not
been implemented in the US to date.
9.2.2.4.6 Rail Wbration Absorbers
Rail vibration absorbers are resonant
mechanical elements that are attached to the
rail base to absorb vibration energy and thus
reduce noise radiation by the rail. Rail
vibration absorbers have been employed in
Europe, but have received little attention
within the United States. Rail vibration
absorbers may be desirable at certain site-
specific locations. However, the size of the
absorber may require substantial clearance
space beneath the rail. The absorbers are
usually tuned to frequencies above about
1,000 Hz, while the maximum noise levels
may occur at about 500 to 800 Hz. Absorbers
tuned to 500 to 800 Hz may require more
mass than those now being offered in Europe.
Data provided by certain manufacturers
indicate a reduction of about 3 to 5 dB in rail
vibration at l/3 octave band frequencies
between 300 and 2,000 Hz for 111 km/hr
trains on tangent track. Absorbers were
mounted on each rail, one between each rail
fastener. The mass of each absorber was 23
kilograms (50 pounds).
Absorbers utilizing an elastomer element and
optimized for moderate to high temperatures
may lose a portion of their effectiveness at low
frequencies. The leaf vibration absorber
might be susceptible to freezing in
sub-freezing weather with snow.
Vibration absorbers may be impractical on
ballasted track unless they can be positioned
clear of the ballast to maintain electrical
isolation. Further, the ballasted track with
timber crossties and cut spikes may provide
substantial energy absorption without

vibration absorbers, so that the addition of the
absorber may provide little additional noise
reduction. The absorber is effective where
the track exhibits little damping, such as at
concrete crossties and on ballast systems
with spring clips and resilient rail seat pads.
9.2.2.4.7 Wear-Resistant Hardfacing
“Hardfacing” is the weld application of a metal
alloy inlay to the rail head. The procedure
involves cutting or grinding a groove in the rail
surface and welding a bead of the alloy into
the groove. The Riflex welding technique has
been used on a limited basis in the United
States, primarily for wear reduction, but has
been promoted in Europe since the early
1980s for rail corrugation control and wheel
squeal. For additional information on Riflex
welding, refer to Section 52.5 in this
handbook.
9.2.2.4.8 Low Height Sound Barriers
Low height barriers placed very close to the
rail have been explored in Europe for
controlling wheel/rail noise, perhaps just
outside the wheel’s clearance envelope. In
one case, an aerial structure has been
designed to provide a trough in which the
vehicle runs, blocking sound transmission to
the wayside. Sound absorption is used to
absorb sound energy before it escapes the
wayside. The height of the barriers must be
determined by careful analysis. A l- to a-inch
thick glass fiber or mineral wool sound
absorber with perforated protective cover
should be incorporated on the rail side of the
barrier. Adding sound absorption to the
concrete slab surface of direct fixation track
should be considered.
9.2.3 Special Trackwork Noise
Special trackwork includes switches, turnouts,
and crossovers. The noise generated at
9-l 5
Noise and Vibration Control
special trackwork by wheels traversing frog
gaps and related connections is a special
case of impact noise discussed above.
Special trackwork noise may be controlled by
grinding the frog to provide as smooth a
transition as possible for each wheel to pass
from one side of the flangeway to the other.
Special frogs, including movable point, swing
nose, and spring frogs, have been developed
to minimize impact forces by eliminating the
fixed gap associated with the frog Because
the frog gap, combined with poorly maintained
wheels, contributes to the increase in noise
when a train passes through a turnout, the
use of special frogs to reduce special
trackwork noise may be a practical noise
control provision for many transit systems.
9.2.3.1 Frogs
Various frog designs have been used in
transit installations: solid manganese, flange
bearing, liftover, railbound manganese,
spring, and movable point frogs. For
additional information on frog design, refer to
Section 6.6. The following guidelines are
provided for frog design selection for noise
control.
9.2.3.1.1 Solid Manganese Frog
Solid manganese frog design with welded toe
and heel joints provides a virtually continuous
running surface except for the open
flangeway. Proper wheel and frog design
along with continuous track maintenance and
wheel truing should provide adequate low-
noise operation. Hollow worn wheels with
false flanges will contribute to noise and
vibration when traversing through the frog.
9.2.3.1.2 Flange-Bearing Frog
Flange-bearing frog design with welded toe
and heel joints is similar to the solid
manganese design except the frog provides
support to the wheel flange while traversing
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

the flangeway opening frog point area. The
depth of the flangeway is reduced to a limit to
support the wheel in the point area. If the
wheel and frog are properly maintained, this
design reduces impact of the wheel in the
open flangeway frog point area. Gradual
ramping of the flangeway is critical to avoiding
impact noise.
9.2.3.1.3 Liftover Frog
Liftover frog design with welded toe and heel
joints is similar to the flange-bearing design
except the frog provides a continuous main
line running rail surface and open flangeway.
The lateral move flangeway is omitted in this
design.
When a movement occurs for the diverging
route, the frog flangeway and wing rail portion
is ramped up to a level that allows the wheel
to pass over the main line open flangeway
and running rail head. If the wheel and frog
are properly maintained, this design
eliminates impact on the main line moves and
reduces impact of the wheel in the diverging
direction.
The three frog designs described above are
recommended for light rail transit installations
to reduce noise and vibration. The frogs can
be considered for three track types: ballasted,
direct fixation and embedded special
trackwork.
9.2.3.1.4 Railbound Manganese Frogs
Railbound manganese frogs with the running
rail surrounding the central manganese
portion of the frog introduce interface
openings in the running rail surface in addition
to the flangeway openings. Light rail main line
track installations should always consider
welded joints at the toe and heel of the frog.
The manganese-to-rail-steel interface in the
frog design introduces a joint in the running
surface that severely impacts wheel
performance and is the source of wheel batter
noise and vibrations from the outset of
installation They are not as quiet as the frogs
described above.
9.2.3.1.5 Movable Point Frogs
Movable point frogs are perhaps the most
effective way to eliminate the impact noise
associated with fixed flangeway gap frogs.
The frog flangeway is eliminated by laterally
moving the nose of the frog in the direction in
which the train is traveling. The movable
point frog generally requires additional
signaling, switch control circuits, and an
additional switch machine to move the point of
the frog. Movable point frogs have been
incorporated on people mover systems in
Canada and in Australia, but have received
little or no application on light rail transit
systems in the United States.
9.2.3.1.6 Spring Frogs
Spring frogs also eliminate the impact noise
associated with fixed flangeway gap frogs for
trains traversing the frog in a normal tangent
direction. The spring frog includes a spring-
loaded point, which maintains the continuity of
the rail’s running surface for normal tangent
operations. For diverging movements, the
normally closed frog is pushed open by the
wheel flange. There may be additional noise
associated with trains making diverging
movements, because the train wheels must
still pass through the fixed portion of the frog
Thus, use of these frogs in noise-sensitive
areas where a significant number of diverging
movements will occur will not significantly
mitigate the noise impacts associated with
standard frogs.
9.2.4 Wheel Squeal Noise
Wheel squeal is one of the most serious types
of noise produced by light rail transit systems

9-16

and can occur at both short- and long-radius
curves. In a central business district,
pedestrians and patrons are in close proximity
to embedded track curves of light rail
systems; consequently, they are subjected to
high levels of squeal noise. The high levels of
noise at discrete squeal frequencies result in
high perceptibility and annoyance
Wheel squeal may be intermittent, due to
varying contact surface properties, surface
contaminants, or curving dynamics of the
vehicle and rail. On wet days, wheel squeal
may be eliminated when negotiating all or
most of a curve.
9.2.4.1 Causes of Wheel Squeal
Three assumed types of vibratory motion
producing wheel squeal noise are:
1 Longitudinal slip with non-linear rotational
oscillation of the tire about its axle
2 Wheel flange contact with the gauge face
of the rail
3 Lateral slip with non-linear lateral
oscillation of the tire across the rail head.
Longitudinal slip is due to the different
translation velocities between the high and
low rail wheels in a direction parallel with the
rail. Longitudinal slip is expected on curves
where the distance traversed at the high rail is
greater than at the low rail. Wheel taper is
sufficient to compensate for differential slip on
curves with radii in excess of about 610
meters (2,000 feet), though shorter radii may
be accommodated by profile grinding of the
rail head and gauge widening. Further, Rudd
reports that elastic compression of the inner
wheel and extension of the outer wheel tread
under torque can compensate for the wheel
differential velocities, and, further, that trucks
with independently driven wheels also
squeal. t19 The consensus of opinion is that
longitudinal slip is not a cause of wheel
squeal.
9-17
Noise and Vibration Control
Wheel flange rubbing is due to contact
between the flange and high rail and occurs
on short-radius curves with significant
crabbing of the wheel set, such as at gauge
widened curves However, lubrication of the
flange does not entirely eliminate wheel
squeal and wheel squeal is not limited to the
high rail, suggesting that flange contact is not
necessarily the only significant cause of
squeal. Flange rubbing is also accompanied
by lateral slip, which may be the primary
cause of squeal.
Lateral slip with non-linear lateral oscillation of
the tread running surface across the rail head
is believed to be the principal source of
squeal. Figure 9.3 illustrates the geometry of
curve negotiation by a transit vehicle truck.
Lateral slip across the rail head is
necessitated by the finite wheel base (6) of
the truck and the radius of curvature of the
rail, where no longitudinal flexibility exists in
the axle suspension. However, Figure 9.4
illustrates the actual crabbing of a truck. In
this case, the leading axle of the truck rides
towards the high rail, limited only by flange
contact of the high rail wheel against the
gauge face of the rail. The trailing axle travels
between the high and low rail, and the low rail
wheel flange may, in fact, be in contact with
the low rail gauge face. Gauge widening,
common on many transit systems, increases
the actual creep angle (angle of attack) and
exacerbates the generation of wheel squeal.
For additional information on truck rotation
refer to Section 4.2.9.
The friction between the wheel and rail
running surfaces during lateral slip varies non-
linearly with the lateral creep function, defined
as the lateral relative slip velocity divided by
the forward rolling velocity. The coefficient of
friction initially increases with increasing creep
function, reaching its maximum at a creep
function of about 0.09, and declining
thereafter. The negative slope results in
negative damping that, if sufficient to
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

to the change in friction characteristics caused

by moisture. Wheel squeal may be naturally
reduced in areas of high humidity.

9.2.4.2 Treatments
There are a number of mitigation measures
available for controlling wheel squeal. The
most effective of these are resilient and
6= WHEEL SET (AXLE) BASE damped wheels. Resilient wheels are not a
R= CURM RADIUS
component of track design, but their use
Figure 9.3 Geometry of Curve Negotiation
greatly reduces the need for track or wayside
and Lateral Slip
mitigation . Again, wheel squeal control is a
DIRECTION OF,
system problem rather than simply a vehicle
IL1 TRAML or track design problem. Other treatments
L 1
may be considered for application directly to
_._____.- ---------------. -._______ the track.
46
? 9 1
i I
gs f
u-J2 5 9.2.4.2.1 Dry-Stick Friction Modifiers
gi; - TANGENT
2%
2
Modification of the friction-creep curve is an
A=
+ 5= B/2R
attractive approach to controlling wheel
B= WHEEL SET (AXLE) BASE
R= CURM RADIUS squeal. Dry-stick friction modifiers applied to
6= ACTUAL CREEP ANGLE
the wheel tread, and thus the rail running
Figure 9.4 Truck Crabbing Under Actual surface, improve adhesion and flatten the
Conditions friction-creep curve, thereby reducing or
eliminating the negative damping effect.
overcome the internal damping of the system, Friction modifiers are being offered as an
will produce regenerative oscillation or squeal. on-board treatment for wheel squeal. The
treatment has also be& applied directly to the
For a wheel base of 2280 millimeters (7.5
rail head with moderate success. Manual
feet), squeal would not be expected for curve
application of wayside friction modifiers can
radii greater than 125 to 253 meters (410 to
be considered for controlling squeal on
830 feet), the lower limit being achieved when
curves, but no fixed automatic applicators are
there is no gauge widening. As illustrated
commercially available at this time.
above, gauge widening increases the creep
angle for the same radius of curvature. A
typical assumption is that squeal does not 9.2.4.2.2 Lubrication
occur for curves with radii greater than about Wayside lubricators can be used to lubricate
200 meters (700 feet), corresponding to a the rail gauge face, restraining rail, and wheel
dimensionless creep rate equal to 0.7 B/R, flange. However, this leads to an undesirable
where B is the wheel base and R is the curve situation; the lubrication tends to migrate to
radius. the running rail head, reducing wheel squeal
due to lateral slip at the expense of loss of
Meteorological conditions affect the traction. The effectiveness of this type of
generation of squeal. In wet weather, for lubrication in reducing noise can be
example, wheel squeal is greatly reduced due substantial. Without lubrication, maximum

9-l 8
 Noise and Vibration Control

wheel squeal noise levels may exceed 100 native rail steel. Refer to Section 5.2.5 for
dBA. With lubrication, wheel squeal noise additional information concerning rail head
levels have been reduced by approximately treatments.
15to25dB.

