Computer Modelling of

Multiple Tee-beam

Bridges

G. Pircher
ii
 Master Honours

2006

University of Western Sydney

iii
iv
Synopsis

Bridges consisting of multiple parallel pre-stressed and pre-fabricated Tee-beams topped by a

cast-on-site concrete slab are often a cost-effective way of constructing simply-supported and

multi-span bridge structures in many countries world-wide. For the design of these bridges

computer models are often utilised.

This thesis presents a comprehensive discussion of modelling issues encountered in the

practical design work on this bridge type. A chapter on the modelling of various loading

conditions is followed by a detailed discussion of the modelling of the longitudinal load-

bearing system, the Tee-beams, and the lateral load-bearing system, the roadway slab. A

summary of commonly used bridge systems in various countries is also included. All this

material is presented considering design code requirements in various internationally used

specifications.

The information included in this thesis has been used to define specifications for the

implementation of a software tool to support the design of so-called SuperTee bridges. A

summary of these specifications is given in the conclusions of this thesis.

Material included in this thesis has also been published in the following conference

proceedings:

Pircher G., Pircher M. (2004) “Computer-aided design and analysis of multiple Tee-beam

bridges”, Proceedings: Fifth Austroads Bridge Conference, Hobart, Australia, on CD

Pircher M, Pircher G, Wheeler A (2006) “Automated Analysis and Design of Super-Tee

Bridges”, Proceedings: Sixth Austroads Bridge Conference, Perth (in publication)

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Acknowledgments

It has been a great experience for me to work on this thesis under the supervision of M.

Pircher, A.T. Wheeler and R.Q. Bridge. I have been encouraged and supported in the best

possible way over the past 3 years and I feel privileged to have had the opportunity of

completing my thesis as part of this team. I found it particularly motivating that the exchange

of ideas and opinions happened in a warm and friendly environment.

I need to thank my family for the support and understanding that long nightshifts became

common practice and did not remain exceptions.

Further thanks go to my father H. Pircher for giving me the chance to work on many bridge

projects over the years which allowed me to collect a certain degree of practical experience. I

never want to miss the efficient and meaningful technical discussions; they represent a major

part of my professional development as a structural engineer.

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Contents

Synopsis......................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................vii
Contents .....................................................................................................................................ix
Notation ...................................................................................................................................xiii
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................1
1.1 Goal of the thesis: .......................................................................................................1
1.2 The Pre-cast Multiple Tee-beam Bridge: ...................................................................2
1.3 History of pre-cast pre-stressed beams:......................................................................3
1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of pre-stressed girders.............................................10
1.4.1 Advantages of pre-cast pre-stressed girders. ....................................................10
1.4.2 Disadvantages of pre-cast pre-stressed girders: ...............................................11
1.5 Transportation and Construction Considerations .....................................................11
1.6 Assumptions for the geometry of Multiple Tee-beams ............................................13
1.7 Multi-Span Pre-cast Tee-Beams...............................................................................15
1.8 Erection Procedures..................................................................................................16
1.8.1 Typical erection procedures..............................................................................16
1.8.2 Erection of pre-cast beams: ..............................................................................16
1.8.3 Erection of cast in-situ Tee-beam bridges: .......................................................18
1.9 Codes requirements for design of multiple Tee-beam bridges.................................20
1.9.1 Internal forces:..................................................................................................20
1.9.2 The serviceability criteria: ................................................................................20
1.9.3 Ultimate moment capacity:...............................................................................21
1.9.4 Ultimate shear and torsion capacity: ................................................................21
1.9.5 Longitudinal shear: ...........................................................................................22
1.9.6 Other checks: ....................................................................................................22
1.10 Summary...................................................................................................................22
2 Loading.............................................................................................................................23
2.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................23
2.2 Loading directions ....................................................................................................24
2.2.1 Vertical loading ................................................................................................24
2.2.2 Transversal loading ..........................................................................................25
2.2.3 Longitudinal loads ............................................................................................26
2.3 Permanent Loading...................................................................................................27
2.3.1 Self weight........................................................................................................27
2.3.2 Time-Dependent Effects...................................................................................27

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 2.4 Additional loading.................................................................................................... 29
2.4.1 Wind loading.................................................................................................... 29
2.4.2 Traffic Loading ................................................................................................ 30
2.4.3 Temperature Loading....................................................................................... 31
2.4.4 Settlement......................................................................................................... 32
3 Pre- and post-tensioning................................................................................................... 35
3.1 Pre-stressing – principles, materials and applications ............................................. 35
3.2 Full and partial Pre-stressing.................................................................................... 38
3.3 Pre-stressing methods .............................................................................................. 39
3.4 Development length of pre-stressing strands ........................................................... 40
3.5 Pre-stressing losses .................................................................................................. 42
3.6 Primary and secondary effects ................................................................................. 44
3.7 Consideration of pre-stressing for SLS and ULS design code checks..................... 46
3.8 Precamber and application for pre-cast pre-tensioned members ............................. 48
4 Numeric modelling of the roadway in Tee-beam bridges................................................ 51
4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 51
4.2 Modelling Systems................................................................................................... 51
4.2.1 Transversal beam elements – grillage model................................................... 51
4.2.2 Finite elements for the roadway slab ............................................................... 53
4.2.3 Finite elements versus grillage......................................................................... 54
4.3 Number of transverse elements per span ................................................................. 55
4.4 Stiffness of transverse elements in grillage models ................................................. 57
4.5 Principal stresses, shear and torsion in the roadway slab ........................................ 64
4.6 Connection of transverse to longitudinal members.................................................. 69
4.7 Summary .................................................................................................................. 73
5 Numeric modelling of the main Girders in Tee-beam bridges ........................................ 75
5.1 Basic Considerations................................................................................................ 76
5.1.1 The cross section of the main girder ................................................................ 76
5.1.2 The shear lag effect .......................................................................................... 78
5.1.3 The orientation of the principal axes in non-symmetrical cross-sections........ 82
5.1.4 Main girders in torsion..................................................................................... 84
5.1.5 The subdivision of the girder into structural elements..................................... 89
5.1.6 Connection between girder and supports ......................................................... 91
5.1.7 Continuity ........................................................................................................ 92
5.2 Composite Action .................................................................................................... 95
5.2.1 Change of cross-section properties in composite beams ................................. 95
5.2.2 Longitudinal shear in composite interfaces ..................................................... 98
5.3 Curvature in plan.................................................................................................... 101
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 5.3.1 Transportation and stability of pre-cast pre-stressed girders..........................102
6 Pre-cast Tee-beams worldwide.......................................................................................105
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................105
6.2 Great Britain ...........................................................................................................105
6.3 United States...........................................................................................................110
6.3.1 US – California (www.dot.ca.gov).................................................................112
6.3.2 US – Florida (www.dot.state.fl.us)................................................................117
6.3.3 US – Minnesota (www.dot.state.mn.us)........................................................119
6.3.4 US-Washington (www.wsdot.wa.gov)..........................................................121
6.4 Japan .......................................................................................................................124
6.5 Australia .................................................................................................................125
6.6 Malaysia and Indonesia ..........................................................................................129
6.7 Europe.....................................................................................................................132
6.8 Summary.................................................................................................................136
7 Conclusion......................................................................................................................139
8 References ......................................................................................................................143

