47

CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

3.1 BEHAVIOUR OF ANGLES UNDER COMPRESSION

In angle sections, the principle axis of the cross sections does not
coincide with the common loading directions and routine loading will
therefore cause bi-axial deflections which are not in the same plane as that of
the applied load. Since angle sections are connected by single leg to a flexible
part of a continuous member they act as end restrained columns with bi-axial
eccentric loading and they fail in a complex mode involving deformations
about both principle axes and simultaneously twisting. Shear center of the
angle section which is not at the centroid further complicates the problem.

Importance of the width to thickness ratio has been used to

emphasize the buckling characteristics of hot rolled angle sections. The
increasing use of high strength angle section in structures such as
transmission line towers, microwave towers and other tower like structures
necessitates a thorough understanding of their buckling strength. When the
angle sections are used in transmission line towers they tend to fail before the
estimated buckling strength of the section. This may be due to inaccurate
method of effective width consideration. Various codes of practice consider
different methods for limiting the width to thickness ratios of angle section to
increase the buckling strength. The effective width of the angle is considered
either from outer to outer or from fillet to outer width of the flat width of leg.
So the current study is mainly concentrated on the effective width
 48

consideration and buckling behaviour of various angle sections having large

flat width to thickness ratios, and with high strength steel.

3.1.1 Column Tests on Angle Sections

Influence of large flat width to thickness ratio in hot rolled angle

section behaviour was studied. Experiments were conducted on various sizes
of steel single equal angles as given in Table 3.1. In transmission line towers,
the slenderness ratio of leg member varies from 40 to 60 since at this range
the compression capacity of the member is almost equal to the tension
capacity. For the present study the slenderness ratio of the members are kept
below 40.

Table 3.1 Various angle sections used for testing

Yield
Angle size Slenderness
Sl.No Stress b/t
(mm) ratio
(N/mm2)

1 ISA 45×45×3 59.77 390 15.00

2 ISA 55×55×4 49.06 265 13.75
3 ISA 60×60×4 44.07 348 15.00
4 ISA 65×65×5 41.27 406 13.00
5 ISA 70×70×5 38.24 414 14.00
6 ISA 75×75×5 35.62 278 15.00
7 ISA 100×100×6 26.67 400 16.67

Specimens of angle sections with different sizes, yield strength and

width to thickness ratio varying from 13 to 16 were fabricated and tested in
1000 kN capacity UTM for axial compression. Measurements of strain and
deflections were taken at mid height of the member. The members were
 49

instrumented with electrical resistance foil type linear strain gauges.

Deflectometers were placed at mid height to measure the lateral deflection
and axial shortening of the member. Experimental results were compared with
the capacities calculated based on Indian, American and British Standards.

3.1.2 Testing Procedure

The specimens were tested using the automatic Universal Testing

Machine as shown in Figure 3.1. The capacity of the UTM is 1000 kN with a
speed range of 0.015 inch/min, 0.1 inch/min and 0.25 inch/min. Columns of
same heights are placed between two specially prepared end fixtures. The end
fixtures consist of specially prepared plates allowing free rotation. Translation
of end plates is made possible by set screw on end fixtures to allow for the
accurate alignment of the test specimen to obtain the centroid. The tested
specimens are shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.1 Experimental setup

 50

Figure 3.2 Tested specimens

 51

3.2 TESTING OF TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

The transmission line towers are mass-produced and their design is

generally based on minimum weight philosophy. Linear elastic analysis is
carried out to obtain the member forces assuming that all members are
subjected to only axial forces and the deformations are small. The members
are designed based on the codes of practice. Bearing type bolted connections
are used to connect the tower members. Steel Angle sections with different
grades such as mild, high tensile and super high tensile steels are generally
used in the towers. The load carrying capacity of the tower, not only depends
on the individual member capacity but, also on other aspects like joint
detailing, uncertainties in framing eccentricities of members, force fitting of
members, unequal force distribution in bolts and gusset plate connections, etc.
Hence, prototype testing of transmission line towers is recommended and
considered essential to verify the design and detailing. Most of the power
transmission towers industries all over the world have made proto type testing
of transmission line towers mandatory. The configuration, voltage clause and
line deviation details of the six towers tested are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Details of tested towers

Sl.No Voltage Tower type and No. of Circuits Configuration

1 220kV Dead End ‘DE’- Double circuit Vertical
o o
2 400kV (0 - 15 ) - Double circuit Vertical
3 400kV Dead End (30 o - 60 o) - Double circuit Vertical
4 400kV TH 60o - Single circuit Horizontal
5 400kV (15 o - 30 o) - Double circuit Vertical
6 220kV Dead End ‘D9DT’ - Double circuit Vertical
 52

3.3 TESTING OF 220 kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT DEAD END

TOWER

The 220 kV Double circuit tower was designed for dead end and
large angle deviation locations. The 41.74 m high square tower was 12.9 m
wide at base and tapers to 4 m width at 22 m level from ground. The tower
has pointed cross arms on one side and box cross arms on the other side. The
tower was tested with +6 m body extension. For all members mild steel of
yield stress 255 MPa was used. ISA 150×150×18 mm angle sections were
used as leg member and ISA 100×100×7 mm angle section were used as
bracing members in the bottom panel. The tower was designed based on
IS: 802 (Part 1 /Sec 1, 1995 and Part 1 / Sec 2 1992) specifications. The tower
configuration, cross-arm details, secondary bracing pattern, dimensions are
shown in Figure 3.3. The erected tower at test bed and the loads applied
during testing corresponding to failure load condition are shown in
Figure 3.4(a) and 3.4(b).