Wheel tread and rail running surfaces cannot 9.2.4.2.5 Rail Head Damping Inlays
be lubricated without loss of adhesion and Rail head damping, consisting of a synthetic
braking effectiveness. Loss of braking resin glued to a groove in the rail head, has
effectiveness will result in wheel flatting, which been offered as a treatment to control wheel
produces excessive rolling noise, a squeal. This procedure has been applied for
counterproductive result of improper at least a year on German rapid transit
lubrication. Loss of wheel-to-rail electrical systems, and can be applied to all grades of
contact from the use of uncontrolled wayside steel. The vulcanization process is used with
lubricants is also a concern. Environmental all types of rails and is applied so that the
degradation by lubricants is a serious wheel does not come into contact with the
consideration; thus lubricants should be resin-based filler material. The manufacturer
biodegradable to the maximum extent claims that noise is reduced by the material
possible. damping provided by the resin inlay. No
performance data have been provided and
there are significant questions regarding
9.2.4.2.3 Wafer Sprays actual performance, wear, and squeal noise
Water spray by wayside applicators on curved reduction. This approach should be
track can be used to control wheel squeal, rail thoroughly checked and tested before
corrugation and wear. Both the high and low applying it as a general noise reduction
rails can be treated. Water spray has been treatment.
reported to reduce wheel squeal by 18 dB on
short-radius curves. Water spray cannot be
used during freezing weather. Water sprays 9.2,4.2.6 Track Gauge
may induce corrosion that is not conducive to Gauge narrowing is an attractive approach to
electrical contact, and might not be advisable promoting curving and reducing crab angle
for lightly used track or where signaling may and creep, and thus squeal. However, the
be affected. Water sprays would likely pose wheel and rail gauges used on trolley systems
less of an environmental problem than grease typically vary by 3 millimeters (l/8 inch), and
or oil. this slight variation in gauge may dictate
against gauge narrowing in curves to prevent
the flanges from binding when axle spacing is
9.2.4.2.4 Rail Head Inlays taken into consideration. Refer to Section 4.2
The friction versus creep curve can be for additional information concerning track and
modified by treatment of the rail heads with a wheel gauge.
babbit-like (soft malleable metal) material.
This treatment has been successful in Gauge widening has been incorporated in
eliminating wheel squeal, reducing passby track design to control squeal and promote
noise levels by approximately 20 dB. curving, but has produced the opposite effect.
However, after several months of service, Gauge widening appears to be a holdover
“chronic squeal reappeared.” The loss of from steam locomotive days when
performance is likely due to wear of the locomotives with three-axle trucks were in
material, allowing wheel tread contact with the use, and is not specifically necessary to

9-19
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
prevent excessive flange wear for two-axle
trucks. Quite the opposite; gauge widening
promotes crabbing because the natural
tendency of a truck is to crab its way through
a curve, with the high rail wheel of the leading
axle riding against the high rail, as illustrated
in Figure 9.4.
9.2.4.2.7 Asymmetrical Rail Profile
Asymmetrical rail head profiles are designed
to increase the wheel rolling radius differential
and promote self-steering of the truck through
the curve, which requires a longitudinally
flexible truck. In this case, the contact zone of
the high rail is moved toward the gauge
comer and the larger diameter of the tapered
wheel, while the contact zone at the low rail is
moved to the field side and the smaller
diameter of the taper. The wheel taper thus
allows the high rail wheel to travel a greater
distance than the low rail wheel per revolution.
In so doing, the axles tend to line up with the
curve radius, thus reducing the lateral slip
squeal. While this approach is attractive, it is
effective for curve radii of the order of 200
meters (700 feet) or more. This process has
been used in Los Angeles and Vancouver.
9.2.4.2.8 Rail Vibration Dampers
A rail vibration damper is a visco-elastic
constrained layer damping system applied to
the rail web to retard wheel squeal. In one
design, the constrained layer damper is held
against the rail web with a steel plate and
spring clip under and about the base of the
rail. The treatment can be applied with
minimal disturbance of track, provided that it
may be made short enough to fit between the
track supports. A second design includes a
damping compound that is bonded to the rail
web and constraining steel plate, without the
use of a steel spring clip.
9-20
9.2.4.2.9 Rail Vibration Absorbers
Rail vibration absorbers are resonant
mechanical elements that are attached to the
rail to absorb vibration energy. Rail vibration
absorbers are reputed to control wheel squeal
and also reduce rolling noise. This
technology has not been tried in the United
States as of this writing. The most attractive
design at present incorporates a series of
tuned dampers that bear against both the rail
foot and the rail web. Thus, vibration energy
is absorbed from both these elements of the
rail. The absorbers are clamped to the rail
with bolts, and a plate extends beneath the
base of the rail. These systems have been
used in Europe, but not in North America.
9.2.4.2.10 Double Restrained Curves
Double restraining rails are designed to
reduce the angle of attack and promote
steering of the truck without flange contact on
gauge widened curves. In this case, the high
rail wheel flange can be brought away from
the high rail by the low rail restraining rail and
the low rail wheel flange can be moved away
from the gauge face by the high rail
restraining rail. The restraining rail flangeway
width would have to be controlled to prevent
binding of the wheel set or climbing of the
flange onto the restraining rail. Further, the
restraining rails may be liberally lubricated to
reduce squeal and wear due to friction
between the wheel and restraining rail.
However, no successful installations have
been found that completely eliminate wheel
squeal. Although this approach is
theoretically attractive in reducing crab angle,
mixed results may be achieved. Curving may
be promoted most by maintaining gauge
through the curve or possibly narrowing the
gauge. Refer to Section 4.2.8 for additional
information concerning guarded track and
restraining rail.
 Noise and Vibration Control

9.2.5 Groundborne Noise and Vibration task of predicting groundborne noise and
Mitigation vibration has advanced to a highly developed
state, relying on downhole shear wave
Groundborne noise and vibration is a velocity data, seismic refraction data,
phenomenon of all rail transit systems and, if borehole impulse testing, and detailed finite
not controlled, can cause significant impact on element modeling of structures and
residences, hospitals, concert hails, surrounding soils. As a result, vibration
museums, recording studios, and other predictions can be reasonably accurate,
sensitive land uses. New light rail transit though still less precise than noise
alignments include abandoned railroad rights- predictions. Special track design is now
of-way passing through adjacent residential regularly considered as a means to control
developments. Residences located within 1 perceptible ground vibration in addition to
meter (3 feet) of right-of-way limits are not audible groundborne noise.
uncommon, and there are instances where
apartment buildings are built directly over light
rail systems with little provision for vibration 9.2.5.1 Vibration Generation
isolation. Vibration impacts on hospitals, Ground vibration from rail transit vehicles is
sensitive “high-tech” manufacturers, or produced by wheel/rail interaction, driven by
research facilities may occur. roughness in the wheels and rail running
surfaces, discrete track structures, track
Groundborne noise is heard as a low level irregularities, and imbalanced conditions of
rumble, and may adversely impact rotating components such as wheels and
residences, hospitals, concert halls, and other axles. Vibration forces are imparted to the
areas or land uses where quiet is either track invert or soil surface through embedded
desirable or required. Groundborne vibration track, direct fixation fasteners, or ballast.
in buildings may be felt as a low frequency These forces cause the transit structure and
floor motion, or detected as secondary noise soil to vibrate, radiating vibration energy away
such as rattling windows or dishes. Building from the track in the form of body and surface
owners often claim that groundborne vibration waves. Body waves are shear and
is responsible for building settlement and compression waves, with respective shear
damage, though there have been no and compression wave propagation velocities.
demonstrated cases of this occurring. Body waves attenuate (or lose amplitude) at a
rate of 6 dB (50% in amplitude) as distance
Literature concerning rail transit groundborne from the source doubles without material
noise and vibration control is rich with damping (energy absorption) in the soil. Of
empirical and quantitative studies conducted these two wave forms, the shear wave is the
in North America, Europe, Australia, the Far most important. For surface track, the ground
East, and South America. A substantial vibration includes Rayleigh surface waves,
review of the state-of-the-art in groundborne which attenuate at a rate of 3 dB (30% in
noise and vibration prediction and control was amplitude) as distance from the source
conducted in 1984 for the U.S. Department of doubles without material damping or reflection
Transportation. Recent research includes losses. Rayleigh surface waves are the major
studies on the nature of subway/soil carrier of vibration energy from the surface
interaction, surface track vibration generation, track, but inhomogeneities in the soil may
and extensive downhole testing to assess convert significant portions of the Rayleigh
vibration propagation in soils. Indeed, the surface wave energy into body waves. Within

9-21
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

one wavelength of the track, the distinction both analytical and finite element modeling
between surface and body waves is methods, and multiple-degree-of-freedom
immaterial, as near-field effects dominate the modeling of transit vehicles and track.n61
response. These methods are very powerful for
analyzing changes in structure design,
Structure/soil interaction significantly affects structure depth, and vehicle designs.
the radiation of vibration energy into the
surrounding soil. Heavy tunnel structures
produce lower levels of ground vibration than 9.2.5.3 Vibration Control Provisions
lightweight tunnels. However, the opposite Numerous methods for controlling
has been observed for large cut-and-cover groundborne noise and vibration include
box structures very close to the ground continuous floating slab track, resiliently
surface relative to circular tunnels. Near- supported two-block ties, ballast mats,
surface subway structures produce vibration resilient direct fixation fasteners, precision rail,
more easily than deep structures. alignment modification, low stiffness vehicle
primary suspension systems, and
Ground vibration excites building foundations transmission path modification.n71 Achieving
and structures. Vibrating surfaces of the the most practical solution at reasonable cost
rooms then radiate noise into the room as is of great importance in vibration mitigation
groundborne noise. The interior sound level design. Factors to consider include
is then controlled by the degree of acoustical maintainability, inspectability, and cleanliness.
absorption contained in the room. Secondary
noise, such as rattling windows, might be
9.2.5.3.1 Floating Slab Track
observed in extreme cases.
Floating slab track is a special type of track
structure that is beyond the normal designs
9.2.5.2 Groundborne Noise and Vibration discussed in Chapter 4. The floating slab
Prediction concept would be an additional requirement to
The procedure for predicting groundborne normal track structure. Track structure design
noise and vibration is an empirical approach must allow for floating slabs where they are
involving transfer function testing of soils and needed, as the floating slab may require
buildings. The procedure has recently been additional invert depth.
adopted by the FTA for use in assessing
groundborne noise and vibration impacts by Floating slab systems consist of two basic
rail transit projects. The predictions of ground types:
vibration and groundborne noise are l Continuous cast-in-place floating slabs
described in detail in the FTA guidelines for are constructed by placing a permanent
rail transit noise and vibration impact sheet metal form on elastomer isolators
assessment.[141 Screening procedures and and filling the form with concrete. The
detailed prediction techniques are also floating slabs measure approximately 6
described. meters (20 feet) along the track and 3
meters (10 feet) transverse to the track.
The state-of-the-art in predicting ground The depth of the slab is generally 300 to
vibration has recently advanced significantly 450 millimeters (12 to 18 inches).
to include detailed finite element modeling of l Discontinuous double-tie pre-cast floating
soil/structure interactiorP1, numerical analysis slabs measure about 1.5 meters (5 feet)
of vibration propagation in layered soils using

9-22

along the track and 3 meters (10 feet)
transverse to the track. The depth, and
thus the mass, of the slab may vary from
about 200 to 600 millimeters (8 to 24
inches). The mass of the slab may range
from 2,000 to 7,000 kilograms (4,409 to
15,430 pounds.) The most common
configuration is with a 2,000-kilogram
(4,409-pound) slab 200 millimeters (8
inches) thick. The slabs are referred to as
double ties because they support each
rail with two direct fixation fasteners,
giving a total of four direct fixation
fasteners per slab.
The design resonance frequency of a floating
slab system is the resonance frequency for
the combined floating slab and vehicle truck
mass distributed over the length of the
vehicle. The design resonance frequency of
the continuous floating slab and vehicle
combination is typically on the order of 16 Hz,
while that of the discontinuous precast
double-tie floating slab and vehicle
combination ranges from 8 to 16 Hz,
depending on isolation needs. Wtth a
continuous floating slab, the entrained air
stiffness must be included with the isolator
spring stiffness when computing
resonance frequency.
The normal configuration for the discrete
double-tie design includes four natural rubber
isolators. Additional isolators are incorporated
to increase the isolation stiffness at transition
regions between non-isolated and isolated
track. The main support pad shape was
selected to provide low shear strain and
control lateral slip between the bearing
surface of the pad and concrete surfaces.
Lateral slip is further reduced by gluing the
pads to the concrete surfaces. The pad is
about 100 millimeters (4 inches) thick, with an
overall diameter of 400 millimeters (16
inches).
Noise and Vibration Control
The main support pads of all discontinuous
floating slabs used in the United States are
manufactured from natural rubber. Synthetic
rubber formulations exhibit higher creep rates
than natural rubber formulations and should
be avoided. Natural rubber formulations
exhibit low creep over time, high reliability,
and dimensional stability. Natural rubber
pads are not subject to corrosion and provide
natural material damping that controls the
amplification of vibration at resonance.
Natural rubber pads installed beneath floating
slabs have survived subway fires without
needing to be replaced and their use results in
a virtually maintenance-free isolation system.
There have been concerns over debris
accumulating beneath floating slabs, as well
as providing methods for removal of such
debris. Another concern is the possibility of
the gaps between discontinuous floating
slabs, which could trap the feet of persons
escaping down a tunnel during an emergency.
Both of these concerns may be avoided by
providing flexible seals, but care must be
taken to avoid increasing the overall stiffness
of the floating slabs by using the seals.
the 9.2.5.3.2 Resiliently Supported Two-Block
Ties
Resiliently supported two-block tie designs
are referred to as encased direct fixation track
in Section 4.5.3.4. In resiliently supported
two-block tie designs, each rail is supported
on individual concrete blocks set in an
elastomer boot encased by the concrete slab
or invert. A stiff elastomer or plastic rail seat
pad protects the concrete block at the rail
base, which is retained by a spring clip or
other fastening system. The design used for
light rail transit vibration isolation must provide
a low rail support modulus, achieved by
including a closed-cell elastomer foam (or
micro-cellular pad) between the bottom of the
concrete block and invert inside the elastomer
boot. Static stiffnesses of the order of 8.9 to
9-23
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

