ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276

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Neogene tectonic evolution and exhumation of the southern

Ecuadorian Andes: a combined stratigraphy and fission-track approach
Michael Steinmann 1 , Dominik Hungerbühler 2 , Diane Seward 3 , Wilfried Winkler *
Geological Institute, ETH-Zürich, ETH-Zentrum, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
Received 29 January 1998; revised version received 11 March 1999; accepted 11 March 1999

Abstract

Coastal marine and continental sedimentary facies of Middle to Late Miocene age are exposed in the Andes of
southern Ecuador (Cuenca, Girón–Santa Isabel, Loja, Malacatos–Vilcabamba and Catamayo–Gonzanamá Basins). The
chronostratigraphy of the basin series was established by zircon fission-track dating on a total of 120 tephra layers.
Subsequently, the timing of tectonic events was estimated through the well-dated stratigraphic sequences and intervening
unconformities. Sedimentation from ³15 to 9 Ma (termed Pacific Coastal Stage) was dominantly of coastal marine
type, extending over an area far greater than the present basin perimeters. It ended when a period of east–west-oriented
compression at ³9.5–8 Ma exhumed the region, and sedimentation was then restricted to smaller basins (termed
Intermontane Stage). These Late Miocene continental sediments were for the first time sourced from the west in the rising
Western Cordillera. Apatite fission-track analysis was applied to some of the tephras in the Cuenca Basin and also to the
older (Eocene, 42–35 Ma) Quingeo Basin series in order to quantify the basin histories with respect to timing and amount
of burial and later exhumation. In the Quingeo Basin burial of the oldest sediments reached temperatures of ¾100ºC at
18 Ma, when they started to cool down during a period of exhumation. This process preceded the Pacific Coastal Stage
development of the other basins. In the Cuenca Basin, the oldest sediments were buried to temperatures of ca. 120ºC
by 9 Ma, when a period of inversion began and a phase of erosion was dominant. This timing correlates well with that
estimated from structural evidence. At ca. 6 Ma the cooling rate slowed down and maybe even reverted to a small increase
in temperature until 3 Ma, when the final stages of exhumation took place. Assuming a geothermal gradient of 35ºC=km,
total uplift for this part for Ecuador is about 6100 m over the last 9 million years. Assuming a steady state continuous
movement, this means a mean rock uplift rate of ¾0.7 mm=yr and a surface uplift of 0.3 mm=yr to the Present.  1999
Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Andes; Ecuador; Neogene basins; zircon and apatite fission-tracks; uplift; exhumation

Ł Corresponding author. Fax: 41-1-6321-080; E-mail: wilf@erdw.ethz.ch

1 Present address: Matsag Perú S.A., Pasaje Los Delfines 159, Piso 8, Urb. Las Gardenias, Santiago de Surco, Lima 33, Peru.
2 Present address: Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij B.V., Business Unit Offshore, Grote Hout of Koningsweg 49, Postbus 23,

1950 AA Velsen-Noord, The Netherlands.

3 Also corresponding author. E-mail: diane@erdw.ethz.ch

0040-1951/99/$ – see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 0 - 1 9 5 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 0 0 - 6
256 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
1. Introduction
The Andean chain in Ecuador represents a dou-
ble-vergent orogenic belt with a distinct morpho-
tectonic arrangement (Fig. 1a). The oceanic Nazca
plate to the west is subducting towards the east
under an accreted oceanic crustal slab (Piñon ter-
rane in the Costa area) and the Andean Cordilleras
(Sierra), inducing steep west-vergent reverse faults
in the Costa and Western Cordillera. The Eastern
Cordillera is thrust along east-vergent reverse faults
onto the South American craton and sedimentary
cover (Oriente). Along that boundary zone conspic-
uous tectonic uplift is evident exposing Paleozoic to
Tertiary basement cover and foreland basin forma-
tions (Subandean zone).
This tectonic setting developed over a long period
extending from the Cretaceous to early Cenozoic
(e.g. Feininger and Bristow, 1980; Litherland et al.,
1994) with a probable climax in the Eocene when a
major reorientation from a NNE to ENE=E directed
subduction regime along the northern South Ameri-
can margin occurred (Pilger, 1984; Pardo-Casas and
Molnar, 1987). This caused a change from earlier
dextral transcurrent motions to nearly orthogonal
(approx. east-directed) convergence along the NNE–
SSW-running northern Andean segment (e.g. Jaillard
et al., 1995a). During the same period the accretion
of the Piñon terrane together with the Macuchi arc
(Costa and Western Cordillera) against the South
American continent is assumed (Lebrat et al., 1987;
Bourgeois et al., 1990; Jaillard, 1995b).
After a period of intense ignimbritic volcanic
activity from Late Eocene to Early Miocene (e.g.
Loma Blanca and Saraguro Fms.; Fig. 1b, Fig. 2)
in southern Ecuador, various Miocene clastic basins
developed (Fig. 1b) which were supplied with de-
tritus from metamorphic, ancient and contempora-
neous volcanic sequences. Noblet et al. (1988) and
Marocco et al. (1995) originally suggested that the
basins had an intermontane setting with prevailing
continental deposition from Lower Miocene in a
tectonic strike-slip regime. However, more recent
Fig. 1. Simplified maps of Ecuador. (a) Morphotectonic subdivision of Ecuador. (b) Geological map of southern Ecuador with the
location of the main Tertiary basins; modified after Litherland et al. (1993). In the Cuenca Basin area the traces of the tectonic sections
in Fig. 4 are indicated.
studies (Hungerbühler et al., 1995; Winkler et al.,
1996; Steinmann, 1997; Hungerbühler, 1997) re-
vealed a sedimentary history and chronostratigraphy
of the basins which are more complex than earlier
assumed.
In this paper we present an overview of the differ-
ent Neogene basins, and in particular (1) the chrono-
stratigraphy resulting from zircon fission-track dating
of both the underlying and overlying volcanic series,
as well as the ash layers within the basin fill series,
(2) the sedimentary development which took place in
two distinct stages, and (3) the inversion of the basins.
Special emphasis will be given to the fission-track
analysis which provides a coherent quantification of
the timing of deformation and exhumation of the An-
dean chain in southern Ecuador.
2. Fission-track methodology
Zircons and apatites were extracted using standard
techniques. Zircons were etched in the eutectic mix-
ture NaOH–KOH at 220ºC (Gleadow et al., 1976)
for times varying from 60 to 180 h. Apatites were
etched for 40 s in 6.5% HNO3 at 20ºC. Muscovites,
used as solid state detectors, were etched in 40% HF
for 45 min at 20ºC. All samples were irradiated at
the ANSTO reactor, Lucas Heights, Australia.
Analysis was carried out using the method out-
lined by Seward (1989) with the external detector
method (Gleadow, 1981). Ages were calculated us-
ing the zeta factor approach of Hurford and Green
(1983). Zircon zeta values of 103 š 5 (Hungerbühler)
and 105 š 2 (Steinmann) were derived using the Fish
Canyon Tuff and Tardree Rhyolite zircons and the
standard CN1 glass. For the Nabón Basin zircons
(Seward) a zeta value of 338 š 5 was used for glass
SRM612. A zeta value of 337 š 5, derived using
dosimeter glass CN5 and Durango apatite (Stein-
mann), was used for calculation of the apatite ages.
The statistical uncertainties on the ages are the stan-
dard error as defined by Green (1981) and incorpo-
rate errors from the induced and spontaneous tracks
M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276 257
 258
M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
Fig. 2. Stratigraphy and generalised facies relations of the Tertiary sedimentary formations in southern Ecuador in the Berggren et al. (1995) time scale. Vertical axis
non-linear. Only key zircon fission-track age data are indicated (see Table 1); after Steinmann (1997) and Hungerbühler (1997).
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
as well as those of the glass dosimeter. Errors are
expressed in Ma at the 2¦ level.
Stratigraphic ages from fission-track data are not
as precise as those obtained from other techniques
(e.g. Ar=Ar, U=Pb); however, the high abundance of
ashes in the study area provided an excellent strati-
graphic control and the accuracy of the fission-track
data could be checked. The error limits tend to be
large, but the ages yielded a consistent picture. The
fission-track method is a single grain technique, and
therefore, as discussed below, detrital contamination
can be readily recognised.
The zircons were in general idiomorphic, unzoned
and clear. However, it is not always possible to dis-
tinguish between primary and reworked volcaniclas-
tic horizons on the basis of field criteria. Even in pri-
mary tephra deposits, it is possible to obtain detrital
contamination from material ripped off the volcanic
vent walls and from xenoliths. However, several
methods can be applied to the fission-track technique
to test for the presence of multiple populations. To
assess the distribution of single grain ages from a
particular sample, the  2 test was used (Galbraith,
1981). When the probability of passing this test was
less than 10% it was assumed that the measured
ages did not belong to one population. Any ages that
appeared to be multicomponent were statistically re-
solved using the MacMix program (Sambridge and
Compston, 1994) and the 2cm.m program (based on
work of Galbraith and Laslett, 1993; D. Coyle, pers.
commun., 1995). Both methods revealed identical
results. The ages of the younger populations are as-
sumed to be those representative of the eruptive age
and are listed in Table 1.
Apatites from tephras already dated by zircon
from the Cuenca and Quingeo Basins, were used for
thermal history analysis. Together with the age deter-
minations, confined track lengths were measured in
sections of apatite crystals that were in the plane of
the crystallographic c-axis. These parameters were
used to construct the thermotectonic history of the
sequence.
3. Stratigraphy and chronology
In Fig. 1b the simplified geological situation in
southern Ecuador is depicted showing the Miocene
259
basins of Cuenca, Girón–Santa Isabel, Nabón, Loja,
Malacatos–Vilcabamba and Catamayo–Gonzanamá.
The Zumba Basin will not be treated here. The
current basin nomenclature reflects more the final
Intermontane Stage of basin evolution rather than the
original geographical extension. During the earlier
coastal stage, the depositional domains were much
larger and the sedimentary record is only preserved
in the final stage depressions. Generally, the basin
fill series unconformably overlie Upper Cretaceous
turbidite series and Paleocene to Lower Miocene
volcanic formations. In the Loja area, the basin
fill directly overlies metamorphic basement of the
Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2).
Correlation and chronology between and within
the basins has in the past been difficult (Winkler
et al., 1996). Vertical and lateral facies variations
hindered simple lithostratigraphic correlation while
the dearth of definitive fossils allowed no confi-
dent chronology to be developed. Since the under-
lying units of the basins are commonly volcanic
and the basin sequences contain numerous tephra
horizons, a program to date the sequences using
zircons extracted from these lithologies was under-
taken. Over 120 fission-track ages have been deter-
mined (Steinmann, 1997; Hungerbühler, 1997) and a
tight chronology obtained. This contribution presents
the ages of those that are crucial for this particular
study (Fig. 2; Table 1).
The underlying volcanic units of the Loma
Blanca, Saraguro, Santa Isabel and Quinara For-
mations range in age from 42 to 15 Ma (Fig. 2).
The Quingeo and Playas sedimentary series (Fig. 2),
previously considered as Miocene (Kennerley, 1980;
Noblet et al., 1988; Noblet and Marocco, 1989;
Marocco et al., 1995), are definitively older and
represent remnants of Late Eocene and Early
Oligocene continental basin structures (Steinmann,
1997; Hungerbühler, 1997). Several Middle to Late
Miocene basin fill sequences overlie the volcanics
and span a period of 16 to 8 Ma. These are un-
conformably overlain by latest Miocene to Pliocene,
mostly air-borne volcanic formations (approx. 6–2
Ma) (see Fig. 2, Tarqui and Salapa Fms.).
In spite of considerable facies variations between
the individual basins, a distinct late-Middle Miocene
marine=brackish interval can be identified in sev-
eral basins (coastal, lagoonal and deltaic facies in
Table 1