The transverse horizontal and vertical loads are combined and

applied as resultant load at a resultant angle. Longitudinal loads are applied
separately. Load and angle sensors are fixed at cross arm tips to measure the
loads. Wind loads on tower body in between cross arms are combined and
applied separately at each cross arm level as shown in Figure 3.4(b). The
wind on tower body below the waist level was combined and applied at 6m
level. The loads are applied through centralized servo controlled hydraulic
actuators simultaneously at all loading points. The testing was conducted
based on IS: 802 Part III specifications and loads are applied in increments of
25, 50, 75, 90, 95 and 100% of the specified loads.
 53

7651 L75x75x6
2227
2 L45x45x5
3 5 1750
1900 L75x75x6
L110x110x8
1 2 3200 L75x75x6
4 L80x80x6TF
2 2000
L75x75x6 LF
L150x150x10
3100 L80x80x6
D
L90x90x8 TF
6142 L150x150x16 L90x90x6 LF
VIEW D
C

L90x90x6 LF

VIEW C L100x100x8 TF
10000

A L150x150x20
L100x100x6 A
BRACES
L75x75x6 LF
LEGS

B 6000 L90x90x6 TF
12916

4000
2486

3243

5370 5370 5500 5700 5600 5940

DIMENSIONS IN mm
YIELD STRESS 255MPa
'L' EQUAL ANGLE SECTION
VIEW A-A
1) L65x65x6 2) L75x75x6 VIEW B
FAILURE LOCATION
3) L80x80x6 4) L90x90x6
5) L90x90x8 TF: TRANSVERSE FACE, LF: LONGITUDINAL FACE

Figure 3.3 Configuration of 220 kV DE type tower

 54

123

17

59 51
123 12
22 7
17
1
51
59
123
23 12
7
17
Load 1
Sensor Failed X 51
brace 59
123
12
47
7
17
1

47

LOADS IN KILO NEWTONS

(a) Test set-up (b) Loads

Figure 3.4 220 kV DE type tower

 55

3.4 TESTING OF 400 kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT (0o-15o) DEV.

SMALL ANGLE TOWER

The 400 kV double circuit tower was designed for 0º -15º line
deviation. The tower was designed for reliability, security and safety
conditions. In security condition, the tower was designed for earth wire plus
one conductor broken and simultaneous two conductor broken conditions.
The tower was designed based on IS: 802(Part 1 /Sec 1, 1995 and Part 1 /
Sec 2 1992) specifications. The angles provided as leg members have a yield
stress of 350 MPa and the bracing members have yield strength of 255 MPa.
The 50.36 m high square tower has a base width of 18.5 m, and reduces to
5.5 m at 28 m level. The configuration of the tower, dimensions, member
sizes and redundant pattern are shown in Figure 3.5.

The tower was tested with +6 m body extension. The leg members
consist of ISA 150×150×20 mm angle section and bracing members in bottom
most panel consist of ISA 100×100×7 mm angle sections. The tower at test
bed during testing is shown in Figure 3.6(a). The loads applied during testing
in which the tower experienced premature failure is shown in Figure 3.6(b).
The transverse horizontal loads, the longitudinal horizontal loads and the
vertical loads are applied separately. Wind loads on tower body in between
cross arms are combined with the conductor loads. The wind on tower body
below waist level was combined and applied at 6 m and 12.3 m levels. The
loads are applied through centralized servo controlled hydraulic actuators
simultaneously at all loading points.
 56

4770

4760 L75x75x6
2400
2 3 2000 L75x75x5
L100x100x6 L110x110x8H
5 8 2000
6250 7000
2400 L100x100x7H
L110x110x10H
1 3600 L100x100x8H
4 L130x130x12H
6900 7700 4050 L130x130x10H

3950 L150x150x15H L130x130x8

7 3600 L150x150x16H L120x120x10H

8200 5500 9000

L120x120x8H
7650

INVERTED K
L150x150x18H
4000 L130x130x10
B D B

C 6350 L100x100x8
A 'K' BRACE A

6000 L150x150x20H L100x100x7

18534
FAILED LOCATION

VIEW D

L75x5 VIEW BB
L90x6 VIEW AA

DIMENSIONS IN mm
1) L90x7H 2) L100x6H 3) L100x7H
VIEW C 4) L110x8H 5) L110x10H 6) L120x10H

7) L130x8H 8) L130x10H L EQUAL ANGLE SECTION

'H' INDICATES HIGH TENSILE STEEL OF 350MPa
ALL OTHER ANGLES Fy = 255MPa:

Figure 3.5 Configuration of 400 kV D/C (0o - 15o) tower

 57

9 9

4 4

75
75
72
72
249
75
78
72
72
75 249
86

72
72

44

26

LOADS IN KILO NEWTONS

(a) Test set-up (b) Loads

Figure 3.6 400 kV D/C (0o - 15o) tower

The Testing was conducted based on IS: 802 Part III specifications.
The deflection measurements are taken at each load level in the transverse and
longitudinal directions at the top of the tower. The tower was designed for
11 different loading cases corresponding to reliability, security and safety
conditions.
 58

3.5 TESTING OF 400 kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT (30o - 60 o) DEV.

DEAD END TOWER

The 400 kV double circuit tower was designed for 30º - 60º line
deviation and for dead end locations. The tower was designed for reliability,
security and safety conditions. In the security condition, earth wire plus two
conductor broken and simultaneous three conductor broken conditions are
considered. The tower was also designed for reliability in dead end condition.
The tower was designed based on IS: 802(Part 1 /Sec 1, 1995 and Part 1 / Sec
2 1992) specifications. The leg members have yield stress of 350 MPa and
bracing members have a yield stress of 255 MPa. The 51.41 m high square
tower has a base width of 19.5 m and reduces to 6.8 m at 28 m level. The
configuration of the tower, dimensions, member sizes and redundant pattern
are shown in Figure 3.7. The tower was tested with +6m body extension. The
leg member consists of ISA 200×200×25 mm angle sections and the bracing
members in bottom most panel is ISA 120×120×8 mm. The loads applied
during testing in which the tower experienced premature failure is shown in
Figure 3.8(a). The tower at test bed during testing is shown in
Figure 3.8(b).