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Notation

The following short terms and expressions are used in the chapters of this thesis. All symbols

are defined where they first appear in the text.

Abbreviation:

B Structural length of transversal element [m]

CG Centre of gravity of any cross-section

CP Connection Point defining the location where structural elements are joined

CS Cross-section

FE Finite elements

L Span length of a bridge deck

L1, L2 Structural lengths of elements 1, 2, …

Linf Length of influence line along a bridge deck

MG Main girder

PT Post- or pre-tensioning

SC Shear centre of any cross-section

SLS Serviceability limit state

ULS Ultimate limit state

W Width between main girders [m]

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Constants and Variables:

E Modulus of elasticity [MPa]

F Concentrated load [kN]

q Uniform line load [kN/m]

qs Uniform surface load [kN/m2]

My Vertical bending moment [kNm]

Mx Torsional moment [kNm]

Mz Transversal bending moment [kNm]

Vy Vertical shear force [kN]

Vz Transversal shear force [kN]

N Normal force acting at the CG of a section in the direction

of the element axis [kN]

Ax Area of a cross-section [m2]

Ay Shear area of a cross section for the vertical direction [m2]

Az Shear area of a cross section for the transversal direction [m2]

S The static moment [m3]

It Torsional inertia of a cross-section St. Venant [m4],

Iy Inertia of a cross section for the horizontal axis [m4]

Iz Inertia of a cross section for vertical axis x, y, z [m4]

d Thickness or depth of a cross section [m]

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b Width of a cross section [m]

vx, vy, vz, Deflection in direction x, y and z [m]

τ Shear stresses in vertical direction [kN/m2]

σ Fibre stresses in the x-direction of the element [kN/m2]

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1 Introduction

Multiple Tee-beams are often chosen as the preferable structural system for bridge girders.

The reasons for selecting this system are numerous and include savings in material and

reduction in self-weight. Generally, Tee-beams are easier to cast than other cross-sections

with the formwork quick and easy to assemble. An additional advantage is that the girder

height is generally small which is often an important argument for aesthetics in urban areas.

Changes in width of the roadway may also be implemented simply by changing the number of

Tee-beams as shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1. KS7 Selzthal (Austria) – Transition from triple Tee to quadruple Tee-beam.

This type of construction is used world wide utilising numerous construction methods and

falling under the restriction of most major national design standards. To carry out the analysis

and design of these structures takes many forms, but the current trend is towards numerical

methods that may consider numerous actions and effects.

1.1 Goal of the thesis:

In this thesis a number of specific problems arising during the modelling and analysis of

bridges consisting of multiple Tee-beams will be investigated. The focus will primarily be on

pre-cast pre-stressed beams combined with cast-in-situ slabs.

1
In the numerical modelling of the bridges a number of aspects need to be addressed. These

include the modelling and design of the roadway slabs and the modelling and design of the

longitudinal girders. In looking at these aspects, the basic theory behind the choice between

the beam element or finite elements when analysing and designing multiple Tee-beam bridges

will be discussed. The other significant factor in the design of the Tee-beam bridges is the

effect of the prestressing, how this affects the behaviour, what needs to be considered during

modelling and the varying uses for the prestressing in differing environmental conditions.

A comprehensive study into the various types of multiple Tee-beams used internationally has

been carried out and a brief summary of the various aspects presented in Chapter 6.

The aim of presenting this information in this thesis is so that it can be used to assist the

design engineer in the development of a software solution for both the modelling and design

of multiple Tee-beam bridges.

1.2 The Pre-cast Multiple Tee-beam Bridge:

The option of using pre-cast members is often advantageous when the overpass is to be

erected over areas that temporary structural supports are not applicable, such as roadways

under traffic conditions. A survey by Slatter (1980) for the 11th IABSE Congress in Vienna

found that 71% of multiple Tee-beams were in fact double-Tee-beams, the typical multiple

Tee-beams have spans of 20m to 35m and span-to-depth ratios of no less than 1/20. In many

cases the geometric situation at the bridge site did not allow the bridge support axes to lie

perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. This was further complicated by the fact that skew ends

produce Tee-beams of differing lengths within the same span, or complicated geometric

situations at the ends that must be appropriately modelled. These variations provide

significant challenges when comparing the design process for that of a hollow box bridge

consisting of one girder.

2
Multiple Tee-beam bridges built as pre-cast girders are usually produced in plants using high

grade concrete under controlled conditions, this generally results in higher-quality products

with longer life expectancy. The added advantage is that using this method it is possible to

cast the entire structure in the plant and transport it to the site for an erection as a whole. This

method was used for the construction of the 24 mile Lake Pontchartrain Bridge near New

Orleans, Louisiana, US. Shown in Figure 1-2 this bridge is considered to be the longest bridge

in the world, with numerous spans each 19.0m long and 11m wide, pre-cast in a yard and

floated for final erection.