260
Zircon fission-track ages for tephra from the Tertiary basins of southern Ecuador

Basin Grid reference a No. of ²d ð 104 cm 2 ²s ð 104 cm 2 ²i ð 104 cm 2 U Var. P 2 Age š 2¦ Depositional age if
Formation grains (counted) (counted) (counted) (ppm) (%) (%) (Ma) different from bulk
Sample counted age — see text
Cuenca Basin
Tarqui Fm.
MS 235 729453=9664218 19 48.41 (5675) 91.86 (387) 353.2 (1488) 292 5 56 6.3 š 0.8
MS 216 731940=9672631 14 50.09 (5675) 148.0 (326) 639.7 (1409) 511 0 98 5.8 š 0.8
MS 218 732155=9672200 18 47.72 (2913) 11.78 (289) 56.16 (1378) 47 0 91 5.1 š 0.6
MS 432 723285=9725220 19 34.87 (3441) 76.78 (487) 205.3 (1302) 230 0 92 6.8 š 0.8
DH 213 729094=9687475 20 40.42 (5675) 62.89 (439) 228.2 (1593) 226 0 100 5.5 š 0.6

M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276

Turi Fm.
MS 433 732196=9721603 20 39.74 (4173) 62.21 (452) 162.3 (1179) 163 0 95 8.0 š 1.0
DH 262 721221=9672528 19 35.21 (3441) 40.45 (283) 93.05 (651) 106 0 100 8.0 š 1.2
MS 391 717309=9668285 17 39.33 (4137) 34.84 (182) 76.57 (400) 76 0 100 9.4 š 1.8
MS 283 722317=9671161 5 36.01 (3441) 203.9 (185) 402.3 (365) 447 0 94 9.6 š 1.8
DH 262 721221=9672528 19 35.21 (3441) 40.45 (283) 93.05 (651) 106 0 100 8.0 š 1.2
Azogues Fm.
MS 309 734372=9683168 16 36.81 (3441) 191.0 (555) 361.7 (1051) 393 4 77 10.2 š 1.2
MS 319 739163=9696163 20 39.25 (4173) 90.67 (451) 162.6 (809) 162 0 100 11.5 š 1.4
DH 209 733790=9687405 20 50.51 (5675) 205.6 (1581) 436.9 (3359) 346 0 89 11.9 š 1.2
Mangán Fm.
MS 405 732117=9690104 18 39.50 (4173) 73.18 (445) 152.4 (927) 151 0 100 9.9 š 1.2
MS 377 733213=9697750 16 35.78 (3441) 202.7 (699) 396.2 (1366) 443 1 69 9.5 š 1.0
MS 344 733053=9693300 7 37.38 (3441) 264.1 (270) 524.2 (536) 547 0 77 9.9 š 1.6
Loyola Fm.
MS 208 725275=9676852 21 41.68 (5675) 207.5 (1659) 356.6 (2851) 342 2.9 37 12.1 š 1.2
DH 208 734038=9688019 26 47.15 (5675) 328.8 (2806) 558.0 (4762) 473 4.4 25 13.9 š 1.4
Biblián Fm.
MS 261 725779=9675714 20 35.33 (3441) 118.9 (493) 179.4 (7443) 198 7 73 12.3 š 1.6
MS 209 725954=9676206 8 49.67 (5675) 269.0 (242) 446.9 (402) 360 0 72 14.7 š 2.4
Cojitambo Intrusion
MS 207 735010=9695790 12 49.61 (2913) 115.3 (514) 360.6 (1608) 291 0 97 7.8 š 0.8
Saraguro Fm.
MS 367 735092=9706274 15 38.17 (4331) 502.4 (981) 489.6 (956) 500 2 61 20.5 š 2.0
DH 241 730062=9675245 9 42.94 (5675) 405.4 (709) 320.8 (561) 299 0 100 27.2 š 2.6
MS 281 720997=9667853 20 36.24 (3441) 548.6 (1339) 366.3 (1339) 404 0 95 28.4 š 2.6
Quingeo Basin
Quingeo Fm.
MS 412 728729=9664234 24 38.74 (3441) 542.7 (1719) 331.2 (1049) 333 0 89 35.9 š 2.8
MS 305 736675=9680785 20 36.58 (3441) 607.3 (1326) 275.7 (602) 302 0 95 42.2 š 3.8
Table 1 (continued)

