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Acknowledgment
These notes were made during my work as a PhD student at he State University
of New York, under the support of teaching assistant and later of research assistant.
6
I’d like to thank Prof. Sasha Abanov, Prof. Sasha Kirilov, and Prof. Dimitri
Averin, for excellent courses and discussions, allowing me to have many insights
for this project.
7
8 CONTENTS
2 Anyons 75
2.1 Aharonov-Bohm effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.2 Fractional Quantum Hall effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.3 First Detection of Anyons at Stony Brook . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5 Classical Cryptography 85
5.1 RSA Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7 Entanglement 105
7.1 The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.2 Bell inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.3 Quantum Games without Communication . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.4 Quantum Teleportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fundamentals of Quantum
Mechanics
11
Chapter 1
Quantum Mechanics
1.1 States
• The states of a quantum system at time t are given by a vector (ray)
|αi in a complex Hilbert space H.
• The observables are given by hermitian operators, A, with complete
set of eigenvectors (states). They are hermitian, i.e. A = A† . All
eigenvalues ai of A are real, and all states, |αi, are orthogonal.
• The probability of observing a is
X
|haj |αi|2 = hα|A|αi
j
.
13
14 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
tr (|βihα|) = hα|βi.
Proof.
P Let |ii be the complete basis vector of the Hilbert space such as
i |iihi| = 1. From the definition of trace,
X X
tr (|βihα|) = hi|βihα|ii = hα| |iihi |βi = hα|βi.
i i
Proof. Let |ai the eigenstate of the operator A, then ha|A|ai = a. Since
A = −A† , ha|A|ai = −ha|A† |ai = −a∗ = a. The only possible value is
a = 0.
Proof. Writing U |λi = λ|λi and U |µi = µ|µi, taking the complex
conjugate of the second and subtracting them, 0 = hµ|U † U − 1|λi =
(µ∗ λ − 1)hµ|λi.
Since U is unitary µ∗ µ = 1. Inserting one, 0 = µ∗ (λ − µ)hµ|λi. The
initial assumption was hµ|λi =
6 0, following that µ = λ.
π~2 n2
En = ,
2ma2
r
2 nπx
Ψn = sin( ).
a a
The force exerted by this particle on the potential wall can be estimated,
∂hEi
F =− .
∂(2a)
~2 λ
V (x) = − δ(x).
2ma
d2 u(x) 2 λ
− k u(x) = − δ(x)u(x),
dx2 a
2m|E|
with k 2 = .
~2
d2 u
− k 2 u2 = 0,
dx2
and at x → ±∞ we have:
λ
−k − k = − .
a
2m λ
2
V (x) = − (δ(x − a) + δ(x + a))
~ a
The solutions are even (always a single bound state), and odd (at most
one bound state).
1.2. SCHROEDINGER EQUATION AND SINGLE-PARTICLE POTENTIALS19
~ and in a Harmonic
Example: Spectra of a Particle in B
Potential.
Let us analyze the problem of finding the ground state wavefunction and
energy of a particle in a constant magnetic field B and in a strong external
harmonic potential. The Hamiltonian is given by
1 e ~ 2 mω02 2
H= − i~∇ − A + (x + y 2 ).
2m c 2
Without magnetic field, the angular momentum of the ground state is zero
and this will be not changed in a a magnetic field as the harmonic potential
becomes strong. To find the solutions of this Hamiltonian, we first choose the
radial gauge Ax = −By/2 and Ay = Bx/2 and rewrite it in polar coordinates,
~2 1 1 ~2 eB m 2 ωB2 2
H=− ∂r r∂r + 2 ∂φ2 + i ∂φ + ω + r ,
2m r r 2m ~c 2 0 4
where ωB = eB/mc. We separate variables and we get solutions in the form
eiL φψL (r). In the ground state of the oscillator, L = 0 and
~2 1 m 2 ωB2 2
HL=0 = − ∂r r∂r + ω + r .
2m r 2 0 4
p
This is the Hamiltonian of the 2D oscillator with the frequency ω = ω02 + ωB2 /4.
The ground state energy is E0 = ~ω and the wavefunction of the ground state
r 2
ψ= √ 1 e− 2λ2 , where 1
= mω
.
2πλ2 λ2 ~
For the constant magnetic field B we can use the Landau gauge Ax =
−By, Ay = 0, and separate the variables ψ(x, y) = ψk (y)e−ikx to write down
the stationary Schroedinger equation for ψk (y). We
q introduce the cyclotron
eB ~c
frequency ωB = mc
and the magnetic length l = eB
and the Hamiltonian
becomes
~2 mωB2 mω02 2
Hk = (−i∂y )2 + (y − kl2 )2 + y ,
2m 2 2
where the Schroedinger equation is Hk ψk (y) = Eψk .
We can identify this Hamiltonian
p with the harmonic oscillator for each k,
2 2
with oscillator frequency ωB + ω0 , rewriting as
~2 m(ωB2 + ω02 ) m ωB2 ω02 2 4
Hk = (−∂y )2 + (y − yk )2 + k l ,
2m 2 2 ωB2 + ω02
2
ωB
where yk = ωB +ω02
2 kl2 . The energy levels are
1 m ωB2 ω02 2 4
q
2 2
Ek,n = ~ ωB + ω0 n + + k l .
2 2 ωB2 + ω02 0
The levels at some n belong to the same Landau level. We can continue
our analysis assuming that the chemical potential µ is such that the Landau
levels with n > 0 are empty, i.e. En,k > µ for n > 0. The only occupied states
are the ones with n = 0. The filled condition are then given by En,k = µ and
gives −k0 < k < k0 (the maximal and minimal values of k of the occupied
levels), with
1 m ωB2 ω02 2 4
q
µ = ~ ωB2 + ω02 + k l .
2 2 ωB2 + ω02 0
The oscillator states are at y = yk and the filled states have their centers
2
ωB 4
(The positions of the occupied levels) in −y0 < y < y0 , with y0 = ω2 +ω 2 k0 l ,
B 0
at a defined µ.
Finally, the states with maximal and minimal k are the edge states of
IQHE. These edge states have momentum ~k0 and energy Ek0 ,n=0 . The
velocity of corresponding boundary excitations are obtained by differentiating
the energy over the momentum,
1 ∂Ek,n=0 E0
v0 = =c ,
~ ∂k B
k=k0
where E0 is the confining electric field at the boundary and the result repre-
sents the drift velocity in crossed magnetic and electric fields.
24 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
which
P are Fourier transform of each other. For a complete set of states
k |pk ihpk | = 1,
X X
|ni = |pk ihpk |ni = e−ipk n |pk i.
k k
Translation Operator
For a N -dimensional Hilbert space with orthonormal basis |ni, n = 1, 2, ..., N
the translation operator is
N
X
T = |n + 1ihn|,
n=1
P N
Proof. T N = n |nihn + 1| = |n1 ihn1 + 1|n2 ihn2 + 1|...|nN ihnN + 1|.