17.8 MN/meter (50,000 to 100,000 reduction relative to standard ballasted track.

pounds/inch) can be obtained, though the
dynamic stiffness is likely to be much higher.
The design constitutes a two-degree-of-
freedom vibration isolation system, though the
vibration isolation at low frequencies is
controlled by the elastomer boot surrounding
the concrete block.
The vibration isolation provided by resiliently
supported two-block ties is believed to be
higher than that of very stiff direct fixation
fasteners. The vibration isolation provided by
the two-block tie should be comparable to that
provided by soft fasteners, with stiffness of 8.9
MN/meter (50,000 pounds/inch) and dynamic
stiffness of 11 6 MN/meter (65,000
pounds/inch). Damping has been postulated
as a cause for the low-frequency vibration
isolation provided by some of the two-block
systems. The two-degree-of-freedom
isolation of the two-block system may provide
greater vibration isolation at frequencies
above 200 Hz than that provided by soft
fasteners.
There have been cases of rail corrugation
associated with the resiliently supported tie
system, though this appears to be related to
the interaction of the rail with the concrete
block through the rail seat pad. Reducing the
rail seat pad stiffness appears to defer the
onset of rail corrugation.
The ballast mat is, therefore, not a substitute
for floating slab track. There may be some
amplification of vibration at the ballast mat
resonance frequency in the range of 16 to 30
Hz.
Three configurations of ballast mats have
recently been recommended for surface track.
The first includes a concrete base with a mat
consisting of inverted natural rubber cone
springs placed on a concrete base beneath
the ballast. The second includes the mat
placed in a concrete “bath tub” slab with the
track slab consisting of a second pour
concrete slab supporting the rails. The third,
and potentially less effective design,
incorporates a uniforrn ballast mat placed
directly on tamped soil or compacted sub-
ballast.
Conventional installations of ballast mats in
Europe have been in subways with concrete
bases, for which vibration insertion losses
have been predicted to be higher than
observed in practice. Surface track
application presents challenges that limit the
effectiveness of ballast mat installations. The
shear modulus of the soil at or near the
surface may be low and can result in a
support modulus comparable to that of the
ballast mat, thus rendering the ballast mat
less effective than if it were employed in
tunnel track.

9.2.5.3.3 Ballast Mats The vibration reductions are limited to the

Ballast mats are employed to control
groundborne noise and vibration from
ballasted track and have been incorporated as
the principal isolator in certain floating slab
track installations. The effectiveness of a
ballast mat is limited to frequencies above
approximately 25 to 30 Hz. The maximum
vibration isolation that has been measured
from trains with ballast mat is about 10 dB at
40 Hz. At lower frequencies, the ballast mat
is too stiff to provide sufficient vibration
frequency range in excess of about 30 Hz.
For ballast mats on compacted subgrade, the
insertion loss would likely be on the order of 5
to 8 dB at 40 Hz. For ballast mats on a
concrete base or concrete invert, the insertion
loss at 40 Hz would be between 7 and 10 dB.
The most effective ballast mat is a profiled
mat with a natural rubber elastomer on a
concrete base or trough. This type of

9-24
 Noise and Vibration Control

installation provides the greatest vibration
isolation, about IO dB at 40 to 50 Hz.
The selection of a ballast mat should favor low
static and dynamic stiffness, low creep, good
drainage, and ease of installation. There are
considerable disparities between the dynamic
stiffnesses of various ballast mats, even
though their static stiffnesses may be similar.
The most desirable material is natural rubber,
which exhibits a low dynamic-to-static
stiffness ratio of about 1.4 or less. These
high-performance natural rubber mats may
cost more than synthetic elastomer mats, but
may be the only choice in critically sensitive
locations. Specifications for ballast mats
should include dynamic stiffness requirements
for the intended frequency range over which
vibration isolation is desired. If this is not
done, much less isolation than expected may
actually be achieved, rendering the vibration
isolation provision ineffective. There is a very
distinct possibility that providing a ballast mat
may increase low frequency vibration in the
16- to 25Hz region. If this is the range of the
most significant vibration, the ballast mat may
actually create or exacerbate a vibration
impact. Thus, great care must be exercised in
design, specification, and installation of the
ballast mat.
A further consideration is ballast pulverization
and penetration into the mat. Ballast mats
have been incorporated in the track structure
to reduce pulverization.
9.2.5.3.4 Resilient Direct Fixation
Fasteners
Resilient direct fixation fasteners are used for
concrete slab aerial deck or subway invert
track. In some instances, resilient direct
fixation fasteners have been incorporated into
embedded track. One of the earliest direct
fixation fastener designs was the Toronto
Transit Commission unbonded fastener with
natural rubber pad. This relatively stiff
fastener is now being replaced. Modern
designs include vulcanize-bonded fasteners
with rolled steel top and bottom plates. More
recent designs include cast top plates and
either rolled steel or cast base plates.
Very soft fasteners provide a modest measure
of groundborne noise reduction. Certain
fasteners use elastomer in shear to provide
good rail head control. Soft fasteners have
been designed for use in reducing ground
vibration and groundborne noise at
frequencies above about 30 Hz. The
elastomers shear design provides a vertical
stiffness of about 10 MN/meter (55,000
pounds/inch). A unique aspect of this type of
fastener is that it must pass a qualification
test, which includes a measure of the dynamic
stiffness over a frequency range of 10 to 500
Hz. The fastener employs elastomer in shear
and provides a reasonably high lateral
stiffness to maintain rail position. The high
lateral stiffness and captive design of the top
plate also help to reduce rail rotation under
lateral load in spite of its low vertical stiffness.
This is, perhaps, one of its most important
design features. For additional information on
direct fixation fasteners, refer to Section 54.3
in this handbook.
One feature of a low stiffness fastener is that
the rail static deflection will be distributed over
more fasteners; thus the rail will appear to be
more uniformly supported. Low rail support
stiffness is advantageous in reducing the
pinned-pinned mode resonance frequency
due to discrete rail supports, as well as the
vertical resonance frequency for the rail on
the fastener stiffness.
The ratio of vertical dynamic-to-static stiffness
describes the quality of the elastomer; a low
ratio is very important for vibration isolation.
The ratio is obtained by dividing the dynamic
stiffness (measured with a servo-actuated
hydraulic ram) by the static stiffness

9-25
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

determined over the majority of the load 9.2.5.3.6 Rail Straightness

range. A desirable upper limit is 1.4, easily Though often overlooked or not considered
obtained with fasteners manufactured with a during track design, rail straightness is
natural rubber elastomer or derivative thereof. fundamentally important in controlling low
Dynamic-to-static stiffness ratios of 1.3 are frequency ground vibration in critically
not uncommon with natural rubber elastomer sensitive areas. Roller straightened rails have
in shear. As a rule, elastomers capable of produced ground vibration frequency
meeting the limit of 1.4 are high quality and components that can be related to the
generally exhibit low creep. Neoprene straightener’s roller diameter. More recently,
elastomers provide a dynamic-to-static substantial vibration was generated at
stiffness ratio greater than 1.4 and can be as residential structures located adjacent to a
high as 4. (Note: A neoprene elastomer may main line freight railroad alignment after
be desirable for controlling rail noise radiated replacing “gag-press” straightened rail with
from at-grade or aerial structure track due to roller straightened rail with excessive vertical
the material damping of the elastomer, which undulation. Narrowband analyses of the
absorbs rail vibration energy. Thus, the wayside ground vibration data identified a
choice of elastomer may depend on whether linear relation between frequency peaks and
groundborne vibration isolation or airborne train speed that related directly with the roller
noise reduction is desired.) diameter of the straightening machine.
Subsequent field measurements of rail profile
High lateral restraint is often incompatible with with a laser interferometer corroborated the
vibration isolation design requirements. vibration data. The roller straightened rail was
Therefore, a stiffness range is desirable for replaced with new rail that was also roller
the lateral restraint to ensure both an straightened, but to British standards. Repeat
adequate degree of horizontal position control measurements indicated a substantial
and sufficient lateral compliance to provide reduction of ground vibration, even though the
vibration isolation. Hard snubbers are effects of the roller straightener pitch diameter
undesirable in fasteners, because they limit were still identifiable in the wayside ground
vibration isolation to the vertical direction only. vibration spectra.[‘8*‘g1
The design principle is to provide a three-
degree-of-freedom isolation. This experience leads to the recommendation
of “super-straight” rail for sensitive areas
where a low-frequency vibration impact is
9.2.5.3.5 Rail Grinding predicted and unwanted. Examples include
Rail grinding to eliminate checks, spalls, and alignments in very close proximity to sensitive
undulation of the rail head reduces receivers of all types in areas with very soft
groundborne noise and vibration, provided soil. Controlling low-frequency vibration due
that the vehicle wheels are new or recently to rail undulation by controlling rail
trued. This applies especially to corrugated straightness is far less costly than the
rail track. Rail grinding to reduce ground installation of a floating slab track structure.
vibration at low frequencies must remove long Soft fasteners would provide no positive
wavelength roughness and corrugation, which benefit, and may even exacerbate low-
may require special grinders with long frequency vibration. Corrective rail grinding is
grinding bars or special controls. incapable of removing rail height undulation
over long wavelengths of 2 meters (6 feet) or
more. U.S. steel suppliers have not produced

9-26
 Noise and Vibration Control

rail with an adequate straightness 9.2.5.3.8 Resilient Wheels and Rail Head
specification. However, such rail is available Ball Radius
from European manufacturers, where high- Resilient wheels may provide some degree of
speed rail systems require strict adherence to vibration isolation above 20 to 50 Hz,
straightness limits. depending on elastomer stiffness. However,
light rail systems have experienced
substantial ground vibration from urethane
9.2.5.3.7 Vehicle Primary Suspension embedded track due to corrugation with
Design vehicles using resilient wheels mounted on
Vehicle primary suspension design is not part mono-motor trucks. Numerical modeling
of track design, but has a direct bearing on suggested that a vertical resonance exists in
wayside ground vibration amplitudes. the wheel and track system at a frequency
Selection of trackwork vibration isolation coincident with the corrugation frequency.
provisions should ideally be based on the type Other factors are likely relevant. More
of vehicle involved. In general, vehicles with research is required to further define the
soft primary suspensions produce lower levels cause of this type of corrugation and
of vibration than vehicles with stiff determine which, if any, track design
suspensions. Differences in suspension parameters may influence its generation.
characteristics may be sufficient to eliminate
the need for floating slab isolation at
otherwise critically sensitive locations. 9.2.5.3.9 Subgrade Treatment
Introduction of vehicles with stiff primary The vibration amplitude response of soil is,
suspensions relative to existing vehicles with roughly, inversely proportional to the stiffness
soft suspensions may introduce vibrations in of the soil. Therefore, stiff soils tend to vibrate
the lo- to 25Hz frequency region. less than soft soils. Grouting of soils or soil
Unfortunately, the track design is often stabilization with lime or cement is attractive
blamed. where very soft soils are encountered, such
as soft clays or sands. Unfortunately, large
The selection of chevron-type suspension volumes of soil would have to be treated; this
systems in lieu of stiff rubber journal bushing would probably not be attractive for vibration
suspension systems may provide sufficient control unless such treatment were necessary
vibration reduction to reduce the need for for structural support. Test data have not
other vibration isolation provisions in the been developed for predicting the
frequency range of about 16 to 31.5 Hz. Most performance of soil cement or lime
modern light rail transit vehicles in the U.S. stabilization of track subgrades. Grouting is
incorporate chevron primary suspension expected to have a significant though possibly
systems with low vertical stiffness, thus mixed effect on ground vibration. Grouting
reducing the demand on vibration isolation should increase the efficiency of vibration
elements in the track. However, a chevron propagation at high frequencies between track
suspension design is no guarantee of low and building structures, but reduce the
stiffness. If the vehicles have stiff primary vibration energy input into the soil at low
suspension systems, particular attention frequencies. Tests at one site indicated low
should be paid to low-frequency vibration levels of vibration for alluvial soils that had
control in track at the primary suspension been pressure grouted to prevent building
resonance frequency. settlement. Additional testing and evaluation
are necessary.