Figure 1-2. Lake Pontchartrain Bridge near New Orleans

1.3 History of pre-cast pre-stressed beams:

The first pre-stressed pre-cast girders date back to 1886 when P.H. Jackson patented the

system in San Francisco, California. In 1888 the German engineer C.E.W. Doehring

independently obtained a patent for pre-stressed concrete slabs with metal wires.

However, these early attempts were not successful because the pre-stressing losses due to

creep and shrinkage of the concrete were significant. The credit for successfully developing

the modern concept of pre-stressed concrete goes to the French engineer Eugene Freyssinet,

who demonstrated the usefulness of pre-stressing using high-strength steel to control pre-

stressing losses in 1941 [Steinman and Watson, 1957]. Freyssinet started in 1941 with a 60m

3
segmentally constructed, two-hinged, portal-framed bridge over the Marne in Luzancy in

France and followed by five other nearly identical bridges, Freyssinet proved the effectiveness

of pre-stressed concrete as a new building material.

In the US the first major pre-stressed concrete bridge was the three span (25, 54, 25m) precast

pre-tensioned Walnut Lane Memorial Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania [Schofield, 1948].

Figure 1-3 and Figure 1-4 show different views of the bridge which is still in service after a

general renovation in 1993. Following its construction the Bureau of Public Works, now the

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) published “Criteria for Pre-stressed Concrete

Bridges” which was revised in 1954. This can be considered as the first design code for this

type of construction.

Figure 1-3. Overall view of the Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Since then pre-stressed concrete bridges have been progressively replacing reinforced

concrete bridges and steel girder bridges as the choice in the small and medium span bridges.

According to the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) pre-stressed concrete bridges are the most

commonly built bridges today, almost 50% of all bridges built in the USA are of this type

[Dunker and Rabbat, 1990]. Consequently, the authorities in most states in the US have

developed specific rules and guidelines for the use of this bridge type. Today the name

4
“AASHTO” girder is a common expression for pre-cast and pre-tensioned bridge in Asian

countries.

Figure 1-4. Support detail of the Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

The examples for the use of multiple Tee-beams are numerous and the method of using pre-

cast beams has been brought to new level producing spectacular structures. The following

figures show a selection of bridges illustrating that although the span length is limited when

using pre-cast beams the resulting bridges can be architectural pleasing and big in size.

Figure 1-5. Confederation Bridge in Calgary.

Opening for traffic June 1997, the Confederation Bridge (See Figure 1-5) links New

Brunswick to Prince Edward Island across the Northumberland Strait. It is currently the
5
longest bridge in the world to cross ice-covered salt water. All the beams and piers were pre-

cast on site. At 12.9 km in length the Confederation Bridge was planned and designed in

Calgary with strong links to the University of Calgary. The design also included onsite

evaluations of ice loads, wind loads and ship impact.

Figure 1-6. Kien Cable Stayed Bridge in Vietnam near Hanoi.

A more recent example of a large Tee-beam bridge is the Kien - Bridge in Vietnam (see

Figure 1-6). For this project pre-cast beams have been used for the approach spans. The

Bridge near Hanoi was completed in 2005.

Figure 1-7. Bottom flanges of pre-cast beams of the Mullingar Ballymaon Road Realignment
Shandonagh Bridge

The Mullingar Ballymaon Road Realignment Shandonagh Bridge in Ireland is shown in

Figure 1-7 and Figure 1-8. This bridge is a typical example for the use of pre-cast girders in

6
bridges with no specific aesthetic requirements. The support axes are skew, the bridge is

almost as wide as the span. In this case the use of a different erection sequence would have

been difficult regarding the installation of formwork over the river.

Figure 1-8. Skew support axes of the Mullingar Ballymaon Road Realignment Shandonagh
Bridge

The Mullingar Ballymaon Road Realignment Shandonagh Bridge is a 3 span structure with

pre-cast beams spanning all three spans.

Typically the pre-cast beams are of lengths equal to the spans, this is the case for the Pont

d’Ouche in France (see Figure 1-9) For the Pont d’Ouche bridge the ends of the beams lie on

the support structures as shown in Figure 1-10. The slab however is continuous which is

achieved by an additional pre-stressing passing through over the support and through the cast

in-situ slab, a procedure which is discussed in Chapter 4.

7
 Figure 1-9. Overall view of the Pont d’Ouche structure in France.

Figure 1-10. Support detail of the Pont d’Ouche structure in France.

A slightly different example is the CPCI bridge in Spain shown in Figure 1-11. The bridge

represents a construction method that uses two different types of pre-cast beams in the one

bridge structure. The first and third beam overhangs the span by 2/10 into the adjacent spans,

the second span is therefore a different type being much shorter that drops between and rests

on the adjacent spans.

8
 Figure 1-11. CPCI bridge in Spain

The use of pre-cast beams is manyfold and there are almost no limitations for the structural

systems. All structural parts can be built using pre-cast beams and structures consisting of

pre-cast columns or piers, pre-cast diaphragms at the support axes and pre-cast beams for the

spans have been released. Such an application is the Queretaro Bridge in Mexico City built

1994 and schematically shown in Figure 1-12.

Cast in-situ concrete deck

Precast Precast U-shaped

diaphragm beams
Precast
columns

Precast
footing
Figure 1-12. Queretaro Bridge in Mexico City composed of pre-cast elements.

The 3 span bridge (spans of 15, 24 and 15m) contains a total of 36 pre-cast elements. The use

of pre-cast elements enabled the contractor to complete the structure in only 90 days.

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1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of pre-stressed girders

The multiple Tee-beam structure is a very popular application for the use of pre-cast beams

with cast-in-situ concrete slabs. The pre-cast beams can be prepared in a convenient way in

specific castings yards. When considering the use of this type of structure the following

advantages and disadvantages should be considered.

1.4.1 Advantages of pre-cast pre-stressed girders.

• The members may be cast in a controlled environment and then moved to site

allowing tight construction tolerances.

• The system of pre-cast beams and cast in situ concrete deck are quick and easy to

erect.

• The pre-stressing has the advantage that tension cracking can be eliminated in a pre-

stressed structure. The uncracked structure leads to a more efficient design than that

from conventional reinforced concrete members.

• Prestressing permits a more efficient use of concrete as a structural material because

the entire section, not just the uncracked section, is made to resist compression.