Basin Grid reference a No. of ²d ð 104 cm 2 ²s ð 104 cm 2 ²i ð 104 cm 2 U Var. P 2 Age š 2¦ Depositional age if
Formation grains (counted) (counted) (counted) (ppm) (%) (%) (Ma) different from bulk
Sample counted age — see text
MS 408 731963=9675027 20 37.83 (3441) 409.7 (1301) 203.8 (647) 216 2 53 39.8 š 4.0
MS 409 733464=9675553 13 37.26 (3441) 430.8 (838) 212.3 (413) 222 0 90 39.6 š 5.0
MS 291 733101=9675508 16 35.55 (3441) 550.1 (1768) 271.3 (872) 298 0 99 37.4 š 3.4
MS 300 736413=9682577 11 37.94 (3441) 519.7 (893) 303.2 (521) 320 0 95 53.5 š 10.0 34.9 š 4.0

Girón Subbasin
Girón Fm.
DH 330 702040=9644479 16 34.39 (2541) 107.7 (439) 184.3 (751) 214 0 74 10.1 š 1.2
Turi Fm.

M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276

DH 334 703779=9649895 20 40.08 (2541) 69.61 (441) 156.1 (989) 156 90 9.0 š 1.0
MS 241 709399=9655972 6 35.15 (2745) 109.4 (227) 261.1 (542) 297 0 32 7.6 š 1.2

Nabón Basin
Tambo Viejo Fm.
MS 100 13550=28200 10 15.44 (1090) 789.0 (283) 325.0 (1164) 223 0 73 6.3 š 1.0
Nabón Group
WS 68 17650=31725 10 15.22 (1360) 685 (201) 223 (653) 198 0 70 7.9 š 1.4
DH 92 16250=30880 12 14.83 (1090) 717 (261) 212 (771) 152 7 39 8.5 š 1.4
Saraguro Fm.
MS 24 10365=24540 11 15.06 (1360) 174 (986) 201 (1139) 164 8 11 22.0 š 2.6 18.5 š 6.0
MS 34 09820=25430 20 15.43 (1360) 295 (1322) 300 (1347) 175 37 1 26.7 š 4.0 19.0 š 3.5
DH 31 12250=29500 6 15.65 (1360) 295 (534) 275 (499) 207 8 26 28.2 š 4.1 26.4 š 4.5

Santa Isabel Subbasin

Saraguro Fm.
CH 66 680200=9630300 15 49.96 (3020) 474.4 (972) 452.4 (927) 362 92 26.4 š 2.6
DH 464 671534=9632381 7 51.56 (2745) 575.2 (398) 721.2 (499) 560 0 81 21.1 š 3.0
Santa Isabel Fm.
MS 239 683296=9633982 24 48.64 (6408) 142.6 (912) 189.8 (1214) 152 1 59 18.4 š 1.6
Burrohuaycu Fm.
UH 61 687200=9634700 17 39.56 (2745) 55.85 (292) 108.5 (567) 109.7 0 99.6 10.5 š 1.6
MS 238 683296=9633982 19 52.81 (6408) 206.4 (1087) 374.3 (1971) 284 8 13 14.7 š 1.2
Uchucay Fm.
MS 236 682810=9629759 28 46.07 (5787) 190.4 (1866) 221.6 (2172) 192 47 0 18.9 š 1.7 9.4 š 1.6

Loja Basin
Loma Blanca Fm.
MS 225 699139=9546868 8 42.41 (3172) 518.3 (522) 302.8 (305) 286 17 6.7 36.2 š 6.8

261
San Cayetano Fm. (Lower Sandstone Mb.)
DH 246 701249=9559170 23 46.45 (5787) 226.1 (962) 285.2 (1639) 323 0 88 13.8 š 1.2
 262
Table 1 (continued)

Basin Grid reference a No. of ²d ð 104 cm 2 ²s ð 104 cm 2 ²i ð 104 cm 2 U Var. P 2 Age š 2¦ Depositional age if
Formation grains (counted) (counted) (counted) (ppm) (%) (%) (Ma) different from bulk
Sample counted age — see text
San Cayetano Fm. (Siltstone Mb.)
MS 226 699052=9547885 13 38.29 (3172) 130.5 (321) 253.2 (623) 265 0 86 10.0 š 1.4
La Banda Fm.
DH 223 696922=9561374 16 40.35 (3172) 242.7 (737) 446.2 (1355) 442 9 22 11.1 š 1.2
Salapa Fm.
DH 225 693545=9569306 23 46.36 (5787) 431.0 (1327) 431.6 (1329) 363 105 0 16.4 š 7.4 2.3 š 0.8

Malacatos–Vilcabamba Basin

M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276

Loma Blanca Fm.
MS 247 700498=9519437 24 45.73 (5787) 555.8 (1410) 244.4 (620) 208 249 0 50.5 š 6.4 40.6 š 5.4
DH 344 685992=9538147 12 45.77 (2541) 237.0 (431) 205.7 (374) 175 0 97 26.6 š 4.0
Quinara Fm.
MS 228 694649=9523782 17 49.13 (6408) 156.6 (669) 255.9 (1093) 203 7 71 15.1 š 1.6
Santo Domingo Fm.
DH 229 689804=9536110 10 50.37 (5668) 204.4 (389) 356.3 (678) 283 0 63 14.6 š 1.8
MS 245 689883=9541970 12 47.13 (5668) 320.7 (620) 551.3 (1066) 468 61 0 14.8 š 5.4 12.4 š 1
DH 292 697250=9526717 20 41.05 (3020) 120.6 (909) 212.1 (1598) 207 12 13 11.8 š 1.2 10.0 š 1
DH 293 697791=9525385 15 49.57 (2541) 827.5 (369) 259.7 (1158) 210 0 91 8.0 š 1.0

Catamayo–Gonzanamá Basin
Loma Blanca Fm.
DH 391 680590=9544440 20 43.15 (3020) 293.2 (1465) 218.1 (1090) 202 9 20 29.0 š 2.8
Gonzanamá Fm.
DH 439 674378=9539250 17 43.35 (2745) 155.4 (506) 221.1 (720) 204 1 78 15.7 š 2.0
DH 394 674378=9539250 20 42.10 (3020) 766.9 (523) 113.2 (772) 108 1 80 14.4 š 1.8

