The Stars:: How Much Longer Can The Sun Sustain Life On Earth?

Chapter 14
The Stars:
How much longer can the Sun sustain life on Earth?
1. The energy source of stars is primarily associated with
a. the reactions of atoms in the star corona.
b. the reactions of nuclei in the star core.
c. the reactions of atoms in the outer regions of the star.
d. burning of elements until they become radioactive.
e. burning of elements heavier than lead.
Ans: b
Link To: The Anatomy of Stars
Difficulty Level: Easy
2. If scientists located a Dyson Sphere, they would find

a. something made from a dismantled planet.
b. a planet in orbit around our closest star.
c. an energy source built to surround a planet.
d. an object at the core of the Sun.
e. the corona during a total eclipse.
Ans: a
3. The solar wind

a. extends into space as far as Mercury.
b. consists of hydrogen and carbon particles.
c. is a part of the Sun’s atmospheric circulation.
d. affects the magnetic fields of planets.
e. is another term for the Sun’s chromosphere.
Ans: d
4. Which of the following can be said about large stars?
a. Large stars have a longer lifetime than smaller stars.
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b. Large stars have a shorter lifetime than smaller stars.

c. Large star lifetime is about the same as that of smaller stars.
d. The helium in the large star's core burns to produce hydrogen.
e. Large stars are the source of oxygen in photosynthesis.
Ans: b
Link To: The Life Cycles of Stars
5. At this moment, the Sun is producing energy by burning

a. plutonium.
b. anthracite.
c. hydrogen.
d. helium.
e.iron.
Ans: c
6. The end products of fusion in the Sun's core are

a. helium isotopes, protons, and gamma rays.
b. hydrogen isotopes, photons, and infrared rays.
c. helium ions, photons, and hydrogen isotopes.
d. hydrogen ions, protons, and gamma rays.
e. deuterium, photons, and gamma rays.
Ans: a
7. Approximately how long does it take the energy of the Sun to be transferred from the stellar
core to the photosphere?
a. one light-year
b. many thousands of years
c. 24 hours
d. one month
e. eight minutes
Ans: b
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8. Which of the following affect the life of a star?

a. gravitational force
b. mass
c. temperature
d. fusion processes
e. all of the above
Ans: e
9. From what part of the electromagnetic spectrum is most of the Sun’s energy emitted?
a. radio waves
b .infrared waves
c. visible light waves
d. gamma rays
e. microwaves
Ans: c
Link To: The Nature of Stars
10. Which of the following satellite observatories could not detect the presence of a black hole?
a. Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO)
b. Chandra X-ray Observatory
c. Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
d. Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF)
e. only a and b
Ans: d
Difficulty Level: Medium
11. Differences in how a star appears in the sky are a function of

a. the size of the star.
b. how far away the star is from Earth.
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c. the total energy emitted by the star.

d. the star’s apparent brightness.
e. all of the above
Ans: e
Link To: The Variety of Stars
12. The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is a graphical technique used in astronomy to compare

a. the surface temperature versus the energy output of a star.
b. the star’s luminosity versus its distance from Earth.
c. the absolute magnitude of the star versus the star’s relative temperature.
d. the distance the Sun is from the nearest red giant.
e. the location of possible solar systems in the Milky Way.
Ans: a
13. Where in the Milky Way galaxy would astronomers expect to find planetary systems other
than our own?
a. Dyson Sphere
b. nebulae
c. supernovas
d. black hole
e. Cepheid stars
Ans: b
14. Which of the following is not an endpoint of stellar evolution?

a. white dwarf
b. main sequence star
c. pulsar
d. black hole
e. neutron star
Ans: b
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15. Where were the heaviest chemical elements on Earth created?

a. neutron stars
b. black holes
c. the Sun
d. supernovae
e. the asteroid belt
Ans: d
16. If you were to observe a pulsar, what would you see?

a. a blinking red glow
b. intermittent radio waves
c. a steady glow that oscillates among the stars
d. the sudden brightening of a star
e. the total eclipse of the Sun
Ans: b
17. What is Supernova 1987A likely to become?

a. black hole
b. pulsars
c. main sequence star
d. Cepheid variable
e. solar wind
Ans: b
18. If the Hubble telescope detects an intensely bright region in the sky that lasts only a few
days, it has probably found evidence of a
a. white dwarf.
b. supernova.
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c. main sequence star.

d. new galaxy.
e. black hole.
Ans: b
19. Which of the following star variables would not be in an astronomer’s data?
a. wave length
b. intensity
c. sound
d. position
e. brightness
Ans: c
20. Which of the following telescopes would have a collecting mirror?

a. Chandra X-ray orbiting observatory telescope
b. Hubble telescope
c. Very Large Array telescope in New Mexico
d. Hertzsprung-Russell telescope at Harvard
e. all of the above
Ans: b
21. Which of the following is among the things scientists predict for Sun's demise?
a. The burning of helium will produce a carbon ash core.
b. The Sun will expand until it extends past the present orbit of Venus.
c. The sun will emit more energy but appear to be cool.
d. At different points in its final years, the Sun will become a red giant and a white dwarf.
e. All of the above are true.
Ans: e
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22. Red giants can be described as

a. huge planets that are surrounded by gases.
b. large stars that emit a lot of energy but have cool surfaces.
c. large stars that emit a lot of energy but have glowing, hot surfaces.
d. stars that are in the hydrogen-burning stage of their lives.
e. large planets with glowing iron oxide surfaces.
Ans: b
23. The starry night sky seen from Earth is a temporary phenomenon that has lasted about 15
billion years.
Ans: True
24. Some stars will burn forever.
Ans: False
25. The Sun's peak output of energy is within the visible spectrum.
Ans: True
26. Record numbers of neutrinos from the Sun have been isolated at the solar neutrino laboratory
in South Dakota.
Ans: False
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27. All objects with temperatures above absolute zero will radiate some form of electromagnetic
waves.
Ans: True
28. Except for visible light and radio waves, the atmosphere of the Earth is opaque to most of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Ans: True
29. The absolute magnitude of a star is the brightness as seen from Earth, depending on the star’s
distance from Earth.
Ans: False
30. The distance to stars greater than 500 light-years away is measured using Cepheid variable
stars.
Ans: True
31. A main sequence star in the H-R diagram is in the hydrogen burning stage of its existence.
Ans: True
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32. A star balances the forces of gravity against the high temperature and pressure of nuclear
fires in the stellar core.
Ans: True
33. The degeneracy pressure of electrons is usually measured at the earliest stage of a star’s
existence.
Ans: False
34. A star will start its existence as a white dwarf and end as a red giant.
Ans: False
35. A neutron star is dense and small, compared to the Sun.
Ans: True
36. The supernova 1987A contradicted all the theories of stellar evolution proposed up to that
time.
Ans: False
37. What are the two factors that affect the behavior of every star?
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Ans: Mass and age.