Since n
Pi = ni−1 + 1, all
P factors in the middle become one, and we have
N
T = n |nihn+N | = n |nihn| = 1, where we use have used the periodicity
|n + N i = |ni.
where t is the constant called hopping amplitude and the sum is over all pairs
im, nh of sites connected to each other by an edge. If for example we put
two noninteraction spinless fermion on the Bethe lattice, the energies of the
states are given by the sum of the energies of occupied levels.
0 −i 1 0
σy = σ2 , σ3 = σz = .
i 0 0 −1
26 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
The spectrum and eigenvectors of these matrices are find by the eigenvalue
equation det(σi − λi ) = 0. We shall find the eigenvalues: λ1 = λ2 = λ3 = ±1.
The eigenvectors (eigenstates) are found by
a a
σi =± .
b b
Resulting
1 1
|σ1 i = and |σ1 i = ,
1 −1
1 1
|σ2 i = and |σ2 i = ,
i −i
1 0
|σ3 i = |+i = and |σ3 i = |−i = ,
0 1
Measurement
To illustrate how to use the previous basis in a measurement, let us suppose
that the measurement of an electron’s spin along z-axis (Sz ) gives + ~2 and
we want the probability that a subsequent measurement of the spin in the
direction n̂ = (sin θ cos φ, sin θ cos φ, cos θ) gives again + ~2 . The probability
of measuring again for Sn in the state |+i is given by the square of the value
of the overlap
θ
P = |hSn , +|+i|2 = cos2 .
2
We can thinking this problem backward. Supposing the measurement
of the spin along the axis n̂ gives + ~2 , let us find the probability that a
subsequent measurement of spin along the z-axis yields + ~2 ,
θ
P = |h+|Sn , +i|2 = cos2 .
2
N spin- 21 Particles
For N spin- 21 particles, the total Hilbert space is
where H2i is the two-dimensional Hilbert space of the ith particle. The di-
mension of H is 2N .
We can define the operator Sz = Szi +Sz2 +...+SzN which acts on a product
of one particle state. The eigenstates of Sz will be given by a direct product
of eigenstates of each particle spin, |+ii , |−ii . The spectrum is given by the
total number of spin up, N+ , and spin down, N− , up to a constant, let us
say sz = ~2 (N+ − N− ), where N+ + N− = N or
~
sN
z
+
= (2N+ − N ).
2
Permutation Operator
A permutation operator is defined for any state |αi, |βi of two spin- 21 parti-
cles, as the operator
P |αi ⊗ |βi = |βi ⊗ |αi.
1
P = 1 ⊗ 1 + ~σ ⊗ ~σ ,
2
H = −µx · B,
2e ~e
µx = Sx = σx .
mc mc
The orbital angular momentum has the same formalism of the particle spin
angular momentum, where we define the non-abelian commutation relations
of the orbital angular momentum operator,
[Li , Lj ] = i~ijk Lk .
1
L2 = Lz + (Lz + L− L+ + L+ L− ).
2
30 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
D E
Example: For a state with defined by Lz , one has {Lx , Ly } = 0.
Proof.
1 2
{Lx , Ly } = (L − L2− ),
4i +
This operator in the basis |l, mi has zeros on the diagonals, and therefore:
[Ji , Jj ] = i~ijk Jk .
[Jz , J± ] = ±~J± ,
[J+ , J− ] = 2~Jz .
Once again, we can define the squared momentum operator, which com-
mutes to the previous operators,
B 2
H = ASz2 + (S − S−2 ).
2 +
From the previous formalism we can write the eigenstates
p
S± |1, mi = ~ (1 ± m)(1 ± m + 1) |1, m − 1i.
Spherical Harmonics
The spherical harmonics are eigenfunctions of the squared orbital angular
momentum, (1.3.13) , and the generator of rotation about the azimuthal
axis. Their general form is
where r
(−1)l 2l + 1
cl = l (2l)!.
2 l! 4π
32 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
The coefficients of this change of basis (the last term scalar product of
(1.3.14)) are the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, which the following selection
rules
• Clebsch-Gordan = 0 unless m = m1 + m2 .
• Clebsch-Gordan = 0 unless |ji − j2 | ≤ j ≤ j1 + j2 .
• For each j1 there are 2j1 + 1 values of m1 , so N = (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1).
• Clebsch-Gordan coefficients form a unitary matrix.
The direct product of two spin spaces can be calculated by the rule
j1 ⊗ j2 = |j1 − j2 | ⊕ |j1 − j2 + 1| ⊕ ... ⊕ j1 + j2 ,
where it is possible to count the sates
j1 +j2
X
(2j + 1)(2j + 1) = (2j + 1).
j=|j1 +j2 |
1
|l1 , l2 , l, mi = |1, 1, −1, −1i = √ (|1, 0i|1, −1i + |1, −1i|1, 0i),
2
where the first part is from the orbital part and the second for spin. For two
electrons,
The Hamiltonian commutes with the spin operator, therefore they share
the same eigenkets. The sum of two spin- 21 particles is
1 1
⊗ = 0 ⊕ 1.
2 2
These two resulting states are a single, 0, and triplet, 1. The triplet can
be write as
1 √
|1, 1i = | + +i = (1, 2, 1),
2
1 √
|1, −1i = | − −i = (1, − 2, 1),
2
1 1
|1, 0i = √ (| − +i + | + −i) = √ (1, 0, −1),
2 2
and the singlet,
1 1
|0, 0i = √ | − +i − | + −i = √ (1, 1, 1).
2 2
34 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
1 ⊗4
= (0 ⊕ 1)⊗2
2
1 1
= (0 ⊕ 1) ⊗ ⊗
2 2
1 1 3 1
= ( ⊕ ⊕ )⊗
2 2 2 2
= (0 ⊕ 0 ⊕ 1 ⊕ 1 ⊕ 2),
giving two singlets, two triplets and one quintuplet.
1 3
⊗ ⊗ 1 = 1 ⊗ 1 ⊕ 2 ⊗ 1,
2 2
= 0 ⊕ 2 · 1 ⊕ 2 · 2 ⊕ 3,
which are one singlet (1 state), two triplets (6 states), two quintets (10 states)
and one septet (7 states).
1.3. SPIN- 21 SYSTEMS AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM 35
Tensor Operator
For higher order system, we generalize the commutation relations to
0 0 0
hαj0 0 |S|αj i
hα , j , m |S|α, j, mi = δjj 0 δmm0 √ .
2j + 1
p21 p2
H= + 2 + V (|x1 − x2 |) + V 0 (x1 ) + V 0 (x2 ).
2m 2m
If we start with a system which is permutation symmetrical, the states
continue to have this propriety even if it evolutes with time. The eigenstate
of the Hamiltonian and the permutation operator are
1
|k 0 , k 00 i = √ (|k 0 i ⊗ |k 00 i ± |k 00 i ⊗ |k 0 i),
2
36 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
S12 |k 0 i ⊗ |k 00 i = |k 0 , k 00 i+ ,
A12 |k 0 i ⊗ |k 00 i = |k 0 , k 00 i− .
Vi ⊗ V j... ⊗ Vk .