9-27
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

9.2.5.3.10 Special Trackwork 9.2.5.3.13 Pile-Supported Track

Turnouts and crossovers are sources of Piling used to reinforce a track support system
vibration. As the wheels traverse the frogs can be effective in reducing ground vibration
and joints, impact forces are produced that over a broad range of frequencies. An
cause vibration. Grinding the frog to maintain example would be a concrete slab track
contact with a properly profiled wheel can supported by piles or ballasted track on a
minimize impact forces at frogs. Spring frogs concrete trough supported by piles.
and movable point frogs are designed to Performance improvement is likely to be
maintain a continuous running surface. substantial if the piles can be extended to rock
Spring frogs are practical for low speed layers within about 20 meters (65 feet).
turnouts, while movable point frogs are more Standing wave resonances may occur in long
suited to high-speed turnouts. Refer to piles, so that there is a limit on the
Chapter 6 for additional discussion on frog effectiveness of piles in controlling audible
types. groundborne noise. Unfortunately, piles may
interfere with utilities and the cost of piling is
substantial. Piling may be attractive for civil
9.2.5.3.11 Distance reasons, however, and the added benefits of
The track should be located as far from vibration control can be realized with
sensitive structures as possible within a right- appropriate attention directed to design.
of-way. Where wide rights-of-way exist, there
may be some latitude in locating the track. A
shift of as little as 3 meters (10 feet) away 9.3 REFERENCES
from a sensitive structure may produce a
beneficial reduction of vibration. Avoid [ I] Journal of Sound and Vibration,
locating track close to sensitive structures Academic Press, Ltd., Published by
where sufficient right-of-way width exists to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London
alter the alignment.
[2] Nelson, J. T., Wheel/Rail Noise Control
Manual, TCRP Report 23, Wilson,
9.2.5.3.12 Trenching and Barriers lhrig & Associates, Inc., for TRB
Open trenches have been considered for National Research Council.
vibration reduction, but are of limited
effectiveness below 30 Hz for a depth of 7 [3] Nelson, J. T., H. J. Saurenman, G. P.
meters (20 feet) and even less for shallower Wilson, State-of-the-Art Review:
trenches. At higher frequencies, the vibration Prediction and Control of Ground-
reduction of a trench filled with Styrofoam may Borne Noise and Vibration from Rail
be as little as 3 to 6 dB. Concrete barriers Transit Trains, Final Report, Wilson,
embedded in the soil have also been lhrig 8 Associates, Inc., for US
considered. While they may interrupt surface Department of Transportation, Urban
wave propagation, their mass must be Mass Transit Administration, UMTA-
substantial to provide sufficient vibration MA-06-0049-83-4.
reduction. Detailed finite element modeling is
necessary in this case to predict performance.

9-28
 Noise and Vibration Control

[4] Saurenman, H. J., G. P. W&on, J. T. [I I] Remington, P. J., Wheel/Rail Roiling

Nelson, Handbook of Urban Rail Noise, What Do We Know, What
Noise and Vibration Control, Wilson, Don’t We Know, Where do We Go
lhrig & Associates, inc., for from Here, Journal of Sound and
USDOT/TSC, 1982, UMTA-MA-06 Vibration, Vol 120, No. 2, ~~203-226.
0099-82-I.
[12] Ver, I. L., C. S Ventres, and M M. Miles,
[5] Transit Noise and Vibration impact Wheel/Rail Noise - Part ill: impact
Assessment, for the U.S. Noise Generation by Wheel and Rail
Department of Transportation, Discontinuities, Journal of Sound
Federal Transit Administration, April and Vibration, Vol 46, No. 3, 1976,
1995. pp 395-417.

[6] IS0 2631, Mechanical Vibration and [I 31 Rudd, M J., Wheel/Rail Noise, -Part Ii:
Shock-Evaluation of Human Wheel Squeal, Journal of Sound and
Exposure to Whole-Body Vibration, Vibration, 46(3),1976. pg385
2”d Ed., International Organization
for Standardization (ISO), 1997 [14] Transit Noise and Vibration impact
Assessment, Harris, Miller, Miller &
[7] ANSI S3.29-1983, Guide to the Hanson, Inc., for the Federal Transit
Evaluation of Human Exposure to Administration, U.S. Department of
Vibration in Buildings, American Transportation, Washington, DC.
National Standards Institute, 1983 April 1995 DOT-T-95-16.
(See subsequent revisions)
[15] Crockett, A. R., and R. A. Carman, Finite
[8] ANSI S3.29-1983, Guide to the Element Analysis of Vibration Levels
Evaluation of Human Exposure to in Layered Soils Adjacent to
Vibration in Buildings, American Proposed Transit Tunnel Alignments,
National Standards Institute, 4 April Proceedings of Internoise 97,
1983. (This standard has been Budapest, Hungary, 25-27 August
recently revised.) 1997. Institute of Noise Control
Engineering.
[9] Remington, P. J., The Estimation and
Control of Rolling Noise Due to [16] Nelson, J. T., Prediction of Ground
Roughness, BBN Report No. 8801, Vibration Using Seismic Reflectivity
for ERRI Committee C 163,1994. Mefhods for a Porous Soil,
Proceedings of the IWRN 1998
[IO] Kalousek, J., and K. L. Johnson, An Conference, Isle de Embiez,
investigation of Short Pitch Wheel November 1998.
and Rail Corrugation on the
Vancouver Skytrain Mass Transit [17] Nelson, J. T., Recent Developments in
System, Proc. Institute Mechanical Ground-Borne Noise and Vibration
Engineers, Part F, Vol. 206 (F2), Control, Journal of Sound and
1992, pp. 127-135. Vibration, 193(l), pp.367-376, (1996)

9-29
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

1181 Nelson, J. T., and S. L. Wolfe, Kamloops [19] Nelson, J. T., Recent Developmen& in
Railroad Ground Vibration Data Ground-Borne Noise and Vibration
Analysis and Recommendations for Control, Journal of Sound and
Control, Technical Report, Wilson, Vibration, 193(l), 1996, p.373.
lhrig & Associates, Inc., for CN Rail.

9-30
Chapter I O-Transit Signal Work
Table of Contents

10.1 TRANSIT SIGNAL 10-I

10.1.1 General 1 o-1
10.1.2 Transit Signal System Design 1 o-2

10.2 SIGNAL EQUIPMENT 1 o-2

10.2.1 Switch Machines 1 o-2
10.2.1 .I General 10-2
10.2.1.2 Trackwork Requirements 1o-2
10.2.1.3 Types of Switch Machines 1o-3
10.2.1.3.1 Electric 1o-3
10.2.1.3.2 Electra-pneumatic I o-3
10.2.1.3.3 Hand-Operated 1 o-3
10.2.1.3.4 Yard 1 o-3
10.2.1.3.5 Embedded (Surface) IO-4
10.2.2 Impedance Bonds 10-4
10.2.2.1 General 10-4
10.2.2.2 Trackwork Requirements 10-4
10.2.2.3 Types of Impedance Bonds 10-4
10.2.3.3.1 Audio Frequency 10-4
10.2.3.3.2 Power Frequency 10-5
10.2.3 Loops and Transponders IO-5
10.2.3.1 General 1 o-5
10.2.3.2 Trackwork Requirements 1 o-5
10.2.3.3 Types of Loops and Transponders IO-5
10.2.3.3.1 Speed Command 1 o-5
10.2.3.3.2 Train Location 1 o-5
10.2.3.3.3 Traffic interface 1 o-5
10.2.3.3.4 Continuous Train Control Loop 1o-5
10.2.3.3.5 Transponders 1O-6
10.2.4 Wheel Detectors/Axle Counters IO-6
10.2.4.1 General IO-6
10.2.4.2 Trackwork Requirements 1 O-6
10.2.4.3 Types of Wheel Detectors/Axle Counters 10-6
10.25 Train Stops 10-6
10.251 General IO-6
10.2.5.2 Trackwork Requirements 10-6
10.2.5.3 Types Of Train Stops 1 o-7
10.2.5.3.1 Inductive 1 o-7
10.2.5.3.2 Electric IO-7
10.2.6 Switch Circuit Controller/Electric Lock 1 o-7
10.2.6.1 General 1 o-7
10.2.6.2 Trackwork Requirements 1 o-7
10.2.6.3 Types of Switch Circuit Controller/Electric Lock 1 o-7

1 O-i
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

10.2.6.3.1 Switch Circuit Controller 1o-7

10.2.6.3.2 Electric Lock 1o-7
10.2.7 Signals 1 O-8
10.2.7.1 General 1 O-8
10.2.7.2 Trackwork Requirements 1 O-8
10.2.7.3 Types of Signals -lO-8
10 2.8 Bootleg Risers/Junction Boxes 1 O-8
10.2.8.1 General 1O-8
10.2.8.2 Trackwork Requirements 1O-8
10.2.8.3 Types of Bootleg Risers/ Junction Boxes 1o-9
10.2.8.3.1 Junction Boxes 1 o-9
10.2.8.3.2 Bootleg Risers 1o-9
10.2.9 Switch and Train Stop Heaters/Snow Melters IO-9
10.2.9.1 General 1 o-9
10.2.9.2 Trackwork Requirements 1o-9
10.2.9.3 Types of Switch/Train Stop Snow Melters IO-9
10.2.10 Highway Crossing Warning Systems IO-10
10.2.10.1 General 10-10
10.2.10.2 Trackwork Requirements 10-10
10.2.10.3 Types of Highway Crossing Warning System IO-10
10.2.11 Signal and Power Bonding IO-10
10.2.11 .I General IO-IO
10.2.11.2 Trackwork Requirements 10-11
10.2.11.3 Types of Signal and Power Bonding IO-11

10.3 EXTERNAL WIRE AND CABLE IO-12

10.3.1 General IO-12
10.3.2 Trackwork Requirement 10-12
10.3.3 Types of External Wire and Cable Installations 10-12
10.3.3.1 Cable Trough 10-12
10.3.3.2 Duct Bank 10-12
10.3.3.3 Conduit 10-13
10.3.3.4 Direct Burial 10-13

10.4 SIGNAL INTERFACE IO-13

10.4.1 Signal-Trackwork Interface IO-13
10.4.2 Signal-Station Interface 1 o-14
10.4.3 Signal-Turnout/Interlocking Interface 10-14

10.5 CORROSION CONTROL IO-14

10.6 SIGNAL TESTS IO-15

10.6.1 Switch Machine Wring and Adjustment Tests IO-15
10.6.2 Switch Machine Appurtenance Test IO-15
10.6.3 Insulated Joint Test 10-15
10.6.4 Impedance Bonding Resistance Test 10-15
10.65 Negative Return Bonding Test IO-15

10.7 SUMMARY IO-15

1O-ii
CHAPTER IO-TRANSIT SIGNAL WORK

10.1 TRANSIT SIGNAL detectors, induction couplers, or other

non-vital devices to improve speed by
10.1 .I General eliminating intersection delays

Street-running light rail systems can be Power operation of track switch facing
operated without signals only at low speeds. points: power on/off switches, time
Train operators must obey the local traffic sequences, induction couplers, or other
laws and yield the right-of-way (ROW) to non-vital devices are used to improve
traffic on the tracks. In higher speed LRV speed by eliminating stops to throw
operations on exclusive rights-of-way, trains switches, thereby allowing trains to keep
use signal systems to avoid collisions with moving
other trains and with street vehicles crossing Block supervision (single track, low-speed
the tracks. operation): similar to preemptive devices,
allows an opposing train to advance
The principles of light rail transit signaling are without incurring schedule delay if
similar to railroad main line signaling in possible
providing for the safe movement of trains.
The track is divided into segments called Block and switch protection: basic
blocks. Signals keep two trains from railroad signaling technology employing
occupying the same block at the same time wayside signals, sometimes in
and generally keep an empty block between conjunction with mechanical or inductive
trains that are travelling at the posted speed. train stops, to provide safe operation
Track circuits detect trains in a block. Block (newer light transit systems have
systems ensure train separation with safe employed cab signals with or without train
stopping distance. Interlocked switches and stops for continuous speed control)
crossovers protect against conflicting routes Grade crossing warning: based on
and improper switch operation. Transit railroad signaling technology, gates and
signaling also provides block supervision as flashers eliminate slow downs to
required for street operation, warning of determine if grade crossings are clear;
approaching trains at grade crossings and generally recognized as the most effective
supervising coordination with proximate type of crossing warning system, allowing
vehicle traffic schemes as required for system improved LRV operating speed
performance and safety.
The choice of which system is most
Typically, there are six light rail transit appropriate for a specific section of track is
signaling designs: based on operational and political
l No signaling at all: the system operates considerations. A light rail system may utilize
with fixed-guideway vehicles in a free- different signal technologies at different
wheeled community with no resultant locations based on these concerns. A street-
speed advantage over bus operation running operation with slow speed requires
l No signaling except to provide preferential different controls than a high-speed operation
access over cross traffic: the LRV uses on an exclusive ROW.
signal preemption devices such as
overhead wire contractors, wheel

1o-1
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

The appropriate level of signal automation 10.2 SIGNAL EQUIPMENT

varies by transit systems. The optimum
cost/benefit ratio depends on local 10.2.1 Switch Machines
circumstances and is determined by the
authority responsible for providing the service. 10.2.1 .I General
These various types of signaling have little Track switches can be operated by hand or by
impact on the track designer, but the power. When time and convenience are
interfaces are important. Design differences important, automated switch machines are
in light rail systems are primarily related to advantageous. Switch machines may be
their operating environments. controlled from a central control facility or by
the vehicle operator.