The transverse horizontal, longitudinal horizontal and vertical loads

are applied separately. Wind loads on tower body in between cross arms are
combined with the conductor loads. The wind on tower body below waist
level was combined and applied at 6 m and 13.3 m levels. The loads are
applied through centralized servo controlled hydraulic actuators
simultaneously at all loading points. The testing was conducted based on IS:
802 Part III specifications. The deflection measurements were taken at each
load level and for each increment of load in the transverse and in the
longitudinal directions at ground wire level by attaching a graduated scale in
both transverse and longitudinal directions. The tower was designed for
 59

10 different loading cases corresponding to reliability, security and safety

conditions.

4520
2900
L7

4760
5
x6

L100
x6H L70x70x5 TF L75x75x5 LF
2000
2650 L100x100x6H L120x120x10 TF L100x100x7H LF
2850 L110x110x8 TF L100x100x7H LF
I H L100 L130x130x12H
x 6H 2900 L100x100x10 TF L100x100x7 LF
1650 L130x130x10H TF L130x130x10 LF
3550 L150x150x16H L120x120x10H TF L110x110x10 LF
L100
x6H 3450 L200x200x16H L130x130x8H TF L110x110x10 LF

6800 3000 L130x130x10H TF L130x130x8H LF

G 2820 L200x200x18H
I
3880 L130x130x10 TF L130x130x8 LF
F
E 4600
L130x130x8 TF & LF
B B
7300 L200x200x20H
D
A A
L110x110x8
L200x200x25H BRACINGS
6000
C LEG L120x120x8 TF L100x100x8 LF
19450
L EQUAL ANGLE SECTION LF LONGITUDINAL FACE TF TRANSVERSE FACE

L130
x10H
3300

VIEW G VIEW I VIEW H

VIEW B-B 6750 6750
L120
x10H
2400
5050

VIEW F VIEW E VIEW A-A

7650 7650
L130
x10H
3000
6800

9400 9400
VIEW C VIEW D
H INDICATES HIGH STRENGTH STEEL 350MPa
DIMENSIONS IN mm ALL OTHER MILD STEEL OF 255MPa

Figure 3.7 Configuration of 400 kV D/C (30o - 60 o) dead end tower

 60

2
4
24
37 21
181 216
326

72
57

216
93

331
29
93
72
29
171

340
38
171
72

51 38

32

LOADS ARE IN KILO NEWTONS

(a) Loads (b) Test set-up

Figure 3.8 400 kV D/C (30o - 60 o) dead end tower

3.6 TESTING OF 400 kV SINGLE CIRCUIT HORIZONTAL

CONFIGURATION TENSION TOWER

The 400 kV single circuit delta type ‘TH-60’ tower was designed
for 60º line deviation and for dead end locations. The tower was designed as
for heavy ice loading, oblique wind conditions, and one conductor broken
during heavy icing and dead end conditions. The tower was also designed
based on ASCE 10-2000 specifications. High tensile steel of S355JO with
350 MPa yield stress for leg members and mild steel of S235JR with yield
strength of 240 MPa for all other members were used. The 69 m high square
tower has a base width of 15.7 m and reduces to 5 m at 45 m level. The tower
 61

was tested with 15 m body extension and with +12 m leg extension. The
configurations of tower, dimensions, member sizes, redundant pattern are
shown in Figure 3.9.

BOOM TOP
7500
8200
BOOM BOTTOM
12000

x8H
x100
2 10100 L120x120x8 H

0
L175x175x15H

L10
1900
1
8200 L150x150x12 H
11
L15
2H 8251 0x1
0x1 50
150x15 x12
H 3800 L200x200x18 H T 150x150x12 H
L
14000 5000 3500 L150x150X10 H
L130x130x10 H
5 4 14000
L120x120x10 H L130x130x10 H
5000
L200x200x20 H
L150x150x12H 8800
L120x120x8 H 6 L150x150x14H L120x120x10 H

L120x120x8 H 7 L120x120x8 H

12200

L120x120x8 H 9 L120x120x8 H
8
100x100x7 H 5200 100x100x7 H

120x120x10 H 3300 L200x200x24 H 120x120x10 H

LEGS
BRACES

BRACES

120x120x8 H 12000 120x120x8 H

10

15700
L120x120x8 H

LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE

VIEW 6
L150x150x15

VIEW 5 VIEW 9 VIEW 11

L150x12 H

L200x18 H

VIEW 7
H

VIEW 1
VIEW 4
FAILURE LOCATION
VIEW 2 VIEW 8 VIEW 10
DIMENSIONS IN mm: L EQUAL ANGLE SECTION: H INDICATES HIGH STRENGTH STEEL OF 350MPa
T TWO ANGLES BACK TO BACK ALL OTHERS MILD STEEL OF 255MPa:

Figure 3.9 Configuration of 400 kV S/C (TH-60) tower

 62

The tower was also tested with +6 m body extension. The leg
members consist of ISA 200×200×24 mm angle section and the bracing
members in bottom most panel consists of ISA 120×120×8 mm angle section.
The loads applied during testing in which the tower experienced failure is
shown in Figure 3.10(a).