38. The iron in your blood was made during

a. a chemical process that occurred during Earth's formation.
b. the final moments in the life of a small star.
c. fusion during our Sun's creation.
d. fission reactions during the Big Bang.
e. the nuclear burning of a very large star.
Ans: e
39. If you were describing the structure of the Sun correctly, you would say that
a. ten percent of the total volume of the Sun is the core.
b. the Sun’s outer region is a convection zone.
c. the photosphere thins away from the Sun's surface.
d. a gaseous chromosphere and corona are visible only during a solar eclipse.
e. All of the above are true.
Ans: e
40. Why do astronomers prefer orbiting telescopes over Earth-based telescopes?

a. lower user costs and more research time options
b. exciting space travel possible for observations
c. wider range of electromagnetic wavelengths detected
d. greater international cooperation
e. more aesthetically pleasing
Ans: c
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41. It is impossible to extract energy from iron by fusion or fission.
Ans: True
42. Why are new stars made of hydrogen gas?
Ans: Hydrogen gas is the simplest and the most common material in space.
43. What is the difference between apparent brightness and absolute brightness in star
classification?
Ans: Apparent brightness is relative brightness when viewed from Earth with distant stars
appearing dimmer. Absolute brightness is a measure of stellar brightness from a standard
distance.
44. Compare the process of hydrogen burning with helium burning in a star.
Ans: After the hydrogen fuel in the core of a star is depleted, the star will contract under the
force of gravity. At the same time the temperature will rise in the core until helium is fused to
form carbon. Helium burning is the final stage in a star's life that produces energy.
45. Why do scientists believe that black holes exist, since black holes cannot be seen and none
have ever been confirmed in space?
Ans: Black holes give off a particular radiation signature; objects around the black hole behave
in a particular manner.
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46. From an observer’s point of view, how would the birth of a star appear different from the
death of a large star (supernovae)?
Ans: These events are similar in that they both expel a shell of material although the supernova is
more dramatic. These events are different in that the new star emits continuous light whereas the
dying star fades to black.
47. From the perspective of Earth, how are neutron stars and pulsars the same and how are they
different?
Ans: They are actually the same object; pulsars are only neutron stars whose poles are pointing
toward the Earth.
48. Why are imaginary space creatures often depicted as havingeyes larger than those of Earth
dwellers? Compare the “eyes” of a Venusian with the “eyes” of a Plutonian.
Science fiction writers and illustrators may be enlarging
Ans: the eyes of extraterrestrials to indicate their need to collect more photons, similar in the
theory explaining the large eyes of nocturnal animals. Following that logic, Venusian “eyes”
would be smaller than those of the Plutonians.
Difficulty Level: Hard
49. What is the answer to the solar neutrino problem?
Ans: Experiments before 2001, designed to measure the number of neutrinos given off by the
Sun, had detected fewer neutrinos than expected. Scientists hypothesized that the ordinary
electron neutrinos were converted to other types of neutrinos during their
transit to Earth. The "lost" neutrinos were recently detected in an experiment comparing neutrino
capture in pure water versus heavy water. Heavy water will only react with the electron neutrino.
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Pure water will react with all kinds of neutrinos. One-third of the neutrinos are ordinary electron
neutrinos; two-thirds have been converted.
50. List the events in the life of a Sun-like star in chronological order. Will the star becomes a
supernova? Why or why not?
Ans: It is a part of a concentration of mass in a cloud of gas and debris. It becomes a plasma
made mostly of protons and electrons. Hydrogen is burned in the star’s core.
The star collapses temporarily. The star expands and becomes a red giant. The star shrinks to
become a white dwarf.
51. What four aspects of photons are measured by astronomers and what instruments do the
scientists use?
Ans: Astronomers measure photon wavelength with spectroscopy; photon intensity with light
meters; photon direction by recording two angles; and the variation of wavelength, intensity, and
position over time.
52. Explain how the Northern Lights are formed.
Ans: The Northern Lights, also called the Aurora Borealis, are flashing colored lights seen in the
Earth’s night sky at high northern latitudes when the ions forming the solar wind interact with
the Earth's magnetic field in the outer reaches of the Earth’s atmosphere.
53. How can the ashes of one stellar nuclear fire become the fuel for the next stellar nuclear fire?
Ans: In medium size stars, hydrogen is burned in nuclear fusion reactions to form helium and, in
the later stages, the helium ash is burned to produce carbon. The carbon itself cannot ignite in
stars the size of our Sun. In very large stars, the pressure in the cores is so
intense that the carbon can be changed by fusion into even larger nuclei like oxygen and silicon.
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54. Why do larger stars have shorter life spans?
Ans: Larger stars may have more hydrogen fuel to burn but have shorter life spans, when
compared with small or average size stars. The reason is that large stars must burn
hydrogen at rates many times greater than that of smaller stars to overcome the intense force of
gravity caused by the star’s massiveness.
55. How are naturally occurring elements heavier than iron formed in stellar processes?
Ans: Elements heavier than iron are created when a very large star explodes in a supernova,
sending out shockwaves. This raises the temperature and causes collisions of nuclei, which forms
new elements.
56. How are Cepheid variables used to classify stars?
Ans: The distance a star is from the Earth can be determined with triangulation (for nearby stars)
or with Cepheid variables. The Cepheid variable stars are standards of comparison for stars
greater than a few hundred light-years away using known values of energy output from the star
and energy received by Earth. Distance is calculated from comparable brightness (magnitude).
57. What advantages might there be to living inside a Dyson Sphere? What would be the
limitations future scientists must face before constructing a Dyson Sphere?
Ans: A Dyson sphere would not only intercept and utilize all of a star’s energy, it also could
support a tremendous population. Such an immense structure would have an internal surface area
comparable to more than 500 million Earth-like planets, and it would be uniformly heated in
eternal daylight.
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58. How are the original telescopes different from modern telescopes? How do the former
improve upon the latter?
Ans: Answers will vary but could include facts about early telescopes using only light whereas
modern, non-optical telescopes use other sources of energy to ‘see’ distant objects. Modern non-
optical telescopes can be used 24 hours a day, in good weather or bad. Modern optical telescopes
have technological advances such as better glass grinding, computer operations, etc.
59. When pulsars were first detected, they were called LGM, which stood for Little Green Men.
What characteristic of pulsars might have caused astronomers to give them this name?
Ans: Answers will vary but should include reference to the regular pulse rate that appeared as if
someone controlled the projection of energy.
60. If the Sun had not burned fairly evenly since the creation of the Earth, how would life on
Earth be different?
Ans: Answers will vary but could include plant and animal adaptations, different abundances of
elements, and so forth.
61. If a new star were discovered, what characteristics would it have to have in order to be
identified as a main sequence star?
Ans: Medium size, temperature, color.

