PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Absorption: Assimilation of molecules or other
substances into the physical structure of a liquid or
solid without chemical reaction.
Acid cleaning: The act of removing adhering
deposits, by dissolving with an acid solution in which
the deposited material is dissociated into a com-
pletely soluble state or where the binding material is
made soluble. In the latter action, the insoluble part is
disintegrated.
Acid: A compound that dissociates in water to give
an increase in hydrogen ion concentration.
Acidity: Theoretically, in water, an excess of
hydrogen ions over hydroxide ions that occurs at a pH
below 7. In water analysis, an excess of hydrogen
ions that is measurable by titration where the pH is
less than 4.3, where M alkalinity disappears (at the
methyl orange endpoint).
Activated bromine: Hypobromous acid produced by
reaction of sodium bromide and an oxidizer such as
sodium hypochlorite.
Active metal: A metal ready to corrode or being
corroded. Contrast with noble metal.
Admiralty brass: A series of three zinc alloys of
copper containing 1% tin and one of three inhibitors
for dezincification (arsenic, antimony, or phospho-
rus). Typical applications for this material are
condenser, evaporator, and heat exchanger tubing,
condenser tubing plates, and ferrules.
Adsorbable organic halide (AOX): Halogen
containing organic compounds adsorbable onto
activated carbon, environmental concern due to
potential toxicity.
Adsorption: Physical adhesion of molecules or
colloids to the surfaces of solids without chemical
reaction.
Aerated: A condition or state wherein a solution
contains dissolved atmospheric gases through
intimate contact with air.
Aerobe: An organism that grows in the presence of
free (molecular) oxygen.
Aerosol: A colloidal system involving liquid or solid
particulates dispersed in air.
Agglomerate: To gather fine particulates together
into a larger mass.
Air inlet: Opening in a cooling tower through which
air enters. Sometimes referred to as the louvered face
on induced draft towers.
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PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)
Air rate: Mass flow of dry air per cross-sectional
area per hour in the heat transfer region of a cooling
tower.
Air rumbling: Introducing pressurized air or
nitrogen into the water inlet of a heat exchanger to
dislodge accumulated foulants.
Air travel: Distance air travels in its passage through
the fill. Measured vertically on counterflow towers
and horizontally on crossflow towers.
Air velocity: Velocity of air-vapor mixture through a
specific region of the tower.
Air washer: Scrubbers used to alter the temperature,
humidity, and cleanliness of air in a building or
manufacturing facility by spraying water (usually
chilled) into the air stream.
Algae: Simple plants containing chlorophyll. Many
are microscopic, but under conditions favorable for
growth, they grow in colonies and produce mats and
similar nuisance masses.
Algaecide: A toxic material used to retard or prevent
the growth of algae.
Alkaline: 1. Having properties of an alkali. 2.
Having a pH greater than 7.
Alkalinity: Acid neutralizing power of a solution. In
water analysis, generally expressed as ppm calcium
carbonate.
Alloy steel: Steel containing specified quantities of
alloying elements added to change mechanical or
physical properties.
Alloy system: A family of alloys having in common
a single, compositionally predominant metal.
Alloy: A substance having metallic properties and
being composed of two or more chemical elements of
which at least one is a metal.
Aluminum brass: A zinc alloy of copper containing
2% aluminum and 0.1% arsenic for inhibition of
dezincification. It is often specified when erosion
resistance exceeding that of normal brasses is
required.
Ambient wet bulb temperature: The wet bulb
temperature of the air encompassing a cooling tower,
not including any temperature contribution by the
tower itself. Generally measured upwind of a tower,
in a number of locations sufficient to account for all
extraneous sources of heat.
Ambient: The atmosphere near (generally upwind)
but not affected by the cooling tower or other nearby
heat-producing equipment.
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GLOSSARY
Amines: A generic name for compounds formed by
the replacement of hydrogen atoms of ammonia by
organic alkyl groups. Example: R-NH2 R-NH-R,
where R represents the alkyl group.
Amorphous: Not having a crystalline shape or form.
AMP: Aminotris methylene phosphonic acid.
Amperometric: An analytical method based on the
determination of a flow of current, where the current
flow is related to the concentration of the material
being determined. Commonly used to measure active
halogen species in water.
Amphoteric: Capable of reacting chemically either
as an acid or a base. In reference to certain metals,
signifies their propensity to corrode at both high and
low pH.
Anaerobes: Organisms that have the ability to grow
in the absence of oxygen.
Anion: A negatively charged ion resulting from
dissociation of salts, acids, or alkalis in aqueous
solution.
Anionic: The condition of a polymer, colloid, or
large particle having exchangeable cations on its
surface and an opposite, negative charge on the
substrate.
Annealing: The process of heating to and holding at
a suitable temperature and then cooling at a suitable
rate, for such purposes as reducing hardness, reliev-
ing residual stresses, and producing a desired
microstructure. When the term is used by itself, full
annealing is implied. When the treatment is applied
only for the relief of stress, it is properly called stress
relieving or stress-relief annealing.
Anode: The electrode of an electrochemical cell at
which oxidation occurs. Electrons flow away from the
anode in the external circuit. It is usually at the anode
that corrosion occurs and metal ions enter solution.
Contrast with cathode.
Anodic inhibitor: A material or combination of
materials that prevent or reduce corrosion by a
physical, physiochemical, or chemical action at the
anodic surface of a metal. Contrast with cathodic
inhibitor.
Anodizing: The treatment of a metal surface
whereby the metal is made anodic.
Antifoam: Substances such as silicones, organic
phosphates, and alcohols that inhibit formation of
bubbles in a liquid by reducing the surface tension of
the liquid.
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Applied stress: Stresses extrinsic to the material
itself, such as those imposed by service conditions.
Contrast with residual stress.
Approach: a) For a cooling tower, the difference
between the cold water temperature and either the
ambient or entering wet bulb temperature. b) For a
heat exchanger, the difference between the process
outlet and the cooling water inlet temperatures. An
increase in Approach can indicate heat transfer
problems within the exchanger. Approach does not
distinguish between waterside and process-side
problems.
Aquifer: A porous, subsurface geological structure
carrying or holding water.
Area Effect: Anodic corrosion rates may be spread
over a large area (low corrosion rates) or a small area
(high corrosion rates).
Atmospheric: Refers to the movement of air through
a cooling tower purely by natural means or by the
aspirating effect of water flow.
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate): An important
molecule in the metabolism of all microorganisms,
termed “energy rich” since reactions involving ATP
produce large amounts of energy.
Austenite: A solid solution of one or more elements
in face-centered cubic iron. Austenite is the basic
constituent of the 300 series stainless steels (304,
316, etc.).
Austenitic stainless steel: A nonmagnetic stainless
steel possessing a microstructure of austenite. In
addition to chromium, these steels commonly contain
at least 8% nickel.
Autocatalytic corrosion: Corrosion processes that
are self-sustaining.
Autocatalytic reaction: Self-propagating reactions
that speed up the corrosion process.
Automatic variable pitch fan: A propeller type fan
whose hub incorporates a mechanism, which enables
the fan blades to be repitched simultaneously and
automatically. They are used on cooling towers and
air-cooled heat exchangers to trim capacity and
conserve energy.
Autotrophs: Organisms that use carbon dioxide for
some or all carbon requirements.
Avogadro’s number: The number of molecules in a
gram-molecular weight of any substance, 6.02 X 1023.
Back flushing: In a heat exchanger, reversing the
water flow direction to dislodge accumulated
foulants.
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Bacteria: Microscopic single-cell plants that
reproduce by fission or by spores, identified by their
shapes (coccus for spherical, bacillus for rod-shaped,
and spirillum for curved).
Baffle cut: That portion of the inner diameter of the
shell, expressed as a percentage, which is not closed
by a baffle.
Baffle pitch or spacing: The center-to-center
distance between adjacent baffles.
Baffle: Partition that causes fluids to change
direction on the shell side of a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger.
Barometric condenser: Creates a vacuum by
condensing a gaseous stream in direct contact with
cooling water.
Base metal: 1. In welding, the metal to be welded. 2.
After welding, that part of the metal that was not
melted.
Base: A compound that dissociates in water to give
an increase in hydroxyl ion concentration. An
alkaline substance.
Basin curb: Top level of the coldwater basin
retaining wall; usually the datum from which pump-
ing head and various elevations of the tower are
measured.
Basin: Generally that part of a cooling tower that
receives the water passing over and dispersed by the
interior wood structure. This may sometimes be
referred to as the sump, or it may be used to designate
the pond area of a constructed spray cooling system.
Bay: The area between adjacent transverse and
longitudinal framing bents in a cooling tower.
Bent: A transverse or longitudinal line of structural
framework composed of columns, girts, ties, and
diagonal bracing members in a cooling tower.
Bicarbonate: A form of alkalinity found in varying
amounts in all natural waters and in cooling water
systems. It represents carbonic acid with half of the
acidity neutralized, or it can be considered carbonate
with half of the alkalinity neutralized.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): The oxygen
required by bacteria for oxidation of the soluble
organic matter under controlled test conditions.
Biocide: A chemical used to control the population
of troublesome microbes.
Biofilm: The deposit formed when microorganisms
attach to surfaces. Can contain particulates such as
scale, corrosion products, and silt.
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PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)
PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Biofouling monitor: A device used to measure
biofilm development and removal.
Biofouling: The excessive growth and development
of members of the lower forms of the plant kingdom.
Biological fouling: In cooling systems, this repre-
sents obstructive growth or accumulation of various
organisms, such as algae, bacteria, and fungi.
Biolytic agent: An agent capable of disrupting cell
walls.
Biopolymers: Any of a group of high molecular
weight molecules that are significant for their role in
the structure or metabolism of organisms, often
composed of low molecular weight molecules bonded
together in a regular manner.
Biota: All living organisms of a region or system.
Birmingham wire gauge (BWG): A common scale
used to define heat exchanger tube dimensions.
Bivalve: Any mollusk with a shell containing two
halves.
Bleed-off rate: See Blowdown.
Bleed-off: See Blowdown.
Blowdown: The withdrawal of water from an
evaporating water system to maintain a dissolved
solids balance within specified limits of concentra-
tion of those solids. Mathematically, Blowdown is
equal to the Makeup divided by the Cycles of
concentration and the difference between the Makeup
and Evaporation.
Blower: A squirrel cage (centrifugal) type fan usually
for operation at higher than normal static pressures.
Blowout: See Windage.
Bonnet: The rounded closed end of a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger.
Brake horsepower: The actual power output of a
motor, turbine, or engine.
Brass: An alloy consisting mainly of copper (over
50%) and zinc to which smaller amounts of other
elements may be added.
Breakpoint chlorination: A process wherein
enough chlorine is added to destroy the chloramines
and organics, and the total chlorine remaining is
almost wholly composed of free available chlorine.
British Thermal Unit (Btu): The amount of heat
gain (or loss) required to raise (or lower) the tempera-
ture of one pound of water 1°F.
Brittle fracture: Sudden fracture with little or no
plastic deformation.