140 140

89 89

293

485

269
135

293

233

0
485

LOADS IN KILO NEWTONS

(a) Loads (b) Test set-up

Figure 3.10 400 kV S/C ‘TH-60’ tower

 63

The transverse horizontal, longitudinal horizontal and vertical loads

are applied separately. Wind loads on tower body in between cross arms are
combined with the conductor loads. The loads are applied through centralized
servo controlled hydraulic actuators simultaneously at all loading points. The
testing was conducted based on IEC 652 specifications. The deflection
measurements were taken at each load level and for each increment of load in
the transverse and in the longitudinal directions at ground wire level by
attaching a graduated scale in both transverse and longitudinal directions. The
test set up of the tower is shown in Figure 3.10(b). The tower was designed
for 8 different loading cases such as oblique wind, heavy ice with one
conductor broken at a time, high wind and dead end conditions.

3.7 TESTING OF 400 kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT (15o - 30 o)

DEVIATION MEDIUM ANGLE TOWER

The 400 kV double circuit tower was a designed for 15º - 30 o line
deviation locations. The configurations of tower, dimensions, member sizes,
redundant pattern are shown in Figure 3.11. Different load cases such as
normal, simultaneously two conductors broken and ground wire along with
one conductor broken conditions were considered. The angles provided as leg
members have a yield stress of 350 MPa and the bracing members have yield
strength of 255 MPa. The transverse horizontal loads and vertical loads are
combined and applied as a resultant load at a resultant angle. The vertical and
longitudinal loads are applied separately. Testing was conducted based on
IS: 802 Part III specifications. The loads applied on the tower in top and
bottom conductor broken condition and top and middle conductor broken
condition is shown in Figure 3.12. The test set up is shown in
Figure 3.13.
 64

4420 6120

x5 x6 L90x6T TF
75 80
5705
3200 L80x6 LF
1 2 2555 L110x8 H H L75x6T TF
4 6 3610
7080 8770
H L75x6T TF
4900 L110x10H
3 6 3410 L150x15H H L90x7T TF
7574 9264
5500 2425 H L90x7T TF
2875 L150x16H H L100x6T LF
8620 10320 5 5124 L200x16H
H L100x6T TF
H L90x6T LF

H L80x6T TF
8400 H L75x5T LF
VIEW A-A L80x6T A
A
L 200x20H
P 7500 H L80x6T

LEGS H L90x6T
9000
BRACES
17210

SP4
H3
SP3
INCLINED
IR REDUNDANT SP2
Q SP1 FAILURE
LOCATION
SP SUB PANEL
DETAIL AT 'P' : CASE I VIEW 'Q'
a) L45x4 b) L50x4 c) L55x4 d) L60x4 e) L65x4 f) L70x5 g) L75x5 h) L75x6
i ) L80x6 1) H90x6 2) H100x6 3) H110x8 4) H120x8 5) H120x10 6) H130x10
T ANGLE CONNECTED BACK BACK L EQUAL ANGLE SECTION
DIMENSIONS IN mm; IR INCLINED REDUNDANT: LF LONGITUDINAL FACE:
TF TRANSVERSE FACE HR HORIZONTAL REDUNDANT: H HIP BRACING:
H HIGH STRENGTH STEEL Fy=350MPa OTHER MEMBERS Fy=255MPa

Figure 3.11 Configuration of 400 kV D/C (15o - 30o) tower

 65

23
23 23
23

4 4 4 4 251
251
201 201
111 111
63 18 18 47
63
47
201 201 251
201 111
27 27
63 63 47
63 251

42 201
201 42 111 201 63
63 47 63

39 39

32
32
LOADS IN KILO NEWTONS
LOADS IN KILO NEWTONS
TOP AND MIDDLE
TOP AND BOTTOM CONDUCTORS BROKEN
CONDUCTORS BROKEN TRIAL 1 & TRIAL 2

Figure 3.12 Loads on 400 kV D/C (15o- 30 o) tower

 66

LEG
4 PARTS

Figure 3.13 Test set-up

 67

3.8 TESTING OF 220 kV DOUBLE CIRCUIT DEAD END TYPE

‘D9DT’ TOWER

The 220 kV Double circuit tower was designed for large angle
deviation and dead end locations. The 59 m high square tower has a base
width of 16.5 m and reduces to 5.8 m width at 29 m level. The configuration
of tower, dimensions, redundant pattern and member sizes are shown in
Figure 3.14. The tower was designed for heavy loading accounting for wind
with dust storms. The cross arms were box type on one side and pointed on
the other side and was tested with +9 m body extension. The leg members
have a yield stress of 350 MPa and all the other members are of mild steel
angles with yield stress 255 MPa. Cruciform sections made of two angles
ISA 200×200×20 mm for first panel and ISA 200×200×18 mm for second
panel were used as leg members. Two ISA 100×100×6 mm angles connected
back to back were used as bracing members. The loads applied during testing
are shown in Figure 3.15(a). The testing was conducted based on IEC
specifications and the loads are applied in increments of 50, 75, 90, 95 and
100% of the specified loads. At each load increment, the loads are maintained
for a minimum of one minute. For the final 100% level, the loads are
maintained for two minutes. The deflection measurements were taken at each
load level in the transverse and in the longitudinal directions at top of the
tower.

The test tower is shown in Figure 3.15(b). The transverse horizontal

loads and vertical loads are combined and applied as resultant load at a
resultant angle during testing. Longitudinal load is applied as a separate
horizontal load. Load, angle sensors are connected at cross arm tips to
measure and control the loads and angle of application. The loads are applied
through centralized servo controlled hydraulic actuators simultaneously at all
loading points. Wind loads on tower body is combined with the conductor
 68

loads at respective heights and the wind on tower body below waist level is
combined and applied at 9 m and 18 m levels.