62. During ocean voyages, early sailors used a method called triangulation to determine the
location of their ships. How is this same method used today by astronomers to determine the
distance to certain neighboring stars?
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Ans: By measuring the angle of sight to a given star from two points of known separation, we
can determine the star’s distance from us.
63. Evaluate the positive and negative aspects of using a star as an energy source as proposed by
the construction of a Dyson Sphere.
Ans: Positive: a source of energy lasting billions of years

Negative: what to do with the solar wind particles and what happens if the star changes energy
output—even by 1-2%?
64. We don’t often see stars in the daytime, but if you dug a hole deep enough could you see the
stars from the bottom?
Ans: Yes, but it would be a hole tens of miles deep.

65. If some one says to you, “all stars are the same—just tiny points of light”, how might you
convince them they have different temperatures (color) and different magnitudes (brightness).
Ans: Answers will vary, however, the human eye is not good at discriminating color at low light
levels, but a color photograph can illustrate different colors. As for brightness, light bulbs of the
same wattage placed at different distances (or varying wattages placed at the same distances) can
illustrate magnitude.
66. In the 1800s scientists knew that if the Sun was composed of conventional fuels (coal, oil,
wood) it would have a burning life of only a few thousand years at best. How might this
information impact the debate of “how old is the Earth” in that era?
Ans: Either the Earth is only a few thousand years old or the Sun is using a different source of
fuel—one with a greater lifetime.
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67. If the Earth had evolved around a different star—a redder star that produced more
frequencies in the infrared and microwave bands—how might plant and animal development
been altered to respond to these frequencies?
Ans: Answers will vary but for sure if eyes developed they would have to be much larger to
receive these longer frequencies. Plants would have evolved chlorophyll that responded to
different wavelengths than that of green light.
68. What elements on the periodic table are the products of supernovae? Why would this be true?
Ans: All elements heavier than iron are formed as a result of higher temperatures and pressures
generated by larger stars when they undergo a catastrophic gravitational collapse.
69. How is it that optical telescopes are placed in orbit but radio telescopes are not?
Ans: The visible spectrum frequencies are distorted and absorbed by the atmosphere but radio
waves pass through relatively undisturbed.
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Chapter 15
Cosmology:
Will the universe end?
1. Who first showed that the Milky Way is not the only galaxy in the universe?
a. Kepler
b. Copernicus
c. Newton
d. Hubble
e. Galileo
Ans: d
Link To: Galaxies
2. The big bang theory and the theory of the steady state universe differ
a. because only the big bang theory states that the universe is expanding.
b .because only the steady state theory states that the universe is expanding.
c. in that only the steady state theory lacks a specific beginning for the universe.
d. in that only the steady state universe incorporates an idea about the missing dark matter.
e. only in name.
Ans: c
Link To: The Big Bang
3.When astronomers look out at our universe, they see all

a. other planets moving away from us.
b. other galaxies moving away from us.
c. asteroids moving toward us.
d. supernovas moving away from us.
e. other galaxies moving toward us.
Ans: b
Link To: The Redshift and Hubble’s Law
4. Which of the following was not a contribution to cosmology by Edwin Hubble?
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a. the proof that there are other galaxies

b. the idea that far galaxies are moving faster than those near
c. the discovery of the cosmic red shift
d. the realization that evidence for the big bang can come from studies of abundances of
chemical elements
e. All of these were contributions made by Hubble.
Ans: d
5.Hubble’s law tells us that

a. the distance to other galaxies can be measured by calculating the blue shift of the light we
receive from them.
b. the rate at which a galaxy recedes from the Earth is proportional to the square of the distance
from the Earth.
c. the rate at which a galaxy advances toward the Earth is proportional to its distance from the
Earth.
d. the distance to other galaxies can be measured by calculating the red shift of the light we
receive from them.
e. the rate at which a galaxy moves is the Hubble constant.
Ans: d
6.The most recent "freezing" of the universe involved the creation of

a. nuclei.
b. atoms.
c. elementary particles.
d. quarks.
e. molecules.
Ans: b
Link To: The Evolution of the Universe
7.The redshift surveys of the 1980s

a. determined the velocity of superclusters.
b. were significant in calculating Hubble's constant.
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c. measured the distance to thousands of galaxies.

d. definitively proved the big bang theory.
e. provided a foundation for planetary exploration.
Ans: c
8. The discovery of a cosmic microwave background

a. supported the idea of a steady state universe.
b. showed that the universe has a constant heat source.
c. proved that matter in the universe is grouped in superclusters.
d. gave support to the big bang theory.
e. indicated that supernovas produced all known elements.
Ans: d
9.What were the first three elements formed in the big bang?
a. hydrogen, lithium, and helium
b. hydrogen, oxygen, and helium
c. helium, oxygen, and carbon
d. carbon, oxygen, and deuterium
e. helium, oxygen, lithium
Ans: a
10.According to the current ideas about the origin of the universe, which one of the following
forces separated at 10-43 seconds?
a. the gravitational force
b. the electromagnetic force
c. the strong force
d. the weak force
e. All of these forces froze out at the same time.
Ans: a
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11. Which wavelength of radiation is associated with our expanding universe?