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GLOSSARY
Brominater: A device that uses water flow and
temperature to control the dissolution of solid
bromine-based biocides within a chamber before the
bromine is fed to a cooling water system.
Bromochlorodimethyl hydantoin (BCDMH): A
chlorine and bromine release compound, an oxidizing
biocide.
Bronze: A copper-rich copper-tin alloy with or
without small proportions of other elements, such as
zinc and phosphorus. Also, certain other essentially
binary copper-based alloys containing no tin, such as
aluminum bronze, silicon bronze, and beryllium
bronze.
Buffer: A substance in solution, which accepts
hydrogen ions or hydroxyl ions added to the solution
as acids or alkalis, minimizing a change in pH.
Bulk water: The water contained in the entire
system.
BZT: Benzotriazole.
Calcite: Most common form of calcium carbonate
scale experienced in cooling water. At an SI over 8,
chemical treatment is required to control precipita-
tion.
Calcium hardness: Water hardness due to the
soluble calcium in water.
Calcium sulfate: In solution, this is a noncarbonate
or permanent type of hardness. In precipitated or
insoluble form, it can produce a very inert, adherent
deposit or scale.
Capacity: The amount of water that a cooling tower
will cool through a specified range at a specified
approach and wet bulb temperature.
Carbide: A compound of carbon with one or more
metallic elements.
Carbon dioxide: A gaseous stable oxide of carbon
that has an acidic reaction when dissolved in water.
Forms carbonic acid.
Carbon steel: Steel that owes its properties chiefly
to the presence of carbon in amounts up to 2%; also
termed ordinary steel, straight carbon steel, and plain
carbon steel.
Carbonate hardness: That hardness in a water
caused by bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium
and magnesium. If alkalinity exceeds total hardness,
all hardness is carbonate hardness; if hardness
exceeds alkalinity, the carbonate hardness equals the
alkalinity. Contrast with noncarbonate hardness.
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Carburization: The introduction of carbon into a
solid metal by exposure of the metal to a high-
temperature environment in which carbon or its
compounds are present.
Casing: Exterior enclosing wall of a tower, exclusive
of the louvers.
Catalase: An enzyme that is capable of catalyzing
the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen
and water, widely distributed in microorganisms.
Catalysis: Addition of a material (catalyst) that does
not take a direct part in a chemical reaction but
increases the rate of the reaction.
Catalyzed: Facilitated by an agent said to be a
catalyst. In chemical reactions, the catalyst increases
the kinetics (speed) of the reaction by lowering the
activation energy.
Cathode: In a corrosion cell, the area over which
reduction is the principal reaction. It is usually an
area that is not attacked. Contrast with anode.
Cathodic inhibitor: A material or combination of
materials that prevent or reduce corrosion by a
physical, physiochemical, or a chemical action at the
cathodic surface of a metal. Contrast with anodic
inhibitor.
Cathodic protection: The use of an impressed
current or sacrificial anodes to prevent or reduce the
rate of corrosion of a metal in an electrolyte by
making the metal the cathode of the corrosion cell.
Cation: A positively charged ion resulting from
dissociation of molecules in solution.
Cationic: The condition of a polymer, colloid, or
large particle having exchangeable anions on its
surface and an opposite, positive charge on the
substrate.
Caustic cracking: A form of stress corrosion
cracking in which continuous, predominantly
intergranular cracks are produced by the simulta-
neous exposure of a metal to tensile stresses and
concentrated caustic.
Caustic soda: A common water treatment chemical,
sodium hydroxide (lye).
Caustic: A hydroxide of a light metal, such as
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
Cavitation corrosion: A form of erosion-corrosion
caused by the hammer-like effect of collapsing air
bubbles in high velocity turbines, propellers, etc.
Cavitation damage: Metal loss caused by the rapid,
repeated formation and collapse of cavities in liquid.
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Cavitation: The formation and instantaneous
collapse of innumerable tiny voids or cavities within
a liquid subjected to rapid and intense pressure
changes.
Cell: Smallest tower subdivision that can function as
an independent unit with regard to air and water flow;
it is bounded by either exterior walls or partition
walls. Each cell may have one or more fans and one
or more distribution systems.
Cellulose: The fibrous material of wood.
Cementite: A compound of iron and carbon known
chemically as iron carbide. Characterized by great
hardness. A lamellar constituent of pearlite.
C-Factor: A dimensionless number used to monitor
and trend waterside fouling in heat exchangers. It is a
waterside measurement of orifice size. A drop in C-
Factor can indicate a flow restriction within the heat
exchanger. C-Factor is more accurate than Delta P in
that it includes the effect of changes in water flow
rate. C-Factor equals the flow rate divided by the
square root of the Delta P.
Channeling: In cooling towers, a condition in which
the distribution of water over packing is concentrated
in a localized area rather than uniformly throughout
the tower, resulting in reduced cooling efficiency.
Channels: The ends of shell-and-tube heat exchang-
ers (sometimes part of the shell itself, sometimes
bolted onto the end of the shell) that direct the
tubeside fluid to the tubesheet.
Charge reinforcement: The process of adding a
like-charged polymer (usually anionic) to cooling
water in order for colloids to adsorb the charge,
increasing their repulsive forces.
Chelant: Compounds (EDTA and NTA) that form
soluble complexes with hardness. Used to control
selective heavy metal deposits.
Chelating agents: Organic compounds having the
ability to withdraw ions from water solutions into
soluble complexes. Examples are EDTA and NTA.
Chelation: The act of withdrawing ions into soluble
complexes.
Chemical feeding: The controlled addition of
chemicals into a water system to obtain a specific
effect.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD): A measure of
organic matter and other reducing substances in
water.
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Chevron pattern: A fractographic pattern of radial
marks that resemble nested letters V. Chevron
patterns are typically found on brittle fracture
surfaces in parts whose widths are considerably
greater than their thicknesses. The points of the
chevrons can be traced back to the fracture origin.
Chilled water systems: Closed recirculating cooling
water systems usually operated in conjunction with
some form of refrigeration or secondary cooling.
Chiller: See Refrigeration machine.
Chimney: See Shell.
Chloride: Soluble ionic form of elemental chlorine.
Useful as a measure of blowdown or bleed-off
control.
Chlorination: The treatment of water using gaseous
chlorine or other chlorine releasing agents. Chlorina-
tion is most commonly used for making water safe
for drinking purposes. In cooling water systems,
chlorine is used to control biological fouling.
Chlorine demand: The difference between the
amount of chlorine applied to treat a water supply and
the amount of free plus combined chlorine (total
chlorine) remaining at the end of a specified contact
period.
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2): An oxidizing biocide.
Chloroisocyanurates: Chlorine release compounds,
oxidizing biocide.
Chromate: Refers particularly to a chemical type
inhibitor containing hexavalent chromium in the
compound. Generally considered to be sodium
chromate. However, when referring to a chromate
treatment, it can include any compound containing
the chromate or dichromate radical.
Circulating water rate: Quantity of hot water
entering the cooling tower.
Cleanliness factor: The measured heat transfer
coefficient (U value) divided by the design U value.
For a completely clean condenser, the cleanliness
factor is 1.
Closed circulating water system: See Closed
cooling system.
Closed cooling system: A water system not sub-
jected to evaporation or other losses and having no
normal makeup demand.
Coagulation: The neutralization of the charges on
colloidal matter (sometimes also considered to be
flocculation).
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GLOSSARY
Coalescence: The union of particles of a dispersed
phase into larger particles, usually effected below the
fusion point.
Cold flow: Deformation of an elastic material
resulting from stresses applied at ambient tempera-
ture.
Cold water temperature: Temperature of the water
leaving the collection basin, exclusive of any tem-
perature effects incurred by the addition of makeup or
the removal of blowdown.
Cold well: Section of the tower basin that contains
screens and pumps to circulate the cold water to the
process heat load.
Cold worked: Plastic deformation resulting in
substantial increases in strength and hardness of a
metal. Visible structural changes include distortion of
grains and, in some cases, mechanical twining.
Coliform bacteria: Bacteria found in the intestinal
tract of warm-blooded animals and used as indicators
of pollution in water.
Collection basin: Vessel below and integral with the
tower where water is transiently collected and
directed to the sump or pump suction line.
Colloids: Matter of very fine particle size, usually in
the range of 10-5 to 10-7 cm in diameter.
Combined residual chlorine: Chlorine in combina-
tion with ammonia or organic nitrogen compounds.
Competing ion effect: Certain ions are capable of
forming a soluble ion pair that will decrease the
deposition potential of certain scales. An example is
magnesium forming a soluble ion pair with sulfate
and decreasing the scale potential of calcium sulfate.
Concentration cell: An electrolytic cell, the electro-
motive force of which is caused by a difference in
concentration of some component in the electrolyte.
This difference leads to the formation of discrete
cathode and anode regions and subsequent corrosion.
Concentration ratio (CR): See Cycles of concen-
tration.
Concentration: The process of increasing the
dissolved solids per unit volume of solution, usually
by evaporation of the liquid. Also, the amount of
material dissolved in a unit volume of solution.
Condensate: Water obtained by evaporation and
subsequent condensation.
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Condenser: In a refrigeration machine, typically a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger that transfers heat from
the primary refrigerant (Freon or ammonia) to the
condenser cooling water by condensing the primary
refrigerant.
Conduction: The transfer of heat through a body by
molecular motion.
Conductivity meter: In cooling system applications,
a device used to control cycles of concentration by
measuring the specific conductance of water.
Conductivity: In water treatment, this represents the
current carrying capacity of a water. It is easily
determined by applying a fixed voltage between two
non-polarizing electrodes of fixed area and set at a
fixed distance apart. Electrical conductivity is usually
expressed in micromhos (microsiemens) per centimeter.
Contaminant: Any foreign component present in
another substance.
Convection: The transfer of heat through a fluid by
circulating currents.
Cooling lake or pond: A type of recirculating
cooling system that uses man-made lakes or ponds to
dissipate heat.
Cooling range: The numerical difference between
the water temperature entering the cooling tower at
the distribution system and the cold water tempera-
ture leaving the sump of the cooling tower.
Cooling tower: An enclosed, steady flow device for
cooling water by evaporation and sensible heat
exchange through direct contact with air.
Cooling water: Any water that removes heat from a
point or area of higher temperature and delivers to a
point or area of lower temperature.
Corrater: Electronic device for measuring the
corrosion rates or pitting tendency of a given metal-
lurgy.
Corrosion coupon: A small, preweighed, metal
specimen used to measure the average corrosion rate
over the exposure period.
Corrosion fatigue: The process in which a metal
fractures prematurely under conditions of simulta-
neous corrosion and repeated cyclic loading at lower
stress levels or fewer cycles than would be required in
the absence of the corrosive environment.
Corrosion inhibitor: Any substance that effectively
decreases the corrosion rate when added to an
environment in small concentrations.
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Corrosion product: Substance formed as a result of
corrosion.
Corrosion test rack: A serpentine piping arrange-
ment used to hold corrosion coupons.
Corrosion: The chemical or electrochemical
reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its
environment that produces a deterioration of the
material and its properties.