10.1.2 Transit Signal System Design Switch machines are used on main lines,
interlockings, and yards. Switch machines
The system designer is obliged to consider can operate a switch, derail, or wheel stop.
the signaling technology available to provide The type of switch machine selected is
the desired system operating performance at dependent on operating parameters,
the least total cost. Within the scope of light clearances, and the type of track installation-
rail transit applications, a well-established timber or concrete switch ties or direct fixation
catalogue of proven technology is available. track.

Transit signal system design must consider

not only what technology is available, but also 10.2.1.2 Trackwork Requirements
the most rational combination of equipment for Switch machines in ballasted track rest on
a particular application. Signal systems are headblock switch ties and interface with
customized or specified by each transit turnouts through operating and switch rods.
system to provide safe operation at an This interface is often complicated, particularly
enhanced speed. The location of signal block in direct fixation (DF) or embedded track,
boundaries is based on headway where blockouts in the concrete must be
requirements and other considerations such provided for proper clearance. The following
as locations of station stops, highway elements associated with track and structure
crossings, and special interlocking operating design should be considered when designing
requirements. turnout switch machines:
l Size of turnout or crossover
Selection and spacing of track circuits for ac l Number of head ties
and dc propulsion systems are influenced by l Size, height, width, and length of head tie
many factors. These include: the degree of l Type of number one rod-vertical or
defective insulated rail joint detection or horizontal
broken rail protection required, the likelihood l Thickness of number one rod
of stray current, the frequency of interfering l Type of basket on number one rod
sources of power (propulsion and cab l Distance from centerline of switch
signaling), and the inherent advantages of machine to gauge line of the nearest rail
various types of track circuits. l Types of tie plate for number one and two
ties

1 o-2
 Transit Signal Work

Tie or mounting spacing between switch switch machines are usually installed adjacent
machine rods to the normally closed point of the switch.
Type of derail or wheel stop
Location of mounting of switch machine to
70.2.7.3.2 Nectro-pneumatic
ties or surface
Electra-pneumatic switch machines require a
insulation of trackwork switch, basket, and
reliable source of compressed air. While this
tie plate
is economical for heavy rail transit, which
Distance to throw of the switch machine
features short block lengths and frequent
Location of extension plate mounting
interlockings, the economics on light rail lines
holes and interface plate
usually make air power switches too costly.
Lubrication of switch plate and track
layout
10.2.1.3.3 Hand-Operated
Hand-operated switch machines are typically
10.2.1.3 Types of Switch Machines
used where facing-point lock protection is
10.2.1.3.1 Electric required to help safeguard the movement of
Electric switch machines are common for light high-speed main line traffic over a switch.
rail operations because of the ready These switch machines contain a locking bar
availability of electric power throughout the that, with the switch in the normal position,
system. Electric switch machines are rugged, enters a notch in the lock rod. This
reliable units designed for any installation arrangement locks the switch points in their
where electric power is available. Electric normal position to provide facing-point lock
switch machines may be used in main line, protection.
interlocking, and yard service. For
installations in which extra vertical clearance 10.2.1.3.4 Yard
is needed for a third-rail shoe, a low-profile Yard electric switch machines are simple and
electric switch machine can be used. Electric compact machines designed for transit yard
switch machines are available in a variety of application. For installation in tight spaces,
operating speeds and motor voltages. the low-profile yard electric switch is available
with external switch indicator lights. Unlike
Switch machines are usually specified to meet
many main line switch machines, some yard
the requirements of AAR Load Curve 14511,
electric switch machines can handle trailing
providing ample thrust to operate the heaviest
moves at maximum yard speeds up to 32.2
of switches. Electric switch machines are
kilometers per hour (20 miles per hour). The
normally provided with one throw rod, one
yard switch machine can be used in either
lock rod and one point detector rod connected
horizontal or vertical No. 1 rod switch layouts.
to the rails. They are also available with two
If point detection is required, an additional
lock rods and two detector rods. The track
circuit controller can be installed. Built to fit
designer and signal designer must coordinate
practically any yard switch, this machine can
to ensure the specifications provide these
be adjusted for throw, from 114 millimeters
critical elements. Gauge plate extensions can
(4.5 inches) up to a full 140 millimeters (5.5
be supplied that attach the switch machine to
inches).
the track switch to aid in holding the
adjustments of the switch machine. Electric

1 o-3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Electra-pneumatic switch machines are also flow around the insulated joints while inhibiting
available for yard application, and a the flow of signal current between adjacent
compressed air plant at the yard or track circuits. Audio frequency track circuits
maintenance facility may make them are separated from each other by using a
economical. different frequency in each circuit; as such
they do not normally require insulated joints to
isolate the track circuits. Insulated joints are
10.2.1.3.5 Embedded (S&ace)
used with audio frequency track circuits when
Embedded (surface) switch machines are a true definition is needed, such as at signal
designed to throw all tongue and mate, locations. The stagger between insulated
double-tongue, or flexible switches with a joints should be 610 millimeters (2 feet) or
maximum switch throw of 114 millimeters (4.5 less for transit signaling to reduce the amount
inches). The embedded switch machine is of cable needed as well as the unbalance in
installed between the rails (preferred) or on the current in the rails associated with
the outside of the switch tongue on a paved impedance bonds.
street. Embedded switch machines can be
powered from available 600 to 750 Vdc or
from an ac source through a transformer and 10.2.2.2 Trackwork Requirements
bridge rectifier unit. The switch tongue can be The following elements associated with track
trailed without damage to the embedded and structure design should be considered
switch machine and can be thrown manually when designing impedance bonds:
in an emergency. l Tie spacing for signal equipment
l Location of tie or direct fixation mounting
Drainage of switches and switch machines is holes for signal equipment
critical. The embedded switch machine track l Location of impedance bond, either
box should be drained to a nearby storm pipe, between or outside the rails
because an undrained box collects a mixture l Location of guard and restraining rails
of sand, water, salt, etc., that increases wear l Location and spacing of insulated joints
on moving parts and prevents their proper l Space for cables and conduit to pass
lubrication. Normally a copper bond wire is beneath the rail
installed between the box and rail to complete l Conduit and cable location for signal
the circuit. This can be omitted if the power equipment
source is a rectifier. Where circuit controllers
are used, either one or two conduits are
required to accommodate the cables. A 10.2.2.3 Types of Impedance Bonds
cleanout box is installed to provide access to
10.2.3.3.1 Audio Frequency
connecting rod adjusting nuts if they extend
beyond the switch. Audio frequency impedance bonds are
designed to terminate each end of audio
frequency track circuits in transit installations.
10.2.2 Impedance Bonds
The impedance bonds provide:
10.2.2.1 General 0 Low resistance for equalizing propulsion
Impedance bonds are necessary when current in the rails
insulated track joints are used to electrically l Means of cross bonding between tracks
isolate track circuits from each other. The 0 Connection for negative return
impedance bonds permit propulsion current to

IO-4
 Transit Signal Work

l Means of coupling the track circuit
transmitter and receiver to the rails
l Means of coupling cab signal energy to
the rails
l Means of inhibiting the transmission of
other frequencies along the rail
10.2.3.3.2 Power Frequency
Power frequency bonds are designed for use
in ac or dc propulsion systems that use
insulated joints to isolate track circuit signaling
current from signaling currents of adjacent
circuits, but permit propulsion current to flow
around the joints to or from adjacent track
circuits. AC impedance bonds are usually
rated for 300 amps per rail and dc impedance
bonds are usually rated for between 1,000
and 2,500 amps per rail. Typically, power
frequency impedance bonds are installed in
pairs at insulated joint locations and mounted
between the rails across two adjacent ties.
l Attaching the loop or transponder to the
rail
l Tie spacing and mounting method for loop
or transponder
l Cable and conduit location for signal
equipment
l Block out area for loop or transponder and
junction box
10.2.3.3 Types of Loops and Transponders
10.2.3.3.1 Speed Command
Speed command loops are used to provide a
means for coupling cab signal energy to the
rails. Typically, speed command inductive
loops are installed with or without rubber
hoses within the turnout diverging track. They
may be attached to the tie or concrete, or
clipped to the rail. The rubber hose with wire
inside is installed near the inside of the rail at
interlockings and turnout switches. These
loops provide isolation from the track circuits.

10.2.3 Loops and Transponders

10.2.3.3.2 Train Location
10.2.3.1 General Train location loops are designed to provide
Loops and transponders are used to transmit more precise definition of a train’s location
information to the train independent of track and two-way train/wayside communication. A
circuits. They may be found in all types of wire loop installed between the rails and on
trackwork and can be used for intermittent ties links the train to the rails. The horizontal
transmission or continuous control systems. loop of the wire is directly mounted or placed
In determining the type or location of loops or in a heavy polyvinyl chloride (PVC), epoxy, or
transponders to be used for a light rail transit fiberglass (FRE) conduit that may also be
system, consideration should be given to the encased in pavement.
operation plan, type of track circuits,
propulsion system, and train control system
10.2.3.3.3 Traffic Interface
that is installed.
Loops or transponders can be used to pre-
empt traffic signals or provide phasing
10.2.3.2 Trackwork Requirements command and release of traffic control
The following elements associated with track devices.
and structure design should be considered
when designing loops or transponders: 10.2.3.3.4 Continuous Train Control Loop
l Location of loop or transponder inside or Typically loops between stations are
outside the rail transposed at regular intervals. This provides
a signal to the on-board equipment that can

1 o-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

be used to recalibrate an on-board odometer. 10.2.4.3 Types of Wheel Detectors/Axle

In station areas, short loops may be provided
for accurate station stopping purposes.
10.2.3.3.5 Transponders
Transponders are designed to transfer data to
the vehicle or wayside equipment.
Transponders or antennae may be mounted
overhead, on the wayside, or embedded
between the rails.
10.2.4 Wheel Detectors/Axle Counters
10.2.4.1 General
Wheel detectors and axle counters are used
to detect trains without relying on a track
circuit. Since they do not require insulated
joints, they cause less interference with
traction return current than detection devices
that depend on electrical signals in the rails.
When used without track circuits or cab
signaling within the rails, they eliminate the
need for insulating switch rods. However,
they are unable to detect broken rails. In
selecting the type and model of wheel
detector/axle counter, consideration should be
given to the operation and mounting method
used.
10.2.4.2 Trackwork Requirements
The following elements associated with track
and structure design should be considered
when designing wheel detectors/axle
counters:
l Type and size of rail
l Mounting hole size
l Conduit and cable location
l Rail grinding
l Maintenance
. Block out requirements or
requirement
Counters
The wheel detector/axle counter unit consists
of a detector head or mechanical detector
arm, mounting hardware, logic board, and
interconnecting cabling. Wheel detectors and
axle counters are mounted with clamps that
attach to the base of the rail or are bolted
directly to the web. The wheel detectors/axle
counters are activated when a vehicle passes.
The magnetic wheel detector/axle counter is
independent of the wheel load and subjected
to almost no wear, since there is no
mechanical interaction between the detector
and vehicle wheels.
10.2.5 Train Stops
10.2.5.1 General
Train stops trip the train’s braking mechanism
if a restrictive cab signal aspect or signal is
ignored. They can be inductive units or
electrically-driven mechanical units. In
designing train stops, consideration should be
given to the location of vehicle equipment,
type of trackbed, operation (directional or bi-
directional), relationship to wayside signal
layouts, and location of the train stop
elements. Train stops are used in exclusive
ROWS and are not conducive to street-
running applications.
10.252 Trackwork Requirements
The following elements associated with track
and structure design should be considered
when designing train stops:
l Type of track-ballasted, direct fixation, or
dual block
l Tie spacing
l Type of tie-timber or concrete
box
l Location of train stop
l Conduit and cable location
l Relationship to signals, insulated joints,
and impedance bonds

1O-6
 Transit Signal Work

10.253 Types Of Train Stops protects vehicles by ensuring that the switch
points are closed.
10.2.5.3.1 Inductive
Inductive train stops are designed with a
magnetic system that interacts with carborne 10.2.6.2 Trackwork Requirements
vehicle control equipment. Both the vehicle The following elements associated with track
magnet and the track magnet need to be and structure design should be considered
strategically mounted on the vehicle and track, when designing wheel switch circuit
respectively. controller/electric locks:
Type of track bed-ballasted, direct
fixation, or dual block
10.2.5.3.2 Electric
Type of tie-timber or concrete
The key component of the electric train stop is
Length of tie
the driving arm, which is pulled to the clear
Left or right hand layout
position 12 millimeters (0.5 inches) below the
Type of hand-operated switch machine or
top of the running rail by the electric motor
derail
and returned to its tripping position by a
Number and location of connection lugs
spring. Electric train stops are usually
on derail
mounted on plates midway between two rails.
Location of conduit and cable

10.2.6 Switch Circuit Controller/Electric

Lock
10.2.6.1 General
A switch circuit controller is a mechanism that
provides an open or closed circuit indication
for a two-position track appliance, such as a
switch point. A mechanical linkage to the
crank arm of the controller actuates its
normal/reverse contacts. The switch circuit
controller provides break-before-make
contacts that allow separate adjustments at
each end of the stroke. Commonly used to
detect switch positions, the switch circuit
controller can be used to detect positions of
derails, bridge locks, slide detectors, and
tunnel doors. They can shunt track circuits as
well as control relay circuits. Electric switch
locks prevent unauthorized operation of switch
stands, hand-throw switch machines, derails,
and other devices. In determining the rods
and type of switch circuit controller/electric
locks, consideration should be given to
operation, type of switch or derail, mounting,
and clearances. The switch circuit also
10.2.6.3 Types of Switch Circuit
Controller/Electric Lock
10.2.6.3.1 Switch Circuit Controller
A switch circuit controller is a ruggedly
constructed unit commonly used with switches
to detect the position of switch point rails. The
switch circuit controller has a low clearance
profile and is mounted on a single tie.
10.2.6.3.2 Electric Lock
An electric switch lock operates by a means of
a plunger that is lowered into a hole in the lock
rod connected to switch points, derails, or
other devices. Some electric switch locks are
designed for low-profile application to locking
levers located between the rails at the middle
of hand-operated crossovers, where
clearance is limited to 280 millimeters (11
inches). Another electric switch lock secures
the hand-throw lever on a switch stand or
switch machine in the normal position.