Playas Basin
Loma Blanca Fm.
DH 388 647582=9559391 20 45.77 (3020) 619.1 (2380) 337.9 (1299) 295 4 58 42.2 š 3.4
DH 387 646676=9558934 20 46.82 (3020) 454.6 (1295) 344.8 (982) 295 0 88 31.1 š 2.8

²d , ²s and ²i represent track densities in the dosimeter, and the densities of spontaneous and induced tracks, respectively. P. 2 / is the probability of obtaining  2 values for
× degrees of freedom where × D number of crystals 1.
Ages are calculated using the zeta approach (Hurford and Green, 1983). Zeta for Nabón samples using dosimeter SRM 216 was 338 š 5, for the Cuenca and Quingeo Basins
zeta for CN5 was 105 š 2, and for the remaining samples with dosimeter CN5 zeta was 103 š 5. All ages are central ages (Galbraith and Laslett, 1993); errors are calculated
according to Green (1981) and are expressed at the 2¦ level. Where several age components could be resolved, the youngest population is taken to represent the time of
sedimentation. These ages are listed in the last column.
a Grid references for the locations are Universal Topographic Mercator (UTM), except for the Nabón Basin where the co-ordinates are taken from local topographic maps

(Instituto Geographico Militar, 1970, 1971).

 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
Fig. 2; Hungerbühler et al., 1996; Steinmann, 1997;
Hungerbühler, 1997). Paleontologically, this coastal
marine facies is characterised by the presence of
estuarine salinity range ostracods and a few benthic
foraminifera (D. Peterson in Hungerbühler, 1997),
crab claws and shrimps. Based on the last two fossil
findings, Liddle and Palmer (1941) and Feldmann et
al. (1993) inferred an estuarine environment of depo-
sition. For example, characteristic estuarine salinity
range ostracods were detected in the Loyola Fm.
(ca. 14–11 Ma, Cuenca), San José Fm. (14 Ma,
Malacatos–Vilcabamba) and La Banda Fm. of the
Loja Basin (ca. 11–10 Ma, D. Peterson in Hunger-
bühler, 1997). In the central and southern Cuenca
Basin the coastal sediments are underlain by fluvial
deposits (Biblián Fm., see also Fig. 6). Zircon age
dating of ashes, combined with structural relation-
ships, prove that the Quingeo Fm. (see Figs. 2, 5 and
6) can no longer be correlated with the Biblián Fm.,
as suggested by Noblet et al. (1988); Marocco et al.
(1995).
Overlying the Biblián Fm., the westward progra-
dation of fluvial-dominated delta formations under
wave and tide influence is observed (Loyola and
Azogues Fms., Fig. 6; Steinmann, 1997). Fluvial de-
posits in the Mangán Fm. which generally prograded
towards the west are dominant up to the major un-
conformity dated at about 9–8 Ma (Fig. 2). The lack
of unconformities between the fluvial and deltaic
formations below implies that the fluvial sediments
were still deposited close to sea level. The only Mid-
dle Miocene basin which had a continental setting
for its whole history is the Santa Isabel–Girón Basin
(Helg, 1997; Hammer, 1998), which drained north-
wards into the larger Cuenca Basin (Fig. 3). The
recognition of facies which were deposited at sea
level is an important datum for uplift and exhuma-
tion estimates as presented below. Wedging of basin
formations and onlap configurations are preserved
in several basins (Girón–Santa Isabel, Cuenca, Loja)
and suggest that all basins initially developed in
half-graben=graben settings in an E–W-oriented ex-
tensional regime until ¾9.5 Ma (Steinmann, 1997;
Hungerbühler, 1997; Helg, 1997; Hammer, 1998).
In the Santa Isabel Sub-Basin, Cuenca, Loja and
Malacatos–Vilcabamba Basins conspicuous angular
unconformities exist which are dated on stratigraphic
grounds at ¾9.5–8 Ma (Fig. 2). The overlying sedi-
263
mentary formations (Turi Fm. in Cuenca and Girón,
Cerro Mandango Fm. in Malacatos–Vilcabamba,
Quillollaco Fm. in Loja, and Uchucay Fm. in Santa
Isabel) consist mainly of alluvial fan and bed-load
dominated river deposits dated at less than 9.4 Ma
(Fig. 2). They are in turn unconformably overlain
by air-borne silicic pyroclastics (Tarqui and Salapa
Fms., Fig. 2).
A combination of the facies and chronological
data suggest that development of the Neogene basins
in the Sierra of southern Ecuador took place in
two stages (see Fig. 3). (1) During the Pacific
Coastal Stage large shallow marine embayments
formed during extension and ingressions from the
subsiding Manabı́ and Progreso Basins. Wave and
tide action influenced deltaic systems and associ-
ated marginal lagoonal and fluvial systems devel-
oped in the Cuenca and Loja Embayments (Fig. 3A).
These systems prograded generally towards the west,
suggesting that the Western Cordillera had not yet
evolved. However, paleoecological considerations
suggest marine connections with the Oriente Basin
across the moderately evolved Eastern Cordillera
(Vilcabamba Inlet, Fig. 3A, Hungerbühler, 1997).
The coastal systems were mainly supplied with de-
tritus from the Eastern Cordillera and surrounding
older volcanic formations. These large basins were
precursors of the smaller basins which formed dur-
ing the following stage. (2) The Intermontane Stage
started at about 9 Ma, during the onset of basin
inversion and deformation of the coastal basin fill
series (Figs. 2 and 3). The younger sediments were
deposited in small, distinct continental settings by
alluvial fan and fluvial systems (Fig. 3B), sealing the
major unconformity. The detritus was supplied from
the Eastern Cordillera and from the rising West-
ern Cordillera. Deformation continued until approx.
8 Ma, at decreasing rates as evidenced by gentle
deformation of the Intermontane Stage series. The
unconformably overlying air-borne volcanics (ca. 6–
2 Ma) show no deformation.
Three cross-sections of the large Cuenca Basin
(Fig. 4) depict the tectonic development of this part
of southern Ecuador. The thick basin fill series older
than 9.5 Ma is incorporated into folds and steep east-
and west-verging upthrusts generating footwall syn-
clines. A regional compressive event folded and re-
verse-thrust the pre-unconformity series without sig-
264 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276 265