a. 7.35 nanometers
b.7.35 millimeters
c. 7.35 centimeters
d.7.35 meters
e. 7.35 kilometers
Ans: c
12. Which of the following is constructed completely from atoms made during the big bang?
a. a leaf
b. the air you are breathing
c. bone
d. a cinder block
e. None of the above is formed completely from atoms created during the big bang.
Ans: e
13. According to the big bang theory, what accompanied the freezing of the universe at 10 -35
second after time zero?
a. Antimatter was eliminated.
b. All four fundamental forces were unified.
c. Stable nuclei formed.
d. There was a short period of inflation.
e. The strong force separated from the weak force.
Ans: d
14. At what point after the big bang did the elementary particles form?
a. 10-43 second
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b.10-35 second
c.10-5 second
d. three minutes
e. 500,000 years
Ans: c
15. What is the basis for evidence supporting the theory of an open expanding universe?
a. the laws of gravity
b. the universe's mass
c. the proportion of dark matter
d. a newly discovered supernova
e. all of the above
Ans: e
16. Because of research with high energy particle accelerators, scientists have direct
experimental checks for the evolution of the universe back to
a. 10-43 second after the big bang.
b.10-35 second from time zero.
c.10-10 second from the beginning.
d. three minutes after the big bang.
e. one million years following the origin.
Ans: c
17. Which statement about dark matter is accepted by most astronomers?

a. Dark matter is missing from the Milky Way.
b. Dark matter exerts centrifugal forces on antimatter.
c. Dark matter emits leptons.
d. Dark matter interacts with ordinary matter through a gravitational force.
e. all the above
Ans: d
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18. What experimental evidence supports the big bang theory?

a. universal contraction
b. creationism
c. cosmic microwave radiation
d. abundance of lithium, hydrogen, and helium
e. c and d
Ans: e
19. Antimatter is fairly rare in the universe because

a. antimatter is dark matter that is very difficult to detect with today’s technology.
b. cosmic microwave background radiation absorbs antimatter in space.
c. antimatter is a short-lived transient state for quarks.
d. laboratory research indicates that matter was more plentiful in the early and annihilated the
antimatter.
e. each galaxy produces a specific type of matter, according to Hubble’s law.
Ans: d
20. The rate at which new stars are formed

a. has been constant since the big bang.
b. was ten times higher seven billion years ago.
c. was ten times slower seven billion years ago.
d. cannot be calculated with current technology.
e. has varied randomly since the big bang.
Ans: b
Link To: Galaxies
21. Which of the following describe a quasar?
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a. highly energetic
b. dark matter
c. compressed to the size of the Earth
d. part of a supercluster
e. all of the above
Ans: a
Link To: Galaxies
22. Before the first stable nuclei were formed, what was the makeup of the universe?
a. hydrogen and helium
b. elementary particles
c. atoms
d. molecules
e. all of the above
Ans: b
23. Evidence for the big bang includes the

a. observation that the universe is expanding.
b. independent evidence that microwave radiation is coming from all directions in space.
c. fact that the average temperature of the universe 2.7 Kelvin.
d. abundance of light elements.
e. all of the above
Ans: e
24. How far away is a galaxy that is moving away from Earth at 100,000 km/s? Assume 50 km/s
Mpc for the Hubble constant.
a. 2000 Mpc
b. more than 6 light years
c. 8000 Mpc
d. more than 4 light years
e. a and b
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Ans: e
25.Most galaxies are spiral galaxies.
Ans: True
Link To: Galaxies
26. Matter in the universe is concentrated in superclusters on the surfaces of huge empty spaces.
Ans: True
27. The more distant a galaxy is from Earth, the slower it moves away from Earth.
Ans: False
28. The universe began as a single point and has been expanding for 16 billion years.
Ans: True
29. Galaxies move in relation to other galaxies like electrons move within an atom.
Ans: False
30. Hubble’s universal expansion theory was the first theory of the universe to incorporate the
idea of expansion.
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Ans: False
31. The average temperature of the universe is near absolute zero.
Ans: True
32. Elements with more than three protons in their nucleus were formed in stars, not during the
big bang.
Ans: True
33. Scientists believe they have located the center of the universe.
Ans: False
34. Gravity is the only force we know of that is capable of ending the expansion of the universe.
Ans: True
Link To: The End of the Universe
35. When the first nuclei were formed, the universe was mostly filled with plasma.
Ans: True
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36. Scientists have combined the weak and the electromagnetic forces using the technology of
high-energy physics.
Ans: True
37. Scientists now believe that 90% of the matter in the universe is made of dark matter.
Ans: True
38. A closed universe will slow down but never quite stop expanding.
Ans: False
39. Inflationary theories all agree that since its origin the universe has expanded at a uniform
rate.
Ans: False
40. Why do scientists believe that dark matter does not interact through the electromagnetic
force?
a. because, if it did, it would absorb or emit photons
b. because it exists too far out into space
c. it exerts no gravitational pull on other matter
d. there is too little of it to exert an electromagnetic force
e. all of the above
Ans: a
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41. In what way is the Milky Way a typical galaxy?
Ans: Spiral, has black hole at center.