Corrosivity: The tendency of an environment to
cause corrosion in a given system.
Counterflow: Airflow direction through the fill is
countercurrent to that of the falling water.
Creep: The microstructural deformation of metals
held for long periods of time at stresses below the
yield strength and at temperatures slightly above the
recrystallization temperature. Long-time creep at
elevated temperatures frequently produces intergranu-
lar, discontinuous cracks.
Crevice corrosion: A type of concentration cell
corrosion caused by the concentration or depletion of
dissolved salts, metal ions, oxygen, or other gases in
crevices or pockets remote from the principal fluid
stream, with a resultant buildup of differential cells
that ultimately cause deep pitting. Also termed
deposit corrosion and gasket corrosion.
Crossflow: Airflow direction through the fill is
essentially perpendicular to that of the falling water.
Cupronickel: A copper-based alloy containing 5 to
30% nickel.
Cycles of concentration (COC): In an evaporating
water system, the ratio of the concentration of a
specific substance in the recirculating (blowdown)
water to the concentration of the same substance in
the makeup water. Also, the quotient of the makeup
water flow divided by the blowdown flow.
Cyclic stress: A stress whose magnitude fluctuates.
Contrast with static stress.
Dark etching constituents: Constituents of a
microstructure that appear dark after etching. They
are generally mixtures, not a single, well-defined
material.
DBNPA (2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide): A
non-oxidizing biocide, reacts with cell’s enzymes.
Dealkalization: Any process for reducing the
alkalinity of water.
Dealloying: Selective corrosion of one or more
components of a solid solution alloy. Also called
parting or selective leaching.
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Decarburization: The loss of carbon from the
surface of a ferrous metal as a result of heating in a
medium that reacts with carbon.
Defect: An imperfection in a material that contrib-
utes significantly to failure or limited serviceability.
Contrast with flaw.
Deionization: Any process removing ions from
water, but most commonly an ion exchange process
where cations and anions are removed independently
of each other.
Delignification: Destructive action on wood,
resulting from chemical activity that removes tannins
and lignins, leaving the structure in a fibrous,
weakened state.
Delta P: The pressure difference across a pump,
valve, orifice, or heat exchanger, generally used in
flow calculations. Delta P is one of the variables
needed to calculate C-Factor.
Delta T: The temperature difference across a cooling
tower or heat exchanger, generally used in heat
transfer calculations.
Demineralization: Any process used to remove
minerals from water; however, commonly the term is
restricted to ion exchange processes.
Dendrite: A metal solidification crystal that exhibits
a tree-like, branching pattern that forms in cast
metals that are slowly cooled through the solidifica-
tion range.
Denickelification: Corrosion in which nickel is
selectively leached from nickel-containing alloys.
Most commonly observed in copper-nickel alloys
after extended service in fresh water.
Denitrification: Energy yielding metabolism where
nitrite or nitrate is reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas.
Denitrifiers: Those bacteria capable of carrying out
the denitrification process.
Depassivation (activation): The changing of a metal
surface from a chemically nonreactive (passive)
condition to a reactive (corroding) condition.
Depassivation agent: A substance, usually an ion
such as chloride, whose reaction with a metal surface
destroys its passive character.
Deposit: Material formed or deposited on a surface
in contact with a solution.
Deposition: A water borne problem resulting in the
accumulation of various solids.
Desalination: The removal of inorganic dissolved
solids from water, especially salt water.
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GLOSSARY
Dezincification: The leaching of zinc from brass,
which leaves the metal with a weak porous copper
structure, and reddish, coppery color instead of the
yellow color usually associated with brass. Most
commonly found in copper-zinc alloys containing
less than 85% copper after extended service in water
containing dissolved oxygen. Uniform loss of zinc is
termed layer-type dezincification; localized loss of
zinc is termed plug-type dezincification.
Dialysis: A separation process that depends on
differences in diffusion rates of solutes across a
permeable membrane.
Diatoms: Organisms related to algae, having a
brown pigmentation and a siliceous skeleton.
Differential aeration cell: An electrical potential
generated by differences in the availability of oxygen.
Differential ion concentration cell: Cooling water
deposits can lead to increased pH at the cathode and
decreased pH at the anode if the two sites do not mix,
as in an occluded cell.
Differential Microbiological Analysis (DMA): Lab
analysis to determine quantity and type of microor-
ganisms present.
Dip slides: Agar impregnated paddles used to
measure aerobic bacteria and fungi in cooling water
samples.
Disinfection: Application of energy or chemical to
kill pathogenic organisms.
Dispersant: A chemical that causes particulates in a
water system to remain in suspension.
Dissolved solids: Materials that are completely
dissolved in water solution and not removable by
conventional filtration.
Distribution basin: Shallow pan-type elevated basin
used to distribute hot water over the tower fill by
means of orifices in the basin floor. Application is
normally limited to crossflow towers.
Distribution system: Those parts of a tower,
beginning with the inlet connection, which distribute
the hot circulating water within the tower to the
points where it contacts the air for effective cooling.
May include headers, laterals, branch arms, nozzles,
distribution basins, and flow regulating devices.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): The repository of
genetic information in a microorganism.
Double flow: A crossflow cooling tower where two
opposed fill banks are served by a common air
plenum.
426 CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
DPD (Diethylparaphenylenediamine) test: A testing
method to determine free and total residual chlorine
levels in which the red color that is produced by the
reaction of chlorine and iodide is either titrated to a
colorless endpoint or is measured on a photometer.
Drift eliminators: An assembly of baffles or laby-
rinth passages through which the air passes prior to
its exit from the tower, for the purpose of removing
entrained water droplets from the exhaust air.
Drift: In cooling tower operations, water lost from the
tower as liquid droplets entrained in the exhaust air.
Driver: Primary drive for the fan assembly. Al-
though electric motors predominate, it may also be a
gas engine, steam turbine, hydraulic motor, or other
power source.
Dry bulb temperature: The temperature of the
entering or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower
as measured with a dry bulb thermometer.
Dry cooling tower: See Fin-fan cooler.
Ductile fracture: Fracture characterized by tearing
of metal accompanied by appreciable gross plastic
deformation and expenditure of considerable energy.
Ductility: The ability of a material to deform
plastically without fracturing.
Eddy-current testing: An electromagnetic nonde-
structive testing method in which eddy-current flow
is induced in the test object. Changes in flow caused
by variations in the object are reflected into a nearby
coil or coils where they are detected and measured by
suitable instrumentation.
Eductor: The mechanical arrangement for the
removal of a gas or a liquid from a system, by means
of a high velocity flow of another gas or water stream
through an orifice.
Elastic limit: The maximum stress that a material
will withstand without permanent deformation.
Electrochemical: A chemical action that requires the
transfer of electrons between anodes and cathodes in
an electrolyte solution.
Electrolyte: 1. An ionic conductor. 2. A liquid, most
often a solution that will conduct an electric current.
Electromotive Force: The driving force that causes
electrons to flow through the external circuit in a
voltaic cell. Also known as the voltage or cell
potential.
Elution: The process of extracting one solid from
another. Often used incorrectly to describe the
regeneration of an ion exchanger.
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Embrittlement: Reduction in normal ductility of a
metal due to a physical or chemical change. (See
Hydrogen damage.)
Emulsion: A colloidal dispersion of one liquid in
another.
Endospore: A type of spore formed by an organism;
in the spore state the microorganism is very resistant
to lack of nutrients, heat, or antimicrobial agents.
Endothermic: Absorbing heat.
Entering wet bulb temperature: The wet bulb
temperature of the air actually entering the tower,
including any effects of recirculation. In testing, the
average of multiple readings taken at the air inlets to
establish a true entering wet bulb temperature.
Enthalpy: The internal energy (heat content) of a
body.
Entrainment: The transport of water into a gas
stream. In a boiler, this is carryover; in a cooling
tower, drift.
Entropy: A mathematical expression applying to the
limits of the availability of energy; a measure of the
random motion of matter.
Enzyme: A protein that acts as a highly efficient and
specific biological catalyst for a chemical reaction.
EPA: US Environmental Protection Agency.
Equalization: Minimization of variations in flow
and composition by means of a storage reservoir.
Equivalent weight: The weight in grams of a
substance, which combines with or displaces one
gram of hydrogen; it is usually obtained by dividing
the formula weight by the valence.
Erosion: Destruction of metals or other materials by
the abrasive action of moving fluids, usually acceler-
ated by the presence of solid particles or matter in
suspension. When corrosion occurs simultaneously,
the term erosion-corrosion is often used.
Erosion-corrosion: The increase in the rate of metal
deterioration from abrasive effects, increased by high
water velocities and suspended solids.
Etching: In metallography, the process of subjecting
the surface of a metal to preferential chemical or
electrolytic attack to reveal microstructural detail. For
ferrous metals, 2% nitric acid in ethyl alcohol (nital)
and 4% picric acid in ethyl alcohol (picral) are most
commonly used.
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA): The
sodium salt is the usual form of this chelating
material.
CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Eukaryote: Type of cell in which the chromosomes
are separated from the cytoplasm in a defined
nucleus. Algae, fungi, and protozoa are eukaryotes.
Eutrophication: The enrichment of waters with
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) giving rise to
algae growth. Death of algae results in an environ-
ment in which bacteria flourish leading to oxygen
depletion and death of fish.
Evaluation: A determination of the total cost of
owning a cooling tower for a specific period of time.
Includes first cost of tower and attendant devices,
cost of operation, cost of maintenance and repair, cost
of land use, cost of financing, etc., all normalized to a
specific point in time.
Evaporation: Water evaporated from the circulating
water into the air stream in the cooling process.
Mathematically, Evaporation is the difference
between the Makeup and Blowdown.
Evaporative condenser: A cooling system that
employs condenser coils to cool hot fluid. Heat is
rejected to water sprayed on the outside of the coils.
Evaporator: In a refrigeration machine, typically a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger that transfers heat from
the secondary refrigerant (chilled water or brine) to
the primary refrigerant (Freon or ammonia) through
evaporation of the primary refrigerant.
Exfoliation: a) Subsurface corrosion in zones
parallel to the surface of the metal, causing layers of
the metal to be elevated by the formation of corrosion
products. This type of corrosion is most commonly
associated with cupronickel alloys and aluminum. b)
Localized dislodgement of high-temperature metal
oxides in the form of flakes, often as a consequence
of thermal stresses.
Exothermic: Evolving heat.
Extractives: Generally refers to those natural
substances in wood that are soluble in water and can
be dissolved out.
Facultative anaerobe: An organism that normally
grows in the presence of oxygen but which can grow
in its absence.
Facultative organisms: Microbes capable of
adapting to either aerobic or anaerobic environments.
Failure: A general term used to imply that a part in
service (1) has become completely inoperable, (2) is
still operable but is incapable of satisfactorily
performing its intended function, or (3) has deterio-
rated seriously to the point that it has become
unreliable or unsafe for continued use.
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GLOSSARY
Fan cylinder: Cylindrical or Venturi shaped struc-
ture in which a propeller fan operates. Sometimes
referred to as a fan stack on larger towers.