nificant detachment from the underlying formations.
The E–W-oriented shortening was mostly accommo-
dated by inversion of earlier normal faults, involving
the basement. The alluvial Turi Fm. (9.6–8.0 Ma)
and pyroclastic airfall deposits of the Tarqui Fm.
(6.8–5.1 Ma) seal the deformed earlier basin fill se-
ries (Fig. 4A). Detail at the basin margins is not well
defined as a result of erosion or burial by young vol-
canics. However, steep upthrusting of the Saraguro
Fm. (Fig. 4C) at the western basin margin uplifted
and folded the Turi Fm. At other basin margins (e.g.
Malacatos–Vilcabamba Basin, Hungerbühler, 1997)
progressive unconformities were developed at that
time. It can be inferred that deformation, probably
at a decreasing rate continued during the deposition
of the Turi Fm. until ¾8 Ma. Structural analysis
indicates that strike-slip or oblique-slip movement
was negligible. The Turi Fm. records a sediment
source from the rising Western Cordillera for the
first time in the history of the Cuenca Basin (Stein-
mann, 1997). In the Cuenca area the post-deforma-
tional crosscutting Cojitambo intrusion has an age of
7:8š0:8 Ma (Figs. 2 and 4B); this is not significantly
deformed and provides another constraint confirm-
ing the timing of the compressive deformation event.
Therefore, the dioritic Cojitambo intrusion (Fig. 4B)
provides a minimum age for the end of main de-
formation in the Cuenca area of ¾8 Ma. Further
evidence for coeval regional E–W-oriented compres-
sion is provided by the history of the Nabón Basin
(Fig. 1) where continuous E–W-oriented compres-
sive deformation from 8.5 to 7.9 Ma is documented
by progressive unconformities along basin bounding
reverse faults and growth fold formation (Winkler et
al., 1993; Hungerbühler et al., 1995).
The above Middle to Late Miocene timing of
basin and facies development differs considerably
from interpretations of earlier workers. Previous
work based chronostratigraphic correlations between
basins on lithostratigraphy and a few K=Ar bulk
mineral and rock datings (e.g. Lavenu et al., 1992),
assuming a continuous Miocene sedimentary record
in all of the basins. However, the age bias due to
argon loss during thermo-tectonic overprinting and
devitrification of volcanic glass was recognised by
these authors. Zircon fission-track dating is a sin-
gle crystal method; therefore volcanic contamination
and sedimentary mixing (a characteristic feature in
volcaniclastic formations) can be revealed by ap-
propriate statistical treatment of the single crystal
ages (Hungerbühler et al., 1995). In the Nabón Basin
fill series, the zircon fission-track chronostratigraphy
(8.5–7.9 Ma) was confirmed with paleomagnetic
measurements (Winkler et al., 1993; Hungerbühler
et al., 1995). Previously, the lithostratigraphic corre-
lation of the Quingeo Basin series with the Biblián
Fm. in the Cuenca Basin and the inferred synsedi-
mentary activity of the separating Santa Ana ‘horst’
(e.g. Noblet et al., 1988; Marocco et al., 1995;
Lavenu et al., 1995) has been a source of major error.
Fission-track ages confirm that the Quingeo Basin
series is Middle–Late Eocene, and therefore consid-
erably older than the Middle Miocene Biblián Fm.
Consequently, in our reconstruction the real thick-
ness of the Biblián Fm. is only about 200 m, instead
of 1200 m proposed in earlier works where the thick-
ness of the Eocene Quingeo Fm. was included. The
Santa Ana ridge (consisting of Maastrichtian beds)
overthrusts to the east over Quingeo Basin series
(which forms a spectacular footwall syncline, first
described by Steinmann, 1997) and in the hanging-
wall to the west, sediments as young as 9.6 Ma are
deformed (Fig. 4C). This implies that uplift of the
ridge occurred in the Late Miocene. Several authors

Fig. 3. Palinspastic reconstruction of Miocene southern Ecuador (after Steinmann, 1997 and Hungerbühler, 1997). (A) the Middle
Miocene situation depicting part of the Pacific Coastal Stage when the Cuenca and Loja Embayments formed during general eastward
back-stepping of subsidence (ingression) from the Manabı́ and Progreso Basins, respectively. (B) Intermontane Stage: at the beginning
of the Late Miocene (at ¾9 Ma) the compressional deformation in southern Ecuador started (also onset of uplift of the Cordillera
Occidental (Western C.)) with basin inversion and main unconformity development between Pacific Coastal and Intermontane Stage
deposits. This coincided with the opening of the Jambelı́–Túmbez Basin which was presumably formed as a pull-apart structure by
northward movement of the coastal block by about 100 km along the Dolores–Guayaquil megashear (DGM) (see Hungerbühler, 1997).
Abbreviations: ChC D Chongón–Colonche high; CE D Cuenca Embayment; DGM D Dolores–Guayaquil megashear; JF D Jubones
fault; JTB D Jambelı́–Túmbez Basin; LE D Loja Embayment; MB D Manabı́ Basin; Pl D Playas high; PB D Progreso Basin; SE D
Santa Elena high; SS D Santa Rosa–Saraguro high; Vi D Vilcabamba inlet.
266 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276 267

have also stressed that the continuous deformation
of the sedimentary formations in the Cuenca Basin
and other basins in southern Ecuador occurred in a
strike-slip regime (Noblet et al., 1988; Lavenu et al.,
1995; Marocco et al., 1995). In the Cuenca Basin,
conical folding and large-scale progressive uncon-
formity formation in the Azogues Fm. and Mangán
Fm., respectively, were interpreted to document a
continuous transpressive regime during basin for-
mation (Noblet et al., 1988; Lavenu et al., 1995;
Marocco et al., 1995). However, detailed mapping
by Steinmann (1997) did not reveal the presence of
conical folds and progressive unconformities. On the
contrary, uniformly oriented thrust planes, fold axes
and fault plane solutions point to a nearly horizontal
shortening in an ¾W–E direction (Steinmann, 1997).
Stratigraphic evidence presented here suggests that
this compressive deformation occurred from 9.5 to 6
Ma at a decreasing rate (see also Fig. 4). Lavenu et
al. (1995) reported the results of a stress inversion
analysis, performed by separating different stress
field populations regardless of the age of formations
in all basins. This is a questionable approach because
the timing of deformation is not constrained. How-
ever, their NNE–SSW-oriented compressional stress
during early basin development stages would be in
line with the generally WNW-directed extension in
the Cuenca Basin during the Pacific Coastal Stage
(Fig. 3A).
An additional point of controversy is the interpre-
tation of the depositional environment in the Cuenca
basin during Azogues time. Noblet and Marocco
(1989) and Marocco et al. (1995) have described
some sedimentary features which are also common
in turbiditic deposits (e.g. sole marks, graded beds,
water escape structures, etc.) and interpreted the de-
posits as those of a lacustrine turbiditic system. How-
ever, the sedimentological analysis of the Azogues
Fm. by Steinmann (1997) documents the presence of
a northward prograding delta plain (containing pale-
osols with gypsum and root traces, swamp deposits,
wave ripples and thin coal layers), the delta slope
system, with mass flows from high water discharge
events (with structures similar to high concentration
turbidites, see Noblet and Marocco, 1989), such as
mud flows, slumps and mud diapirs, are all indicative
of rapid deposition (ca. 1 mm=yr compacted sedi-
mentation rate, Steinmann, 1997) in a fluvial-dom-
inated delta system (Galloway and Hobday, 1996).
The underlying and westward interfingering Loy-
ola Fm. represents the coupled prodelta environment
with the estuarine water ostracod Vetustocytheridea
bristowi (Van den Bold, 1976) (D. Peterson in Stein-
mann, 1997). Notably, this ostracod species was also
found in the overlying delta plain deposits of the
Mangán Fm. (Bristow and Parodiz, 1982). To con-
clude, the absence of major unconformities in the
lower Cuenca Basin fill series (Biblián to Mangán
Fms., see also Fig. 6) suggests that the deposi-
tional environment was situated at, or near sea level
(our Pacific Coastal Stage of basin development,
Fig. 3A).
4. Apatite fission-track analysis and Neogene
tectonic events
Since the temperature range of the partial an-
nealing in apatite is quite low (approximately 120–
60ºC, depending on the cooling rate, Parrish, 1983),
relative to other dating methods, it is particularly
useful for evaluating low temperature thermal his-
tories, i.e. those affecting the upper 3–4 km of the
crust. Track annealing takes place in the tempera-
ture range 60–120ºC over geological time periods
(Laslett et al., 1987). This annealing leads to a dis-
tribution of fission-track lengths that is specific of
particular cooling histories. Further, since tracks are
produced continuously throughout geological time,
each track in a sample will have been exposed to a