The permutation operator Pij takes |ki0 i ⊗ |kj00 i to |ki00 i ⊗ |kj0 i, with the
following proprieties:
2
• P12 = 1.
spin orb
Bosons |ai ⊗ |ai Symmetric P12 = +1 P12 = −1
|bi ⊗ |bi
|ai ⊗ |bi + |bi ⊗ |ai
spin orb
Fermions |ai ⊗ |bi − |bi ⊗ |ai Antisymmetric P12 = −1 P12 = +1
spin 1 4
P12 = (1 + 2 S1 S2 )
2 ~
1
= (1 − σ1 σ2 ),
2
with eigenvalues 43 ~2 for triplet and 14 ~2 for singlet.
hAi = tr (ρA),
38 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
with
tr (ρ) = 1.
The evolution of the density operator is given by
i~∂E ρ = [H, ρ].
The entropy is given by
X
S = −tr (ρ ln ρ) = − lnρ, (1.4.2)
i
Example: Finding the Reduced Density Matrix for the first spin- 21
in a Pure State of two spin- 12 .
Let us write the two spin- 12 given by the normalized state
1
√ |+i ⊗ |−i + 2|−i ⊗ |+i + i|+i ⊗ |+i .
6
Taking the trace with respect to the second spin gives,
X 2 2i
ρ= hi|ΨihΨ|ii = N .
−2i 4
i
1.4. DENSITY MATRIX 39
with the states |ii, i = +, −, in the second spin space. The normalization is
tr ρ = 1, therefore N = 21 , resulting in the reduced matrix
1 i
ρ= 3 3 .
− 3i 23
We can decompose the density matrix as
1 1 1
ρ = 1 + σ2 − σ3 ,
2 3 6
which makes it easy to calculate the expectation values of the components
of the operator S for the first spin in this state. The average over the spin
operator is
~
tr(ρS) = tr(ρSx )x̂ + tr(ρSy )ŷ + tr(ρSz )ẑ = (2ŷ − ẑ).
6
The entropy, i.e. the entanglement, of this reduced matrix is given by
the equation (1.4.2) and can be calculated by finding the eigenvalues of the
density
√
matrix. Diagonalizing ρ by det(ρ − λ1), gives the eigenvalues λ± =
1 5
2
± 6 . Therefore,
X X
S=− ρkk lnρkk = − λi lnλi .
k i
1
where αi = 2
tr (ρσi ) = ~1 [Si ]. Writing the spin operator as
~
[Si ] = tr(ρSi ) = tr(ρσi ),
2
we find the density matrix of this ensemble,
1 1
ρ = 1 + [S]σ.
2 ~
We have learned that the condition for an ensemble to be pure is tr ρ2 = 1
and applying this condition to [Sj ],
1 2
tr(ρ2 ) = + ([Sx ]2 + [Sy ]2 + [Sz ]2 ) = 1,
2 ~
we can find the condition on [Sj ] to be a pure ensemble,
X ~2
[Si ]2 = .
i
4
ρ = |αihα|,
d
trρ2 = 2i tr(ρ[ρ, H]) = 0,
dt
therefore we conclude the condition tr ρ2 = 1 is also true for all t 6= 0.
1.5 Symmetries
1.5.1 Linear Transformations
In quantum mechanics, the Hamiltonian is translation invariant,
[H, T (a)] = 0.
iG i
T (a) = 1 − = e− ~ ap̂z , (1.5.1)
~
The angular momentum operator is the generator of rotation of the sys-
tem,
iG i
R(n̂, φ) = 1 − = e− ~ φn̂·L̂ .
~
1.5.2 Parity
Parity, or spacial inversion is the propriety of changing right-handed systems
on left-handed (such as a mirror). In quantum mechanics we define the parity
42 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
operator,
|αi → π|αi,
π −1 π = 1,
π 2 = 1,
π|n± i = ±|n± i.
[H, π] = 0,
1±π
π|n± i = |ni,
2
H|n± i = En |n± i.
The relations between parity and other relevant operators are in table
1.5.2. For the the wavefunctions, the parity operator acts as:
π|Si = |Si,
π|Ai = −|Ai,
1
|Ri = √ (|Si + |Ai),
2
1
|Li = √ (|Si − |Ai),
2
∆ = Ea − Es ,
2π~
T = .
∆
The time evolution is then:
1 i
i
|Ri → √ e− ~ Es |Si ± e− ~ ∆t |Ai .
2
A(B|Ψi) = −α(B|Φi),
B(A|Ψi) = −β(A|Φi).
Therefore the eigenvalues of A come in pairs α, −α, and same happens for
B. If one makes A → π and B → p, it is possible to see that a state p|Ψi is
also a eigenstate of π.
Hence z|α, ji has opposite parity, the overlap states give non-zero contri-
butions only for ∆j = ±1.
N
!
X
H = −W eiθ |nihn + 1| + e−iθ |n + 1ihn| .
n=1
Where |ni forms an orthonormal basis of the Hilbert space and the periodic
boundary is given by |ni ≡ |n + N i. To find the spectrum of the system
one uses the translational invariance. The translation operator is given by
(1.5.1):
T |xi = |x + ai,
i
e ~ p.a Ψ(x) = Ψ(x + a),
X
T = |n + 1ihn|,
n
2πik
N
T = 1 → T N |ti = tN |ti → tK = e n .
H = −W eiθ T − W e−iθ T † ,
and
[T, H] = 0.
The spectrum of the Hamiltonian is exactly the same as (1.2.6):
2πk
Ek = −2W cos( + θ), k = 0, ..., N − 1.
N
1.5. SYMMETRIES 45
hβ̃|α̃i = hβ|αi∗ ,
Θ(c1 |αi + c2 |βi) = c∗1 Θ|αi + c∗2 Θ|αi,
−iHΘ = ΘiH,
{H, Θ} = 0 → HΘ = −ΘH.
ΘAΘ−1 = ±A.
It also gives a phase restriction on the matrix element of A taken with respect
to time reversed state:
hβ̃|A|α̃i∗ = ±hβ|A|αi.
The action of the time reversal operator on other operators can be seen on
table 1.3. The action of the time reversal on the the wavefunction is:
ΘΨ(x) = Ψ∗ (x),
ΘΨ(p) = Ψ∗ (−p),
Θ|l, mi = ΘYlm = (−1)m Yl−m = (−1)m |l, −mi,
Θ2 |l, mi = |l, mi.
Example: Spin- 12 .
Θ2 |ψi = −1|ψi.
Θ2 |i = 1|i.
Example: Spin J.
It acts as a rotation by 2π.
iπJy
Θ2 |ψi = (−1)2j |ψi = ηKe− ~ |ψi.
Where K is the complex conjugation operator, η the arbitrary phase and
the exponential (1.3.12) is :
iπJy
0 0 1
e− ~ = 0 −1 0
1 0 0
An example of J integer is two electrons system or the orbital of a spinless
particle. Both are given by:
1
√ | + −i ± | − +i .
2
Kramer Degeneracy
Time reversal commutes with the Hamiltonian:
[H, Θ] = 0,
but it does not commutes to the evolution operator, i.e. it does not anticom-
mutes to the Hamiltonian,
ΘU (t, t0 ) 6= U (t, t0 )Θ.
1.6. PERTURBATION THEORY 47
H|ni = En |ni,
H = H0 + λV,
H0 |n0 i = En0 |n0 i.
hn0 |ni = 1.