1 o-7
Light Rail Track Design Handbook
10.2.7 Signals
70.2.7.1 General
Wayside track signals are usually light fixtures
mounted on poles or at ground level (dwarf
signals) next to switches. One installation
even uses airport runway lights mounted
between the rails. Several variations of color-
light signals with various indications are
currently in use on light rail systems. In
determining the type and configuration of
wayside signals to be used, consideration
should be given to operation, clearances,
signal layout, track layout, right-of-way, and
insulated joint locations.
10.2.7.2 Trackwork Requirements
The following elements associated with track
and structure design should be considered
when designing signal mast installations:
l Insulated joint locations
l Right-of-way clearances
l Conduit and cable location
l Vehicle clearances
l Stopping distances
10.2.7.3 Types of Signals
Long-range color-light signals consist of one
or more light units with a 213-millimeter (8.4-
inch) outer lens for high signals and a 162-
millimeter (6.4-inch) lens for dwarf (low)
signals. These high and dwarf signals have
lenses for both tangent and curved tracks.
The dwarf signals are designed for direct
mounting on a ground-level pad such as a
concrete foundation. The main line high
signals have backgrounds, hoods, pipe posts,
ladders, pole mounting brackets, and
foundations.
Transit color-light signals are compact units
designed for lines where clearances are very
limited. A 127-millimeter @-inch) lens signal
1 O-8
is typically used in subway installations where
space is limited, while a 162-millimeter (6.4-
inch) signal is used for outdoor service.
Transit signals are supplied with brackets for
mounting on subway walls, ceilings, or poles.
Signals are normally installed on the train
operators side of the tracks with adequate
horizontal/vehicle clearance from gauge of
rail. Where insulated joints are used, the
signal is typically located between the two
insulated joints in double-rail territory. The
signal can be moved ahead of the insulated
joints to a distance no greater than the
overhang of the vehicle.
10.2.8 Bootleg Risers/Junction Boxes
10.2.8.1 General
Bootleg risers/junction boxes provide a central
termination point for signal cables. Bootleg
risers/junction boxes come in a variety of
sizes, with or without pedestals, and are
constructed of cast iron or steel. Based on
the application of the bootleg risers/junction
boxes, the location can be in the center of
tracks, outside or inside the gauge side of the
running rail, outside the end of tie, outside the
toe of ballast, or next to the switch machine or
other signal appliance. In selecting the type
and size of bootleg risers/junction boxes,
consideration should be given to the type of
trackbed, cable, signal equipment, and
mounting method used.
10.2.8.2 Trackwork Requirements
When designing bootleg risers/junction boxes,
the following elements associated with track
and structure design should be considered:
l Conduit and cable location
0 Type of trackbed-ballast, direct fixation,
or dual block
l Tie spacing
l Maintenance

10.2.8.3 Types of Bootleg Risers/Junction
Boxes
10.2X3.1 Junction Boxes
Pedestal-mounted junction boxes are typically
used in ballasted track at switch machines,
switch circuit controllers, track circuit
locations, etc. as a central termination point
for underground cables. A variety of adapter
plates allow the junction box to be used with
air hose adapters and connectors.
70.2.8.3.2 Bootleg Risers
Bootleg risers are designed as a termination
point between the underground cable and the
track wire to the rail or signal device. They
are available with a bottom outlet, as well as
side and bottom cable outlets. A typical
bootleg riser installation would locate the riser
box in the center of the track with the top
slightly below the top of ties.
10.2.9 Switch and Train Stop
Heaters/Snow Melters
10.2.9.1 General
Switch and train stop heating systems are
designed to keep rail switches, switch rods
and tongues, and train stop arms free of ice
and snow in a predictable and reliable fashion.
In designing the heating system, consideration
should be given to the type of power available,
type of trackwork, type of track bed, operation,
type of train stop, type of switch machine, and
mounting method used.
10.2.9.2 Trackwork Requirements
When designing switch heaters and snow
melters, the following elements associated
with track and structure design should be
considered:
0 Size of turnout or crossover
l Type of switch point -curved or straight
l Maintenance
1o-9
Transit Sitmal Work
l Type of rail brace with notch, if required
l Conduit and cable location
l Junction box(es) location(s)
l Length of switch point
l Number of switch rods
of trackbed-ballasted, direct
l Type
fixation, or dual block
10.2.9.3 Types of Switch/Train Stop Snow
Melters
There are several snow melter systems
commonly used in the transit industry. The
most popular system features tubular resistor
electric snow melters that can be installed on
either the field side or gauge side and either at
the underside of the rail head or at the base of
the rail. For gauge side installation, holes are
drilled in the neutral axis of the rail using a
clearance drill for heater support clips with lo-
millimeter (0.4-inch) bolts. For field side
installation, snap-on clamps are used (no
drilling is necessary). Tubular electric snow
melters mounted on the field side and base of
the rail require the special trackwork rail brace
to be notched for passage of the snow melter.
The rail web heater can also be used to
prevent switches from freezing. The rail web
heater is a low-density panel that spans the
rail web. It consumes 20 to 40 percent less
power than a tubular heater installation Rail
web heaters are interconnected to provide
more heat to the point and snapped into place
using rugged clips and a special clip tool. No
braces need to be loosened or grooved to
allow installation, which provides for easy
removal in the spring prior to track
maintenance or repair.
Power is supplied to electric snow melters
from the overhead catenary through a snow
melter control cabinet or case.
Switch rod heaters are used to melt snow and
ice away from switch rods. These switch rod
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

heaters are installed in the bottom of the crib 10.2.10.2 Trackwork Requirements
where the switch rods are located. They When designing highway crossing warning
consist of a steel channel or panel with tubular systems, the following elements associated
electric heaters or a series of heating with track and structure design should be
elements attached. The tubular electric considered:
heater can be mounted on a swing bracket l Location of insulated joints (if required)
that clamps to the base of the rail on the field l Location of crossing slabs
side and is adjustable for all sizes of rails. l Minimum ballast resistance
l Tie spacing
Train stop mechanisms can be furnished with l Right-of-way clearance to highway
hairpin-shaped heaters or heating panels. crossing equipment
l Conduit and cable location
Other types of snow melting systems include: l Insulation of running rails from each other
oil, natural gas, or an electric high-pressure if a track circuit is used for the warning
heating unit that forces hot air throughout the system
switch area via ducts and nozzles. An
alternate snow blower arrangement uses
ambient non-heated air to blow snow clear of 10.2.10.3 Types of Highway Crossing
the switch point areas. Warning System
A typical highway crossing may consist of
flashing light units, gate mechanisms with
10.2.10 Highway Crossing Warning arms up to 12 meters (40 feet) long, poles,
Systems foundations, cantilever assemblies, cables,
case or signal houses, junction boxes, and
10.2.10.1 General
track circuits with island circuits.
Highway crossing warning systems provide
indications to motorists that a light rail vehicle
is approaching the crossing. In determining 10.2.11 Signal and Power Bonding
the type and configuration of the highway
crossing warning system consideration should 10.2.11 .I General
be given to LRV operations, type of track Signal and power bonding is used to establish
circuit, roadway layout and posted speeds, electrical continuity and conductive capacity
traffic signal(s) location, right-of-way, and for traction power return and signal track
clearances. The challenge of fail-safe circuits. It prevents the accumulation of static
crossing protection is to protect the LRV and charges that could produce electromagnetic
highway traffic without closing the crossing interference or constitute a shock hazard to
gates for extended periods of time. The track maintenance personnel. It also provides
federal Manual of Uniform Traffic Control a homogeneous and stable ground plane, as
Devices is being updated to include well as a fault current return path.
recommendations for light rail vehicle
operations. Power bonding is typically installed at all non-
insulated rail joints, frogs, restraining rails,
Crossing gate installations should be guard rails, and special trackwork locations.
interconnected with the traffic signals within Power bonding of the restraining rails requires
60 meters (200 feet) of the highway grade special attention to avoiding run around paths
crossing. that can falsely energize the track circuit.

IO-10
 Transit Sicmal Work

There are basically two types of rail
connections used in the transit industry:
mechanical and exothermic welding.
determining the type and the amount of signal
and power bonding, consideration should be
given to type of track circuits, capacity of the
traction power equipment, type of rail, vehicle
wheels, and the amount of broken rail
detected.
10.2.11.2 Trackwork Requirements
The following interface elements associated
with track and structure design should be
considered when designing signal and power
bonding:
Type and size of rail
Spaces for bonding to be installed
Space for signal and power bond passing
beneath the rail
Type of track bed-ballasted, direct
fixation, or dual block
Location of rail joints, insulated or non-
insulated
Location of guard and restraining rail
Signal cable connection to rail in special
trackwork
10.2.11.3 Types of Signal and Power
Bonding
Impedance bond leads are factory made to
system specifications and impedance bond
type for ease of installation, eliminating a
typically cumbersome field application. One
method of connecting cables to rails is via
plug bonds. This method involves drilling a
hole in the rail and hammering the plug into
the hole. Exothermic welding, on the other
hand, generates molten copper to create a
solid bond between the cable and rail or
between cables. Advantages of exothermic
welding vs. plug bonds for connecting signal
and power bonding include:
l The installation resistance of a length of
exothermic weld bond is less than other
types of bonds of the same length and
cable stranding. Resistance will not
In change throughout the life of the bond.
There is no corrosion between an
exothermic weld bond and the rail.
Intermittent signal failures due to the
varying resistance of a corroded rail joint
will be eliminated.
Bond losses caused by dragging
equipment, reballasting, and snowplows
are reduced.
Vehicular traffic will not loosen a properly
installed exothermic weld bond.
Rail head signal bonds that are applied
within 125 millimeters (5 inches) of the
end of rail (per AAR Part 8.1.20. E.2.c)
provide better detection of broken rail than
plug bonds that are applied outside of the
splice bars.
Rail web bonds from 14 to 250 square
millimeters (0.2 to 0.4 square inches)
provide a convenient means of connecting
all cable outside the confines of the splice
bar, including special trackwork. Located
at the neutral axis, the connection is less
susceptible to vibration fatigue and is kept
clear of dragging equipment and
maintenance machinery.
The exothermic weld process provides an
efficient field method for any electrical
connection from signal and power to
ground.
The exothermic weld normally outlives the
conductor itself.
Advantages of plug bonds vs. exothermic
welding for connecting signal and power
bonding include:
l The rail connector clamp can connect
cables from 250 to 1000 square
millimeters (0.4 to 1.6 square inches) to
the running rails.