• Pre-stressing reduces the diagonal tension. Use of inclined tendons reduces the shear

carried by the webs, thus producing lighter sections and thus savings in transportation

costs and increases the bridge efficiency.

• The smaller girder depths that are possible with pre-stressed concrete members.

• Pre-stressed concrete girders with large top flanges provide working space during

erection und minimize the need for falsework.

• Pre-stressed concrete have relatively longer service life as outlined by Jerzy Zemajtis

(1998).

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1.4.2 Disadvantages of pre-cast pre-stressed girders:

• Cast in-place post-tensioned structures are adaptable to complex geometries involving

curved, superelevated, skewed, multilevel sections.

• Varying section depths are difficult to achieve in a casting plant.

• The span length is limited to max 50m.

• Transportation needs to be considered with it being necessary to have good access to

the bridge sites by either by road or water access.

• Aesthetically pleasing shapes are limited, with the geometry and spans limited by the

casting yard.

1.5 Transportation and Construction Considerations

The dimensions of the pre-cast beams are generally defined by two parameters the length and

cross-section. Typically a maximum length of up to 40m can be transported with trucks (both

weight and length are an issue), while the cross-section including the width and height give

limitations on the design of the pre-cast beams.

While not used extensively, the multiple Tee-beams do not have to utilise pre-cast beams, but

may also consist of cast in-situ bridges. While these bridges are outside the scope of this

thesis Figure 1-1 shows a typical example where the geometry given i.e. the widening of the

deck in this case, does not allow for the easy use of pre-cast beams thus cast in-situ is a viable

alternative. Another example of this type of bridge is the Muuga bridge in Estonia shown in

Figure 1-13. The bridge completed in 2005 was erected using the span-by-span erection

sequence with the deck and tee-beams all cast in-situ.

11
 Figure 1-13. Formwork of the Muuga Bridge in Estonia

The majority of the multiple Tee-beam bridges utilise the cast and transport technique. A

good example of where the pre-cast members were advantageous is the Katharine River

Bridge in Australia as shown in Figure 1-14 For this bridge girders were cast in the casting

yard (see Figure 1-15) and then transported to the remote location of the bridge and put in

place.

Figure 1-14. Placing final span Katherine River Bridge July 2002

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 Figure 1-15. the pre-cast beams used for Katherine River Bridge.

1.6 Assumptions for the geometry of Multiple Tee-beams

All bridge structures have a three-dimensional geometry and any structural model set up for

the analysis must reflect this. The simplifications into two-dimensional models often neglects

important effects and are therefore not appropriate, or conservative assumptions are made to

approximate effects thus giving ineffective structures. A modern software tool for bridge

engineers should provide the means to define a detailed 3-D representation of a given bridge

structure that models all geometric and material effects. In order to model the exact geometry

of a multiple Tee-beam bridge attention must be paid to a number of important details.

The plan view and the elevation of such bridges are governed by the specific geometric

requirements of the road alignment; these requirements have repercussions on the cross-

section along the bridge. A cross-fall of the road slab leads to inclined top slabs and the

possibility of Tee-beams with different height levels. Additionally, skew ends are often found

in such bridges and attention must be paid to model these support conditions correctly as

detailed later. These geometrical requirements often have significant structural effects and

should all be considered in an appropriate structural model. Furthermore, the modelling of the

13
geometry of off-ramps and road widening also poses challenges to the development of an

accurate model.

The difference between the actual cross section geometry and the cross section geometry in

the model represents another source of potential modelling error. All cross sections of bridges

have a cross fall, while it is common practice to consider the cross section as being perfectly

flat. This simplification is shown in Figure 1-16.

Actual cross fall

Flat cross section for
of cross section
simplified model

Actual cross
section shape

Simplified cross Axis for

section shape water drain

Figure 1-16: Real cross section with cross fall and simplified cross section for structural model

As a consequence some of the non-symmetric behaviour of the bridge will not be modelled. A

similar problem occurs for vertical alignment, the longitudinal slope is in most cases not

considered when modelling the bridge deck. The typical longitudinal slope is in the range of -

5% < slope < +5% and the effect on the structural analysis can be neglected. When the slopes

exceed these limits, then the slope should be a consideration within the structural model as

detailed by Arthur Nilson (1978). The simplification however can be crucial since dimensions

such as span length get changed as shown in Figure 1-17.

14
 Tangent point

Longitudinal slope
Longitudinal slope
Rounding“R“

Structure considered
flat for overall analysis.

Figure 1-17. Vertical alignment of bridge deck.

1.7 Multi-Span Pre-cast Tee-Beams

The most common way of assembling multi-span Tee-beam bridges is to use simply

supported pre-cast Tee-beams supported between piers then connected by a cast in-situ

concrete slab. The casting sequence of the concrete slabs is often geared towards reducing the

locked-in stresses in the final composite system. Shear connectors between pre-cast beams

and concrete slab ensure that forces are transmitted fully between the slab and the pre-cast

components.

In Australia, the “Super-Tee” system is an example for this method, these bridges are widely

accepted by the industry as the most efficient means of construction for most bridges and

consequently the design follows proven standard procedures. These design procedures are

based on a number of assumptions and it is possible to improve the efficiency of the structures

by utilising existing modelling software, but in developing the model the designer must

consider the following effects:

• The change in structural system at the piers where the pre-cast beams are simply

supported and made partially continuous by the concrete slab at a later time. Full

continuity can be achieved by installing diaphragms at the piers.

15
 • Differential creep and shrinkage in the individual parts of the concrete-concrete cross-

section.

• Change in cross-section properties including the shift in the centre of gravity due to

the addition of the concrete slab.

1.8 Erection Procedures

While not discussed in detail in this thesis it was thought prudent to include a brief outline of

the erection procedure to obtain an overall understanding of all considerations for this type of

structure. When dealing with pre-cast elements and in particular with multiple Tee-beams an

important design considerations is the erection sequence.

1.8.1 Typical erection procedures

There are two principle erection methods for multiple Tee-beam structures: either as cast in-

situ bridges, (see Figure 1-13), or the erection as composite structures consisting of a number

of pre-cast beams with a cast in-situ concrete deck (see Figure 1-7). The most economical

system is the pre-cast beams used with the cast in-situ concrete for the roadway deck/slab. In

this case the cross-section consists of parts with different concrete quality and different

concrete age resulting in a composite cross section.