Link To: Galaxies
42. How do we know the Milky Way is a spiral galaxy?
Ans: This has been determined through the study of Doppler shifts and Cepheid variable stars.
Link To: Galaxies
43. In the night sky the Milky Way appears as a band of stars across the night sky. How does this
fit with the model of a spiral galaxy?
Ans: In a spiral galaxy the stars should be flattened into a disk and should appear as a strip of
stars as viewed on end.
Link To: Galaxies
44. Astronomers estimate there is something on the order of 100 billion galaxies in the
observable universe. How are such numbers generated? How long would it take to count to 100
billion at the rate of one number per second? Does this suggest that anyone has actually counted
the galaxies?
Ans: Numbers are generated statistically; it would take over 3000 years to count the galaxies.
Link To: Galaxies
45. Make a case for the ultimate fate of the universe: a closed, an open, or a flat universe.
Ans: Answers will vary, but in essence, it depends on the rate of expansion, and the amount of
mass and/or dark matter/energy in the universe.
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46. A popular rock song of the 1960s proclaimed, “We are stardust . . . billion year old
carbon…” Was the band correct about this? Why or why not?
Ans: Yes, all the chemical elements on the periodic table come from the big bang and the life
cycle of stars.
47. In what way are dark matter and dark energy related?
Ans: Answers will vary, however dark matter appears to be a gravitational tug on galaxies; dark
energy appears to account for the acceleration of the universe.
48. What would happen to the age of the universe if Hubble’s constant changes with future
observations?
Ans: If it increases, the universe will be older; if it decreases, the universe will be younger than
current calculations.
49. Why was the existence of other galaxies in the universe demonstrated when Hubble
measured the distance to the Andromeda nebula?
Ans: The Andromeda nebula was so far away (2 million light-years) that Hubble knew it must be
outside the Milky Way galaxy, which is only 100,000 light-years across.
50. How did scientists calculate the value of Hubble’s constant?
Ans: Scientists, including Hubble, plotted the velocity of the recession of many galaxies (using
redshift data) against their respective distances from Earth (measured by Cepheid
variables). The slope of the straight line coming closest to all the data points is the best estimate
of Hubble’s constant.
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51. What are scientists trying to discover when they make “red shift surveys” of the sky?
Ans: Astronomers making these surveys are looking at distant galaxies and determining the
distance these galaxies are from the Earth by the rate at which these galaxies are moving away
from us on Earth. The phenomenon is similar to the Doppler effect for
sound waves.
52. Place the celestial objects in order by size from planet being the smallest to supercluster
being the largest. How do astronomers know ‘for sure’ our position in the universe?
Ans: Answers will vary but must include: Earth, the Sun, a star that can become a supernova, the
Milky Way, Local Group, a supercluster. We know our position through observations and
calculations of our relative position other celestial objects.
Link To: Galaxies
53. Explain the phrase "ripples at the beginning of time" associated with dark matter theories.
Ans: The effect of an unseen gravitational force on hydrogen in space is theorized to be "dark
matter." If this dark matter were organized in clumps at the beginning of the universe, luminous
matter would be separated to create the structure of the universe we see today.
54. Why are changes of state in the early universe referred to as “freezings?"
Ans: Freezings refer to dramatic changes in the fabric of the universe as it expanded and cooled.
Each freezing was a crucial transition, first of forces, then of particles.
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55. What is the significance of the K0L particle discovered by physicists?
Ans: K0L is a particle that decays more often into matter than antimatter. As a consequence, the
matter-antimatter annihilation left residual matter in the universe after the big bang. This
explains why there is so little antimatter in the universe.
56. How might scientists tell if the universe started to contract?
Ans: One way would be that scientists would observe light emitted from nearby galaxies shifted
toward the short wavelengths (for example “blue shifted”) in the electromagnetic spectrum,
compared to Earth.
57. What significance do scientists attach to the fact that some regions of the sky emit
microwave background radiation at slightly higher temperatures than other regions?
Ans: Higher temperatures could only be emitted from regions in space that are more dense than
the adjacent regions. Thus these areas appear to mark areas where atoms are first being collected
into luminous matter. The data suggest that dark matter pulled visible matter into clumps soon
after atoms started to form.
58. Compare the future for the three theories of the universe: flat, open, and closed.
Ans: An open universe will expand forever because it does not have enough matter to reduce the
speed or reverse the direction of the expanding universe. A closed universe has sufficient matter
to reverse the expansion and will eventually fall back on itself. A flat universe will simply halt its
expansion after an infinite time.
59. What new evidence has led to wider acceptance of the open universe theory?
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Ans: Astronomers recently reported that using a new standard candle (Type 1a supernova) they
were able to measure distances to galaxies at the outer limits of the universe. Comparing light
from these galaxies over billions of years, the astronomers believe that the universe is continuing
to expand, which is consistent with the open universe theory.
60. Review the ideas about the universe embraced by the Greeks, the medieval scholars, Newton,
and Hubble. How are these ideas still changing?
Ans: Answers will vary but should include the idea of an earth centered universe, then sun-
centered universe with Newton’s laws acting the same no matter where they were located to
Einstein’s theories of energy/matter/time, to Hubble’s discovery of other galaxies.
61. Compare the expanding-balloon analogy of the universe with the raisin-bread dough analogy.
What are their common points? At what point does each analogy fall apart?
Ans: Common points are the parts moving away from a central event. The raisin-bread analogy
falls apart in that there isn’t enough dough between raisons to continue the movement at
increasing speeds. The balloon analogy fails because it is increasing in only two dimensions.
62. List and discuss at least two of the topics that are at the forefront of astronomy research.
Ans: Answers will vary but may include arguments about the definition of planets, the end of the
universe, detecting dark matter, and so forth.
63. How does the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation support the big bang
theory?
Ans: Suggests a change in temperature, which supports inflation theory.

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64. What type of evidence would you need to support the big bang theory in a public forum with
the creationists on the Kansas School Board?
Ans: Answers will vary. Faith does not require evidence; theories do.
65. Summarize the cosmology principles surrounding the "galaxy problem" in current
astronomy.
Ans: Answers will vary but should include information about dark matter and clumping as well
as clumping in relation to background radiation.
66. How is it that every point in the universe appears to by the center of the universe?
Ans: It is relative because no matter what your observation point, all other galaxies appear to be
rushing away from you.
67. Traditionally, the fate of the universe is tied to the amount of mass, but what role might dark
energy/dark mass play in this fate?
Ans: Answers will vary—among Nobel laureates, as well. As future observations tell us more
about dark energy/matter, these observations will allow further theoretical models.
68. Why are not all galaxies the same shape and size? What does this suggest about their history?
Ans: Size is a factor of the early gravitational interactions. Shape is a factor of gravitational
interaction with other galaxies.
Link To: Galaxies
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Chapter 15
69. Predict what you should observe 50 billion years from now if you were to look our on a
steady state universe as opposed to a big bang universe.
Ans: In a steady state universe, you would observe the same number and density of galaxies as
you see not, but they would be new ones from the ones we observe ‘now’. In an expanding
universe if you should see any galaxies at all, they would be few and dim.
70. In biology, the structure of an organism suggests its function and its function suggests its
history. Can this same analogy be applied to the grouping of super clusters of galaxies in the
universe—what does this geometry suggest?
Ans: Answers will vary and no one really knows, but answers must account for clustering and
voids.
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Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Earth and Other Planets:
Is Earth the only planet with life?
1. According to the nebular hypothesis, the solar system began as
a. a rapidly rotating sun.
b. a cloud of dust and gas.
c. a cloud containing approximately equal amounts of all naturally occurring elements.
d. two comets that collided with a tremendous impact.
e. The nebular hypothesis addresses only the formation of stars, not planets.
Ans: b
Link To: The Nebular Hypothesis
2. Which scientist is credited with the discovery of Pluto?