12200 L100x100x7H
1 3600
3050 L65x65x5
L120x120x10H T 80x80x6H TF: T 100x100x8H LF
2900 8850
4200 2 4 L150x150x14H T 90x90x6H TF: T 75x75x6H LF
2800 9325 L150x150x20H T 120x120x8H TF: T 90x90x7H LF
4400 5800 4 +150x150x16H T 100x100x8H TF: T 90x90x7H LF
10425 T 120x120x8H TF: T 100x100x8H LF
11050 B +200x200x16H T 100x100x8H TF
B
D T 90x90x7H LF
A A
T 100x100x6 TF
9000 P +200x200x18H
C T 90x90x6 LF
FAILURE
T 100x100x6 TF
9000 A C A +200x200x20H T 80x80x6 LF LOCATION
20578
L EQUAL ANGLE SECTION 8850 8850
DIMENSIONS IN mm

3986
1
T 90x90x6

2 VIEW D
3 4 VIEW C

4888
R 56
9325 9325
T 100x100x6 T 100x100x8
DETAIL AT P VIEW B-B VIEW A-A 5800

TF, LF TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL FACES 10425 10425

1) L100x7H 2) L100x10H 3) L150x14H 4) L110x8H
5) L150x12H H INDICATES Fy = 350MPa : OTHER MEMBERS Fy = 255MPa
+ TWO ANGLES AS CRUCIFORM SECTION
T BACK TO BACK CONNECTED EQUAL ANGLES

Figure 3.14 Configuration of 220 kV D9DT tower

 69

53
89

16
281
281 176
394
54
108 176
281
54
281 176
394
54
108 176
281
54
281 176
394
54
108 176
54
87

89

LOADS IN KILO NEWTONS

(a) Loads (b) Test set-up

Figure 3.15 220 kV D/C D9DT tower

The tower was designed for 10 different loading cases. The tower
was subjected to transverse, vertical and longitudinal loads at all conductor
and ground wire points. The tower withstood the loads corresponding to all
the broken wire condition of conductors and ground wire in both pointed and
box cross arms.
 70

3.9 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON BOLT SLIP IN

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Generally the analytical deflections computed using software is

much less when compared to test results. Joint slip is the relative
displacement of a bolted joint under shear. It is significant in transmission line
towers, since the tower members are connected by bolted joints. The bolts are
in clearance holes and the bolts may slip into position at some percentage of
applied lateral loads. Bending of the splice plates may also cause slip and
increase the deformation of the tower.

The leg of a transmission line tower is connected with series of lap

or butt joints and their effect on the deflection of the tower was not studied in
detail. The bolt slip in some cases is significant because the bolt diameters are
small, the members joined are thin, the bearing type joints with a lower
clamping force are used, and the coefficient of friction of galvanized faying
surfaces is low. This study is undertaken to quantify the effect of bolt slip in
the leg of a transmission line tower. The study envisages deriving a
relationship between the ratios of actual displacement measured in test to the
theoretically obtained value and suggesting a non dimensional parameter.
This is mainly to quantify the bolt slip and the load at which it occurs in the
transmission line towers. A bolt slip in a joint, at element level with butt
jointed specimens is investigated. The rotation is measured using an
inclinometer, dial gauge and LVDTs. Studies are also conducted to study the
percentage of load at which the slip occurs. In order to study the actual
behaviour of the joints in the tower during testing, studies are conducted on
transmission line towers.

3.9.1 Experimental Studies on Bolted Joints

In order to understand the behaviour of bolted joints, element level

studies are conducted on lap and butt joints similar to leg member connection
 71

in transmission line towers. To find the load at which the slip occurs in the
bolted joints, experiments are conducted to determine the clamping force. To
determine the relationship between the bolt force and the torque applied,
experimental studies are conducted. Generally bolts in the towers are
tightened manually. To determine the torque applied in the bolts used in the
towers, the bolt torque measurements are taken from few towers tested. It was
found that the torque corresponding to hand tightening of bolts is in the range
of 95 to 100 N-m. This is more or less equal to the generally applied torque of
95 to 110 N-m in transmission line towers.

To measure the axial force variation in the bolt for the torque
applied, foil type electrical resistance strain gauges are pasted to the bolt
shank. A special fitting is made to fix the bolt into the bolt hole in such a way
that strain gauge is not damaged when the bolt is tightened. The bolt is fixed
to the flange plate by making a small groove in the bolt hole to take out the
lead wires of the strain gauge. The bolt is pre-tensioned using the Micrometer
Adjustable Torque wrench up to 150 N.m in increments of 10 N.m. The test
setup, torque wrench and strain gauge pasted to the bolt are shown in
Figure 3.16. The strain values are measured for each increment of torque
applied using HBM UPM40 strain measuring instrument.