Fig. 4. Interpreted cross-sections through the Cuenca Basin and the older Quingeo Basin, arranged from north (A) to south (C) (see
location on Fig. 1b). For more precise location of sections see some underligned names of towns and mountains (modified after
Steinmann, 1997). Formations older than ¾9 Ma are involved in strong compressive deformation. The Turi Fm. (9.6–8.0 Ma) is still
involved in slight deformation. The Cojitambo intrusion (black in section B), cuts the deformed older formations. The Tarqui Fm.
(approx. 6.8–5.1 Ma, white in section A) shows no deformation. A maximum tectonic activity from 9 to 8 Ma is inferred. For the
Quingeo Fm. a similar Late Miocene deformation event may probably be suggested. However, a major cooling event occurred at ¾18
Ma (see text for further discussion).
268 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
different portion of the time and temperature history
of its host rock. Burial of a sample, with its con-
sequent heating, will shorten pre-existing tracks and
any newly formed tracks, to a length determined by
the maximum temperature and time of burial. In the
extreme case, all tracks are erased. When the temper-
ature is decreased below 60ºC, e.g. by inversion of
the basin and exhumation of the sediment, new tracks
formed are practically stable. The kinetics of anneal-
ing of the tracks has been found in some instances to
be affected by chemical composition (e.g. Gleadow
and Duddy, 1981; O’Sullivan and Parrish, 1995).
This may amount to a variation in total annealing
temperature by as much as š20ºC in extreme cases
(Burtner et al., 1994). Analysis of samples from the
tephra studied here yielded chlorine compositions in
the range of 0.4–2.5 wt% Cl, but with the vast ma-
jority at the lower level (Steinmann, 1997). Samples
were not analysed for any other element, e.g. Mn or
rare earth elements which may also affect annealing
rates (Burtner et al., 1994). The apatites in this study
were separated from the same ashes as the dated
zircons and initially must have had concordant ages.
Both the age and track-length parameters are char-
acteristic of a specific history. Using the random
Monte Carlo and Genetic Algorithm approach (Gal-
lagher, 1995) as well as the mathematical description
of annealing developed by Laslett et al. (1987), the
parameters determined during experimental anneal-
ing are compared with the age and length data mea-
sured in a sample. By varying the input chemistry in
the program, a difference of only 10ºC was found for
maximum temperatures reached; the important fact
is that the same events were identified in each case.
Hence, although there may be some variation in the
assessment of the maximum temperature reached,
the timing of events such as a change from heating
(burial) to cooling (exhumation=denudation), could
be determined. Using an estimated geothermal gradi-
ent it is possible to evaluate the amount of sediment
removed by erosion.
4.1. Results and interpretation
4.1.1. Burial and exhumation
The fluvial Quingeo Basin series with a sedimen-
tary thickness of a little over 1000 m was formerly
considered to be equivalent to the Middle Miocene
Biblián Formation of the Cuenca Basin, but nine zir-
con fission-track ages reveal that the sediments range
in age from ca. 42 Ma to 35 Ma (Middle–Late Eocene
in the time scale of Berggren et al., 1995; Fig. 5).
Three ashes yielded enough apatite for analysis, the
results of which add to the overall knowledge of the
Neogene thermo-tectonic history of southern Ecuador
(Table 2). The zircon–apatite pairs are, respectively,
39:8š4:0 and 26:7š4:6 Ma, 39:6š5:0 and 27:9š4:6
Ma, 37:4š3:4 and 26:2š5:4 Ma, with a stratigraphic
thickness between the youngest and oldest of about
500 m. Apatite ages are less than the zircon ages im-
plying at least some resetting. Track-length statistics
have mean lengths of a little more than 12 µm and
standard deviations greater than 2 µm. Modelling
of these three apatites reveals a clear change from
burial (heating to temperature ¾100ºC) to exhuma-
tion (cooling) at about 18 Ma (Fig. 5). We conclude
that the heating was due to burial both by overlying
sediments and ignimbrites of the Saraguro Formation
which were erupted from 30 Ma to 21 Ma but are now
missing from the preserved sedimentary section. This
cooling event is correlated to a phase of compres-
sional deformation at this time (Steinmann, 1997).
Six samples from tephra of the Cuenca Basin
fill yielded datable apatites. The zircon ages of the
tephras, and by implication the age of sedimentation,
range from 5.5 to 12.3 Ma (Table 1; Fig. 6). Yet
the apatite fission-track ages from the same samples
range from 5.2 to 9.4 Ma (Table 2). The Tarqui Fm.
(represented by the Llacao Member) and the top of
the Mangán Fm. have a clearly unimodal distribu-
tion of track lengths with the mean value greater
than 14 µm (Fig. 6). From this point down section
the mean track length shows a small but consistent
decrease. Likewise, track-length distributions show
an increasing tail of short tracks and a suggestion
of bimodality towards the base of the section. These
changes in the track-length parameters are also evi-
dence for increased heating of the sediments due to
burial down section.
The modelled data (Fig. 6) yields clear evidence
that there was some heating after deposition in all
samples. For sequences older than 10 Ma a sudden
change in temperature history took place at about
9 Ma with the initiation of cooling. These horizons
had been buried to temperatures of 120 š 10ºC. The
modelling is not sufficiently precise to allow accurate
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276 269

sample MS 291
T(C) 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
44 36 27 18 9 0
time (Ma)
n =20
obs. age: 26.24 Ma obs. mean length: 12.157
pred. age: 26.43 Ma pred. mean length: 12.044

Tarqui Fm. 10

5.1 ± 0.8 Ma
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
5.8 ± 0.8 Ma
track length (microns) sample MS 409
unconformity T(C) 0
20
40
1000m
60
34.9 ± 4.0 Ma 80
100
120
44 36 27 18 9 0
time (Ma)
37.4 ± 3.4 Ma obs. age: 27.88 Ma obs. mean length: 12.230
n = 20 pred. age: 27.59 Ma pred. mean length: 12.313
500m

39.6 ± 5.0 Ma 10

39.8 ± 4.0 Ma sample MS 408 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

T(C) 0
track length (microns)
20
42.2 ± 4.4 Ma 40
0m
60
80
42.8 ± 3.8 Ma 100
120
Chinchin Fm.
44 36 27 18 9 0
time (Ma)

obs. age: 26.74 Ma obs. mean length: 12.620

n = 20 pred. age: 26.98 Ma pred. mean length: 12.696

10

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
track length (microns)

pyroclastics fluvial sediments (coarse) alluvial plain sediments

volcaniclastics fluvial sediments (fine) 6.3 ± 0.8 Ma F-T age with 2σ error
Fig. 5. Simplified stratigraphic column of the Quingeo Formation representing the situation in the Santa Ana region (after Steinmann,
1997) with underlying and unconformably overlying volcanic (Chinchı́n and Tarqui) formations. The Tarqui Fm. is represented by
its Llacao Member. Zircon fission-track formation ages are indicated on the stratigraphic column. To the right, the modelled thermal
histories (upper of each pair) and track-length distributions are shown; obs. D observed data; pred. D fission-track values predicted for
the modelled thermal history.
270 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276

Tarqui Fm. (DH 213)

T(C) 0
20 10
40 obs. age: 5.20 Ma
pred. age: 5.29 Ma
60
obs. mean length: 14.780
80 pred. mean length: 14.905
100
120 5.5 ± 0.6 Ma
14 12 9 6 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Tarqui Fm.