To find the second order of the energy correction, one needs ∆n2 ,
V φn V X |Vmn |2
∆n2 = hn0 | |n0
i = .
En0 − H0 m6=n
E 0 − E0
n m
In the second order, the correction to the ground state is negative. The
total energy for the Hamiltonian is then given by
X |Vnk |2
En = En0 + Vnn + .
k
En0 − Ek0
H = H0 + V,
p2
H0 = + V0 (r) and V = −e|E|z.
2m
E11 X X X
X E11 X X
H1 =
X X E11 X
X X X E21
The secondary corrections for the energies are
|m0 i, m=1,2,3,...g,
X
|li = hm0 |l0 i|m0 i,
m
H|l i = E0 |l0 i,
0
From selection rules (parity), m is the same and this matrix gives the
only transition that the electron can make. Diagonalizing it,
D E
λ = ± 2p, m = 0V 2s .
For example, if n = 2, the splitting is on 2s, 2p(m = 0), 2p(m = −1) and
2p(m = 1). The the level of energies are
• 2s + 2p, (m = 0),
• 2p, (m = ±1),
• 2s − 2p, (m = 0).
p2
H= + V (r), (1.6.1)
2µ
Ze2
V (r) = − , (1.6.2)
r
which commutes to the angular momentum operator,
[H, L] = 0.
52 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
~2 e2
− = 0,
2mro2 r0
~2
ro = = a0 ,
2me2
1 me4
E=− .
2 ~2
From the introduction of a new dimensionless variables (ρ = 2Z r
na0
), where
2
a0 = m~e e2 is the Bohr radius, it is possible to find the Legendre equation:
ρ → ∞, ∼ ∂ρ2 −→ R ∼ e−ρ/2 ,
ρ → 0, ∼ ρ2 −→ α(α + 1) = l(l + 1), so α = l,
Resulting in: Rnl = ρl e−ρ/2 fnl .
Ln = eρ ∂ρn (e−ρ ρn ),
Lkn = (−1)k ∂ρk Ln+k ,
Z ∞
2n(n + l)!3
e−ρ ρ2l Ln+l
2l+1
(ρ)ρ2 dρ = .
−∞ (n − l − 1)!
The degeneracy is n2 and can be seen at figure (1.1) (without taking into
account the spin, which doubles it to 2n2 ).
D 2e2 E
∆E = n, l, mVo (r) − (− )n, l, m .
r
54 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
n l Name g gtotal
1 0 1s 1 1
2 0 2s 1
2 1 2p 3 4
3 0 3s 1
3 1 3p 3
3 2 3d 5 9
• External field;
• Electro-electron interaction;
m
• Nuclear-spin correction (hyperfine structure), ∼ (Zα)2 M .
1.6. PERTURBATION THEORY 55
Relativistic Corrections
Expanding the relativistic energy-momentum relation, one has the correc-
tions for higher orders:
p p2 p2
E= (mc2 )2 + (pc)2 = mc2 + + ...
2m 8m2 c2
From the Dirac equation (where α, β are Dirac matrices), the Hamiltonian
p2
can be parabolically approximate to 2m :
" ! #
e 2
HDir =e α p− A + βmc + eφ .
c
2 1 e 2 p4 e~
HDir ≈ mc + (p − A) − 3 2
+ eφ − σ·B−
2m c 8m c 2mc
e~2 ie~2 e~
− 2 2 ∇E − 2 2
σ·∇×E− σ · E × p ...
8m c 8mc c 4m2 c2
The only terms that are not negligible are
!
e~ e~ 1 dV r×p
− 2 2σ · E × p = − 2 2 − σ· ,
4m c 4m c re dr L
1 1 dV
= L · S,
2m2 e2 r dr
which is the correction for the spin-orbit interaction,
1 1 dV
HLS = L·S
2m2 e2 r dr
p2
H0 = + Vc (r)
2m
56 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
The perturbation for the state |n, l, ml , s, ms i is HLS , where ml and ms are
not good quantum numbers but l and s are, since L · S commutes to all:
L2 , S 2 , J 2 , Jz . The degeneracy of L · S is (2l − 1)(2l + 1) and this is the size
of the matrix.
(0) (0)
Enl → Enl + ∆nlj ,
1 1 dVc
= hn, l, s, j, m| 2 2
∆nlj L · S|n, l, s, j, mi,
Z ∞ 2m c r dr
2 1 dV
= dr r2 Rnl hL · Si.
0 r dr
!
~2
But hL · Si = j(j + 1) − l(l + 1) − s(s + 1) ,
2
!
∆nl
So, ∆nlj = j(j + 1) − l(l + 1) − s(s + 1) .
2
For spin s = ± 21 , there are two values for j. The Lande’s interval rule
gives
!
1
∆nlj − ∆nl(j−1) = ∆nl j(j + 1) − (j − 1)j = ∆nlj
2
~2 1 dV
∆nlj ∼ h i
2m2 c2 r dr
e2 ~2
∼ 3 2 2
ao m c
e2 ~2
∼
ao a20 mc2
e2 2
∆nlj ∼ α ,
a0
1
order of (∼ 1372
), and significant for f electrons.
1.6. PERTURBATION THEORY 57
Zeeman Effect
The Zeeman effect occurs when one applies an uniform magnetic field to the
hydrogen atom,
B = ∇ × A,
p2 e e2 A2
H = + Vc (r) − (p · A + A · p) + ,
2m 2mc 2mc2
1 1
A = B × r = − (By x̂ − Bx ŷ).
2 2
For ∇A = 0, p · A = A · p,
1 1 B
A · p = B(− yPx + xpy ) = Lz ,
2 2 2
1
A2 = B 2 (x2 + y 2 ).
4
The Hamiltonian is then
p2 1 1 ∂Vc e
H∼ = + Vc (r) + 2 2
L·S− B(Lz + 2Sz ),
2m 2me c r ∂r 2mc
H = H0 + HLS + HB .
For the case which HB HLS : HB is treated as a small perturbation
and one studies the eigenkets of H0 + HLS , J 2 , Jz , noting that:
Lz + 2Sz = Jz + Sz , and |n, l, s, j, mi,
m~
Therefore hSz i = ~2 (|c+ |2 − |c− |2 ) = ± 2l+1 . The correction in the energy
due B is then proportional to mj :
e~B 1
∆EB = − mj (1 ± ).
2mc 2l + 1
Now, the Lande’s factor is given by
For the case which HB HLS : the term HB is more important than
HLS .
eB~
hHB i = − (ml + 2ms ),
2mc
hL · Si = ~2 ml ms .
H = H0 + V (t),
1
|αit = e−u ~ H0 t |αi0 ,
i~∂t |αit = H0 |αit ,
i~∂t |αi = (H0 + V (t))|αi.
1.6. PERTURBATION THEORY 59
Dyson
The time evolution operator is the interaction picture is
i~∂t |αiI = VI |αiI ,
|α, tiI = UI (t, t0 )|α, t0 iI ,
i~∂t UI (t, t0 ) = VI (t)UI (t, t0 ),
Solving for the condition: UI (t0 , t0 ) = 1.