Figure 3.16 Test set-up bolt with strain gauge and torque wrench
 72

3.9.2 Specimen with Butt Joints

Two specimens are chosen one an ISA 100×100×8 mm section and

another ISA 130×130×8 mm section as these sections are mostly used as leg
members in transmission line towers. A 3 m long section is cut into three
equal lengths of 1 m each. The cut segments are joined together with
bolted double cover butt joints. The inner side of the test specimen
ISA 100×100×8 mm is bolted with a cleat angle of size ISA 80×80×6 mm.
A cover plate of size is 280×60×5 mm is bolted on the outer side of the
compression flange and web. Bolts of 16 mm diameter in 17.5 mm clearance
hole arranged in staggered pitch on each flange are used. A gap of 6 mm is
provided in between the members (segments). The bolts have a pitch of
35 mm with an edge distance of 25 mm. One end of the member is welded to
a plate of size 200×200 mm attached to a beam which is firmly clamped using
rock anchoring system. In the case of ISA 130×130×10 mm specimen, the
bolts are arranged in two gauge lines. A cleat angle of ISA 110×110×8 mm is
fixed inside and cover plate of 365×100×8 mm is used on outside and the
bolts are connected at 40 mm pitch. The free end of the segment is welded
with a plate of 8 mm thickness which has a hole of 16 mm diameter. A steel
wire is attached to the hole and the loading is applied through the steel wire
rope. The schematic diagram of the transverse loading on specimens with
joints ISA 100×100×8 mm and ISA 130×130×10 mm are shown in
Figures 3.17 and 3.18. Experiments were conducted on steel angle sections of
ISA 100×100×8 mm and ISA 130×130×10 mm with joints as shown in
Figures 3.19 and 3.20 to quantify the joint slip that occurs in transmission line
Towers. Three cycles of loading were conducted on specimens.
 73

COVER PLATE LOAD

B A B A

ISA 100x100x8
J1 J2 CLEAT ANGLE
1000 1000 1000
6 6

Figure 3.17 Schematic view of specimen ISA 100×

×100×
×8 mm with joints

COVER PLATE LOAD

B A B A

ISA 130x130x10

J1 J2 Dimensions in mm
CLEAT ANGLE

Figure 3.18 Schematic view of specimen ISA 130×

×130×
×10 mm with joints

Figure 3.19 Test on specimen with joints: Inclinometer measurement

 74

Figure 3.20 Test on specimen with joints: Dial gauge measurement

3.9.3 Specimen without Joints

ISA 100×100×8 mm section of 3 m long is welded to the end beam

with base plate similar to the specimen with joints. A plate with a hole is
welded to the other end of the specimen. The loading is applied through the
steel wire rope as in the case of previous test as shown in Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21 Test on specimen without joints

 75

3.9.4 Test Set Up

A transverse load of small magnitude corresponding to 10 to 50%

of the elastic bending capacity of the cantilever member is applied at the free
end in increments of 0.2 kN through the steel wire rope. Electronic
inclinometer namely CLINO PLUS and dial gauges were used to measure the
rotations and deflections. For specimens with joints, the rotations are
measured at centre of the joints. For specimen without joints, the location of
measurement at 1 m and 2 m from fixed end is marked and the measurements
are taken from these locations.

3.9.5 Testing Procedure

A 50 kN capacity load cell is attached to the loading point and the

loads are measured from the control system. All the specimens are loaded
within the elastic limit. The transverse load is applied at free end of the test
specimen with the linear increments and the rotation readings at every
increment of load were recorded. These observations were taken for specimen
with joints and also for specimens without joints.

3.9.6 Experiments to Determine the Slip Load

To determine the load at which the slip occurs in the joint,

experiments are conducted on butt and lap jointed specimens with known
number of bolts and the bolt is pre-tensioned by applying an axial force. A 3
m long specimen of ISA 130×130×8 mm size made from three segments with
butt joints is used for determining the slip load under axial tension. The bolts
are tightened up to 100 N.m torque with the torque wrench. This induces an
axial force or shear force in the bolt equal to 41 kN. The clamping force in a
joint is given by the number of bolts times the axial force in the individual
bolt multiplied by the frictional coefficient. For the joint with four bolts, the
clamping force in the joint works out to 49 kN if frictional coefficient of 0.3 is
 76

assumed, since the specimen is not galvanized. The joint slip is measured
using a dial gauge and LVDT as shown in Figure 3.22. Joint slip is also
measured during compression test on lap jointed angle sections as shown in
Figure 3.23.

Figure 3.22 Prediction of slip load: Axial tension

Figure 3.23 Prediction of slip load: Axial compression

 77

3.10 EXPERIMENTS ON PROTOTYPE TRANSMISSION LINE

TOWERS

A Transmission line tower consists of many splice joints in the leg

members. Since the joints are more in number, there is bound to be a small
amount of slip and rotation in these joints. These rotations in the joints may
cause excessive deformation in the tower which cannot be accounted in the
analysis. In order to study the actual behaviour of the joints in tower, seven
towers which are recently tested at Tower Testing Research Station, Chennai
are considered.

The relative rotation is the difference in rotation between the upper

and lower legs of a joint. If the joint is not present, then the entire member
will rotate as a single unit. The presence of the joint between upper and lower
leg members causes rotation differently depending on the rigidity of the joint
which depends on the number of bolts, thickness of cleat angle, splice plates
at that joint and also on the flexibility of the legs above and below the joint.
Rotation of the joints occurs at different percentage of loads. This rotation is
caused due to slip of the bolts in clearance holes and due to bending of cover
plates. The bolt slip occurs when the axial force in the leg member exceeds
the clamping force at that particular joint. The bolts are generally tightened to
60 to 70% of its tensile capacity. The torque applied is measured using a
torque wrench. Generally the bolts in transmission line towers are tightened
manually using a spanner. The torque applied by hand was measured in
several towers and it was found that the torque varies from 95 to 110 N.m.

The clamping force is generated when the bolts are tightened by

applying torque. The bolt force was measured from experiments conducted as
mentioned earlier. The frictional coefficient between the leg member flange
and bolt head/nut is taken as 0.25 for galvanized material and 0.3 for black
material as prescribed in IS 800:2007. Based on the bolt force, the joint
 78

clamping capacity is worked out. The clamping capacity of a single bolt is

given by frictional coefficient times the bolt force. The total clamping
capacity of the joint is equal to number of bolts multiplied by the single bolt
clamping capacity. The assumption is that once the leg member axial force
reaches the clamping capacity of the joint, the slip will occur. Clamping
capacity for all the leg joints is calculated. Using this, the corresponding
percentage of loads at which the axial force in the leg member exceeds the
clamping force at that particular joint are worked out.