unconformity
Mangán Fm. (MS 405) 2500m
0
20 20
40 obs. age: 8.90 Ma
pred. age: 8.85 Ma
60 obs. mean length : 14.580
80 10 pred. mean length: 14.559
? ?
100 9.9 ± 1.2 Ma
120

14 12 9 6 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
2000m Mangán Fm.
Azogues Fm. (MS 309)
0
20 20
obs. age: 7.40 Ma
40
pred. age: 7.40 Ma
60 obs. mean length : 13.790
80 10 pred. mean length: 13.896
100 1500m
120
unconformity
14 12 9 6 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10.2 ± 1.2 Ma
Azogues Fm. (DH 209) (MS 308)
0
20 20
Azogues Fm.
obs. age: 8.20 Ma
40 pred. age: 8.20 Ma
60 obs. mean length: 13.670 1000m
80 10 pred. mean length: 13.911 11.9 ± 1.2 Ma
100
120
14 12 9 6 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Loyola Fm. (DH 208)

0
500m Loyola Fm.
20 20
obs. age: 8.80 Ma
40
pred. age: 8.78 Ma
60 obs. mean length: 13.270 13.9 ± 1.4 Ma
80 10 pred. mean length: 13.365
100
120 12.3 ± 1.6 Ma
14 12 9 6 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Biblián Fm.
0m
unconformity
Biblián Fm. (MS 261)
0 number of measured tracks
20 20 Saraguro Fm.
obs. age: 9.40 Ma
40 pred. age: 9.41 Ma
60 obs. mean length: 13.040
80 10 pred. mean length: 12.968
100
120
14 12 9 6 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time (Ma) track length (microns)

ignimbrites fluvial and delta sediments alluvial/delta plain sediments

pyroclastics prodelta sediments 6.3 ± 0.8 Ma zircon F-T age with 2σ error
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276 271

identification of the position of maximum tempera-
ture downsection due to the vertical height difference
(1400 m) between the top and bottom sample. How-
ever, the Mangán Fm. (9.9 Ma) in a higher strati-
graphic position does show considerably less burial,
as should be expected. The sudden change to cool-
ing at ¾9 Ma is well correlated with the regional
compressive deformation (9.5 to 8 Ma) identified
on stratigraphic=tectonic relationships as discussed
earlier. This is further supported by the erosional
unconformity placing the Tarqui Fm. directly on the
Mangán Fm. (Fig. 6, the Turi Fm. is not preserved or
was not deposited in the section discussed here). This
implies a period of erosion from 9 to 6 Ma which
has driven this cooling. Cooling stopped or slowed
down at around 6 Ma indicating perhaps minor re-
newed burial (Fig. 6). The age of the Tarqui Fm. is
5:5 š 0:6 Ma and represents a time of renewed sed-
imentation concomitant with renewed burial of the
older basin infill. This is tentatively seen in the slight
change in the curves for the sequences below the un-
conformity. The uppermost sample, from the Tarqui
Formation (Fig. 6) was never buried to temperatures
greater than 60ºC. This implies the existence of an
overburden of <2 km (assuming a thermal gradient
of 35ºC=km), indicating erosion of less than 2 km
in the last 4 million years. There is a hint from the
modelled section that a period of enhanced cooling
began again somewhere in the range of 4 to 2 Ma
(Fig. 6), but at <60ºC modelled cooling histories
are poorly constrained. Since the Tarqui Fm. (5.4
Ma) was clearly buried, there has had to be an ex-
humation event at some time later than this, hence
supporting the notion of a 4–2 Ma event.
4.1.2. Uplift rates in the Cuenca Basin
If an absolute reference altitude is known, the
available mineral cooling ages can be used to es-
timate the amount of rock uplift and exhumation.
Because of the presence of marine=brackish fossils
in the Pacific Coastal Stage Cuenca Basin series,
the sea level is a convenient horizon for theoretical
calculations. Uplift and subsidence and the related
processes of exhumation, denudation, erosion, sur-
face- and rock-uplift are often used in an imprecise
way. Therefore, tight definitions are needed. Ac-
cording to England and Molnar (1990), Molnar and
England (1990) and Leeder (1991), the following
definitions should be kept in mind when interpreting
the fission-track data:
(1) Exhumation describes the displacement of
rocks with respect to the surface. The absolute alti-
tude at which exhumation takes place is not taken
into account. Therefore, the rate of exhumation is
simply the rate of erosion or the rate of removal of
overburden by tectonic processes. Thermochronol-
ogy together with an accurate timing of tectonic
events will yield exhumation rates.
(2) Erosion refers to local removal of material
that is transported away over the Earth’s surface. The
potential surface is thus lowered and in the absence
of surface uplift, the elevation reduced. Erosion rates
can be locally measured and integrated over greater
surfaces.
(3) Denudation refers to the loss of material from
both, surface and subsurface parts of a drainage basin
or regional landscape by all types of weathering,
physical and chemical. Denudation is not necessarily
accompanied by erosion.
(4) Surface uplift describes the displacement of
the earth surface opposite to the gravity vector with
respect to the geoid or for convenience the sea
level corrected for eustatic changes (England and
Molnar, 1990). Determining surface uplift requires
measurement or estimation of the change in elevation
for all points over a finite area. Only where the
rate of erosion is zero, does the measurements of
displacement reflect regional surface displacement.
(5) Rock uplift relative to sea level is the sum of
surface uplift and exhumation. Rock uplift is equal
to surface uplift if no material has been removed by
erosion.

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic column of the Cuenca Basin series together with zircon sedimentation ages. The stratigraphic column and zircon
ages are in the central part of the basin, between the village of Deleg and the town of Cuenca. The Tarqui Fm. is represented by its
Llacao Member. In the present modelled section the Turi Fm. is missing (see unconformity between the Mangán and Tarqui Fms.). To
the left are the thermal histories derived from the modelled apatite ages and corresponding track-length distributions (centre column);
obs. D observed data; pred. D fission-track values predicted for the modelled thermal history.
 272
Table 2
Apatite fission-track age and length data from some tephra beds in the Cuenca and Quingeo Basins series

Basin Grid reference a No. of ²d ð 104 cm 2 ²s ð 104 cm 2 ²i ð 104 cm 2 U Var. P 2 Age š 2¦ Mean track length (µm) Std. Dev.
Formation grains (counted) (counted) (counted) (ppm) (%) (%) (Ma) and error .1¦ / (µm)
Sample counted

M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276

Cuenca Basin
Tarqui Fm.
DH 213 729094=9687475 26 102.1 (3486) 1.051 (16) 34.48 (525) 4.2 0 99 5.2 š 2.6 14.78 š 0.29 (22) 1.37
Mangán Fm.
MS 405 732117=9690104 20 112.4 (5692) 1.803 (16) 38.20 (339) 4.2 0 99.5 8.9 š 4.6 14.58 š 0.28 (18) 1.17
Azogues Fm.
MS 309 734320=9683428 23 100.7 (6334) 4.632 (40) 106.4 (1502) 13.2 0 100 7.4 š 2.4 13.79 š 0.29 (47) 2.02
DH 209 733790=9687405 20 116.5 (3486) 5.258 (63) 125.4 (1502) 13.5 0 100 8.2 š 2.2 13.67 š 0.29 (66) 2.32
Loyala Fm.
DH 208 734038=9688019 20 121.9 (6334) 4.407 (44) 102.5 (1023) 10.5 0 100 8.8 š 2.8 13.27 š 0.28 (49) 1.95
Biblián Fm.
MS 261 725779=9675714 22 111.6 (5692) 16.34 (169) 325.8 (3369) 36.5 0 100 9.4 š 1.6 13.04 š 0.33 (64) 2.61