a. Percival Lowell
b. Isaac Newton
c. Clyde Tombaugh
d. Galileo Galilei
e. Pierre Laplace
Ans: c
3. If only Newton's laws of motion were applied to the solar system,

a. Venus's orbit could be the reverse of Earth's orbit.
b. Earth's moon could rise in the west and set in the east.
c. Mar's orbit could be perpendicular to Jupiter's orbit.
d. Saturn's rings could at random angles to their current plane.
e. all of the above
Ans: e
Link To: The Formation of the Solar System
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Chapter 15
4. What two elements comprise most of a nebula?

a. hydrogen and helium
b. hydrogen and nitrogen
c. oxygen and lithium
d. carbon and hydrogen
e. helium and lithium
Ans: a
5. Why are the Jovian planets formed from materials different from the terrestrial planets?
a. Terrestrial planets were protected by the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
b. The composition of elements in a planet was a random process after the big bang.
c. When the solar system first formed, the heaviest elements sank toward the center of the
nebulae and the lightest elements floated out.
d. Gaseous Jovian planets, formed farther away from the heat of the Sun, are formed from light
weight nebulae "dust."
e. Only the terrestrial planets formed from planetesimals.
Ans: d
6. The birth of a solar system would look like

a. a huge explosion of rocks and fire.
b. a meteor shower.
c. thick dust clouds circling a new star.
d. a thickening Jovian plane.
e. nothing we could ever see or imagine.
Ans: c
7. The Earth’s layered composition is a consequence of

a. the great bombardment.
b. differentiation of materials.
c. isolation.
d. condensation currents.
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Chapter 15
e. plate tectonics.
Ans: b
8. The inner core at the center of the Earth

a. contains the heaviest elements of the Earth’s mass.
b. is made from rocks similar to those on the Earth's surface.
c. contains a mixture of solids, liquids, and gases.
d. is under low pressure, but at a very high temperature.
e. all of the above
Ans: a
9. The mantle of the Earth can be described as

a. the metallic core.
b. containing hot, melted rock.
c. the surface of the Earth.
d. primarily gaseous.
e. helium, oxygen, magnesium, silicon.
Ans: b
10. In our solar system, we can say that moons

a. were most likely formed by spinning planets throwing off big chunks of material.
b. are all about the same size.
c. have less gravitational pull than that found on any planet.
d. usually have active volcanoes.
e. have been found orbiting all planets except for Mercury and Venus.
Ans: e
11. The composition of the Earth’s Moon is most like
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Chapter 15
a. Mars.
b. the Earth’s crustal material.
c. an asteroid.
d. the Earth’s mantle.
e. a comet.
Ans: d
12.Scientists study meteorites

a. because they contain the material from which the solar system was made.
b. to find out more about how and when the Earth was created.
c. to find out more about other parts of the solar system.
d. for all the above reasons.
e. Scientists cannot study meteorites because they burn up when they hit the Earth's atmosphere.
Ans: d
Link To: The Outer Solar System
13. After the Earth was formed

a. it was bombarded by huge chunks of rock.
b. outgassing ended.
c. its atmosphere remained virtually unchanged.
d. the densest materials collected as the Earth's crust.
e. its temperature was too cold to support life.
Ans: a
14. A comparison of asteroids and terrestrial planets would reveal that both are
a. made primarily of gases.
b. relatively rocky and small.
c. composed of chunks of ice surrounded by solid material.
d. located beyond the effect of solar heat and wind.
e. large and dense, compared to the Jovian planets.
Ans: b
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Chapter 15

15. The “big splash” theory of the Moon’s formation

a. was disproven during the Apollo lunar mission.
b. states that the Moon was formed elsewhere in the Solar System and was captured by Earth’s
gravitational force.
c. suggests that the Moon was thrown from a spinning Earth.
d. states that the Earth was struck by a huge object, causing a large amount of mantle material to
be blown into orbit.
e. suggests that the Moon was formed by light, less dense materials that floated into the orbit
around the Earth.
Ans: d
16. The early atmosphere on Earth included

a. methane (CH4).
b. water vapor (H2O).
c. ammonia (NH3).
d. carbon dioxide (CO2).
e. all of the above
Ans: e
17. What are some health hazards of long space trips?

a. Astronauts can develop skin cancer from direct UV-rays.
b. Unidentified microbes create a possible danger of infection.
c. Weight gain is common because of the high calorie foods.
d. Bone mass is lost increasing the chance of breaks.
e. All of the above can happen.
Ans: d
18. An astronaut standing on Mars and attempting to look at Jupiter might have her view partly
blocked by the intervening
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Chapter 15
a. Oort Cloud.
b. rings of Saturn.
c. asteroid belt.
d. moon Triton.
e. Sun.
Ans: c
19. The Earth’s atmosphere has probably been affected by all of the following except for
a. volcanoes.
b. strong solar winds.
c. Amazon jungles.
d. the number of living things on Earth.
e. increased amounts of hydrogen and helium.
Ans: e
20. The process that formed the structure of the Earth and other terrestrial planets is
a. convection.
b. gravity.
c. differentiation
d. acceleration.
e. tectonics.
Ans: c
21. Transfer of material from space to Earth

a. stopped after the great bombardment.
b. started after the great bombardment.
c. has been measured at 20 metric tons daily.
d. will double the mass of the Earth in 4 billion years.
e. continues at an estimated rate of 20 metric tons annually.
Ans: c
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Chapter 15