1.8.2 Erection of pre-cast beams:

Generally speaking the erection procedure is dependent on the design engineers and the

constructor. However, some regulatory bodies do give clear advice of how pre-cast Tee-beam

bridges are to be erected.

16
 Figure 1-18. Typical construction sequence for 2 simply supported pre-cast beam (proposal
from Washington State Department of Transportation, US)

A typical example of this is the Washington Department of Transportation, in which they give

guidelines for the construction of single span simply supported bridges with pre-cast beam.

They also provide guidelines for two span simply supported and continuous bridges with pre-

cast beam bridges. Figure 1-18 demonstrates Washington Department of Transportations

requirements for the erection of multiple simple supported pre-cast girders, also provided are

the times to be considered when adding load to the system.

As comparison also included in this document are the guidelines for the bridge that is

continuous over the centre support. In Figure 1-18 the continuity over the supported is not

achieved, while there is a cross beam closing the gap between the ends of the pre-cast

girder,

17
Figure 1-19. Typical construction sequence for 2 span continuous pre-cast beam (proposal from
Washington State Department of Transportation, US)

but there is no reinforcement or pre-stressing passing over the support for creation of a

continuous girder. However, in Figure 1-19 a similar procedure is shown, but in this case the

guidelines allow for a layer of reinforcement passing over the support cross girder creating a

continuity over the support.

1.8.3 Erection of cast in-situ Tee-beam bridges:

The most frequently used erection method when casting multiple Tee-beam bridges on site is

the span-by-span method as shown in Figure 1-20. Each span is cast individually often with a

cantilever in the adjacent span to reduce the sagging moment in the span thus economising the

required cross-section.

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 Age 1

My span1 = My summation

Age 2 Age 1

My span2 My summation

Age 3 Age 2 Age 1

My span3 My summation

Age 4 Age 3 Age 2 Age 1

My span4 My summation

Figure 1-20. Span-by-Span erection and development of bending moment My.

When the bridge cast in-situ, creep and shrinkage play a significant role in the structure and

have a tendency to change the forces within the structure. Consequently the designer must

consider the implication of each stage of these effects to minimise any detrimental effects.

Figure 1-20 also shows how the bending moment changes during the various stages of

construction considering self weight only.

A combination of both pre-cast and cast in-situ methods is also be found in practise and the

methods and possible variants are numerous and well outside the scope of this thesis.

19
1.9 Codes requirements for design of multiple Tee-beam bridges

All international design standards require that any structure be checked under both

serviceability and ultimate strength conditions. Several criteria must be met, these include

stress limits and maximum deflection, and all structural components with in the structure need

to be designed accordingly.

The challenging goal to all engineers is to find the best possible solution. Consequently, it is

common that a number of iteration occur as the optimum solution is found considering

quantities, costs, aesthetics and feasibility.

Once the basic parameters such as span length and cross-section shapes are defined the design

cycle for a typical pre-stressed multiple Tee-beam structure is as follows:

1.9.1 Internal forces:

Determine all relevant internal forces due to all appropriate loading cases. These forces

are to be made available for each load case with and without multiplication factors for

later use in determining the worst load combinations.

1.9.2 The serviceability criteria:

For each national standard an allowable stress for the concrete under service load is

specified. The stress distribution is considered to be linear over the cross-section height

and the stresses for all relevant construction stages and load situations are checked on

the extreme fibres.

The serviceability check is also done for the tendons for which the actual stresses under

service load need to be evaluated and compared to the allowable steel stresses.

20
1.9.3 Ultimate moment capacity:

The strength in the concrete, pre-stressing tendons and reinforcements is reduced by a

partial factor for strength (some codes call it a material factor γm).

When calculating the ultimate moment capacity the cross-section internal equilibrium

considering all material components at their ultimate strength and the actual cross-

section internal eccentricities of all components relative to the neutral axis is

established. In Figure 1-21 the principle of the ultimate moment capacity calculation is

shown.

Cross-section My-ext – external load

ε0
Reinforcement
and pre- ≥
stressing
tendons.

Strain ε Stress σ My-int - internal capacity

Figure 1-21. Ultimate moment capacity and comparison to the external moment My.

1.9.4 Ultimate shear and torsion capacity:

Closely related to the shear stresses resulting from flexure in beams are those that are

the result of torsion action. Torsional shear stresses also produce diagonal tension cracks

in the concrete. Torsional reinforcement is similar to the shear reinforcement, and they

are then in many cases combined with each other since the shear stresses produced by

load actions are usually much below the direct shear strength of the concrete. The real

concern is with the diagonal tension stress in the concrete produced by shear stress

acting either alone or in combination with longitudinal normal stresses.

21
1.9.5 Longitudinal shear:

For the slab-web interface of composite decks such as pre-cast beams + cast in-situ

concrete slab the longitudinal shear needs to be checked and the structure needs to be

designed for.

1.9.6 Other checks:

Depending on the selected code additional checks are required such as fatigue and crack

width.

1.10 Summary

The analysis and design of multiple Tee-beam bridges requires the consideration of several

construction and design issues such as construction stages, change of structural system, time

dependent effects, combination of both pre-and post-tensioning and a sophisticated 3

dimensional structural model. For the engineer the amount of work and the aspects to be

considered are not much different compared to the design work for a long span balanced

cantilever bridge. This stands in contradiction to the relatively easy and quick erection of

multiple Tee-beam bridges.

The following chapters will highlight issues for design and construction for multiple Tee-

beams with a focus on pre-cast beams.

22
2 Loading

2.1 Introduction

The longitudinal Tee-beams in a multiple Tee-beam bridge can be assumed to display beam-

like behaviour in the longitudinal direction. This assumption implies that cross-sections of

these Tee-beams remain plane and undistorted. Therefore, vertical loading on these

longitudinal Tee-beams causes bending in the longitudinal direction and depending on the

location of the load the possibility of torsion. The roadway slab connects the individual

longitudinal members and is considered to be a structural link. The structural characteristic of

this roadway slab is that of a two-dimensional plate. Bending of the roadway slab in the

lateral direction causes torsion in the longitudinal girders and vice versa. The load-carrying

behaviour of the girder-slab system is governed by the combination of longitudinal Tee-beam

members with the connecting roadway slabs.