Fan deck: Surface enclosing the top structure of an
induced draft cooling tower, exclusive of the distribu-
tion basins on a crossflow tower.
Fan pitch: The angle that the blades of a propeller
fan make with the plane of rotation, measured at a
prescribed point on each blade.
Fan scroll: Convolute housing in which a centrifugal
(blower) fan operates.
Fatigue crack: A fracture that initiates and grows
under the conditions of fatigue. (Compare with
Corrosion fatigue.)
Fatigue limit: The maximum stress that presumably
leads to fatigue fracture in a specified number of
stress cycles.
Fatigue: A phenomenon leading to fracture under
repeated or fluctuating stresses that have a maximum
value less than the tensile strength of the material.
FDA: US Food and Drug Administration.
Fermentation: The conversion of organic matter to
carbon dioxide, methane, and similar low-molecular
weight compounds by anaerobic bacteria.
Ferric iron: A form of iron, oxidized to its trivalent,
most stable state. Very slightly soluble in water.
Ferrite: Designation commonly assigned to alpha
iron-containing elements in solid solution.
Ferrous hydroxide: A white corrosion product of
iron. Ferric ion incorporated in the substance will
alter the color to green, brown, or black.
Ferrous iron: A form of iron oxidized to a divalent
state.
Filamentous: Long and thread-like in shape
Fill cube: (1) Counterflow: The amount of fill
required in a volume one bay long by one bay wide
by an air travel high. (2) Crossflow: The amount of
fill required in a volume one bay long by an air travel
wide by one story high.
Fill deck: One of a succession of horizontal layers of
splash bars utilized in a splash filled cooling tower.
The number of fill decks constituting overall fill
height, as well as the number of splash bars incorpo-
rated within each fill deck, establishes the effective
primary heat transfer surface.
428 CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
Fill sheet: One of a succession of vertically ar-
ranged, closely spaced panels over which flowing
water spreads to offer maximum surface exposure to
the air in a film filled cooling tower. Sheets may be
flat, requiring spacers for consistent separation; or
they may be formed into corrugated, chevron, and
other patterns whose protrusions provide proper
spacing and whose convolutions provide increased
heat transfer capability.
Fill: That portion of a cooling tower that constitutes
its primary heat transfer surface. Sometimes referred
to as packing.
Fillet: A concave junction at two surfaces.
Film fill: Divides inlet water into a thin film falling
over a large packing area to expose maximum water
surface without breaking into droplets. A number of
film fill designs are available. Film fill is more
thermally efficient than Splash fill and more prone to
fouling.
Filtrate: The liquid passing through a filter.
Filtration: The process of separating solids from a
liquid by means of a porous substance through which
only the liquid passes.
Fin-fan cooler: A series of tubes (typically with fins
to increase heat transfer) over which air passes
(typically forced by a fan) for the purpose of cooling
the fluid within the tubes. Sometimes called a dry
cooling tower because no water is used for cooling.
Fission: In biology, the process of reproduction by
cell splitting.
Flaw: As used here, an imperfection in a material
that does not affect its usefulness or serviceability.
Contrast with defect.
Float valve: A valve that is mechanically actuated by
a float. Utilized on many cooling towers to control
makeup water supply.
Flocculation: The process of agglomerating coagu-
lated particles into settleable flocs, usually of a
gelatinous nature.
Flow control valves: Manually controlled valves that
are used to balance flow of incoming water to all
sections of the tower.
Flow rate: The movement of water expressed as
volume per unit time.
Flow-induced vibration: Tube vibration resulting
from the mechanical effects of fluids impinging on
tube surfaces. Such vibrations may induce wear or
cracking, especially if the tubes vibrate at their
natural frequency.
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)

Flume: A raceway or channel constructed to carry
water or to permit flow measurements.
Flushing: The act of cleaning out a system, using a
flow of water, generally at high rates.
Flux: In welding, material used to prevent the
formation of or to dissolve and facilitate the removal
of oxides and other undesirable substances.
Foam: A collection of minute bubbles formed on the
surface of a liquid by agitation, fermentation, etc.
Fogging: A reference to the visibility and path of the
effluent air stream after having exited the cooling
tower. If visible and close to the ground, it is referred
to as fog. If elevated, it is normally called the plume.
Fold: A surface defect, which often appears as a
seam, caused by folding over of hot metal, seams, or
sharp corners, and then rolling or forging them into
the surface. Also termed lap.
Forced draft: Refers to the movement of air under
pressure through a cooling tower. Fans of forced draft
towers are located at the air inlets to force air through
the tower.
Foulants: Any obstructive material in a cooling
system, other than scale forming precipitates.
Fouling factor: An allowance made in the design of
a heat exchanger to address the reality that the water
side surfaces will rarely be perfectly clean. Suggested
design values for a variety of process fluids and
conditions can be found in the current edition of
Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association (TEMA).
Fouling: Act of obstructing flow of water or its
evaporation by materials entering into or developing
in the water. Generally, but not necessarily, associated
with microorganisms.
Free chlorine residual: The residual in circulating
water, consisting of hypochlorite ion and hypochlor-
ous acid, which is established by chlorine treatment.
It may also be referred to as a free halogen residual,
especially if hypobromite ions are also present.
Free inhibitor residual: An excess of inhibition in
the bulk water.
Free residual chlorine (FRC): Chlorine present in
water as Cl2, HOCl, OCl, or in any mixture of these
compounds.
Fretting: A type of wear that occurs between tight
fitting surfaces subjected to cyclic, relative motion of
extremely small amplitude.
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Freundlich isotherm: The plot of test data related to
the removal of colloidal matter from water showing
the process to be adsorption.
Fumes: An aerosol with solids as the dispersed
colloids.
Fungi: A lower form of plant life, filamentous and
without chlorophyll, responsible for slime and
destruction of cooling tower wood. Includes mold
and yeast.
Galvanic anode: A metal that provides sacrificial
protection to another metal that is more noble when
electrically coupled in an electrolyte.
Galvanic cell: A cell in which chemical change is
the source of electrical energy. It usually consists of
two dissimilar conductors in contact with each other
and with an electrolyte or of two similar conductors
in contact with each other and with dissimilar
electrolytes.
Galvanic corrosion: Corrosion associated with the
current of a galvanic cell consisting of two dissimilar
conductors in an electrolyte or two similar conductors
in dissimilar electrolytes.
Galvanic couple: The connection of two dissimilar
metals in an electrolyte that results in current flow
through the circuit.
Galvanic potential: The magnitude of the driving
force in an electrochemical reaction resulting from
the coupling of dissimilar materials exposed to a
common, corrosive environment.
Galvanic series: A series of metals and alloys
arranged according to their relative electrode poten-
tials in a specified environment.
Gas porosity: Fine holes or pores within a metal that
are caused by entrapped gas or by evolution of
dissolved gas during solidification.
Gear reducer: See Speed reducer.
Glass-lined reactor vessel: A jacketed reactor vessel
with glass lining on the inside of the vessel. The glass
lining is used to minimize corrosion from the process
fluids and to maintain purity of the process material.
Glutaraldehyde: A non-oxidizing biocide, reacts
with cell proteins.
Gouging: A localized, crater-type attack normally
characterized by wastage of tube metal beneath a
porous deposit or at some other point of chemical
concentration.
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GLOSSARY
Grain boundary: A narrow zone in a metal corre-
sponding to the transition from one crystallographic
orientation to another, thus separating one grain from
another.
Grain growth: An increase in grain size in metals.
Grain: The primary microstructural component of
metals, consisting of an individual crystal.
Grains per gallon: A unit of concentration. 1 gr/gal
= 17.1 mg/L.
Gram-negative: Classification of microorgan-
isms according to their reaction to dye called a
Gram-stain (after Christian Gram); gram-negative
bacteria appear red.
Gram-positive: Classification of microorganisms
according to their reaction to dye called Gram-stain;
gram-positive bacteria appear purple.
Graphitic corrosion: Corrosion of gray or nodular
cast iron in which the iron matrix is selectively
leached away, leaving a porous mass of graphite
behind; it occurs in relatively mild aqueous solutions
and on buried pipe fittings.
Graphitization: A metallurgical term describing the
formation of graphite in iron or steel, usually from
decomposition of iron carbide at elevated tempera-
tures. Not recommended as a term to describe
graphitic corrosion.
Ground water: Water obtained from below the
earth’s surface, as from wells.
Half-life: See Holding time index (HTI).
Hardness: a) In water treatment, the concentration
of calcium and magnesium salts in water. Hardness is
a term originally referring to the soap-consuming
power of water; as such it is sometimes also taken to
include iron and manganese. “Permanent hardness” is
the excess of hardness over alkalinity. “Temporary
hardness” is hardness equal to or less than the
alkalinity. These are also referred to as
“noncarbonate” and “carbonate” hardness, respec-
tively. b) In metallurgy, resistance of a substance to
plastic deformation, usually by indentation. It may
also refer to stiffness or resistance to scratching or
cutting. Indentation hardness may be measured by
various hardness tests, such as Brinell, Rockwell, and
Knoop.
Header: In a cooling tower distribution system, the
main pipe receiving hot water from the riser and
carrying the hot water to the distribution mechanism.
430 CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
Heat affected zone (HAZ): That portion of the base
metal that was not melted during welding but whose
microstructure and mechanical properties were
altered by the heat.
Heat capacity: See Specific heat.
Heat exchanger: A device used to transfer heat from
a fluid flowing on one side of a barrier to a fluid or
fluids flowing on the other.
Heat flux: Amount of heat exchanged or transferred
per unit of time and area. Scale and corrosion
tendencies increase as heat flux increases.
Heat load: Total heat to be removed from the
circulating water by the cooling tower per unit time.
Heat of vaporization: The amount of heat that must
be supplied to a substance to convert it from a liquid
to a vapor.
Heat transfer coefficient (U): To simplify under-
standing and evaluating exchanger performance, most
of the variables in heat transfer have been combined
into a single constant called the overall heat transfer
coefficient or U value.
HEDP: 1-hydroxyethylidene-1, 1-diphosphonic acid.
Height: On cooling towers erected over a concrete
basin, height is measured from the elevation of the
basin curb. Nominal heights are usually measured to
the fan deck elevation, not including the height of the
fan cylinder. Heights for towers on which a wood,
steel, or plastic basin is included within the
manufacturer’s scope of supply are generally mea-
sured from the lowermost point of the basin.
Hematite: A magnetic form of iron oxide (Fe2O3).
Hematite is gray to bright red. The reddish forms are
not protective and indicate the presence of high levels
of oxygen.
Henry’s law: An expression for calculating the
solubility of a gas in a fluid based on temperature and
partial pressure.
Holding time index (HTI): Time required to reduce
a chemical added to the system to 50% of the original
concentration. In essence, the system half-life.
Holidays: Discontinuities in a coating (such as
porosity, cracks, gaps, and similar flaws) that allow
areas of base metal to be exposed to any corrosive
environment that contacts the coated surface.
Hot water temperature: Temperature of circulating
water entering the cooling tower’s distribution
system.