22. What new astronomical information resulted from the impact of the comet Shoemaker-Levy
on Jupiter in 1994?
a. effect of hydrogen bombs on Jupiter's atmosphere
b. composition of atmosphere beneath the planet's surface
c. the number of volcanoes located within 100 km of the impact
d. amount of water in Jupiter's atmosphere
e. mineral analysis of Jupiter's core
Ans: b
23. The diamond anvil can attain pressures that exceed pressures at the center of the Earth.
Ans: True
24. The largest moon in our solar system is about the same size as the smallest planet.
Ans: True
25.. Pluto's moon Charon was captured during the great bombardment.
Ans: False
26. Comets can originate in two regions outside our solar system.
Ans: True
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Chapter 15

27. Extrasolar planets have been discovered by an adaptation of the Doppler effect.
Ans: True
28. The mantle is the one of two layers of the solid Earth with which human beings have had
direct contact.
Ans: False
29. More diamonds can now be manufactured in a year than the total amount of diamonds mined
in recorded history.
Ans: True
30. NASA scientists are collaborating with the Center for Disease Control on a mission to collect
and bring back surface samples from Mars.
Ans: True
Link To: Exploring the Solar System
31. "Hot Jupiters" are large gaseous planets located close to their respective suns in other solar
systems.
Ans: True
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Chapter 15
32. The nebulae hypothesis states that only 10% of the original mass became concentrated as the
Sun.
Ans: False
33. A comet is a piece of space debris burning up in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Ans: False
34. Pluto’s orbital path sometimes crosses Neptune’s orbital path.
Ans: True
35. What was accomplished by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2?

a. remote sensing of the atmosphere of Venus
b. collected samples from the asteroid belt
c. paved the way for the Moon landings
d. clocked winds on Mercury
e. assessment of the outer Solar System environment
Ans: e
36. How can meteor showers be predicted?

a. Meteors follow the jet stream in the upper atmosphere.
b. Meteors are in known orbits around the sun after comets.
c. Meteors rise in the east and set in the west.
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Chapter 15
d. Telescopes on satellites detect meteors months in advance of their entry into the Earth's
atmosphere.
e. Calculations made by the Divine Calculator have been used to produce meteor shower
schedules.
Ans: b
37. Which of the following characteristics does the Earth share with all other bodies in the solar
system?
a. formed from matter ejected by the Sun
b. move in circular orbits
c. similar chemical composition
d. equally dense
e. gravitationally bound to the Sun
Ans: e
38. The density of our Moon is less than the average density of Earth.
Ans: True
39. The density of the material on the Moon is less than the density of the Earth.
Ans: True
40. The weight of an object on Jupiter's surface is less than it would be on Earth.
Ans: False
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Chapter 15
41. How are asteroids different from comets?
Ans: Asteroids are small rocky bodies that are similar in composition to the terrestrial planets
and move in orbits around the Sun, primarily in the asteroid belt. Comets have the consistency of
a “dirty snowball” of water and methane ice imbedded with some rock. Most comets are located
outside the orbit of Pluto in the Oort Cloud or the Kuiper Belt.
42. Describe the Galileo mission to Jupiter.
Ans: Galileo began study of Jupiter after 1989 launch and six years in space. From an orbit
around Jupiter, Galileo probed the atmosphere with a projectile. Galileo continues to orbit Jupiter
and send back data about the planet and its moons.
43. What is the current hypothesis that explains why planets differ in their axis of rotation and
direction of spin?
Ans: Early bombardment.

44. How was the layered structure of the Earth first differentiated?
Ans: Lighter elements rise to the surface; heavy elements sink.

45. From the density calculation of the Moon (page 328) why would you anticipate that a
directional compass would not work on the Moon?
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Chapter 15
Ans: It suggests that the Moon is basically devoid of metals so one would not expect a large
amount of metals in the core to produce a magnetic field—indeed, the Moon’s magnetic field is
virtually nonexistent.
46. Explain how the early Earth’s atmosphere must have been very different from the
atmosphere we are breathing now?
Ans: The atmosphere had to change from a carbon dioxide dominated one with a trace of oxygen
to a nitrogen-oxygen dominated one with a trace of carbon dioxide. This reversal is the product
of plants and oceans absorbing carbon dioxide and photosynthesis releasing oxygen into the
atmosphere, decaying plants releasing nitrogen.
47. Discuss the apparent conflict between the nebulae hypothesis and the rotations of planets.
Ans: Planets revolve around the Sun in the same plane and in the same direction, according to
the nebulae hypothesis; however, each planet rotates around its own axis at differing angles and
directions. Scientists now believe that a planet’s rotation was affected by random collisions with
very large objects at some point in its history.
48. Why do scientists believe there may have been life on Mars?
Ans: Evidence of water locked beneath the surface of Mars comes from several space missions,
including Pathfinder (1990s) and Odyssey (2002). A Martian atmosphere was also possible in the
past. These are the two prerequisites for formation of life.
49. Compare several of the moons of our solar system and what a study of these has taught us
about Earth's processes.
Ans: The craters on Earth's moon show evidence of a great bombardment in the past. Jupiter's
moon Io has active volcanoes; Europa, has a frozen ocean; Saturn’s moon, Titan, may have
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Chapter 15
organic materials. Each of these moons provides an example of processes that may be similar to
those processes forming life on prehistoric Earth.
50. Draw a simple diagram to show how it is possible for an asteroid to collide with Earth, even
though both are in orbit around the Sun.
Ans: Answers will vary, but the diagram should reflect that, at some point, the asteroid’s orbit
crosses that of the Earth.
51. Explain the processes in the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere beginning with Earth as an
airless, molten ball.
Ans: Answers will vary but should include: Volcanoes belched water vapor and carbon dioxide.
Atmospheric temperatures dropped. Torrential rains filled ocean basins. Light atmospheric
elements escaped to space. Photosynthetic organisms evolved. Free oxygen increases to about
20% of the atmosphere.