60 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
The transition probability can be predict with UI , together with the time
development of any stateket. If the initial state at t = 0 is one of the energy
eigenstates of H0 , one obtains the initial stateket at later time,
Z t
UI (, t, t0 ) = 1 − VI (t0 )UI (t0 , t0 )dt0 ,
t0
X
|iit = U (t, t0 )|iit=0 = |nihn|UI (t, t0 )|ii,
n
i
(En t−Ei t0 )
hn|UI (t, t0 )|ii = e ~ hn|U (t, t0 )|ii.
Constant Perturbation
V (t) = V θ(t),
H = H0 for t < 0,
H = H0 + V (t) for t > 0,
(H0 + V )|ñi = Ẽn |ñi,
X
|ii = |ñihñ|ii,
ñ
i
X
|iit = e− ~ Ẽn t |ñihñ|ii.
ñ
This is not exactly the previous results from the perturbation series, here
1.6. PERTURBATION THEORY 61
Cn(0) = δin ,
i t
Z
(1)
Cn = − dτ eiωni τ Vni (τ )dτ,
~ 0
Vni
= (1 − eiωni τ ).
En − Ei
4|Vni |2
|Cn(1) |2 = (2 − 2 cos ωni t),
En − Ei
4|Vni |2 En − Ei
= sin2 ( t),
En − Ei 2~
In particular, when En ∼ E1 ,
2π 2π~
t∼ = .
|ω| |En − Ei |
For states with exact energy conservation (En = Ei ), the transition am-
plitude is quadratic in t,
1
|Cn (t)|2 = |Vni |2 t2 .
~2
A transition with appreciable probability is possible in the range of the
Uncertainty Principle,
∆t · ∆E ∼ ~.
When the interaction time is finite, the energy conservation is not perfect
and the spread of ∆E of values of Ef −Ei is T ∆E > c~. The total probability
62 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
En − E1 |Vni |2
Z
= dEn ρ(En )Y sin2 ( t) ,
2~ |En − Ei |2
with
1 sin2 (αx)
Limα→∞ = δ(x),
Z π αx2
∞
sin2 ωt
dω = πT,
−∞ ω2
resulting in
X πt
|Cn(1) |2 = |Vni |2 δ(En − Ei )
n
2~
The transition rate from a state i to a state n (transition per unit of time)
is giving by the Fermi golden rule, which is a law of conservation of energy,
dρ d X (1) ,
= |c |
dt dt n n
2π
|V̄ni |2 ρ(En ),
Wi→n =
~
2π
Wi→n = |Vni |2 δ(En − Ei ).
~
The second order of this pertubation theory is giving by
Z t Z t0
(2) i 2X 0 iωnm t0 00 00
Cn = (− ) Vnm Vmi dt e dt eiωni t ,
~ m 0 0
i X Vnm Vmi 0 0
= intt0 (e−iωni t − eiωnm t )dt0 .
~ m En − Ei
The transition from a state i to a state n for the second order can be seen
as virtual transitions between the states, where the energy not need to be
conserved.
2π X Vnm Vmi
2
Wi→n = |Vni + | ρ(En ) .
~ Ei − Em
m
En =Ei
1.6. PERTURBATION THEORY 63
Harmonic Perturbations
In harmonic perturbations, the appreciate transitions occurs only if En ∼ Ei .
For a harmonic oscillator, ωn → ωni ± ω. A example is an atom exposed
to an uniform time dependent electric field, giving the perturbation E(t)d.
Problems of this kind gives perturbation of the form V (t) = p(t)Q, where
p(t) is a numerical function and Q is an observable.
V (t) = V0 eiωt + V0† e−iωt , for t > 0.
0, for t < 0.
For first order of the pertubation theory, one has
i t
Z
0
(1)
Cn = − Vni (t0 )eiωni t dt0 ,
~ 0
!
1 1 − ei(ω+ωni )t 1 − ei(ωni −ω)t †
= V0ni + V ,
~ ω + ωni −ω + ωni 0ni
Equation (1.7.1) has the classical action in its exponential. For the con-
ditions ~σ00 σ02 or p̄0 p2 or k 0 k 2 , it is trure that k1 = 2πλ
1, and one
has
dp dp mU mF
= 2m(E − U ) = − = ,
dx dx p dx p
pp0 mF
F = where p0 = ,
m p
~∂p ~mF ∂k
p2 3 1, k2.
∂x p ∂x
thus, for p = 0, we have the violation of the classical turning points.The first
order of this expansion is
1
(~1 ) → σ00 σ10 + σ000 = 0,
2
00
1 σ 1 p0
σ10 = − 0 = −
0
,
2 σ0 2p
1
σ1 = − ln p.
2
1.7. OTHER TECHNIQUES 65
c1 i x
R c2 i x
R
ψ = √ e− ~ χ(x)dx + √ e− ~ χ(x)dx .
χ χ
1 1
(~2 ) → σ00 σ20 + σ202 + σ100 = 0,
2 Z 2
1 mF 1 2 F2
σ2 = + m dx,
4 p3 8 p5
Z 2 R
const 1 F 1 2 F i
ψ= √ 1 − im~ 3 − i~m 5
dx e ~ pxdx .
p 4 p 8 p
Connection Formulas
One can use the classical approximation for the turning points to connect
the solutions. The connection formulas, for a and b, are the turning points
in E = V (a) = V (b), for x 0,
A Rx B Rx
a → ψ(x) = p e− a χ(x)dx
+p e a χ(x)dx ,
χ(x) χ(x)
C R x D Rx
b → ψ(x) = p e− a k(x)dx + p e a k(x)dx .
χ(x) χ(x)
For x ∼ a,
dp
The solutions are ψ = Ai (z) and ψ = Bi (z) . Using the limit |~ dx p2 |,
66 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
Hence, when x → ∞,
Z a Z a
2A π B π
p cos( k(x)dx − ) − p sin( k(x)dx − ) =
k(x) x 4 k(x) x 4
A Ra B Ra
p e− x χ(x)dx − p e x χ(x)dx .
χ(x) χ(x)
Bound States
For bound stater, there are two additional conditions,
1 Rb
ψ=p e x χ(x)dx ,
χ(x)
Z x
2 π
ψ=p cos( k(x)dx − ).
k(x) a 4
1.7. OTHER TECHNIQUES 67
We then minimize this, in such way that the phase space results in
Z a
1
2 pdx = (n + )~π.
b 2
V (x) = g(x),
−~2 00
ψ + g|x|ψ = Eψ,
2m
2mg 1 F
z = ( 2 ) 3 (x − ).
~ g
The wavefunction is
ψ = A1 (z),
2mg 1 F
ψn (x) = A1 [( 2 ) 3 (x − )],
~ g
2mg 1 En
= A0i [−( 2 ) 3 ],
~ g
= 0.
Z E r
g 2m 1
2 (E − gx)dx = (n + )π.