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)

Hot well: In towers with cyclical loads, the hot well
is a pit that collects and holds the hot return water.
Only enough water is pumped over the fill to satisfy
thermal requirements; the rest overflows to the cold
well.
Humidification: The addition of water vapor to air.
HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Condition-
ing): Generally used to refer to commercial and
industrial air conditioning systems using a refrigera-
tion machine (chiller) to supply chilled water for
cooling.
Hybrid cooling tower: See Wet-dry cooling tower.
Hydrate (hydroxide) alkalinity: The alkalinity
contribution from free hydroxide (OH) in water.
Hydrated ferric oxide (ferric hydroxide): A flaky,
red to brown corrosion product of iron or steel that
forms upon exposure to subterranean, atmospheric, or
aqueous environments.
Hydrogen damage: A form of embrittlement caused
by the diffusion of atomic hydrogen into steel, and
the reaction with carbon and other nonmetallic
impurities at the grain boundaries of the steel. The
steel is thus decarburized and the resultant formation
of methane and other gases builds up high pressures
that cause discontinuous, intergranular cracks in the
metal.
Hydrogen ion concentration: See pH.
Hydrogen sulfide: A vile smelling gas. It forms a
weak acid in water solution.
Hydrogen: In ionic form in water, it represents the
degree of acidity of a solution.
Hydrolysis: A chemical process of decomposition
involving splitting of a bond and addition of the
elements of water.
Hydrophilic: “Water loving”, often with reference
to a part of a molecule that is polar and prefers
association with a polar solvent such as water.
Hydrophobic: “Fears water”, often a part of a
molecule that prefers association with non-polar
hydrocarbon solvents.
Hydrothermal film coefficient (HFC): A calcula-
tion relating to water temperature and retention time
within a heat exchanger. This parameter is significant
in that, as both heat and retention time increase, the
average particle size of a typical suspended solid in
the cooling water also increases. The calculation for
HFC (for tube-side cooling) is HFC = (Tube Length x
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PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)
PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Number of Passes x Skin Temperature) / (Water
Velocity x 1000). HFC is a relatively new parameter
used for stress determination and there are currently
no specific limits assigned relative to stress. HFC
considers retention time within the exchanger as a
contribution to fouling potential. As the HFC
increases, so does the probability of scale formation
within the selected exchanger.
Hydrous ferrous oxide: The hydrated form of
ferrous oxide, FeO, a jet-black corrosion product. It is
readily oxidized by air.
Hydroxide: A highly alkaline radical in water
solutions.
Hydroxyapatite: A type of calcium phosphate scale
formed in cooling water at higher temperature and
alkalinity, which is generally easier to treat chemi-
cally than the much more prevalent and troublesome
tricalcium phosphate (TCP).
Hyperbolic tower: A natural draft cooling tower that
takes advantage of the temperature difference
between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the
tower to create air flow through the tower.
Impingement attack: A form of corrosion in which
velocity negatively affects the protective oxide film,
causing increased metal loss.
Inclusions: Nonmetallic impurities, such as oxides,
sulfides, and silicates, that are distributed in a metal.
Induced draft: Refers to the movement of air
through a cooling tower by means of an induced
partial vacuum. Fans of induced draft towers are
located at the air discharges to draw air through the
tower.
Inhibitor: A chemical that interferes with a chemical
reaction, such as corrosion or precipitation.
Inlet wet bulb temperature: See Entering wet bulb
temperature.
Intercrystalline: Between the grains or crystals of a
metal. Also called intergranular.
Interference: The thermal contamination of a
tower’s inlet air by an external heat source, especially
the discharge plume of another cooling tower.
Intergranular corrosion: Corrosion occurring
preferentially at grain boundaries, usually with slight
or negligible attack on the adjacent grains.
Intergranular: Between crystals or grains. Also
called intercrystalline.
Internal decay: Decay of wood beneath its surface.
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GLOSSARY
Ion exchange: A process by which certain undesired
ions of given charge are absorbed from solution
within an ion-permeable absorbent, being replaced in
the solution by desirable ions of similar charge from
the absorbent.
Ion: An atom or radical in solution carrying an
integral electric charge, either positive (cation) or
negative (anion).
Ionic strength: A measure of the strength of a
solution based on both the concentrations and
valences of the ions present.
Iron oxides: A reaction product of iron with oxygen.
It may refer to ferrous oxide, ferric oxide, or a
combination that produces magnetite.
Iron phosphate: A reaction product of iron with
orthophosphate. Sometimes active as a barrier type
inhibitor.
Iron rot: Deterioration of wood in contact with iron,
a problem associated with iron fastenings or other
iron-wood assembly junctures.
Isothiazoline: Non-oxidizing biocide, reacts with
cell’s enzymes.
Jacketed reactor vessel: A vessel with an annular
space or jacket around the outside of the vessel. The
jacket can be formed by plates or coils, can be seg-
mented, and can carry steam, cooling water, chilled
water, brine, or any combination of these fluids for both
heating and cooling as needed by the process.
Jet condenser: See Barometric condenser.
Killed steel: Steel deoxidized with a strong reducing
agent, such as silicon or aluminum, to reduce oxygen
content to a minimum so that no reaction occurs
between carbon and oxygen during solidification.
Laminar flow: Streamlined flow in a fluid. Non-
turbulent flow. Generally, liquid flow with a
Reynold’s number less than about 2100. Contrast
with Turbulent flow.
Laminations: Metal defects aligned parallel to the
worked surface of metal. They may be the result of
blisters, seams, inclusions, or segregation that is
elongated and made directional by forming the metal.
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI): A means of
expressing the degree of saturation of a water as
related to calcium carbonate solubility. A positive
value suggests the water might precipitate calcium
carbonate while a negative value indicates the water
will dissolve calcium carbonate. LSI does not
indicate the amount of precipitation that might occur
or the corrosiveness of the water.
432
Lap: A surface imperfection, with the appearance of
a seam, caused by hot metal, fins, or sharp corners
being folded over then being rolled or forged into the
surface but without being welded.
Latent heat of evaporation: The heat necessary to
overcome the attractive forces between molecules in
the liquid state in order to convert the liquid to a
vapor at constant temperature.
Leaching: The act of extracting a soluble constituent
from a material by dissolving action of water.
Leakage: Unintended water loss from a cooling
water system.
Leaving wet bulb temperature: Wet bulb tempera-
ture of the air discharged from a cooling tower.
Length: For crossflow towers, length is always
perpendicular to the direction of airflow through the
fill (air travel) or from casing to casing. For
counterflow towers, length is always parallel to the
long dimension of a multi-cell tower and parallel to
the intended direction of cellular extension on single
cell towers.
Ligament: The shortest distance between two
adjacent tubes. Also called clearance.
Lignin: The major non-cellulose constituent of
wood.
Lime: A common water treatment chemical.
Limestone (CaCO3) is burned to produce quicklime
(CaO), which is mixed with water to produce slaked
or hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2].
Lipid bilayer: Arrangement of lipids in an orga-
nized, layered structure forming a membrane such as
found in cells.
Lipid: Glyceride esters resulting from the reaction of
glycerol with a fatty acid, often contain other groups,
such as phosphate, yielding phospholipids.
Lipophilic: Having an affinity for oil. The opposite
of hydrophilic (i.e., hydrophobic).
Liquid to Gas ratio (L/G): A ratio of the total mass
flows of water and dry air in a cooling tower.
Local action: Corrosion caused by local cells on a
metal surface.
Local cells: A cell with differences of potential
between areas on a metal surface in an electrolyte.
Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD): The
average temperature differential across an entire heat
exchanger.
Longitudinal: Pertaining to occurrences in the
direction of tower length.
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Louvers: Blade or passage type assemblies installed
at the air inlet face of a cooling tower to control water
splash out or to promote uniform airflow through the
fill. In the case of film type crossflow fill, they may
be integrally molded to the fill sheets.
M alkalinity: The total alkalinity of a water sample
as measured to the methyl orange or methyl purple
endpoint (about pH 4.3).
Macrofouling: Fouling of surfaces due to organisms
larger than microscopic, most notably clams and
mussels.
Magnesium hardness: Water hardness due to
soluble magnesium in a water.
Magnesium silicate: A particularly troublesome
scale due to its high thermal insulation and difficulty
in removal. The SI should be maintained below 8 by
reducing the Cycles of concentration or the cooling
water pH. Chemical treatment can be marginally
effective, but expensive.
Magnetite: A magnetic form of iron oxide, Fe3O4.
Magnetite is dark gray to black and forms a protec-
tive film on iron surfaces.
Makeup: Refers to fresh or raw water added to a
system to replace that lost by evaporation, bleed-off,
leaks, wind drift, etc. Mathematically, Makeup is
equal to the Blowdown times the Cycles of concen-
tration and the sum of the Evaporation and
Blowdown.
Martensite: A metastable microstructure of iron
formed during rapid cooling from high temperature
that has the microstructural appearance of disarrayed
needles. Quenched structures found in ruptured boiler
tubes may have martensitic structures.
Matrix: The principal phase or base metal in which
another constituent is present. Martensitic structures.
MBT: Mercaptobenzothiazole.
Mechanical draft: Refers to the movement of air
through a cooling tower by means of a fan.
Membrane: A barrier, usually thin, that permits the
passage only of particles up to a certain size or of a
special nature.
Metabolism: All biochemical reactions in a cell.
Metabolize: To convert food, such as soluble organic
matter, to cellular matter and gaseous by-products via
a biological process.
Metallography: The science concerning the consti-
tution and structure of metals and alloys as revealed
by the microscope.
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GLOSSARY
Methyl Orange: An indicator dye used to determine
total alkalinity. Color change at end point (pH 4.3)
from yellow to salmon pink when the solution is acid.
Methyl Purple: An indicator dye used to determine
total alkalinity. End point color change is from green
to purple (acid) at pH 4.3. Equivalent in purpose to
Methyl Orange, but with more easily discerned color
change.
Microbiological: Referring to biological organisms
of microscopic size.
Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC):
Deterioration of metals as a result of the metabolic
activities of microorganisms.
Micrograph: A photographic reproduction that has
been magnified no more than 10 times.
Microorganism: Organisms (microbes) observable
only through a microscope; larger, visible types are
called macroorganisms.
Microstructure: The structure of polished and
etched metal and alloy specimens as revealed by the
microscope.
Mild steel: Carbon steel having a maximum carbon
content of approximately 0.25%.
Mill scale: A heavy oxide on metal, usually iron or
steel, resulting from its heat treatment.
Mineral: Any inorganic or fossilized organic
material having a definite chemical composition and
structure found in a natural state.
Miscibility: The ability of two liquids, not mutually
soluble, to mix.
Mist: An aerosol with liquids as the dispersed
colloids.
Mixed inhibitor: A corrosion inhibitor that sup-
presses the metal dissolution reaction at the anode
and interferes with the oxygen reduction process at
the cathode.
Module: A preassembled portion or section of a
cooling tower.
Mole: A unit weight or volume of a chemical
corresponding to its molecular weight. A mole of
water weighs 18 g, and its vapor occupies 22.4 L at
standard temperature and pressure.