Loads acting on bridge structures cause internal forces in the structure. These internal forces

must be transferred to the foundations by the individual structural elements. Loads may act

directly on primary structural elements, such as the main girders in a multiple Tee-beam

bridge, or on secondary structural elements such as the roadway slab (Figure 2-1). In a

numerical structural model the loading occurring on the physical structure must be

approximated in a realistic way. It is common that the national design codes give guidance on

the particular nature of these load models. One common way of classifying loading types is

the differentiation between permanent and transient (or non-permanent) loads. The difference

between these loads is covered later in this chapter. Main girders of a multiple Tee-beam

structure therefore have two major load applications: firstly loads acting directly on the

girders; and secondly, loads being transferred to the main girders by secondary structural

components, ie. the roadway slab.

23
 Loading on Loading on
roadway slab ma in girder

Figure 2-1. Loading on primary and secondary bridge deck components.

2.2 Loading directions

Three loading directions are normally considered for a bridge deck - longitudinal, transversal

and vertical as shown in Figure 2-2. In a structural model, concentrated loads, line loads and

surface loads are typically applied in these three directions to simulate the loading of the

physical structure.

Transversal loads Vertical loads

(e.g. Wind). (e.g. kerbs)

longitudinal loads
(e.g. braking force).
CGs

Figure 2-2. Vertical, longitudinal and transversal loading on bridge deck.

2.2.1 Vertical loading

Vertical loads acting directly on the Tee-beams cause longitudinal bending, transversal

bending and torsion loading to be applied to longitudinal members. The road way slab linking

24
the longitudinal members transfers the load to the adjacent longitudinal sections in the bridge.

Figure 2-3a shows a typical situation where a vehicle load acts on a member. The magnitude

of this load transfer to adjacent members depends the stiffness of the roadway slab and special

focus needs to be given to the correct modelling of the roadway slab during the analysis and

design process.

Loading on the roadway slab between the longitudinal girders causes the slab to deflect

(Figure 2-3b). This deflection causes the Tee-beam girders on either side to rotate which in

turn induces torsion into these longitudinal members. This transfer of the vertical loads also

causes longitudinal and transversal bending into transferred to the Tee-beams.

It should be noted that vertical loading can also induce transversal bending into the Tee-beam

girders when the principal axes of the girders are not perfectly vertical – ie. in non-

symmetrical cross-sections – or the alignment in plan is curved.

Load – vehicle
(a) l d

rotated
deflected roadway slab cross-section
vertical and
transversal bending

(b)

Bending of rotated and

roadway slab translated
Tee-beam
cross-section

Figure 2-3. Load transfer between Tee-beams.

2.2.2 Transversal loading

Transversal loading such as wind load or centrifugal forces due to traffic impose transversal

bending on the bridge deck as a whole. For this loading condition the roadway slab can be viewed
25
as a stiff member (eg shear wall) connecting the individual longitudinal members and distributing

the horizontal load to all longitudinal members. The horizontal loads acting away from the shear

centre of the Tee-beams again introduce torsion into the longitudinal beams. The roadway slab

deflects and transfers this torsional action from one Tee-beam to the other. This behaviour of the

bridge deck is sometimes approximated by modelling the shear wall effect with a Vierendeel truss

as shown in Figure 2-4.

Horizontal uniform load

MG1 MG1

MG3

MG2
MG2

2 longitudinal beams and 3 longitudinal beams and

series of one-element cross series of two-element cross
beams – Virendel truss beams – Virendel truss

Figure 2-4. Grillage under horizontal load acting as a truss with rigidly linked members (Vierendeel – truss).

Transverse bending moment obviously occurring under the described transversal loading condition

is often accompanied by torsion due to eccentricities of the load resultant in relation to the shear

centre. This torsional action on the Tee-beams causes bending in the roadway slab which in turn

transfers this torsional effect to the neighbouring longitudinal girders.

2.2.3 Longitudinal loads

Forces acting in the longitudinal direction of the bridge are especially important with regards

to the design of the bearings. Additional, bending moments are introduced into the bridge

deck due to the vertical eccentricity of the load application points in relation to the CG. When

the piers are rigidly connected to the bridge deck the braking forces become a governing

26
factor for the design of the foundation since the lever arms of the bridge piers generate

significant moments at the foundation levels.

2.3 Permanent Loading

2.3.1 Self weight

Self weight is often a dominant component of the accumulated bridge loading and the

accurate consideration of this loading type in a structural analysis is of great importance. The

self weight of the structural components can be computed easily by multiplying the volume of

these components with the specific weight of the associated material. For modelling reasons,

some overlaps between various structural elements may exist in a computer model and care

must be taken that the loading model is not doubled-up in the overlapping regions.

Additionally, the self weight of non-structural bridge components must be considered. These

loading items are often applied on the actual structure as surface loads (eg. pavement), line

loads (eg. barriers) or concentrated loads (eg. lamp posts). Self weight of the actual structural

components and additional dead loads are often grouped together individually to account for

different impact factors where applicable.

2.3.2 Time-Dependent Effects

Time-dependent deformation of concrete resulting from creep and shrinkage is of crucial

importance in the design of pre-stressed concrete structures. Partial loss of pre-stressing force

and significant changes in deflection and stress distribution are often caused by these time-

dependent effects

Creep strain for concrete has been found to depend on time, on the mix proportions, humidity,

curing conditions and the loading history of concrete among others (CEB/FIP (1990)). Creep

strain is nearly linearly related to stress intensity. It is therefore possible to relate the creep

strain to the initial elastic strain by a creep coefficient. Typical values of the creep coefficient
27
range from about 1.6 to 3.2, the lower coefficient corresponds to the higher concrete

compressive strength. In pre-stressed concrete members the compression causing creep varies

over time because of relaxation of steel pre-stressing stress, shrinkage of the concrete and

member length changes associated with creep itself. This interdependence can be adopted to

lead to a step-by-step approach in calculating time dependent losses in which stresses acting

at the beginning of a specific time interval, causing the next increment of deformation reflect

all losses that have occurred up to time (Pircher 1994). For the present purpose losses are

treated individually in order to appreciate the role of each effect. Practical calculations are

often carried out on this basis as well. For pre-cast members, that later are connected to a cast

in-situ slab the moment of inertia of the composite section should be used in calculating the

stress caused by loads applied after the cast in-situ concrete has hardened.