0 ~ 2
68 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
1
ψ± = √ [ψ0 (x) ± ψ0 (−x)],
2
2m
ψ000 + 2 (E0 − V (x))ψ0 = 0,
~
00 2m
ψ± + (E± − V (x))ψ± = 0
~
results in
√ 2m 1
− 2ψ00 ψ0 + 2 (E0 − E ± √ = 0,
~ )
2
2
~ 0
E± − E0 = ∓ ψ0 ψ0 |x=0 .
m
2π
where one can express it the classical oscillation frequency ω = τ
. The
1.7. OTHER TECHNIQUES 69
1 1
A 1 2θ + 2θ i(2θ − 2θ ) G
= 1 1 ,
B 2 −i(2θ − 2θ ) 2θ + 2θ F
70 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
where
Rb
χ(x)dx
θ=e a .
The transmission coefficient is
√ 2
|ψtrans |2 vtrans ψT KT F
T = = √ = .
|ψinc |2 vinc ψI kI A
If G = 0,
1 1
A = M11 F = (2θ + )F,
2 2θ
1 4 1 −2 ba χ(x)dx
R
T = = 1 2 ∼ = e .
|M11 |2 (2θ + 2θ ) θ2
Reflection by a Barrier
Classically we should have no turning point for a barrier with potential energy
bigger thant the energy of the particle,
1 Rx
ψ∼p e− 0 k(x)dx ,
k(x)
1
V (x) = − ax2 .
2
r
2E
x0 = ±i ,
a
R = |r|2 ,
π √ 2E
= e−4 ma ,
4π a
= e−2π ,
E
pm
where = ~ a
.
H(t)Ψ = i~∂t Ψ.
72 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
resulting in
So far, all the previous results were exacts. Now we multiply then by
hΨm |, giving
Supposing m 6= n, we get
where the last is the Berry’s phase (geometrical). The phase of the adiabatic
approximation is constituted of a geometrical and a dynamics part. The final
solution is then
X
Ψ= Ψn (t)eiθn (t) eiγn (t) cn (0).
n
1.7. OTHER TECHNIQUES 73
Z t
θ
= dt0 sin2 φ̇,
0 2
Ω
= ,
2
which is the solid angle, and this term correspond to a piece of area (clearly
a geometrical phase).
1 2m
= − (2π)3 2 hk 0 |V |ψ † i.
4π ~
74 CHAPTER 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS
dσ r2 |jscat |
dθ = = |f (k 0 , k)|2 dω
dΩ |jinc |
Anyons
75
76 CHAPTER 2. ANYONS
Quantum Mechanics of an
Open System
77
78 CHAPTER 3. QUANTUM MECHANICS OF AN OPEN SYSTEM
Part II
Fundamentals of Computer
Science
79
Chapter 4
Introduction to Classical
Computation
81
82 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL COMPUTATION
but it should stop in the next years, due the difficulty of size and to quantum
effects that begin to interfere in the functioning of the electric devices.
This is when quantum computation begins. While an ordinary computer
can be used to simulate a quantum computer, it appear to be impossible to
perform the simulation in an efficient way, therefore, quantum computers
offer a speed advantage over classical computers.
The term efficient or inefficient for algorithms is precisely defined by the
computational complexity theory. An efficient algorithm runs in polynomial
time to the size of the problem. An inefficient algorithm runs in superpoly-
nomial (e.g. exponential) time.
4.3.3 PSPACE
PSPACE contains NP and P and is defined for those problems that a classical
computer can solve only using a polynomial amount of memory but requires
an exponential number of steps. An example of problems are the n × n Chess
or Go.
4.4. COMPLEXITY OF ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS 83
4.3.4 BQP
BQP (functions computable with bounded error,given quantum resources, in
polynomial time), defines how the class of problems that quantum computers
would solve efficient. This class includes all the P problems and also a few
other NP problems (e.g. factoring and and discrete logarithm problem).
However other NP and all NP-complete problems are believed to be outside
BQP, which means that even our quantum computer may require more than
a polynomial number of step to solve the problems.
BQP is also believed to be bigger than NP, which means that quantum
computers may solve some problems faster than classical computers can check
the answers.
Classical Cryptography
2. Encryption: Alice transmits the public key (n, e) to Bob, which want
to send a message M back to Alice. M is a integer 0 < m < n, then he
compute the ciphertext c as c = me ( mod n), and transmit it to Alice.
85
86 CHAPTER 5. CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
Part III
87
Chapter 6
89
90 CHAPTER 6. THE ADVENT OF THE QUANTUM COMPUTATION
ers consist of bits, which are variables taking values 0 and 1, and a program,
which is a sequence of operations using bits. The classical computation is
however almost reaching its physical limitation, since we cannot imagine a
component or transistor smaller then the size of an atoms, in the order of 1
Angstrom, or 10−10 meters, or a clock frequency greater than the frequency
of atomic transitions, in the order of 1015 Hz.
The history of quantum information and computation started in late 70’s,
where many techniques for controlling single quantum systems were devel-
oped. In the early 80’s, Feynman [FEY82] and Deutsch [DEU85], published
the ideas of a quantum system to solve a complex computational problem.
Deutsch introduced the Quantum Turing Machine and then the quantum
circuit. A timeline is proposed below.
1970 Landauer, [LAND61], demonstrated importance of reversibility for minimal
energy computation.
1973 Bennett showed the existence of universal reversible Turing machines, [BEN73].
1973 Holevo publishes paper showing thatn qubits cannot carry more than n
classical bits of information (Holevo’s theorem).
1976 Ingarden publishes paper entitled Quantum Information Theory, one of the
first attempts at creating a quantum information theory, showing that Shan-
non information theory cannot directly be generalized to the quantum case.
1982 Benioff showed that quantum processes are at least as powerful as Turing
machines.
1984 Quantum cryptographic protocol BB84 was published, by Bennett and Bras-
sard, for absolutely secure generation of shared secret random classical keys.
92 CHAPTER 6. THE ADVENT OF THE QUANTUM COMPUTATION
1985 Deutsch showed the existence of a universal quantum Turing machine, [DEU85].
1991 Ekert at the University of Oxford, invents entanglement based secure com-
munication.
1993 Dan Simon invented an oracle problem for which a quantum computer would
be exponentially faster than conventional computer. This algorithm intro-
duced the main ideas for Shor’s algorithm.
1994 Cryptographic experiments were performed for the distance of 10km (using
fibers).
1995 DiVincenzo designed a universal gate with two inputs and outputs.
1995 Cirac and Zoller demonstrated a chance to build quantum computers using
existing technologies.
1997 Cory, Fahmy and Havel, and at the same time Gershenfeld and Chuang at
MIT published the first papers realizing gates for quantum computers based
on bulk spin resonance, which the technology based on a nuclear magnetic
resonance.
1999 Braunstein showed that there was no mixed state quantum entanglement in
any bulk NMR experiment.
2000 First working 5-qubit NMR computer, first execution of order finding (part
of Shor’s algorithm), and first working 7-qubit NMR.
2001 Linden and Popescu proved that the presence of entanglement is a necessary
condition for a large class of quantum protocols.
2001 Knill, Laflamme, and Milburn, launch the field of linear optical quantum
computing.
2003 Pittman and O’Brien demonstrate quantum controlled-not gates using only
linear optical elements.
2006 Seven atoms placed in stable line, a step on the way to constructing a
quantum gate.