Monomer: Molecule that can be reacted with other
similar or different molecules to form a repeating
structure referred to as a polymer.
Monomolecular: A descriptive term used with thin
films to indicate dimensional thickness that does not
exceed one molecular diameter of the film.
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Morphology: In biology, the shape and appearance
of a cell.
Natural draft: Refers to the movement of air through
a cooling tower purely by natural means. Typically, by
the driving force of a density differential.
Necking: Localized reduction in area during tensile
deformation.
Net effective volume: That portion of the total
structural volume of a cooling tower within which the
circulating water is in intimate contact with the
flowing air.
Neumann band: Mechanical twin in ferrite.
Neutralization: Most commonly, a chemical
reaction that produces a resulting environment that is
neither acidic nor alkaline. Also, the addition of a
scavenger chemical to an aqueous system in excess
concentration to eliminate a corrosive factor, such as
dissolved oxygen.
Nitrifier: A microorganism capable of converting
nitrite to nitrate.
Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA): A chelant with the
sodium salt being the usual form.
Nitrites: Common term for sodium nitrite that is
used for its corrosion inhibitory power in water
solutions.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria: Bacteria capable of
converting nitrogen (N2) to ammonia.
Noble metal: A metal with marked resistance to
chemical reaction, particularly to oxidation and to
solution by inorganic acids. Contrast with active
metal.
Nominal diameter: The inside diameter of the shell
rounded off to the nearest integer.
Nominal length: The length of the tube. The length
for straight tubes is taken as the actual overall length,
whereas the tube length for U-tubes is taken as the
straight length from the end of the tube to the bend
tangent.
Noncarbonate hardness: Hardness in water caused
by chlorides, sulfates, and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. Contrast with carbonate hardness.
Noncondensables: Gaseous material not liquefied
when associated water vapor is condensed in the
same environment.
Non-contact cooling: The use of water to remove
heat from a unit process without the water directly
contacting the finished product.
434
Nonferrous: Metals, other than iron or steel, or
alloys containing as their principle constituent, metals
other than iron or steel.
Nonoxidizing biocide: Compounds that interfere
with cell metabolism or disrupt the cell wall but do
not participate in a Redox reaction.
Notch sensitivity: A measure of the reduction of
strength of a metal caused by the presence of stress
concentration.
Nozzle: A device used for controlled distribution of
water in a cooling tower. Nozzles are designed to
deliver water in a spray pattern either by pressure or
by gravity flow.
NPDES permit: The National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System permit required by and issued by
the federal and state governments in the U.S.
Nucleation: Formation of many small particles that
do not precipitate but act as sites for additional
crystal growth.
Nucleic acid: A polymer formed by the joining of
nucleotides; DNA and RNA are most notable.
Nucleotide: A molecule that consists of a sugar
(mainly ribose) linked to an organic nitrogen. The
sugar contains one or more phosphate groups. ATP is
a common nucleotide.
Occluded cell: A semi-permeable barrier, such as a
deposit, inhibits mixing of cathodic and anodic
reaction products but allows some species, such as
chloride ions and hydrogen gas, to pass.
Occlusion: An absorption process by which one
solid material adheres strongly to another, sometimes
occurring by coprecipitation.
Once through cooling system: A cooling system in
which water is received from the plant supply, passed
through the process equipment, and returned to a
receiving body of water.
Open recirculating system: A cooling system in
which water is taken from a cooling tower or evapora-
tion pond, passes through the process equipment, and
then returns to the evaporation unit. This system
requires fresh makeup water to replenish that lost by
evaporation and blowdown.
Organic: Generally referred to cooling water
treatments such as tannins, lignins, or any organic
material having a useful function in water treating.
Orifice: An opening through which a fluid can pass;
a restriction placed in a pipe to provide a means of
measuring flow.
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Orthophosphate: A stable oxide of phosphorous,
which forms a trivalent negative radical. Combines
with calcium to form insoluble calcium phosphate,
which is useful in some cooling water programs
where the rate of precipitation is carefully controlled.
Osmosis: The passage of water through a permeable
membrane separating two solutions of different
concentrations; the water passes into the more
concentrated solution.
Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP): See Redox
potential.
Oxidation: A chemical reaction in which an element
or ion is increased in positive valence, losing elec-
trons to an oxidizing agent.
Oxidative phosphorylation: The conversion of
adenosine diphosphate to adenosine triphosphate in
the process of respiration.
Oxide film: A thin film formed by the reaction
product of oxygen with a metal and deposited on the
metal surface.
Oxide: Reaction product of oxygen with a metal.
Oxidizing biocide: A biocide that is able to accept
electrons from other chemical compounds. Examples
include chlorine, bromine, chlorine dioxide, ozone,
and peroxide.
Oxygen: A gaseous material that is very reactive
with most common metals when dissolved in water
contacting these metals. In cooling waters, air is the
source of the dissolved oxygen.
Ozone (O3): An oxidizing biocide.
P alkalinity: The alkalinity measured to the Phenol-
phthalein endpoint (about pH 8.3).
PAA: Polyacrylic acid.
Packing: The fill in a confined space in a stripping
vessel, ranging from simply shaped units such as
rocks or slats to complex shapes that provide large
surface area per unit volume.
Parting: See Dealloying.
Partition: a) Interior wall subdividing a cooling
tower into cells or separate fan plenum chambers.
Partions may also be selectively installed to reduce
windage water loss. b) Baffle with a 0% baffle cut
installed in the channel of a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger to force fluid or gas to pass through the
tubes of the exchanger before it is allowed to exit.
Parts per million (ppm): A measure of proportion
by weight of a compound or ions to the weight of
solution. An expression of concentration. It is related
to mg/L as follows: mg/L = ppm x specific gravity.
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GLOSSARY
Passivation: The changing of a chemically active
surface of a metal to a much less reactive state.
Passivity: A condition in which a metal, because of
an impervious covering of oxide or other compound,
has a potential much more positive than that of the
metal in its active state.
Pasteurization: A process for killing pathogenic
organisms by heat applied for a critical period of time.
Pathogens: Disease-producing microbes.
PBTC: 2-phosphonobutane-1, 2, 4-tricarboxylic acid.
Pearlite: A microstructural aggregate consisting of
alternate lamellae of ferrite and cementite.
Penetrant: Chemicals used to reduce the surface
tension of water, allowing the water to penetrate
previously impervious deposits.
Penetration: Corrosive action considered relative to
the thickness or wall of a metal surface in contact
with a solution. In welding, the distance from the
original surface of the base metal to that point at
which fusion ceased.
Peracetic acid: Oxidizing biocide.
Perforation: Corrosive action that is completed
through the thickness dimension or wall of a metal
surface.
Performance: See Capacity.
Periodic chart: An arrangement of the elements in
order of increasing atomic number that illustrates the
repetition (or periodicity) of key characteristics.
Permanent hardness: The hardness in excess of the
total alkalinity and associated with anions other than
carbonate and bicarbonate.
Permeability: The ability of a body to pass a fluid
under pressure.
pH of saturation: The pH at which a water will be
saturated with precipitable material under specified
conditions. Useful in predicting scaling potential of a
water.
pH: A means of expressing hydrogen ion concentra-
tion in terms of the powers of 10; the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.
Phase diagram: A graphical representation of the
equilibrium temperature and composition limits of
phase fields and phase reactions in an alloy system.
In a binary system, temperature is the ordinate, and
composition is the abscissa.
Phase: A physically homogeneous and distinct
portion of a material system.
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GLOSSARY
Phenolphthalein: A titrimetric indicator used in the
determination of carbonate and hydrate forms of
alkalinity. Color change occurs at pH 8.3 to red when
alkaline.
Photometric: Refers to a method for determining
concentration of certain materials in water by
measuring the intensity of light or degree of light
absorption of a beam passed through a prepared
sample.
Photomicrograph: A photographic reproduction of
any object magnified more than 10 diameters.
Photosynthesis: The process of converting carbon
dioxide and water to carbohydrates, activated by
sunlight in the presence of chlorophyll, liberating
oxygen.
Pickle liquor: Acid used in treating steel for removal
of oxide scale.
Pitot tube: An instrument that operates on the
principle of differential pressure. Its primary use on a
cooling tower is in the measurement of circulating
water flow.
Pits: Corrosion of a metal surface confined to a
point or a very small area. Attack progresses in depth,
rather than laterally.
Pitting: A type of localized corrosion commonly
found in water-bearing equipment caused by the
formation of highly active, local anodic sites.
Plain carbon steel (ordinary steel): Steel containing
carbon up to about 2% and only residual quantities of
other elements except those added for deoxidation.
Plankton: Minute animal and plant life found in
water.
Planktonic: Free swimming in aqueous environ-
ment, often applied to microorganisms.
Plastic deformation: Permanent distortion of a
material under the action of applied stresses.
Plate Count: Lab test to determine viable microor-
ganisms present in a sample.
Plate-and-frame heat exchanger: An exchanger
that consists of a stack of thin plates supported in a
frame. The plates are typically corrugated. The two
fluids flow along opposite sides of each plate.
Plenum: The enclosed space between the drift
eliminators and the fan in induced draft towers, or the
enclosed space between the fan and the fill in forced
draft towers.
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Plume abatement: Methods to affect the height,
density, or duration of a cooling tower plume.
Methods include stack design and use of wet-dry
cooling towers.
Plume: The cloud formed over a cooling tower as a
result of the atmospheric condensation of evaporated
water in the warm exhaust air as it contacts cooler,
ambient air.
POE: Polyol ester.
Polarize: In corrosion, to develop a barrier on the
anodic or cathodic surface, disrupting the corrosion
process.
Pollutant: A contaminant at a concentration high
enough to endanger the aquatic environment or the
public health.
Polyelectrolyte: A polymeric material having ion
exchange sites on its skeleton.
Polymer: A chain of organic molecules produced by
the joining of primary units called monomers.
Polymerization: Process whereby single polymer
units bond together into a chain of repeating units
Polyphosphate: Molecularly dehydrated forms of
phosphate, such as pyrophosphate, tripolyphosphate,
and metaphosphate.
Polysaccharide exopolymer: Gelatinous polymeric
material secreted by bacteria as a protective mecha-
nism.
Polysaccharide: Macromolecule resulting from the
joining of sugars.
Porosity: Voids in cast or welded metal.
Power factor: The ratio of true power (Watts) to the
apparent power as calculated by amps times volts.
Precipitate: An insoluble reaction product; in an
aqueous chemical reaction, usually a crystalline
compound that grows in size to become settleable.
Prokaryote: Simple cell of microorganism devoid of
organized nucleus.
Protozoa: Large, microscopic single-cell organisms
higher on the food chain than bacteria, which
consume bacteria.
PSO: Phosphino succinic oligomer.
Psychrometer: An instrument incorporating both a
dry bulb and a wet bulb thermometer, by which
simultaneous dry bulb and wet bulb temperature
readings can be taken.
Pulp: Fibrous matter.