Creep calculation according to the CEB/FIP (1990) require a careful handling of system data.

The following short example should illustrate the amount of data. Figure 2-5 shows the

development of the creep coefficient φ for a structure being erected in 3 construction stages.

The graph shows only one element of the structure. At the time of first load application, the

starting time for creep, the concrete is 14 days old. For this element for the first stage a creep

coefficient φ14 results. The coefficient changes during the stage 1 over a time of 28 days. At

the end of stage 1, new elements are added to the structure and new loads applied (PT = pre-

stressing, SW = self weight). Due to these new loads a new creep coefficient for the same

element needs to be determined. The two creep coefficients for one element now require

monitoring and undergo further changes as the structure changes. After new elements and

new loads are applied to the structure in stage 3 the previously existing creep coefficients are

changed again and a third one for this element is added. This procedure needs to be done for

all elements in a structure and for all ages and all loading cases if the analysis is to comply

with CEB/FIP (1990).

28
 REFERENCE – TIME AXIS [Days]

-42 -14 0 28 56 77 10077

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
14 Days Element X

[ϕ]
ϕ t0
tcurrentl ..... Creep coefficient

ϕ 14

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Figure 2-5. Creep coefficient changes during construction stages.

Shrinkage of concrete causes a reduction of strain in the pre-stressing steel equal to the

shrinkage strain of the concrete. The resulting steel stress loss is an important component of

the total pre-stressing losses for all types of pre-stressed beams.

For pre-tensioned construction pre-stressing often takes place as early as 24 hours after

casting and a high percentage shrinkage may therefore affect pre-stressing losses. Post-

tensioned members are less affected since pre-stressing is usually applied at a later stage

(Nilson 1987).

2.4 Additional loading

2.4.1 Wind loading

Wind loading is often approximated as lateral surface loading acting on the exposed side-

areas of the deck with amplification factors on the static loading to account for the dynamic

nature of wind gusts. Many design codes consider various wind loading cases for different

situations – eg. wind loading for the deck with traffic on the bridge, and wind loading without

traffic, or wind loading with different wind velocities for different load combinations. If the

cross section depth varies along the length of the bridge the resulting lateral load has a
29
longitudinal variation that needs to be considered. Oftentimes wind loading is assigned to the

longitudinal Tee-girders directly with loading acting on all exposed webs. It is important to

note, that depending on the consideration of traffic, the distance of the resulting load vector to

the shear centre varies and that torsional moments may be introduced by wind loading. The

described loading model is a strongly simplified approximation which neglects dynamic

effects and probabilistic properties of this type of bridge loading. However, the spans of

multiple Tee-beam bridges are typically sufficiently small to make the described

simplifications acceptable for design purposes.

2.4.2 Traffic Loading

As with all other loading types the exact nature of a traffic loading model for a particular

country is determined by the respective national design code. However, some general

characteristics common to most of these codes can be summarised in the context of this

chapter.

The actual loading is usually given by the definition of loading vehicles, mostly consisting of

a series of concentrated wheel loads. These loading vehicles are often combined with

distributed loading components. Some codes (eg. British standards BS5400 (1990)) require a

variation of loading intensity depending on the loaded length of a girder based on the shapes

of the influences lines and the influence surfaces. Other codes introduce variabilities in the

distances between the individual concentrated wheel loads (eg. Australian Standard AS5100,

AS 2004). Traffic loading usually applies in all three mentioned directions; vertical loading

due to the weight of the passing vehicles, and longitudinal loading to account for forces

generated by braking of vehicles and transversal loading to simulated centrifugal forces

occurring on curved bridges.

30
The location of traffic loading is usually driven by the setup of traffic lanes on the bridge

deck. Some codes allow the placement of the wheel loads along the centre line of a given

traffic lane (DIN1045 (2004)), other codes require the exact two-dimensional positioning of

the individual wheel loads (BS 5400 (1990)).Traffic loads act on both the main girders

directly and on the roadway slab depending on the setup of the traffic lanes in relation to the

centre lines of the Tee-beams.

The most detrimental position for the placement of one or more loading vehicles within a

given lane can then be determined for each member from the result matrix. It should be noted

here that the governing traffic position for one design force often differs from the governing

traffic position of another design force. This fact complicates traffic load evaluations in

structural analysis and design situations.

Results for the loading of individual lanes are combined to give the result envelopes for the

complete bridge deck. Design codes give combination factors for these lane combinations

which are based on probabilistic assumptions.

Railway bridges commonly have fewer traffic lanes than road bridges and are generally with

predefined alignments, but the loading magnitudes for railway bridges are significantly

higher.

2.4.3 Temperature Loading

Temperature loading is commonly represented by combinations of three different load cases:

constant temperature change of the whole deck, linear temperature gradients along a vertical

cut through the deck, and non-linear gradients in the same direction. Some design codes

specify different gradients for enclosed areas such as box-sections and plates (NZS 3100

(1995)) while other codes do not require the consideration of non-linear gradients (BS5400

(1990)).

31
In composite cross-sections the designer must consider that even a constant temperature

loading causes bending in the bridge deck if the expansion coefficients of the materials of the

cross-section are different.

Non-linear temperature distributions as shown in Figure 2-6 cause a theoretical dilemma since

many design codes are based on considerations based on beam theory. Beam theory however

postulates to remain plane with a linear strain distribution which stands in direct opposition to

the assumption of a non-linear temperature distribution. This dilemma is often quietly

circumnavigated by turning the non-linear temperature distribution into an “equivalent” linear

distribution.

Figure 2-6. Linear and non-linear temperature distributions

2.4.4 Settlement

Geological and code-specific data usually determines the assumptions of the extent of

settlement to be taken into account in a structural analysis for each foundation in a bridge

structure. Design codes also give different specifications with regards to the combination rules

for settlement at individual foundation points within a bridge structure.