94 CHAPTER 6. THE ADVENT OF THE QUANTUM COMPUTATION
2006 Device that can manipulate the up/down spin-states of electrons on quan-
tum dots.
2007 The BMW algebra, the chromatic algebra, and the golden identity, with V.
Krushkal.
2009 Google collaborates with D-Wave Systems on image search technology using
quantum computing.
and its respective bra hψ|. We find A = h0|ψi, B = h1|ψi, both being the
complex amplitudes for finding the particles with spin up or down. If we
measure this qubit in the computational basis |0i, |1i, the probability of
obtaining |0i is AA∗ and the probability of obtaining |1i is BB ∗ . We see
that the spatial aspects of these wavefunctions are suppressed, which means
that the particles are fixed, such as quantum dots.
Sometimes we can have system defined on other basis besides the previous
computational basis, such as the familiar states
1 1
|+i = √ |0i + √ |1i
2 2
and
1 1
|−i = √ |0i − √ |1i,
2 2
2
which are orthogonal and normalized . If we want to express |ψi in this
basis, such as |ψi = α|+i + |βi, we find α and β as the inner products
α = h+|ψi and β = h−|ψi3 .
If we measure the state |ψi in the |+i and |−i basis, the probability of
getting |+i is αα∗ and the probability of getting |−i is ββ ∗ .
Qubits Evolution
The manipulation of a qubit is given by the unitary 2×2 matrices U , which is
a linear combination of the Pauli matrices. The unitary operators, or gates,
manipulate the qubit states. Being unitary allows we calculate the quantum
evolution of our wavefunction |ψi: the new state will be |ψ 0 i = U |ψi.
A Hadamard matrix is a square matrix whose entries are either +1 or 1
and whose rows are mutually orthogonal. The Hadamard gate is a reflection
about the line θ = π/8. A Hadamard matrix H of order n satisfies
HH T = nIn . (6.3.1)
Applying H ⊗ H to |ψ12 i
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
1
1
− 12 1
− 12 1
H ⊗ H|ψ12 i = 2
1 1
2 = |00i
2 2
− 12 − 12 1
1
2
− 12 − 12 1
2
1
Therefore the probability of getting |00i is one and zero for the other
three states.
4
H ⊗ I and I ⊗ H commute.
6.3. TWO QUBITS 97
1 1
|Ψ+ i = √ |01i + |10i , |Ψ+ i = √ |01i − |10i , (6.3.2)
2 2
1 1
|Φ+ i = √ |00i + |11i , |Φ+ i = √ |00i − |11i . (6.3.3)
2 2
1
|00i = √ |Φ+ i + |Φ− i , (6.3.4)
2
1
|01i = √ |Ψ+ i + |Ψ− i , (6.3.5)
2
1
|10i = √ |Ψ+ i − |Ψ− i , (6.3.6)
2
1
|11i = √ |Φ+ i − |Φ− i . (6.3.7)
2
hΦ+ | hΦ+ |ψi
hΨ+ | hΨ+ |ψi
U † |ψi =
|ψi =
hΦ− | hΦ− |ψi
hΨ− | hΨ− |ψi
The Bell states has a central role in quantum teleportation and superdense
coding, as we shall see soon. After we measure the first qubit, the result of
the second qubit will always give the same result as the first qubit, a typical
quantum correlation.
98 CHAPTER 6. THE ADVENT OF THE QUANTUM COMPUTATION
|0i⊗M + |1i⊗M
|GHZi = √ . (6.4.1)
2
Therefore, for three-qubit entangled wavefunction we have
|000i + |111i
|GHZi = √ . (6.4.2)
2
1
(P0 ⊗ I ⊗ I)|GHZi = √ |000i,
2
1
(P1 ⊗ I ⊗ I)|GHZi = √ |111i.
2
6.4. THREE TO N-QUBITS 99
We now want to measure to measure the first qubit in the basis |+i =
√1 (|0i + |1i) and |−i = √1 (|0i − |1i). The projectors are
2 2
P+ = |+ih+|,
1
= √ |0ih0| + |0ih1| + |1ih0| + |1ih1| ,
2
P− = |−ih−|.
1
= √ |0ih0| − |0ih1| − |1ih0| + |1ih1| .
2
For three-qubits
P+ ⊗ I ⊗ I = |0ih0| + |0ih1| + |1ih0| + |1ih1| ⊗ |0ih0| + |1ih1| ⊗ |0ih0| + |1ih1| ,
1h
= |000ih000| + |001ih001| + |010ih010| + |011ih011| +
2
+ |000ih100| + |001ih101| + |010ih110| + |011ih111| +
+ |100ih000| + |101ih001| + |110ih010| + |111ih011| +
i
+ |100ih100| + |101ih101| + |110ih110| + |111ih111| ,
100CHAPTER 6. THE ADVENT OF THE QUANTUM COMPUTATION
and
P− ⊗ I ⊗ I = |0ih0| − |0ih1| − |1ih0| + |1ih1| ⊗ |0ih0| + |1ih1| ⊗ |0ih0| + |1ih1| ,
1h
= |000ih000| + |001ih001| + |010ih010| + |011ih011| −
2
− |000ih100| − |001ih101| − |010ih110| − |011ih111| −
− |100ih000| − |101ih001| − |110ih010| − |111ih011| +
i
+ |100ih100| + |101ih101| + |110ih110| + |111ih111| .
The probabilities of the eight possible outcomes will depend on the ± and
are calculated making hGHZ|PA ⊗ PB ⊗ PC |GHZi.
6.4.2 n Qubits
A system of n-qubits is a finite dimensional Hilbert space of dimension 2n .
We can represent the n qubits with the wavefunction
n
2 −1
1 X
|φi = √ |xi.
2n x=0
6.5. QUANTUM GATES AND QUANTUM CIRCUITS 101
and it swaps the 0 to 1 and 1 to 0. Other important two gates are Z and
Hadamard,
1 0
Z = ,
0 −1
and
1 1 1
H =√ ,
2 1 −1
which is the square-root of the NOT gate.
6.5.2 n-Qubits
In classical computation, the NAND gate is called universal gate since any
function on bits can be computed from the composition of this gate (what
does not happen for NOT or XOR, for example). Thy also are non-invertible,
irreversible.
In quantum computation, the unitary quantum gates are always invert-
ible. The universal quantum gate is the controlled-NOT. The CNOT gate
has two input qubits, one is the control and the other is the target qubit. If
the control qubit is 1, the target qubit is flipped,
|Ai • |Ai
|Bi |A ⊕ Bi
102CHAPTER 6. THE ADVENT OF THE QUANTUM COMPUTATION
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
UCN OT =
0
0 0 1
0 0 1 0
NM
|Ψi
M
x H •
y
producing
IN OUT
(|00i+|11i)
|00i √
2
(|01i+|10i)
|01i √
2
(|00i−|11i)
|10i √
2
(|01i−|10i)
|11i √
2
6.5. QUANTUM GATES AND QUANTUM CIRCUITS 103
(d) Depending on this outcome, B’s qubit will be one of these four
possible states. Knowing A’s result, B can recover ψi by applying
the appropriate gate. For example, if A measures 01, B applies
X gate to recover 00 (which we’ve used in this example). What
prevents the fact that information travels faster than light is that
for B find his outcome, he needs to know A’s measurement.
Entanglement
105
106 CHAPTER 7. ENTANGLEMENT
Chapter 8
Quantum Circuits
107
108 CHAPTER 8. QUANTUM CIRCUITS
Chapter 9
Quantum Algorithms
|0i + |1i
√ ,
2
and
|0i.
109
110 CHAPTER 9. QUANTUM ALGORITHMS
1 X
√ |xi|f (x)i.
2n x
Fault-Tolerant Quantum
Computation
• Disturbance by Measurement.
• No-Cloning.
111
112 CHAPTER 10. FAULT-TOLERANT QUANTUM COMPUTATION
Quantum Cryptography
113
114 CHAPTER 11. QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
Chapter 12
115
116 CHAPTER 12. ENTROPY AND INFORMATION
Chapter 13
• Optical lattices.
117
118 CHAPTER 13. THE REALITY OF A QUANTUM COMPUTER
13.6.2 SQUID
A Superconducting Quantum Interference Device is one of the most sensitive
detector for magnetic field. It can be used to the implementation of quantum
entanglement between a SQUID-qubit and a spin-qubit.
Charge Qubit Superconducting qubit whose basis states are charge states (presence
or absence of cooper pairs).
Topological Quantum
Computation
121
122 CHAPTER 14. TOPOLOGICAL QUANTUM COMPUTATION
• A finite list of particle labels (a,b,c,). These indicate the possible values
of the conserved charge that a particle can carry. If a particle is kept
isolated from other particles, its label never changes.
• Rules for fusing (and splitting). These specify the possible values of
the charge that can result when two charged particles are combined.
• Rules for braiding. These specify what happens when two neighboring
particles are exchanged (or when one is rotated by 2π).
Appendix A
Mathematical Formulae
Quantum Mechanics
∂t (g −1 ) = −g −1 (∂t g)g −1
The spectrum of a operator S 2 = 1 is s = ±1
±2πi
The spectrum of a operator T 3 = 1 is t = 1, e 3
1 1
eA eB = exp(A + B + [A, B] + ([A, [A, B]]...)
2 12
Gaussian Integral
∞
Z r
−ax2 π
e =
∞ a
∞
Z r
2 1 π
x2 e−ax =
∞ 2a a
123
124 APPENDIX A. MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Delta Function
Z ∞
f (x)δ(x − a)dx = f (a)
∞
δ(x − a) = 0 for a 6= x
1
δ(ax) = δ(x)
|a|
1
δ(x2 − a2 ) = (δ(x + a) + δ(x + a))
|a|
X δ(x − xi )
δ(g(x)) =
i
g 0 (xi )
xδ 0 (x) = −δ(x)
δ(x2 + x − 2) = δ((x − 1)(x + 2))
Z Z
n ∂f n−1
f (x)δ (x)dx = − δ dx
∂x
xn δ n (x) = (−1)n n!δ(x)
Z
f (x)δ 0 (x − a)dx = −f 0 (a)
Z 1
1
δ( )dx = 0
1 x
η
→ πδ(x), when η → 0.
η 2 + x2
∞
1 1X
δ(x − a) = + (cos(na)cos(nx) + sin(na)sin(nx))
2π π n=1
∞
1 1X
= + cos(n(x − a))
2π π n=1
A.1. IMPORTANT RELATIONS 125
A2
M = eA = 1 + A + ...
2 !
A
M = LimN →∞ 1+ .
N
ln(det M) = tr (Ln M).
bi = e i log = e tr (log B) .
Y P
bi
det B =
i
126 APPENDIX A. MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
Appendix B
We shall call Kitaev and Shen and Vyalyi’s book, [KSV02], as KSV; Nielsen
and Chuang’s book, [NC00], as NC; and Preskill’s notes, [PRES01], as PR.
Symbols
SYMBOL KSV NC PR
LOGICAL OR ∨
LOGICAL AND ∧
NEGATION ¬
ADDITION MOD 2 ⊕
TRANSITION FUNCTION (Turing Machine) δ(., .)
A IMPLIES B A⇒B
A IS LOGICALLY EQUIV TO B A⇔B
n-th TENSOR OF DEGREE O M M⊗n
OPERADOR U TO A QUANTUM REGISTER U [A]
CLASSICAL BIT B
QUANTUM BIT B
FINITE FIELD Of q ELEMENTS Fq
127
128 APPENDIX B. NOTATIONS USED IN THE REFERENCES
NM
Hadamard
1 1 1
H =√
2 1 −1
Pauli-X
0 1
X =
1 0
Pauli-Y
0 −i
Y =
i 0
Pauli-Z
1 0
Z =
0 −1
Phase
1 0
S =
0 i
π/8
1 0
T =
0 i
CNOT
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
• =
0
0 0 1
0 0 1 0
SWAP
1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
× =
0
× 1 0 0
0 0 0 1
129
Toffoli
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
• =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
•
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Complexity Symbols
131
132 BIBLIOGRAPHY
135
136 INDEX
Hermitian Permutation, 29
Matrix, 14 Projector, 48
Operator, 14 Raising and Lowering, 19
Hilbert Space, 13, 28 Rotation, 41
Time-reversal, 45
Identical Particles, 35 Translation, 24, 41
Instanton Unitary, 14
in a Double Well Potential, 68 Permutation, 35
Interaction Picture, 59 Raising and Lowering , 30
Kramer Degeneracy, 46
KT Ln 2, 90 Parallelism, 109
Pauli Matrices, 15, 26, 96
Laguerre Polynomial, 52 Perturbation, 47
Landau Gauge, 23 Constant, 60
Landau Level, 23 Harmonic, 63
Lande Time-dependent, 58
Factor, 58 Time-independent, 49
Interval Rule, 56 Phase, 110
Lattice, 24, 44 Potential
Legendre Equations, 52 Barrier, 69, 71
Delta, 18
Magnetic Field, 21 Double Delta, 18
Magnetic Flux, 21 Double Well, 43, 68
Magnetic Moment, 29 Finite Well, 17
Matrices Harmonic Oscillator, 19
Unitary, 96 Hydrogen Atom, 51, 53
Measurement, 28 Infinite Well, 17
N spin-1/2, 28 Tight Binding Model, 24
Nuclear Fusion, 70 Triangular Well, 67
Oscillator+Infinite Well, 20
Observable, 13, 14 Principle of Exclusion of Pauli, 37
Compatible, 14 Probabilistic Algorithms, 83
Open Systems, 77 Probability, 28
Operator Projector, 98
Anti-hermitian, 14 Symmetry, 36
Density, 37
Hermitian, 13 Quantum Circuit, 101, 107
Parity, 41 Quantum Computer, 117
INDEX 137
Relativistic Corrections, 55
Scattering Theory, 73
Schmidt Decomposition, 77
Selection Rules, 32, 35, 43
Spherical Harmonics, 31
Spin-Orbit Interaction, 55
Stark Effect, 49, 50
Superoperators, 77
Unitary
Operator, 14
Transformation, 14, 16
Wigner-Eckart Theorem, 35
WKB Approximation, 64, 68
Zeeman Effect, 57