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)

Quaternary ammonium compound (QAC or
Quat): A non-oxidizing biocide, disrupts cell
membranes.
Radiation: In a furnace, the transfer of heat by
energy waves, much like other forms of electromag-
netic waves (e.g., light and radio waves).
Radiographic inspection: A nondestructive testing
technique that uses penetrating radiation (x-rays,
gamma rays, etc.) to record differences in material
density, thickness, and composition on film or other
forms of radiation detectors.
Range: The temperature difference between the hot
water return and the cold water supply in an open
recirculating cooling water system.
Ranney collector: A central caisson with horizontal
spokes at the bottom used to obtain ground water
from shallow alluvial deposits.
Reaction kinetics: In general, the factors affecting
the rates of a reaction.
Recirculating cooling water: Any cooling water
system where the water is repeatedly returned to the
parts of the system.
Recirculation rate: The water flow rate in a cooling
water system.
Recirculation: In cooling towers, a phenomenon that
occurs when the hot exhaust air is forced downward
and back into the cooling tower where it mixes with
and warms the cool, fresh inlet air, resulting in
inefficient cooling.
Recrystallization: The change from one crystal
structure to another that occurs upon heating and
cooling through a transformation temperature.
Redox potential: Reduction-oxidation potential
measured against a standard electrode.
Reduction: A chemical reaction in which an element
or compound gains electrons, being reduced in
positive valence.
Reformed pearlite: Recrystallized pearlite whose
colonies are generally different in size and shape than
those of the original pearlite.
Refrigeration machine (chiller): A mechanical
device that cools a secondary refrigerant (typically
chilled water or brine) by repeatedly evaporating and
condensing a primary refrigerant, such as Freon or
ammonia. Chillers can be vapor compression
machines or absorption machines. Vapor compression
units use either a reciprocating compressor (piston
and cylinder) or a centrifugal compressor (rotary) and
require an electric motor, steam or gas driven turbine,
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
or an engine to drive the compressor. Absorption
machines use water as the primary refrigerant and a
concentrated lithium bromide solution as an absor-
bent for the water vapor. These machines use either
steam or hot water as the driving force.
Relative humidity (RH): The ratio of the mole
fraction of water vapor in air to the mole fraction of
water vapor in saturated air at the same temperature
and barometric pressure.
Residual stress: Stress present in a body that is free
of external forces or thermal gradients. Usually
results from manufacturing processes, welding, or
other mechanical or thermal processing.
Return temperature: Temperature of the cooling
water after passing through the cooling tower.
Reverse osmosis (RO): A process that reverses (by
the application of pressure) the flow of water in the
natural process of osmosis so that it passes from the
more concentrated to the more dilute solution.
Reversion: The return of molecularly dehydrated
phosphate (polyphosphate) to its hydrated origin
(orthophosphate).
Reynold’s number: A dimensionless number
indicating the energy of a liquid by means of a ratio
of the inertial forces to the viscous forces.
Riser: Piping which connects the circulating water
supply line from the level of the base of the tower or
the supply header to the tower’s distribution system.
RNA (Ribonucleic acid): The nucleic acid involved
in all stages of protein synthesis.
Root crack: A crack in either the weld or heat-
affected zone at the root of a weld.
Root of joint: The portion of a weld joint where the
members are closest to each other before welding. In
cross section, this may be a point, a line, or an area.
Root of weld: The points at which the weld bead
intersects the base-metal surfaces either nearest to or
coincident with the root of joint.
Rot: Wood destruction by biological organisms that
use the wood for food.
Rust: Common designation for the stable ferric
oxide product of corrosion of iron and steel.
Ryznar Stability Index (RSI): An empirical index
used to indicate the scaling tendency of a water with
respect to calcium carbonate. RSI < 6 indicates
scaling conditions while RSI > 6 indicates increasing
corrosive conditions.
Sacrificial anode: See Galvanic anode.
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Salinity: The presence of soluble minerals, espe-
cially chloride, in water.
Salt splitting: The ability of an anion exchanger to
convert a salt solution to caustic; the ability of a
cation exchanger to convert a salt solution to acid.
Saturation Index (SI) or Saturation Ratio (SR): A
calculation of the degree of saturation in water
relative to a particular compound and set of condi-
tions. It is calculated as a function of mineral
concentration, pH, and temperature. An SI less than
one indicates the mineral will dissolve into, not
precipitate from, the water. An SI greater than one
indicates super-saturation and mineral precipitation
can occur. The higher the SI, the greater the tendency
for the selected mineral to be a scaling problem. Note
that each mineral has different tolerance limits
relative to SI and that although treatment chemistry
does not affect SI, it can counteract the tendency of
the mineral to form scale in heat transfer equipment.
Scale pit: A collection chamber alongside a rolling
mill that receives roll cooling water containing
metallic scale.
Scale: a) The precipitate that forms on surfaces in
contact with water as the result of a physical or
chemical change. b) An oxide or sulfide of metal
formed on a surface by exposure to high temperature.
Scaling temperature: That temperature at which
relatively rapid formation of metal oxides or sulfides
begins.
Scrubber: A packed tower used to remove particu-
lates, odors, or gases from a water stream by passing
the water over a packed bed countercurrent to a
forced airflow.
Seam welding: Making a longitudinal weld in sheet
metal or tubing.
Seam: On the surface of metal, an unwelded fold or
lap that appears as a crack, usually resulting from a
defect in casting or working. It may also be a me-
chanical or welded joint, which may or may not have
a different microstructure.
Sedimentation: Gravitational settling of solid
particles in a liquid system.
Seed: A particle or particles, usually crystalline,
added to a supersaturated solution to induce precipi-
tation.
Segregation: Non-uniform distribution of alloying
elements, impurities, or microphases.
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Selecticide: Series of tests to gain information on
efficacy of selected biocides. Result yields most
effective biocide and dose for system water tested.
Selective leaching: Corrosion in which one element
is preferentially removed from an alloy, leaving a
residue (often porous) of the elements that are more
resistant to the particular environment. Common
examples of this type of corrosion are dezincification
and denickelification. Also called parting or
dealloying.
Selectivity: The order of preference of an ion
exchange material for each of the ions in the sur-
rounding aqueous environment.
Sensible heat loss: A heat transfer that occurs when
cooling water is warmer than the surrounding air. In
this case there is a tendency for the air to cool the
water by taking on its sensible heat.
Sensible heat: Heat measurable by temperature
alone.
Sensitization: In austenitic stainless steels, the
precipitation of chromium carbides, usually at grain
boundaries, on exposure to temperatures of about
1000 to 1500oF (540 to 820oC), leaving the grain
boundaries depleted of chromium and therefore
susceptible to preferential attack by a corroding
medium.
Sequester: To form a stable, water-soluble complex.
Sequestration: Formation of a water-soluble
complex or compound.
Sessile bacteria: Permanently attached; not free to
move.
Sessile: Attached to a surface, often applied to
microorganisms.
Shell: a) For a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, the
cylindrical sleeve into which the other parts of the
exchanger fit. b) For a cooling tower, the chimney-
like structure, usually hyperbolic in cross-section,
utilized to induce airflow through a natural draft
tower. Sometimes referred to as a stack or veil.
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger: The most widely
used form of heat exchanger in which one fluid
passes through a number of tubes housed in a shell
while the second fluid passes through the shell.
Siderite: Ferrous carbonate, FeCO3.
Sidestream filtration: The process of filtering a
portion of the recirculating water to remove sus-
pended solids before returning the water to the
system.
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)

Silica: Common designation for silicon dioxide, SiO2.
Silt Density Index (SDI): A measure of the ten-
dency of a water to foul a reverse osmosis membrane,
based on timed flow through a membrane filter at
constant pressure.
Silt: Insoluble suspended matter in water. The source
may be air-borne dust or entrained soil minerals.
Skin temperature: The maximum waterside surface
temperature, approximated as a function of outlet
water temperature and average heat flux and used as
the basis to calculate system saturation indices.
Slag: In metallurgical processing, the impurities
separated from molten metal during refining; in
boiler furnaces, the noncombustible ash that has
reached fusion temperatures.
Slime: Substances of viscous organic nature usually
derived from microbiological growth. Often refers to
the total accumulated mass of trapped insoluble
organic and inorganic materials in water.
Sludge volume index: An inverse measure of sludge
density.
Slurry: A water containing a high concentration of
suspended solids, usually over 5000 mg/L.
Soda ash: A common water-treatment chemical,
sodium carbonate or Na2CO3.
Softening: The removal of hardness (calcium and
magnesium) from water.
Solubility curve: A graphical representation of the
degree of solubility of a material with respect to one
defined variable.
Solubility: The amount of a substance that can be
dissolved in a solution under given conditions.
Sour water: Waters containing malodorous materi-
als, usually sulfur compounds.
Spalling: The cracking and flaking of particles out
of a surface.
Specific heat: The amount of heat (energy) a
substance can absorb per unit mass for a given
temperature rise. The specific heat of water is 1 Btu/
lb.oF (1 kcal/kg.oC).
Speed reducer: A mechanical device incorporated
between the driver and the fan of a mechanical draft
tower, designed to reduce the speed of the driver to an
optimum speed for the fan. The use of geared
reduction units predominates in the cooling tower
industry, although smaller towers will utilize differen-
tial pulleys and V-belts for the transmission of
relatively low power.
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Spheroidal carbides: An aggregate of iron or alloy
carbides, essentially spherical in shape, dispersed
singly or as colonies throughout a matrix of ferrite.
Spheroidization: Any thermal process (usually
prolonged mild overheating) that produces a rounded
or globular form of carbide in steel.
Splash bar: One of a succession of equally spaced
horizontal bars comprising the splash surface of a fill
deck in a splash filled cooling tower. Splash bars may
be flat or may be formed into a shaped cross-section
for improved structural rigidity and improved heat
transfer capability. When flat, they are sometimes
referred to as slats or lath.
Splash fill: Variously shaped lathes, generally of
wood in older towers and plastic or fiberglass in
newer towers, that cause the falling water to break
into droplets that are thermally active and increase
the contact and heat transfer between the water and
air in a cooling tower.
Spore: A reproductive cell or seed, of algae, fungi,
or protozoa.
Sporulation: Process of developing spores from
active microorganisms; the spore state is the cell’s
protection mechanism.
Spray filled: Descriptive of a cooling tower which
has no fill, with water to air contact depending
entirely upon the water breakup and pattern afforded
by pressure spray nozzles.
Spray pond: A cooling pond in which cooling water
is sprayed into the surrounding air to increase the rate
of evaporation.
Stability Index: See Ryznar Stability Index.
Stabilization: When a material is dispersed and does
not settle, it is considered stabilized.
Stabilized bromine: Sodium hypobromite reacted
with stabilizer to produce stable mixture, releases
hypobromous acid upon dilution in water.
Stabilizing: Act of keeping a water from changing,
particularly with respect to its mineral content. For
example, preventing the precipitation of calcium
carbonate.
Stack effect: Descriptive of the capability of a tower
shell or extended fan cylinder to induce air (or aid in
its induction) through a cooling tower.