3.10.1 Test Tower Details

Four types of 400 kV towers, two types of 33 kV and one 240 kV tower
were considered for the present study. The 400 kV tower includes one tower
for each deviation type namely 0o-2o (‘DA type’), 0o-15 o (‘DB type’), 15o-30o
(‘DC type’) and dead end or 60o (‘DD type’) deviation towers. In the 33 kV
category, one 0o-30o (‘AT’ type) deviation and one 0o-60 o (‘BAT’) type
deviation tower are considered. The 240 kV tower was a tangent type. In six
towers, double cover butt joints are used for leg connection. In 240 kV
(‘K’ type) tower the legs are joined with single cover butt joint. In all these
towers, cleat angle was used inside the leg and cover plates are used out side
the leg member. For connections, 16 mm diameter, 5.6 grade bolts are used in
all the towers.
Inclinometer is used to measure the relative rotation at the joints in
400 kV ‘DB’, ‘DD’ type towers and in 33 kV 0o -30o ‘AT’ type tower. Due to
limitation in number of inclinometers and the practical difficulties involved in
taking measurements with inclinometer, dial gauges are used for other towers.
Special fixtures as shown in Figure 3.24 was fabricated and fixed at different
locations to mount the dial gauges.
 79

δX

H
θ

Figure 3.24 Special fixture for dial gauge fixing

The fixture was connected to the bolt located in the bottom portion
of the butt joint. The dial gauge needle is kept in contact with the leg member
just above this joint. The distance between the dial gauge needle and the bolt
to which the fixture is connected is measured. The displacement of the leg
member above the joint is measured as the load is increased. The angle of
rotation is determined from the measured displacement and the distance from
the bolt to dial gauge needle. The measurements are taken at different
locations such as stub level, at the top of the bottom panel, in between stub
and waist level and at bottom cross arm level where the leg member slope
changes. Dial gauge readings were taken on all the four towers.

3.10.2 400 kV ‘DB’ and ‘DD’ Type Towers

Figure 3.25 shows a 400 kV D/C ‘DB type’ tower during testing
and the inclinometer location. The rotation measurements are taken at stub
level. The measurements are taken by fixing fixtures at top and bottom of the
 80

butt joint at stub level. The bottom end of the stub member is welded to the
grillage base and anchored firmly to the ground. The leg is connected to the
stub member by butt joint with seven bolts in each flange. Expansion gap of
6 mm separates the stub member with the leg member above this joint. The
net rotation of 0.14o is measured at this joint.

Figure 3.26 shows the view of 400 kV D/C ‘DD’ type tower and
inclinometer location. The rotation was measured at stub level. The net joint
rotation of 0.11 o was observed at the stub level.

Figure 3.25 Configuration of 400 kV D/C (0 o -15o) ‘DB’ type tower and
rotation measurement at stub level
 81

Figure 3.26 Configuration of 400 kV D/C (30o -60o) ‘DD’ type tower and
rotation measurement at stub level

3.10.3 33 kV ‘AT’ Type Tower

Figure 3.27 shows the view of 33 kV D/C (0o to 30o) deviation ‘AT’
type tower configuration, splice joint location, number of bolts and the
location of inclinometer measurements taken. The tower with a height of
27 m and base width 6.8 m with spliced leg member is connected at six
locations. The rotation measurement is taken at stub level and at 3 m body
extension level.
 82

ISA 75x75x6
3510
900
1000
2600 1000
1000 6# SS
2740 1000
ISA 90x90x8 1000 6# DS
1500 2890 1465

ISA 110x110x10 1660

1140 8# DS
1500

2600 8# DS

ISA 120x120x10 3400 8# DS

3000 8# DS

3000 8# DS
6800
ISA INDIAN STANDARD ANGLE: # NUMBER OF BOLTS
INCLINOMETER LOCATION DIMENSIONS IN mm
DS DOUBLE SHEAR: SS SINGLE SHEAR

Figure 3.27 Leg joint details and rotation measurement in 33 kV (0o-30o)

‘AT’ type tower at 3 m level

3.10.4 33 kV ‘BAT’ Type Tower

In Figure 3.28, view of 33 kV D/C (0o to 60 o) deviation ‘BAT’ type

tower is shown along with the location of dial gauge measurements. The
tower has a base width of 8.3 m and height of 27.6 m. The rotation
measurements are taken at stub and at 3 m body extension levels as shown in
Figure 3.29.
 83

4630

1200
1200 4 SS
3350 1000
1000 6 DS
3490 1000
1000 8 DS
1600
3575 1512
1700

2453 10 DS

3100 10 DS

3000 10 DS

3000 10 DS

3000 10 DS

8300
DIAL GAUGE LOCATION
DS DOUBLE SHEAR SS SINGLE SHEAR
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm

Figure 3.28 Configuration of 33 kV D/C (0o-60o) ‘BAT type tower

Figure 3.29 Rotation measurements in 33 kV (0o-60o) ‘BAT’ type tower

at 3 m level
 84

3.10.5 400 kV ‘DC’ Type Tower

400 kV D/C (15 o to 30o) deviation ‘DC’ type tower is shown in

Figure 3.30 along with the location of dial gauges. The leg member was
spliced at 11 locations. The tower has a base width of 18.73 m and height of
51.1 m. The measurements are taken at stub level, at the top of the bottom
panel, in between stub and waist level and at bottom cross arm level where
the leg member slope changes as shown in Figure 3.31.