Quingeo Basin
Quingeo Fm.
MS 291 773101=9675508 25 95.42 (6334) 20.88 (114) 127.7 (697) 16.7 0 100 26.2 š 5.4 12.16 š 0.33 (59) 2.50
MS 409 733464=9675553 22 108.7 (6334) 24.26 (173) 159.0 (1134) 18.3 0 100 27.9 š 4.6 12.23 š 0.23 (100) 2.26
MS 408 731963=9675027 35 129.8 (6334) 11.92 (159) 97.29 (1298) 9.4 0 100 26.7 š 4.6 12.62 š 0.23 (79) 2.08

²d , ²s and ²i represent track densities in the dosimeter, and the densities of spontaneous and induced tracks respectively. P. 2 / is the probability of obtaining  2 values for
υ degrees of freedom where × D number of crystals 1. Ages are calculated using the zeta approach (Hurford and Green, 1983), with a zeta value of 337 š 5 for dosimeter
CN5.
All ages are central ages (Galbraith and Laslett, 1993); errors are calculated according to Green (1981). Number of tracks counted=measured are in brackets.
a Universal Topographic Mercator (UTM).
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276 273

5000
mean 0.4 mm/y
(0.56 mm/y)

4000

e
ag
sediment thickness (m)

st
(1.4 mm/y)

e
an
0.7 mm/y

.
m
t
on

iF
rm

qu
3000 1.6 mm/y

te

r
Ta
In
0.3 mm/y

e
.

g
m

s.
sta
iF

Fm
r (0.2 mm/y)
Tu
n
l
ta
gá
0.2 mm/y
as

2000 an
M
Co
nd
sa
ic
ue
cif
og

sedimentation
Pa
Az

0.4 mm/y
la,

1000 erosion
yo
Lo

0.4 mm/y sedimentation rate

,
án
bli

(0.2 mm/y) erosion rate

Bi

0
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
time (Ma)
Fig. 7. Subsidence and erosion history of the Cuenca Basin based on formational thicknesses of the basin series and maximum burial
from palaeotemperatures derived from apatite fission-track analysis applying a geothermal gradient of 35ºC=km.

As explained above, it is only possible to cal-
culate rock or surface uplift rates, if there is a
reference horizon with known altitude in relation to
the geoid available. This horizon is represented by
sea level documented from the coastal marine facies
in the Cuenca Basin fill (Loyola and Azogues Fms.).
Higher up, the Mangán Fm. also contains marine
to brackish ostracods. Consequently, major phases
of sedimentation in the Cuenca Basin occurred at
about sea level. The calculated total sediment thick-
ness for this first period is 3400 m and demands a
basin-subsidence rate equal to the sedimentation rate
of 0.4 mm=yr. No depositional altitude can be indi-
cated for sediments <9.5 Ma, since there is no geoid
or altitude control for them. Refining of the mean
uplift rate is not possible at the moment. However,
combining the thermal history from the apatite mod-
elling with the stratigraphy, we can develop detailed
history of sedimentation and erosion for the Cuenca
Basin (Fig. 7). Taking into account the temperature
overprint in apatites compared with the preserved
sediment thickness (Fig. 6), at about 9 Ma erosion
of approximately 1000 m should have taken place.
Then renewed burial by clastic sediments of the Turi
Fm. occurred which is also the beginning of the
Intermontane Stage. Sedimentation continued at an
average rate of 0.4 mm=yr until ¾3 Ma (including
the pyroclastic Tarqui Fm., Fig. 7). Although the
youngest material still present is about 5 Ma old,
there must have been a thicker sequence, since there
is evidence from the Tarqui Fm. apatite modelling
for a burial to a possible maximum of 60ºC (<2 km
burial, Fig. 6). The final exhumation and erosion at a
rate of ca. 0.6 mm=yr started then.
The calculated total uplift and exhumation values
are summarised in Fig. 8. Sample MS 261 (Biblián
Fm.) was deposited at or near sea level and suffered a
burial of ¾3400 m until the Late Miocene (¾9 Ma).
Today the sample is situated at an altitude of 2700 m
which equals a surface uplift of 2700 m since 9 Ma
at a mean rate of 0.7 mm=yr. The exhumation can
be calculated by the simple formula of England and
274 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
middle to late Miocene
4300 m
2700 m
sea-level
0m
Mangán Fm.
Azogues Fm.
Loyola Fm.
Biblián Fm.
sample MS 261
reference point
Fig. 8. Comparison of the Cuenca Basin during the Miocene and the position today. Not to scale. The combined stratigraphic and
fission-track data allow to estimate absolute amounts of subsidence, rock-, surface uplift and exhumation. The sample MS 261 is also
figured on Fig. 6. See text for discussion.
Molnar (1990) which is indicated in the lower square
of Fig. 8. The rock uplift (6100 m) minus the surface
uplift of 2700 m results in a total exhumation of
3400 m. We can infer that in the Cuenca area since
approx. 9 Ma, in average a net surface uplift of about
0.3 mm=yr occurred. As the coeval Intermontane
Stage series were for the first time sourced in the
Western Cordillera, there at least a similar or higher
surface uplift rate must have operated since then.
5. Conclusions
Apatite fission-track analysis combined with
stratigraphic and tectonic based reconstructions of
the basin formation and inversion have been used to
derive the thermal history of Tertiary basins in the
Andes of southern Ecuador.
(1) The sedimentary basins of southern Ecuador
developed in two stages. The first was the Pacific
Coastal Stage where sedimentation occurred over a
large area at about sea level from 15 to 9.5 Ma.
Sediment source during this time was dominantly
from the Eastern Cordillera to the east.
(2) From about 9.5 Ma sedimentation was re-
stricted to smaller basins, remnants of the older more
extensive basins. Sedimentation was then continen-
Western today Eastern
Cordillera Cordillera
surface uplift
2700 m
rock uplift
6100 m
3400 m maximum exhumation
subsidence and burial 3400 m
surface uplift = rock uplift - exhumation
2700 m = 6100 m - 3400 m
tal, with a dominant source to the west in the rising
Western Cordillera. This phase is termed the Inter-
montane Stage.
(3) Fission-track analysis and stratigraphy concur
with the argument that major cooling events occurred
in southern Ecuador at 18 Ma, 9–6 Ma and possibly
from about 3 Ma to Recent. These phases are associ-
ated with periods of compressional deformation, and
associated erosion=cooling.
(4) Taking burial into account, the total rock uplift
for the Cuenca region in the last 9 Ma was 6100 m
which is equal to a mean rate of 0.7 mm=yr. Net
surface uplift amounted to 2700 m or 0.3 mm=yr.
Acknowledgements
We thank Arturo Egüez from EPN-Quito for con-
tinued advice in the geology of Ecuador and many
fruitful discussions. This work was generously sup-
ported by the Swiss Science Foundation project no.
21-39134.93 and 20-45256.95. We also appreciate
the financial support of U. Helg and C. Hammer
by a Swiss Academy of Science Travel Grant for
carrying out their Masters Degree mapping in the
Santa Isabel basin domain. The manuscript benefited
by the suggestions and comments provided by the
 M. Steinmann et al. / Tectonophysics 307 (1999) 255–276
Journal reviewers B.P. Kohn and C. Noblet, and by
R. Spikings.
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