IO-11
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

Mechanical connectors such as plug 10.3.3 Types of External Wire and Cable
bonds provide a rail connection without Installations
the risk of overheating the rail steel.
10.3.3.1 Cable Trough
Rail connection can be easily relocated or
A cable trough system is a surface trench that
temporarily removed without grinding the
protects and provides continuous accessibility
rail or chopping the connection.
to the signal cables. When installed within the
Splice bar to rail web bonds may be used track gauge between two ties, care must be
to detect a break in the splice bar itself. taken in track tamping. Signal cables can exit
and enter the cable trough system either from
Where signal bonds cannot be installed
the bottom or sides.
from the field side due to tight areas, such
as frogs and switches, a multi-purpose
The typical cable trough installation requires a
bond can be used by drilling through the
trench of minimum width to provide free
rail web.
access to both sides of the trough while
maintaining 200 millimeters (8 inches) of
10.3 EXTERNAL WIRE AND CABLE ballast and sub-ballast below the trough. The
maximum particle size should not exceed 19
10.3.1 General millimeters (0.75 inches). Fill material should
not be placed on frozen ground and should be
Various types of cable and methods of tamped. The cable trough should be placed
installation are required for transit signal so that the uppermost part is 25 millimeters (1
systems. Main cables are those cables that inch) higher than the surrounding ground or
run between housings or that contain ballast surface.
conductors for more than one system function.
Local distribution cables are those cables The cable trough should be capable of
running between a housing and an individual supporting an H-20 load at any point.
unit of equipment. In selecting the method of
installation of external wire and cable,
10.3.3.2 Duct Bank
consideration should be given to cost,
The underground duct system should be
maintenance, and type of right-of-way.
completely encased in concrete with a
minimum clearance of 50 millimeters (2
IO.32 Trackwork Requirement inches) between conduits and the outside
edge and a minimum cover of 300 millimeters
When determining the location of external wire (12 inches) for non-metallic conduits and 150
and cable the following should be considered: millimeters (6 inches) for rigid metal conduits.
l Conduit and cable location If a non-metallic conduit is not encased in
l Maintenance of trackwork concrete, allow 460 millimeters (18 inches) of
l Drainage separation for signal cables carrying 0 to 600
l Locations of pull boxes, handholes, volts. For cables carrying over 600 volts, non-
manholes, duct banks, etc. shielded cables should be installed in rigid
l Compaction of soil and subballast metal conduits with a minimum cover of 150
l Location of cable trough millimeters (6 inches) . For cables carrying
l Visual impact over 600 volts in rigid non-metallic conduits,
the conduit should be encased in no less than

10-12
 Transit Signal Work

75 millimeters (3 inches) of concrete, or have Where direct burial signal wires cross the
450 millimeters (18 inches) of cover if not tracks, it is beneficial to install the wiring prior
encased in concrete. Cables are connected to the tracks. This improves the integrity of
to the duct bank systems using handholes, the track structure, but complicates signal
pull boxes, and manholes for proper pulling installation.
points or cable routing. A minimum cover of
760 millimeters (30 inches) is recommended Signal cables can be plowed in at a depth of
for protection (per AAR Part 10.4.40.D.2) 760 millimeters (30 inches) and 300
when signal cables pass under tracks, ballast, millimeters (12 inches) beyond the toe of sub-
or a roadway. ballast. Avoiding the track ballast and sub-
ballast is important to maintain the structural
One of the common problems in constructing integrity of the track.
light rail systems is the protection of duct
banks while the track is being installed. It is
important that the responsibility for the care of 10.4 SIGNAL INTERFACE
duct bank risers be assigned in the contract
10.4.1 Signal-Trackwork Interface
documents.
Signaling and trackwork interface issues
10.3.3.3 Conduit include:
Encased or direct burlal conduit should be Location of insulation joints
installed as outlined above or as required by Location and mounting requirements for
the National Electric Code, Article 300-5 and impedance bonds, train stops, track
1110-4(b). transformers, junction boxes, and bootleg
risers

10.3.3.4 Direct Burial Physical connection of impedance bond

Signal cable and wire should be buried to a track cables and track circuit wiring
uniform depth where practicable, but not less Location and mounting layout of track
than 760 millimeters (30 inches) below switch operating mechanisms, switch
finished grade. Where signal cable and wire machine surface and subsurface areas
is installed within 3 meters (10 feet) of the (ballast, direct fixation, and embedded)
centerline of any track, the top of the cable
should be a minimum of 760 millimeters (30 Cable and conduit requirements for
inches) below the sub-ballast grade. interconnection of signal apparatus at
track
Signal cables and wires should be laid loosely Location and installation of train stops,
in the trench on a sand bed a minimum of 100 inductive loops, transponders, wheel
millimeters (4 inches) thick and covered with a detectors, and axle counters
minimum of 100 millimeters (4 inches) of sand
before backfilling. Backfill should be Interface pick-up with the traffic signal
compacted to not less than 95% of the system
maximum dry density of the respective Location of block outs for wayside signal
materials as determined by AASHTO Test equipment
Designation T-99 or to the original density of
Electromagnetic interference/ electromag-
compaction of the area, whichever is greater.
netic compatibility (EMVEMC)

IO-13
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

. Track alignments with cab speeds 10.4.2 Signal-Station interface

. Grounding The following signal equipment is typically
. Yard signaling installed at station locations: impedance
bonds, inductive loops, bootleg risers, junction
. Grade crossing warning systems
boxes, and transponders. If the station is
. Wayside equipment housings and cases located near an interlocking or highway
. Corrosion control crossing, there should be sufficient room from
the end of platform to the signal equipment
. Tie spacing for signal control equipment, (impedance bonds and signals) and insulated
impedance bonds, train stops, and joints if required.
switches
. Tie size and length requirements for
10.4.3 Signal-Turnout/Interlocking
switches and derails
Interface
. Signal cable connection to rail at special
trackwork The following signal equipment is typically
located at turnouts and interlockings: switch
. Suitable air gap between vehicle
machines; impedance bonds; inductive loops
antenna/transponder and rails
including speed command loops; train stops;
. Physical connection of switch machines to bootleg risers; junction boxes; switch
special trackwork controllers; electric locks; transponders; wire
. Loop or transponder mounting on track for and cables; signal and power bonding;
train-to-wayside communication cases/signal equipment houses; signals; and
snow melter systems. The design of the track
. Location of insulated joints circuit and fouling protection used will
. Spaces for cables and conduit passing determine the location of insulated joints in the
beneath the rail special trackwork. Typically in transit
applications, the insulated joint should be
. Location of guard and restraining rail
located approximately 7 to 7.6 meters (23 to
. Horizontal clearance between track and 25 feet) ahead of the switch points to allow for
wayside signals and equipment the use of track. The size of the turnouts and
crossovers determines the speed at which the
. Vertical clearance between track and
train can operate. This speed should be one
signal equipment
of the available cab speeds. The insulted joint
. Space and drainage for switch machine in for the turnout must be located with a
direct fixation or embedded track minimum of clearance taking into account the
. Provision for installation of snow melters longest overhang of any equipment that may
operate on the track.
. Location of switch indicators for
embedded track
10.5 CORROSION CONTROL
. Location of cross bonding and negative
return cables Leakage of stray currents into the ballast bed
* Location of speed limits and earth can be a significant problem if the
cables running from the rails are electrically
. Ballast resistance
connected to the impedance bond housing

IO-14
 Transit Signal Work

case and the case is in contact with the earth.
This can occur if the cases are mounted on
reinforced concrete where the mounting bolts
contact the re-bar, if the bottom of the case is
resting on concrete, or if dirt and debris
accumulate between the bottom of the case
and the concrete. An accumulation of ballast,
dirt, or other debris around the locations
where the cases are installed along the right-
of-way can also provide a path for current
leakage. This type of installation can result in
a continuous maintenance problem if an
effectively high rail-to-earth resistance is to be
achieved.
Some impedance bonds are located outside
the tracks on timber ties to eliminate points of
possible contact with earth. The center taps
of the impedance bonds should be insulated
from the mounting case.
Yard tracks should be isolated from the main
line tracks to reduce corrosion. For additional
information on corrosion control, refer to
Chapter 8.
l Center insulation of the front rod
l Front rod to switch point
l No. 1 vertical or horizontal switch rod
center insulation
l Throw rod insulated from No. 1 switch rod
l Point detector piece insulated from switch
point
l Lock rod insulated from front rod
l Other vertical rods as required per layout
l Switch machine insulated from the
running rails
10.6.3 insulated Joint Test
Insulated joint tests measure the resistance
between two ends of the rail separated by
insulating material. An insulated joint checker
requires the traction power system to be
disconnected. Any reading under 30 ohms
should be evaluated. Measurements for a set
of insulated joints should be within 30 percent
of each other or they should be rechecked.
Insulated rail joint tests for ac track circuits
can be performed using a volt-ohmmeter.

10.6.4 impedance Bonding Resistance

10.6 SIGNAL TESTS Test

10.6.1 Switch Machine Wiring and Impedance bonding resistance tests ensure
Adjustment Tests that a proper connection has been made
using a low-resistance ohmmeter.
Switch machine wiring and adjustment tests
verify the wiring and adjustment of the switch
machine. They should preferably be carried 10.6.5 Negative Return Bonding Test
out, in conjunction with the track installer, to
confirm throw rod capability, ensure point Negative return bonding tests verify the
closure, and ensure proper nesting of the resistance of each mechanical or welded
switch point rail to stock rail. power bond using a low-resistance ohmmeter.

10.6.2 Switch Machine Appurtenance Test 10.7 SUMMARY

Switch machine appurtenance tests verify the Communication-based signaling systems are
integrity of switch machine layout by taking replacing traditional track circuits. They
resistance measurements across the following eliminate the need for impedance bonds,
assemblies: signal bonding, and bootleg risers and greatly

10-15
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

reduce the number of signal wires and cables.
Transit system designers are challenged to
find the correct level of transit signaling for
each segment of a light rail transit line. The
different needs for signals are indicated by the
wide variety of right-of-way types and
operating conditions, coupled with the broad
catalogue of proven, available transit signal
equipment. This should encourage designers
to seek the technical solution that will both
respond to conditions and minimize total
costs.
Track designers need to coordinate closely
with signal designers to determine the types of
signal equipment that will be installed on the
trackway. Once the equipment is identified,
the interfaces with the track must be defined
so a coordinated system can be constructed.
Construction phasing is an important part of
this coordination.

IO-16
Chapter I l-Transit Traction Power

Table of Contents

11.1 GENERAL 11-I

11.1.1 Interface II-1

11.2 SUBSTATION LOCATIONS II-I

11.3 WAYSIDE DISTRIBUTION 11-2

11.4 CATENARY ALTERNATIVES 11-3

11.5 CATENARY DESIGN 11-4

11.51 Introduction II-4
11.52 Conceptual Stage 11-4
11.53 Application of the Catenary System to the Track Layout 11-4
11.5.3.1 Track Centers 11-5
11.5.3.2 Horizontal Curves 11-5
11.5.3.3 Vertical Curves 11-5
11.5.3.4 lnterlockings 11-5
11.5.3.5 Track Adjacent to Stations 11-6

11.6 TRACTION POWER RETURN SYSTEM 11-6

11.6.1 Territory with Two-Rail Track Circuits for Signaling 11-6
1 ‘l.6.2 Territory with Single-Rail Track Circuits for Signaling 11-6
11.6.3 Territory Without Signaling Track Circuits 11-6

11.7 CORROSION CONTROL MEASURES II-6

11.8 MAINTENANCE FACILITY YARD AND SHOP BUILDING 11-7

1 l-i
CHAPTER 1 I-TRANSIT TRACTION
11.1 GENERAL
Light rail systems, by definition, use electrical
power from overhead wires to provide traction
power to the light rail vehicles. Light rail
systems use the rails, in conjunction with
negative cables, as the return conductor to the
negative terminal of the rectifiers. Therefore,
the electrical properties of the rails and tracks
require special consideration.
Theoretically, the traction current flows along
the overhead contact system to the train from
the substation and back to the substation
through the running rails. To obtain good
conductivity for the track as a whole, a rail
system must have a low resistance not only
for reasons of economy but also for safety.
This requires a low voltage drop in the rails.
The traction power system consists of the:
l Traction power substation
l Cables connecting this substation to the
distribution system
l Wayside distribution system (catenary or
contact wire) providing adequate voltage
levels throughout the alignment
l Return system cables connecting
running rails to the substation
l Corrosion control drainage system
directing stray return current back to the
appropriate substation
11 .I .I Interface
There are four elements in the traction power
system that affect, or are affected by,
trackwork design, construction, and
maintenance:
POWER
Traction power positive supply system,
including substation locations
Wayside catenary distribution positive
system, providing power to the vehicles
Traction power negative return through
the rails
Corrosion control measures to mitigate
the effects of stray direct currents passing
through adjacent conduits, pipes and
cables
11.2 SUBSTATION LOCATIONS
The design of the track structure interface with
the traction power system must consider the
cable and conduit access that will pass under
the track at substation locations to provide
power to the catenary pole. Cables and
conduits for the return current to the
substation will also pass under the track.
The location of traction power substations is
developed using a computerized train
performance program that simulates proposed
peak operations along an accurate
geometrical and geographical depiction of the
planned route. Therefore, in the early stages
the of any light rail transit project, track and
traction power designers must interface to
integrate the traction power system into the
overall system design.
The final selection of substation sites is an
iterative process with repeated simulations to
confirm the capability of the traction power
system to sustain peak-hour operations. The
sequence of events to develop substation
sites is as follows:
l The traction power designer, using the
simulation program, selects theoretically
ideal positions along the route, taking into
11-l
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

account the distribution system’s voltage Placement of a substation at, or near, a

drop and the lowest voltage acceptable to crossover is often desired to sectionalize
the vehicle without degrading electrical supply for each travel direction and
performance. The normal, single to optimize the operational flexibility of the
contingency criteria for determining crossover.
traction power requirements is to test the
system with alternating substations out of
operation. 11.3 WAYSIDE DISTRIBUTION

l The designer discusses these proposed The trackwork element of the traction power
locations with the local power utility to supply system design should allow adequate
determine any impacts of the proposed space for the conduit to interface with the
power demand on their network. The wayside distribution system. The electrical
utility then evaluates the availability of sectionalization of the distribution system
power circuits and the potential impacts usually takes place at the substation for all
on its other customers. travel directions. Adequate space is required
l An agreement is eventually reached, if for conduit systems, including terminations,
necessary, by moving the substation to conduit risers, and manholes. Wayside
enable it to be supplied from lightly loaded distribution systems can be subdivided into
power circuits or by building spur cables the overhead contact wire system and
to the substation location. It is also supplemental cabling systems.
important, for reliability, that the power
In systems utilizing overhead contact wire,
company avoid supplying two adjacent
wayside connections are made to the
substations from the same circuit.
overhead catenary system (OCS) from
After an agreement is reached with the power trackside at substation supply points,
company, the traction power designer can switching station locations, crossovers,
finalize the substation design. Newer junctions, and wayside feed points. The
substations for light rail systems are generally connection of the power supply to the
modular, factory assembled units, that are overhead suspension network impacts track
delivered to site complete. They are erected design since the cables are routed in
on a prepared base that incorporates an underground conduits and must include riser
extensive grounding network below the transitions at the appropriate height for
concrete. termination. The riser transitions can be
located at the sides of the OCS poles or within
Substations are located along the track route the poles, either of which requires an
as close to the wayside as possible within the appreciable foundation at trackside. Once the
constraints of available real estate. However, power supply is terminated to the overhead
the final placement must also consider wire, the power supply distribution usually
interfaces and underground cable duct routes remains on aerial structures and does not
for both the power distribution supply and interface further with the track.
return systems; access roadways; and
security requirements. The impact of this However, in visually sensitive areas where the
construction on trackwork design is limited to community insists that only a single trolley
the interfaces with the supply and return wire be utilized, additional cabling is required
power distribution system. to support electrical loading. This