5800
2300

2800 1800
4 SS
1700

7620 4100 6 DS

3700 8 DS

8280 3855
10 DS

3945
12 DS
5800

5000 12 DS
9430

6655 14 DS

4160 16 DS

6400
16 DS

2600 16 DS

5740 16 DS
18730

DIMENSIONS IN mm: DS DOUBLE SHEAR

DIAL GAUGE LOCATIONSS SINGLE SHEAR

Figure 3.30 400 kV ‘DC’ (15o - 30 o) type tower

 85

(a) at Stub level (b) at 5.7m

(c) at 19m (d) at bottom cross arm level

Figure 3.31 Measurements in 400 kV (15 o- 30o) tower at different levels

3.10.6 400 kV ‘FD’ Type Tower

400 kV D/C (0o to 2o) deviation ‘FD’ type tower is shown in

Figure 3.32. The tower configuration, location of splice connection, bolt
details and dial gauge locations are also shown. The measurements are taken
at stub level and at 9 m levels. The axial deformation at stub level is measured
at expansion gap using LVDT.
 86

3100

2200 4375
1500
5850 2490

2635 6 SS

2875

2060 6 SS
6200
2855
3750 3085 8 DS
7000
5360 8 DS

8150
8 DS

4395 8 DS

6955 8 DS

9000 8 DS

14500
DIMENSIONS IN mm
DS DOUBLE SHEAR : SS SINGLE SHAER
DIAL GAUGE LOCATION

Figure 3.32 Configuration of 400 kV (0o-2 o) tower and leg joint details

3.10.7 240 kV ‘K’ Type Tower

240 kV D/C ‘K’ type tower is shown in Figure 3.33. The dial
gauges are fixed at different locations as shown in Figure 3.34. A single
cover butt joint is used for leg member connections and the measurements are
taken at stub level, at the top of the bottom panel, in between stub and waist
level and at bottom cross arm level where the leg member slope changes.
 87

2700
1609
876 876
1524 1524
4162
6096
6096
4 SS
5686
6021
6021
1609
6 SS
730
4320 1600

6645 6 SS
6600

2875 2050

4550 6 SS

4030

4030 6 SS

6096 6 SS
7175 7175

DIAL GAUGE LOCATION

DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm SS SINGLE SHEAR

Figure 3.33 Configuration of 240 kV ‘K’ type tower and leg joint details

(a) at stub level (b) at 5.7m (c) at bottom cross arm level

Figure 3.34 Rotation measurement in 240 kV ‘K’ type tower

 88

3.11 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES TO DETERMINE THE

NATURAL FREQUENCY OF TRANSMISSION LINE
TOWERS

The reliability of a transmission tower structure depends not only

on its design and fabrication but also on its true behaviour under dynamic
loads. The dynamic behaviour of transmission line towers are seldom studied
because of the complexity of the dynamic analysis and also due to the high
cost of dynamic field testing. The first step of a dynamic analysis is the
calculation of fundamental natural frequencies and mode shapes of the
towers. The frequencies may be employed to estimate the towers peak
response to gusty wind or the impact caused by conductor breakage. It is
important to note that the stiffness is lower for towers whose height to width
ratio is more than 7.0 leading to increased deformations under quasi static
loading due to shear deformation. Also the energy content in turbulence
spectrum is higher with reduction in frequency. These two factors lead to
increased wind load effects. The basic dynamic characteristics of any tower,
comprising of its fundamental frequencies, mode shapes and damping
determines its response for any time variant loads like wind load. The
frequency characteristics can be easily obtained for towers, as these are
essentially flexible structures and can be readily excited to their free vibration
modes which are also sustained for a long duration due to their inherent low
damping values. The advantages of obtaining the fundamental frequencies of
a structure are:

• Damage of a structure can be estimated by a comparison of

frequencies before and after the damage.

• Nature of fixity offered by the foundation, anchor bolts and

response of the structure under wind loads.
 89

Field experiment to determine the natural frequency was conducted

on the tower erected near the test bed. A 240 kV double circuit tower with 6
m square base and 36 m height was erected on rock foundation. Rock anchor
system along with spread concrete footing was provided for foundation. The
erected test tower configuration is shown in Figure 3.35. The aim of the study
is to measure the natural frequencies of the tower in the two horizontal
directions and one in the torsional direction and to calculate the damping
associated with each of these modes. The tower is excited by snapping the
tensioned manila ropes attached to the tower top and to the hydraulic rams in
longitudinal / transverse ram stations. The tower is also excited by manual
pull-push mechanism, carried out at the top of the tower and at its mid-height
and synchronizing with the time period of the tower. The fundamental
frequencies calculated using both the methods were same. It was found that,
the second method of excitation (pull-push mechanism) is sufficient to
generate a signal, strong enough to be recorded by the strong motion
accelerograph. The tower is subjected to a torsional movement by pulling and
pushing the tower at the tip of the cross arms and this is likely to generate
both the translational as well as the torsional frequencies of the tower. The
accelerograph is kept on top of the tower as shown in Figure 3.36 and the
tower frequencies are measured.
 90

2700

1609
876 876
1524 1524

L75x75x5
4162
6096
6096

L45x45x5
L65x65x5

5686
6021
6021

L90x90x8
1609
730
1600 L65x65x5 4320

6645
6600

2875 2050

L65x65x5
L100x100x8
4550

BRACES
LEGS
4030
300
5321
DIMENSIONS IN mm YIELD STRESS =350MPa
L EQUAL ANGLE SECTION

Figure 3.35 Configuration of 240 kV double circuit tower

Figure 3.36 Strong motion accelerograph at top of the tower