52. Do you think that space exploration should be carried out with manned or unmanned
spacecraft? Explain your answer.
Ans: Answers will vary. Unmanned space craft are safer for humans, however humans can make
on-the-spot judgments.
53. Describe how the scientific process led to the discovery of Pluto.
Ans: Development of the telescope and pictures of a shifting point of light; observations and
interpretations of these observations.
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Chapter 15
54. Compare what you would experience during explorations of Jupiter and Venus.
Ans: Answers will vary but should include ideas about changes in weight, in the visibility due to
atmospheric variations, plus differences in atmospheric pressure.
55. In 1994 the Shoemaker-Levy Comet collided with Jupiter. The impact was predicted,
observed, and recorded by astronomers on Earth. What information did the scientists use to
predict the time and location of the comet impact?
Ans: Velocity, time and gravitational relationships between the planet and the comet plus the
orbits of the comet and Jupiter..
56. What is the long-range impact of space debris and rock falling to Earth each day? What is the
impact of this same material in outer space to the space program?
Ans: Answers will vary but should include information about foreign biological materials which
could be found within meteorites, small impact craters to wide-scale destruction, as well as the
ability to study materials from space. Answers should also include danger to astronauts, ability
to study materials while still in orbit and so forth.
57. The “Death Star” hypothesis has been used to explain the extinction of the dinosaurs during
the Cretaceous period. How could this impact kill animals on all parts of the Earth? What are the
chances of this happening again?
Answers will vary; one theory is that it decreased the temperature of the atmosphere thereby
killing all animals/plants that could not adapt to the relatively immediate change. Chances
range from very high to very low depending on the data reported.
58. Describe two fictional life forms that have internal skeletons: one adapted to life on Pluto and
one adapted to life on Saturn. Why would they be different?
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Chapter 15
Ans: Answers will vary but should include adaptation to different gravitation and to different
temperatures and light.
59. How important are volcanoes to the creation of an atmosphere? Use several examples from
our solar system in your answer.
Ans: Outgassing released new atmosphere. Volcanoes on Earth, Mars, Jupiter’s moons, all of
which have or had atmospheres as can be shown by the surface of the planet.
60. If the Nebular hypothesis is correct, then what physical and chemical aspects of the solar
system does it account for? Are there any outlier phenomena?
Ans: It accounts for the mechanical motions, rotation and revolution of the Sun and all planets
and respective moons. Aberrant motions can be accounted for by subsequent impacts and, in the
case of moons, captured by larger bodies. Chemically it accounts for the chemical and density
segregation of the planets.
61. Explain the relationship between meteor showers and comets.
Ans: Meteor showers are the result of the earth running into the dusty orbits of previous
comet’s journey around the Sun.
62. Explain how the ‘seasons’ would be represented on Uranus.
Ans: With the northern hemisphere always pointed toward the Sun, only the northern
hemisphere would receive any daylight, therefore any ‘seasonal’ change would be the result of
changing one’s latitude.
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Chapter 15
63. Even through Saturn’s size is about eight Earth diameters, your weight (earth standard)
would be about the same if you stand on Saturn’s ‘surface’. What does this suggest about the
composition of the ringed planet?
Ans: Although bigger in volume, Saturn must be much less dense than Earth, so one’s body
weight on Earth should be very similar on Saturn (100 pounds on earth ≈ 106 pounds on
Saturn).
64. Both the Earth and moon have craters but the smaller moon has millions more than the Earth.
If they both formed at the same time and under similar conditions, how can you account for this
discrepancy?
Ans: The Earth being the larger target probably had several times the impacts of the moon, but
the process of weathering and plate tectonics have erased much of the Earth’s surface features.
65. What physical and chemical characteristics does the ‘big splash’ hypothesis (earth-moon
formation) account for?
Ans: It accounts for the motions of the earth and moon operating as a mechanical system:
further it accounts for the density difference between the two bodies (Earth being more dense)
and the lack of gases and metals in moon rocks.
292

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Chapter 14

2. If scientists located a Dyson Sphere, they would find

3. The solar wind

b. Large stars have a shorter lifetime than smaller stars.

5. At this moment, the Sun is producing energy by burning

6. The end products of fusion in the Sun's core are

Link To: The Anatomy of Stars

8. Which of the following affect the life of a star?

11. Differences in how a star appears in the sky are a function of

c. the total energy emitted by the star.

12. The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is a graphical technique used in astronomy to compare

14. Which of the following is not an endpoint of stellar evolution?

Difficulty Level: Easy

15. Where were the heaviest chemical elements on Earth created?

16. If you were to observe a pulsar, what would you see?

17. What is Supernova 1987A likely to become?

c. main sequence star.

20. Which of the following telescopes would have a collecting mirror?

22. Red giants can be described as

24. Some stars will burn forever.

Difficulty Level: Easy

35. A neutron star is dense and small, compared to the Sun.

Ans: Mass and age.

38. The iron in your blood was made during

40. Why do astronomers prefer orbiting telescopes over Earth-based telescopes?

41. It is impossible to extract energy from iron by fusion or fission.

42. Why are new stars made of hydrogen gas?

49. What is the answer to the solar neutrino problem?

52. Explain how the Northern Lights are formed.

54. Why do larger stars have shorter life spans?

56. How are Cepheid variables used to classify stars?

Ans: Medium size, temperature, color.

Ans: Positive: a source of energy lasting billions of years

Ans: Yes, but it would be a hole tens of miles deep.

Difficulty Level: Hard

3.When astronomers look out at our universe, they see all

4. Which of the following was not a contribution to cosmology by Edwin Hubble?

a. the proof that there are other galaxies

5.Hubble’s law tells us that

6.The most recent "freezing" of the universe involved the creation of

7.The redshift surveys of the 1980s

c. measured the distance to thousands of galaxies.

8. The discovery of a cosmic microwave background

Difficulty Level: Easy

11. Which wavelength of radiation is associated with our expanding universe?

17. Which statement about dark matter is accepted by most astronomers?

Link To: The Evolution of the Universe

18. What experimental evidence supports the big bang theory?

19. Antimatter is fairly rare in the universe because

20. The rate at which new stars are formed

21. Which of the following describe a quasar?

23. Evidence for the big bang includes the

25.Most galaxies are spiral galaxies.

31. The average temperature of the universe is near absolute zero.

41. In what way is the Milky Way a typical galaxy?

Ans: Spiral, has black hole at center.

42. How do we know the Milky Way is a spiral galaxy?