Stack: An extended fan cylinder whose primary
purpose is to achieve elevation of the discharge
plume.
Stagnant: The condition of being motionless.
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PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Stainless steel: Any of several steels containing 12
to 30% chromium as the principal alloying element;
the steels usually exhibit passivity in aqueous
environments as long as the surfaces remain clean
and free of deposits.
Static stress: A stress whose magnitude remains at a
constant value. Contrast with cyclic stress.
Stiff-Davis index: An index used to predict the
stability of brackish waters, such as those used in
waterflooding.
Stoichiometric: The ratio of chemical substances
reacting in water that corresponds to the combining
weights in the theoretical chemical reaction.
Stokes’ law: An expression for calculating the rate of
fall of particles through a fluid based on density,
viscosity, and particle size.
Story: The vertical dimension between successive
levels of horizontal framework ties, girts, joists, or
beams. Story dimensions vary depending upon the
size and strength characteristics of the framework
material used.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC): Failure by
cracking under the combined action of a specific
corrodent and tensile stresses. Stresses may be
applied (external) or residual (internal). Cracking
may be either intergranular or transgranular, depend-
ing on the metal and the corrosive medium.
Stress frequency: The number of times a stress
cycle is repeated in a unit of time.
Stress raisers: Changes in contour or discontinuities
in structure that cause local increases in stress.
Stress relieving or relief: Heating to a suitable
temperature, holding long enough to reduce internal
residual stresses, and then cooling slowly enough to
minimize the development of new internal residual
stresses.
Stress: Force per unit area, often thought of as force
acting through a small area within a plane. It can be
divided into components, normal and parallel to the
plane, called normal stress and shear stress, respec-
tively. True stress denotes the stress where force and
area are measured at the same time. Conventional
stress, as applied to tension and compression tests, is
force divided by original area.
Strict (obligate) anaerobe: An organism that grows
only in the absence of free oxygen.
Substrate: In biochemistry, the molecule that is
transformed in a chemical reaction, e.g. hydrogen
peroxide is the substrate for the enzyme catalase.
440 CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
Sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB): Group of
anaerobic bacteria that can reduce sulfate to sulfide,
producing hydrogen sulfide.
Sulfur dioxide: A gaseous oxide of sulfur. Forms
mild sulfurous acid in water solution.
Sulfur trioxide: A white, fibrous solid. Forms
sulfuric acid in water solution.
Sump: A reservoir into which water collects and
from which it can be pumped. Sometimes used
synonymously with cooling tower basin.
Supernatant: The liquid overlying the sludge layer
in a sedimentation vessel.
Supersaturated: Refers to a solution or water
system that contains one or more dissolved com-
pounds in excess of their normal solubility limit.
Supply temperature: Temperature of the water
leaving the cooling tower. It is a function of the
system heat load, the efficiency of the cooling tower,
and the circulating rate of the cooling water.
Surface condenser: A shell-and-tube heat exchanger
used to reduce exhaust steam pressure and tempera-
ture to the lowest possible levels, thereby providing
greatest turbine efficiency.
Surface rot: Biological wood attack that is active at
the surface.
Surface tension: The inward force on the surface of
a liquid, which minimizes the surface area of the
liquid.
Surface water: Fresh water obtained from rivers
and lakes.
Surfactant: A surface-active agent, usually an
organic compound, whose molecules contain a
hydrophilic group at one end and a lipophilic group at
the other.
Suspended solids: Substances in water that are not
completely dissolved and can be removed with
conventional filtration.
Synergism: The combined action of several chemi-
cals that produces an effect greater than the additive
effects of each.
Tannins: Dark colored extractive, present in cell
cavities of wood.
TEMA: Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Associa-
tion.
Temperature drop: See Range.
Tempering: Reheating hardened metal to some
specified temperature to decrease hardness and
increase toughness.
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)

Temporary hardness: Only that hardness equal to
the total alkalinity of the water and associated with
carbonate and bicarbonate anions.
Tensile strength: In tensile testing, the ratio of
maximum load to original cross-sectional area. Also
called ultimate strength.
Terbuthylazine: Used for control of algae, inhibits
photosynthesis.
Terminal temperature difference (TTD): In a
surface condenser, the difference between the
saturation temperature of the exhaust steam and the
cooling water outlet temperature.
Thermal stress: Stress in metal resulting from non-
uniform temperature distribution.
Thermocline: The layer in a lake dividing the upper,
current-mixed zone, from the cool lower stagnant
zone.
Threshold treatment: The control of scale or
deposits by application of sub-stoichiometric dosage
of treatment chemical.
Time per cycle: Time it takes for all the water in a
system to make one trip around the recirculating
loop.
Ton: In refrigeration, a ton is the energy needed to
melt a ton of ice in 24 hours. Since the heat of fusion
of water is 144 Btu/lb and a ton is 2,000 pounds, it
takes 288,000 Btu to melt a ton of ice. Therefore, a
ton of refrigeration is defined as the removal of
288,000 Btu/day, or 12,000 Btu/Hr, or 200 Btu/min.
Total air rate: Total mass flow of dry air per hour
through the tower.
Total hardness: The combined calcium and magne-
sium hardness in a water solution.
Total organic carbon (TOC): The concentration of
all organic species, but not including any inorganic
carbon species, such as bicarbonate, carbonate, and
carbon dioxide. TOC is often used as a surrogate to
detect hydrocarbon contamination in cooling water
systems.
Total residual chlorine (TRC): The sum of free and
combined residual chlorine.
Total water rate: Total mass flow of water per hour
through the tower.
Tower pumping head: The static lift from the
elevation of the basin curb to the centerline elevation
of the distribution system inlet plus the total pressure
(converted to ft of water) necessary at that point to
effect proper distribution of the water to its point of
contact with the air.
CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)
PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Transcrystalline: Literally, across the crystal.
Transformation products or structures: Micro-
structures that are the result of heating to tempera-
tures above a transformation temperature and then
rapidly cooling. They are frequently not resolvable as
a single structure but exist as mixtures.
Transformation temperature: The temperature at
which a change in crystal structure occurs.
Transgranular: Through or across crystals or
grains. Also called intracrystalline or transcrystalline.
Transpiration: Respiration of plants.
Transverse: Pertaining to occurrences in the
direction of tower width.
Trasar: An inert fluorescent dye and monitoring
tools, including a fluorometer, used to measure
chemical additives, flow rates, volumes, etc. very
accurately in water treatment applications.
Treated lumber or wood: Wood treated with a
chemical preservative prior to its use in fabrication of
a cooling tower.
Tricalcium phosphate (TCP): The form of calcium
phosphate most troublesome in cooling water. At an
SI over 50, chemical treatment is required to control
precipitation. Enhanced treatment is generally
required over an SI of 1000 and is effective up to an
SI of about 5000. For alkaline-phosphate programs, a
minimum of 200 to 400 SI for TCP is required to
ensure adequate corrosion control.
TT and TTA: Tolyltriazole.
Tube bundle: The assembled collection of tubes,
tubesheets, and baffles that are fabricated together as
a single assembly that fits inside the shell of a shell-
and-tube heat exchanger.
Tube pitch: The shortest center-to-center distance
between adjacent tubes in a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger.
Tube sheet: Piece of metal at the end of the tube
bundle that anchors the tube ends and prevents
passage of fluids except through the tubes.
Tubercle: A knoblike structure of corrosion products
that forms over corrosion sites on iron-based metals.
Tuberculation: The formation of localized corrosion
products scattered over the surface in the form of
knob-like mounds (tubercules).
Tubes: Thin conduits bundled together inside a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger that carry one of the
fluids.
441
PAC-3 Technical Manual
GLOSSARY
Turbidity: A suspension of fine particles that
obscures light rays but requires many days for
sedimentation because of the small particle size.
Turbulent flow: Non-laminar flow. Generally,
liquid flow with a Reynold’s number above about
4000.
Turnover: The mixing of lower and upper layers in a
lake in spring and fall caused by temperature and
density equalization.
Twin: Two portions of a crystal having a definite
crystallographic relationship. Twins can be thermally
or mechanically produced.
Ultrasonic testing: A nondestructive test applied to
sound-conductive materials having elastic properties
for the purpose of locating inhomogeneities or
structural discontinuities within a material by means
of an ultrasonic beam.
Underbead crack: A subsurface crack in the base
metal near a weld.
USDA: US Department of Agriculture.
USGS: US Geological Survey, Department of the
Interior.
U-tube: The tubes of a shell-and-tube heat ex-
changer are bent in the form of a “U” and both ends
of the tubes are rolled into a single tubesheet.
Van der Waals attractive forces: The innate
attractive force between two identical particles such
as calcium carbonate-calcium carbonate or iron-iron.
Vegetative: A state in which nutrition and growth
dominate the life of a microorganism.
Veliger: A larvae stage early in the growth of clams
and mussels.
Velocity recovery fan cylinder: A fan cylinder on
which the discharge portion is extended in height and
outwardly flared. Its effect is to decrease the total
head differential across the fan, resulting in either an
increase in air rate at constant horsepower or a
decrease in horsepower at constant air rate.
Venturi: A device for measuring fluid flow, includ-
ing a short converging cone succeeded on the same
axis by a long diverging cone. This device is also
used in gas scrubbing.
Wastage: The sum of blowdown, drift, and leakage
in a cooling tower system.
442
Waste heat: Heat produced as a by-product of an
industrial process.
Water loading: Circulating water rate per horizontal
fill plan area of the cooling tower.
Water rate: Mass flow of water per fill plan area of
the cooling tower per hour.
Weir: A spillover device used to measure or control
water flow.
Weld bead: A deposit of filler metal from a single
welding pass.
Weld metal: That portion of a weld that has been
melted during welding.
Weld: A union made by welding.
Welding current: The current flowing through a
welding circuit during the making of a weld.
Weldment: An assembly whose component parts are
joined by welding.
Wet bulb temperature: The temperature of satu-
rated air, or the dew point of air, which is also the
coolest temperature water can be cooled by passing
through air.
Wet bulb thermometer: A thermometer whose bulb
is encased within a wetted wick.
Wet-dry cooling tower: A cooling tower using both
wet (conventional evaporative cooling tower) and dry
(fin-fan type arrangement) within one structure.
Used to reduce water consumption (evaporation) or
for plume abatement.
Wind load: The load imposed upon a structure by a
wind blowing against its surface.
Windage: Water lost from the tower because of the
effects of wind and drift. Sometimes called blowout.
Yield point: In low- and medium-carbon steel, the
stress at which a marked increase in deformation
occurs without increase in load.
Yield strength: The stress at which a material
exhibits a specified deviation from proportionality of
stress and strain. Compare with Tensile strength.
Zeta potential: The difference in voltage between
the surface of the diffuse layer surrounding a colloi-
dal particle and the bulk liquid beyond.
Zinc ion: Cathodic inhibitor commonly used in
conjunction with chromate, polyphosphate, and
organics or combinations of these.
CONFIDENTIAL, For Nalco Employee Use Only 2005 Nalco Company
PAC-3 Cooling Water Technical Manual (01-05)