11-2
 Transit Traction Power

supplementary distribution is routed system height at the support is reduced to

underground and conduit risers are required approximately 457 millimeters (1.5 feet). This
quite frequently (every third or fourth pole) to style is applied in aesthetically sensitive areas
make the transition from the underground where a lower profile and simple single-wire
system to the overhead wire. This situation cross spans are more desirable The trade-
requires enlarged pole foundations, possibly off, however, is that the span length between
stanchion foundations, for switches at each supporting poles is reduced to approximately
riser. At the power supply feed points to the 46 meters (150 feet).
overhead wire, it is common practice to utilize
poles situated on the field side of the tracks The traditional single-wire systems are
instead of center poles to minimize impacts to considered by some to be much less obtrusive
the track design. This also limits the amount in the urban environment. It provides power
of underground conduit between and beneath through a single trolley wire that must be
the tracks. supported at least every 30 meters (100 feet).
The span length is limited by the sag of the
The style of catenary and most of the basic unsupported trolley wire which, in high
design parameters can be developed prior to temperatures, could encroach on vehicular
finalization of the track configuration. traffic as well as the ability of the supporting
However the application of a catenary design hardware to carry the weight of a whole span
to suit the track layout can only proceed after of wire. It also requires the wire to be
the track alignment has been finalized. supported electrically by parallel feeders that
must be bonded frequently to the trolley wire
to achieve adequate conductivity. These
11.4 CATENARY ALTERNATIVES feeders may run underground through a
series of ducts and manholes, which are
There are generally three styles of catenafy expensive, or hung from poles, which are
used on LRT systems: simple catenary, low- unsightly. This system, therefore, has twice
profile catenaty and the traditional single
the number of poles than the equivalent
trolley wire system. Simple and low-profile
simple catenary system.
catenary systems may have fixed terminations
that cause the conductors to rise and fall as As mentioned above, modern, lightweight
the temperature varies or balanced weight catenary systems adopt balance-weight
tensioned to maintain constant tension and tensioning to limit the load applied, therefore
height under all weather conditions. affecting the size of the poles, foundations,
and hardware. However, this type of
A simple catenary system uses a messenger
construction requires the system to be
wire to support the horizontal trolley wire.
separated into l-mile segments with weights
Both conductors are used to transmit power
applied at each end to maintain constant
from the substation to the vehicle. The
tension in the conductors. Therefore, the
system height at the support-the distance design requires overlaps to ensure smooth
between the contact or trolley wire and the passage of the vehicle pantograph from one
messenger-is approximately 1.2 meters (4
segment to the other.
feet). This allows spans between poles of up
to 73 meters (240 feet).

The low-profile catenary system is similar to

the simple catenary design, except that the

11-3
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

11.5 CATENARY DESIGN The catenary system is the most conspicuous

and possibly the most visually undesirable
11 S.1 introduction element of a light rail transit system. TCRP
Report No. 7 discusses “visual pollution,” to
Generally, technical papers have not the extent that it cited a case where a
addressed rail/catenary interface issues, since community refused to introduce an electric-
transit catenary design has developed from powered transit system because of the
operating railway systems where the track is expected visual impact. Unfortunately wires
already in place and the catenary must allow are needed to distribute power to vehicles.
for the existing .layout. In many new transit Therefore, poles are needed to support and
systems, the track alignment has been register them over the pantograph under all
selected prior to the catenary designers adverse conditions. However, if the track
involvement in the project. The results of this designer considers the catenary constraints,
lack of coordination are chronicled in TCRP then the size and number of poles can be
Report No. 7 Reducing fhe Visual Impact of minimized.
Overhead Contact Systems. Involving the
catenary designer in the track The catenary distribution system interfaces
design/alignment selection process can be with trackwork in the following manner:
cost-effective and reduce the visual impact of On single-wire catenary systems, the
the catenary system. track designer must coordinate the
longitudinal and transverse track feeder
Horizontal and vertical track alignment, conduits that support the electrical
trackwork, passenger station locations, distribution system.
substation sites, etc., must all be determined
before the preliminary catenary design can The track designer must also provide
proceed. However, the locations and design adequate clearance between tracks for
of these components can greatly influence the foundations, poles, catenaty balance
catenary design and its visual impact on the weights, and down guys.
environment. Track design and maintenance standards
must be coordinated so that the vehicle
pantograph remains beneath the catenary
11.5.2 Conceptual Stage wires under all adverse operating and
climatic conditions.
The catenary engineers task is to develop a
conductor configuration to supply power to the
vehicle from a position over the track that will 11.5.3 Application of the Catenary System
allow good current collection under all to the Track Layout
adverse weather, operating, and maintenance
conditions. The engineer must develop the Since the wire runs in straight lines between
most economic solution, considering the support points and the track is curved, pole
aesthetic constraints set by the community. layout is a compromise between the number
This task involves resolving the number of of poles and the requirement that the contact
wires in the air with the number of poles, wire remain on the pantograph under all
supports, and foundations to achieve an adverse climatic, operating, and maintenance
efficient and environmentally acceptable conditions. Even though the pantograph is
design. usually 1,980 millimeters (6.5 feet) wide, only

11-4
 Transit Traction Power

460 to 610 millimeters (18 to 24 inches) are components, avoidance of superfluous and
available for the wire to sweep the pantograph extremely tight curves is most desirable in
head after allowing for track alignment, gauge, catenary system design.
cross-level tolerances, vehicle displacement,
roll, pantograph sway, and pole deflection. At
the midpoint between supports, this distance 1153.3 Vertical Curves
is reduced to zero due to deflection of the Vertical curves become critical when in the
wires under maximum wind and ice loading vicinity of reduced-clearance overhead
conditions. bridges. The rise and fall of the catenary
messenger is governed by the formula:
The allocation of pole positions must take into WL2
account the limitations of the catenary style, 2T
the profile of the contact wire necessary to where: W is the weight of the catenary
accommodate overhead bridges and grade L is the distance between supports
crossings, track curvature, crossovers and T is the tension in the messenger
turnouts, underground utilities, etc. Therefore,
if the track is designed with the catenary Therefore, if there is a change in vertical
constraints in mind, economies can be grade near an overhead bridge, as is required
achieved. The following paragraphs identify when track undercutting is programmed to
parameters that should be considered by the achieve increased vertical clearance, then the
track designer. catenary designer should consult with the
track designer to ensure that the wire can
negotiate the vertical curvature.
11.5.3.1 Track Centers
The clearance between poles and the track is
defined by the system’s dynamic clearance 11.5.3.4 lnterlockings
envelope, which comprises three elements: The catenary/pantograph interface is a
the vehicle dynamic envelope, construction dynamic system. There are certain
and maintenance tolerances, and running constraints applied to ensure that the system
clearances, Therefore, if center poles with operates efficiently under all speed and
supporting cantilevers on each side are weather conditions. The pole positions at
desired to reduce cost and visual intrusion, turnouts are tied to the point of intersection
then the distance between tracks should allow (PI). It is desirable for the distance between
for this envelope from each track plus at least the inner crossover of a universal interlocking
305 millimeters (12 inches) to permit to be approximately the same length as the
installation of standard-sized poles. crossover (PI to PI).

Scissor crossovers can be wired; however

1153.2 Horizontal Curves
If the track is tangent, there will be no track-
related constraints, other than right-of-way
boundaries, when placing the poles along
track However, as the wire negotiates curves
using a series of chords, the number of
supports is very dependent on the curvature.
Therefore, as with other light rail system
they present many difficulties for the catenaty
designer. Usually, for maintenance purposes,
the inbound and outbound tracks are
separated into different electrical sections.
With tracks crossing within 2 meters (6 feet),
very limited space is available to insert an
insulator and avoid the horns of the
pantograph . This is particularly difficult in
higher speed sections where constant tension

11-5
Light Rail Track Design Handbook

catenary design has been adopted, since the return currents in the rails. At these locations,
movement of wires along track due to conduit stub-ups will be installed beneath the
temperature change can aggravate the tracks connecting the two track directions.
problem. Also since wires serving two Impedance bonds are also required by the
separate crossovers in a universal interlocking signal system at the end of each signal block.
is much less costly, scissor interlockings
should be avoided when catenary is
employed. 11.6.2 Territory with Single-Rail Track
Circuits for Signaling

11.5.3.5 Track Adjacent to Stations Although most track circuits for signaling in
Architecturally the introduction of the catenary new light rail systems are of the two-rail type,
system is obtrusive. Architectural design single-rail signaling track circuits do exist in
tends to dictate the position of poles to suit the older systems. In such systems, one rail is
architectural theme within the station area. used for traction return and the other is
This impacts catenary pole positions adjacent designated the signal rail. This type of
to station area requiring close coordination installation requires insulated joints separating
between the architect, track and catenary the track circuits. With single-rail track
designers to ensure adequate space for poles circuits, the impedance bonds described in
at stations and approaches. Section 11.6.1 are not required. The cross
bonding provided between the traction return
rails of separate tracks uses cables without
I I .6 TRACTION POWER RETURN impedance bonds for this purpose. Except for
SYSTEM these differences, the same cabling is
required between the traction return rail and
substations as described in Section 11.6.1.
11.6.1 Territory with Two-Rail Track
Circuits for Signaling
11.6.3 Territory Without Signaling Track
The traction power return system directly Circuits
impacts track design. The traction power
return system uses the running rails as an The requirements for traction return in this
electrical conductor to “return” the traction type of territory are similar to the those
power to the substation from which it was described in Section 11.6.1, except that no
generated. Traction power supplied to the impedance bonds are required. Instead,
train enters the running rail through the cables are installed directly to the rails for
vehicle wheels and is extracted from the rail both traction return at the substation and for
through impedance bonds in cables installed cross bonding between the rails.
at each substation. Therefore, track
designers must allow for impedance bond
installation, along with the associated conduit 11.7 CORROSION CONTROL MEASURES
stub-ups and negative cabling, at each
substation. Where there is more than one In designing dc traction power systems, it is
track, in addition to the impedance bonds at common and desirable to isolate and insulate
each substation, impedance cross bonds are the running rails from ground as much as
also located along the track every 610 meters possible. These issues are discussed at
(2,000 feet) or less to equalize the traction length in Chapters 4 and 8.

11-6

The traction power return system interfaces
with trackwork in the following manner:
The siting of impedance bond positions
and cross bonds to adjacent tracks must
be coordinated.
The selection of rail insulation for tie
plates and fastening clips suitable for
track and traction power requirements
must be agreed to by all parties.
Continuity bonds on jointed rails must also
be coordinated.
The track designer and construction
inspector should ensure that ballast is
clear of rails so that return currents do not
stray into the ground and cause corrosion
problems in underground pipes and
cables.
Special consideration must be taken when
selecting the insulation of the rails at
grade crossing and embedded track
sections to ensure minimum leakage to
ground.
11.8 MAINTENANCE FACILITY YARD AND
SHOP BUILDING
The traction power return system in the
maintenance facility yard and shop area is
usually different from that adopted for the
main line. The yard and shop area is usually
designed and constructed along with the light
rail system; therefore, adverse effects of stray
currents can be allowed for in its design.
11-7
Transit Traction Power
Since the traction power return current can be
more easily controlled in a yard by increasing
the quantity and locations of return cables, the
insulation system provided for the yard tracks
may be somewhat less effective than the main
line track system described herein. Yard
tracks are most commonly placed directly on
the ties without insulation. The grounding
systems for the yard and main line must be
electrically separate. This is achieved by
inserting insulated rail joints in the yard entry
track at each arrival and departure
connection.
Yard track designers must still consider and
account for the many conduit risers necessary
to feed the numerous electrical sections in the
overhead contact system. Extra coordination
in yard areas should take place due to the
additional users and electrical connections in
the complex track layout.
In the maintenance facility building, the rails
are installed directly into the shop floor system
and are rigorously electrically grounded for
safety of the personnel working on the
vehicles. The return system is designed for
current to return directly to the substation
through cables to ensure there is no potential
difference between the vehicle and the
ground. Space for the conduit and cables
connecting each track section to the building
substation must be coordinated. The shop
floor tracks also contain insulated joints that
electrically separate these totally grounded
tracks from the yard track system.
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ment and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr.
Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to
associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purpose of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies
determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to
the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is admin-
istered jointly by both the Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr.
William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Abbreviations used without definitions in TRB publications:

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NCTRP National Cooperative Transit Research and Development Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TRB Transportation Research Board
U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation