Study Unit 1: Essential Neuro-physiological concepts

Movement is caused by:

 Stimulus
o Nerves in nervous system
o Motor -action
o Sensory - sensing
 Energy
o Food which is transformed into “useable” energy known as ATP (adenosine
triphosphate
o “nutrition
 Lever
o Joints
o Muscles and tendons (musculature)
o Bones (skeletal system)
Key to well being and good performance is a balanced brain and healthy body

Pillars of performance index/ CV:

Brain components and functions

 Brain = an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in skull of vertebrates, functioning

as the coordinating centre of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity
 Cerebrum = located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres
left and right, which is separated by a fissure. It is responsible for the integration of
complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of
voluntary activity in the body.
o Left hemisphere – tasks that involve logic (maths and science), analytical,
verbal parts-language and practical part brain
o Right hemisphere – tasks that involve creativity(talents), spatial perception,
intuition, associated with feelings, recognising faces and visual processing
o Hemispheres connected by bridge = corpus callosum
 Cortex = (cerebral cortex) associated with higher brain functions, as voluntary
movement, coordination of sensory information, learning and memory and
expression of individuality. Executive functional skills= pre-frontal cortex. It is divided
into four regions:
1. Frontal Lobe – coordinates information from other association areas, controls
some behaviour, skeletal muscle movement, associated with chemical dopamine
(reward +enjoyment), plan + organize incoming info
2. Temporal Lobe – associated with hearing
3. Parietal Lobe – sensory information from skin, musculoskeletal system, viscera
and taste buds (integrating visual + sensory info)
4. Occipital Lobe – associated with vision (process visual info), perceiving motion
and detecting colour differences
 Cerebellum = part of the brain at back of skull, which coordinates and regulates
muscular activity, fast movements
Basal ganglia = a group of structures linked to thalamus in base of brain and involved
in coordination of movement, slow or deliberate movements
Movement pathway: From cerebellum + basal ganglia -> sent through thalamus to
motor cortex -> forwards message down spinal neurons -> and lastly gets to skeletal
muscle.
Feedback to CNS from muscle receptors and proprioceptors allows modification of
motor programs if necessary
 Brainstem components:
o Pons = upper part brainstem, it is involved in control of breathing,
communication between different parts of brain and sensations such as
hearing, taste and balance
o Medulla Oblongata = helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel
function, digestion, sneezing and swallowing.
o Reticular formation – monitors incoming + outgoing info, activates cerebral
cortex, known as reticular activation system (RAS). The SNS stimulates RAS
increasing mental alertness.

 Glands in brain are:

o Hypothalamus = keep body in homeostasis, acts as connector between the
endocrine and nervous system. Many functions of body such as body
temperature, thirst, appetite and weight control, emotions, sleep cycles, sex
drive, balancing bodily fluids and blood pressure and heart rate
o Pituitary gland =secrets hormones into bloodstream, these hormones affect
other organs such as thyroid, reproductive organs adrenal glands. Sometimes
called the master gland because involved many processes.
o Pineal Gland = produces melatonin which helps modulate sleep patterns.
Also involved in maintance of circadian rhythm and neurotransmitter
production

 Limbic System is concerned with instinct, mood and controls basic emotions and
drives. Works with higher cerebral cortex to control behavioural patterns.
Neurotransmitters in pathways for emotional + behaviour include: dopamine,
norepinephrine and serotonin. The various components include:
o Cingulate gyrus = involved in processing emotions and behaviour regulation
and helps regulate autonomic motor function
o Hippocampus = involved in memory, learning, plays a role in spatial
navigation, and cell genesis. Stores two types long term memory
autobiographical memory and declarative/semantic memory.
o Amygdala =responsible for detecting fear and preparing for emergency
events, plays role in perception of fear and other emotions. Emotion control
and memory formation.
 What are the 3 types of long term and short term memory
Long term memory=
1. Autobiographical memory- meaningful events
2. Declarative/semantic memory- knowledge about facts
3. Procedural/automatic memory-
Short term memory=
1. Visual
2. Spatial
3. Verbal

The cranial nerves

12 cranial nerves enter (sensory) or exit (motor) the brain

Number Name Type Neuron Function

I Olfactory Sensory Olfactory (smell) info from nose
II Optic Sensory Visual information from eyes
III Oculomotor Motor Eye movement, pupil constriction
and lens shape
IV Trochlear Motor Eye movement
V Trigeminal Mixed Sensory info from face, mouth and
motor signals for chewing
VI Abducens Motor Eye movement
VII Facial Mixed Sensory for taste, efferent signals
for tear and salivary glands, facial
expression
VIII Vestibulocochlear Sensory Hearing and equilibrium
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed Sensory from oral cavity, baro
+chemoreceptors in blood vessels,
efferent for swallowing, parotid
salivary gland secretion
X Vagus Mixed Sensory and efferents to many
internal organs, muscles, + glands
XI Spinal accessory Motor Muscles of oral cavity, some
muscles in neck + shoulder
XII Hypoglossal Motor Tongue muscles
Process of speaking a written word
Read words -> visual cortex -> Wernicke’s area -> Broca’s area -> motor cortex
Process of speaking a heard word
Hear words -> auditory cortex -> Wernicke’s area -> Broca’s area -> Motor cortex

Performance Markers

 Performance  Resting heart rate

 Oxygen saturation  Sleep
 Wellness  Hydration
 Pain  Energy level
 Body mass  Mood state
Factors affecting performance

 Diet
o Carbohydrates
o Water intake
 CNS Function
o Arousal
o Motivation
 Strength/Skill
o Practice
o Natural environment, body type and muscle-fibre type
 Environment
o Altitude
o Heat
o Humidity
 Energy production
o Anaerobic sources: [PC], glycolysis
o Aerobic sources: VO2 max, cardiac output, O2 delivery and extraction,
mitochondria
Stimulus: vision – decision – precision
Perception
 Perception helps us make sense of our sensations
  Brings info from with or outside body to CNS
Monitors: light, sound intensities, temperature, oxygen level

Sensory system: vision, hearing and proprioception

A whole range of short cuts and ingenious neural strategies used to fill gaps- brain not
have enough info capture reality of what it really is

Vision is one of most important senses used to gather info (everyday life + sporting
situations)
Decision Making
 Info brought together; adding to memory
 Make conscious and sub conscious decision (integrative)
 Influenced by: perceptual info, confidence level, previous success or failure stored in
memory, feedback system surrounding individual: continuous or terminal
 Short Term Memory= info lost not rehearsed, repeated rehearsing influences
learning of visual + motor skills. Remembers what was done and compares to current
performance
 Long Term Memory= permanent store of info through rehearsal or practice.
Compares past and new stimuli with each other
Response
 The skilled performer is supposed to not only perform skill but to decide the correct
response in each individual situation
 Use motor functions to act on the decisions, the motor functions employ peripheral
neurons to carry impulses to structures (effectors).
 Skeletal muscle contract or relax

Automatic Dendrites
responses connect

Reinforce
Pathways
until
are formed
permanent

Brainwave States
Electrical activity of brain, or rate of neuron firing, creates rhythmic brainwave pulses that
produce different brain states
 Gamma: 29 – 40Hz; stress
Beta: 15 – 28 Hz; Practical/Alert/Performance/Doing
SMR: 12 – 15 Hz; Relaxed attentiveness/ Decreased anxiety
Alpha: 8 – 12 Hz; Sub-conscious/Dreaming/Creative though
Delta: 0.5 – 3 Hz; Deep dreamless sleep/ Unconscious
How neurons are affected based on mindsets
Pessimist Optimist
Negative Positive
Stops signals Improves signals

How does physical activity affect the brain Physical activity within cognitive
stimulating environments enhances
Overall increase brain brain function by improving
health:
memory and reasoning skills
Brain growth factors Cognition
Regular exercise increase Neurogenesis
Vascular function
Reduces peripheral factors for
Synaptogenesis
cognitive decline, inflammation,
hypertension and insulin resistance

Stress
Examples of stressors (things that cause stress)
 Electro-magnetic fields  Stress
 Development hindrances  Fear
 Medication  Habitual negativity
 Schooling/Education  Food/nutrition
 Electric imbalances  Physical environment
The different forms of stress are:
1. Neurological Stress
2. Physical Stress
3. Psychological Stress
4. Interpersonal Stress
Various effects of stress:
Emotional: Anxiety -> Panic-> Anger
Physical: Hypertension -> Diabetes -> Eating Disorders
Behavioural: Reduced performance -> Aggression -> Inter-personal conflicts
Training mistakes
 Overtraining – workouts too long + strenuous
 Undertraining
 Performing non-specific exercises – don’t enhance energy capacities used in
competion
 Failure to schedule a long term training plan – misuse of training time
 Failure to taper before a performance – inadequate rest, comprises performance

Fatigue
Inability to maintain power output or force during repeated muscle contractions. Factors
play role are emotional and physical.
Physical Fatigue divided Two Types:
1. Central fatigue = central nervous system
2. Peripheral fatigue = neural factors, mechanical factors, energetics contraction
How does brain manage muscle fatigue?
Increases motor unit output via increase functional connection between cortical regions and
using facilitation system resulting in reduced supraspinal muscle fatigue and prolong
voluntary muscle contraction

Science of performance
Neuro-physiology
Neuro-psychology
Exercise
Nutrition
Stress
Cognitive restricting
Mindfulness
Neuro/biofeedback
Coaching Methodology
Action plans

Neuroplasticity
Definition: refers to the ability of the brain to change specific structures, add new neurons
to neural pathways and increase the amount of synapses in the brain-network to adapt to
changes in the environment.
Various types:
 Developmental: immature brain is shaped by early life experiences
 Activity dependant: induced by intensively practicing a certain skill (cognitive)
 Aerobic: prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
 Specific skill: motor cortex
 Endurance: motor cortex
 Strength: increase in recruitment of spinal motor neurons
 Injury induced: balance of activity in the brain being changed as a result of trauma

Enhanced cognitive functioning (what will happen when improve cognitive ability)
 Increased mental alertness
  Raised energy levels
 Improved memory
 Lower stress levels
 Perceptiveness and receptiveness
 Higher attention span
 Increased sensory responsiveness (sensory preferences = visual, auditory,
movement)

Impact Neurofeedback
 Attention and focus
 Improves emotional control
 Slows cognitive decline
 Improves sleep
 Restores brain function after traumatic brain injury

How can one increase dopamine (reward) production which increases productivity
o Checklist small tasks o Meditate
o Exercise o Take supplements eg. Ginkgo
o Get a streak going Biloba
o Increase tyrosine (eat bananas) o Toxic cleansing
o Listen to music
How can one increase serotonin (happiness) production which can increase productivity
o More tryptophan o Ways to be more positive
o Book massage o Meditate
o Boost B vitamins o Exercise
o Sunshine o More vitamin C
o Magnesium o Reduce Stress

Changes in membrane potential across

neuron
Potential difference resting neuron = -70mV
Changes in potential difference (p.d.) caused by
3 events:
1. Depolarization -> inside membrane
becomes less negative (more positive)
2. Repolarization -> membrane returns to
its resting membrane potential
3. Hyperpolarization -> inside membrane
becomes more negative than resting
potential (more positive)
Fundamentals of nervous system
Nervous system = master controlling and communicating system of body
Functions:
o Sensory input – monitoring stimuli occurring inside + outside
o Integration – interpretation of sensory input
o Motor output – response to stimuli by activating effector organs
Afferent connections (motor pathway) sends sensory signs + visceral/autonomic sensors
towards CNS.
Efferent connections (sensory pathway) send signals to motor NS + autonomic NS away
from CNS.

Histology of nerve tissue

Two principle cell types of nervous system are:
1. Neurons = excitable cells that transmit electrical signals
2. Supporting cells = cells that surround and wrap neurons
Action potential or nerve impulses -> electrical impulses carried along length axons
 Anterograde – toward axon terminal
 Retrograde – away from axon terminal
Myelin sheath:
 Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath
 Around most long axons
 Functions:
o Protect axon
o Electrically insulate fibers from one another
o Increase speed of nerve impulse transmission
Conduction velocities of axons vary widely among neurons
 Rate of impulse propagation determined by:
o Increase axon diameter (larger diameter = faster impulse)
o Presence of myelin sheath (myelination increases impulse speed)

Neuron Classificiation
Based structural:
1. Multipolar= 3 or more processes
2. Bipolar= 2 processes (axon+dendrite)
3. Unipolar= single, short process
Based functional:
1. Sensory(afferent)= transmit impulses toward CNS
2. Motor(efferent)= carry impulses away from CNS
3. Interneurons(association neurons)= shuttle signals through CNS pathways
Supporting cells: Neuroglia
Functions:
 Provide supportive scaffolding for neurons
 Segregate + insulate neurons
 Guide young neurons to proper connections
 Promote health + growth

Synapses
Definition: a junction that mediates info transfer from one neuron to another neuron or to
an effector cell
Presynaptic neuron – conducts impulses toward synapse
Postsynaptic neuron – transmits impulses away from synapse
Types include:
 Synapses btw axon of one neuron and
dendrite of another
 Synapses btw axon of one neuron and
soma another
 Axon to axon
 Dendrite to dendrite
 Dendrites to soma

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)