For continuous girders hogging moments can be introduced in the deck above piers. These

hogging moments can become an important design issue when combined with pre-stressing

which also causes hogging above the intermediate support points.

32
For straight series of simply supported beams uneven settlement only causes displacements

but no stresses. However, uneven settlement in simply-supported bridges with skew piers or

curved alignments cause considerable stresses in the deck as illustrated in Figure 2-7.

MG2 Skew support

axis – twisted
roadway slab.
MG1

MG2
Bending moment due
to pier settlement. MG1

Figure 2-7. Twist of roadway slab due to pier settlement for skew support axis.

The typical shape of the moment diagram due to pier settlement is shown in Figure 2-8. For

each pier an individual loading case is calculated. All loading case results together give the

envelope representing the most unfavourable situation of all possible settlements. The

individual loading cases are combined according to the relevant design code definitions. Some

codes allow only one settlement at a time, other require considering the possibility that several

piers settle simultaneously.

Loading case
combination –
min/max My
envelope.

Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement

Pier 1. Pier 2. Pier 3. Pier 4.

Figure 2-8. Bending moment for pier settlement and secondary PT.

33
34
3 Pre- and post-tensioning

Concrete is utilised in structures as it exhibits excellent behaviour in compression, but in

tension it is left floundering. The use of pre-stressing can ensure that concrete members

remain within their tensile and compressive capacity thus increasing their versatility. The

development of pre-stressed concrete has resulted in greater flexibility in the selection of

bridge types and in the construction techniques utilised for bridges. Pre-stressed concrete is

frequently chosen for bridges with spans ranging from 20m up to 350m (Hewson 2000).

The following chapter describes some principles of pre-stressing, the application and the basic

considerations for handling the pre-stressing effects in the design of multiple Tee-beam

bridges.

• Pre stressing – principles and materials.

• Full and partial pre-stressing.

• Development length of pre-stressing strands

• Time dependent behaviour

• Primary and secondary effects.

• Consideration of pre-stressing for SLS and ULS design code checks.

• Precamber and application for pre-cast pre-tensioned members.

3.1 Pre-stressing – principles, materials and applications

Pre-stressing of concrete members is achieved by the transfer of stress from pre-stressing

tendons to the surrounding concrete. Tendons are placed within the concrete members as

either grouted internal tendons or as external tendons. It should be stressed that the geometric

position of the tendon within the cross-section is of great importance for the design.

35
Consider a simply supported pre-stressed beam with a rectangular cross-section. A pre-

stressing tendon is placed in the centroidal axis and stressed the force F, as shown in Figure

3-1. This beam is also loaded by a uniformly distributed load. The tensile pre-stressing force

in the tendon produces a balancing compressive force in the concrete. In the case illustrated,

the pre-stressing force is acting in the CG of the cross section and the stresses in the extreme

fibres are given by

σ= ±
F My
(3.1)
A I

In this case the stresses in the bottom of the member are less than those calculated at the top

of the cross-section.

Anchor plates
Uniform load e.g. self weight and tendon

Concentric tendon
Pre-stressing Force F

σ= σ= ±
F F My
A A I
Stresses due to Stresses due to Stresses due to pre-stressing
pre-stressing external load and external load

Figure 3-1. Stress distribution in a concentrically pre-stressed girder.

If the tendon is now placed with an eccentricity (e) to the CG of the cross-section as shown in

Figure 3-2 the pre-stressing force (F) is applied. To calculate the stress the same components

as in Equation 3.1 are utilised but the eccentricity also introduces a bending moment into the

girder and the resulting stresses in the extreme fibres are given by

36
 σ= ± ±
F Fey My
(3.2)
A I I
Unlike the concentrically stressed member the stresses in the bottom of the member are now

greater than those calculated at the top of the cross-section.

Anchor plates
Uniform load e.g. self weight and tendon

CG of cross-section
Eccentric tendon
Pre-stressing Force F

σ= ± ±
F Fey My
A I I
Stresses due to Stresses due to Stresses due to Stresses due to pre-stressing
pre-stressing pre-stressing external load and external load
eccentricity

Figure 3-2. Stress distribution in an eccentrically pre-stressed girder.

The required strength of the concrete is determined by the compressive stresses generated in

the concrete by the pre-stressing and applied forces. A minimum strength of fcu equal to

45N/mm2 is typical for pre-stressed concrete, however it is more common to use higher

strengths with a fcu up to 60N/mm2 (Ryall et. al. 2003). Even higher concrete is used for

specific projects. At the time of pre-stressing a minimum strength of 30N/mm2 for the

concrete is often required although this might vary depending on the tendon and anchor

arrangements and the magnitude of the applied load. To minimize the losses due to creep and

shrinkage, and thus losses in the pre-stressing, care is required in the mix design and the

water/cement ratio of the concrete should be kept to a minimum.

The stressing is achieved using high tensile steel in use as wire, bars or strands. The nominal

tensile strengths of these components vary between 1570N/mm2 and 1860N/mm2 for wire and
37
strands and between 1000N/mm2 and 1080N/mm2 for bars. Once the stressing load is applied

steel relaxation occurs, this results in the reduction of stresses in the tendons. The magnitude

of relaxation varies depending on the steel characteristics and the initial stresses. Typical

relaxation ranges from 2.5% to 3.5% when a stress of 0.70 fpu is applied. For an initial stress

of 0.50 fpu the relaxation reduces to about 1% (Ryall et. al. 2003).

When post-tensioning a concrete member the tendons may be grouted or un-grouted

depending on the design criteria. When cement grout is used it is pumped into the ducts to fill

the void in the ducts around post-tensioned tendons. Generally a water/cement ratio of

between 0.35 and 0.40 is typically used; admixtures are sometimes added to improve flow and

to reduce shrinkage. One of the major advantages of grouting is the protection of the tendons

from corrosion.

3.2 Full and partial Pre-stressing

When stressing a member two design methods are used either Full or Partial Pre-stressing.

The complete elimination of tensile stresses in members at normal service load is defined as

full pre-stressing. Early designers focused on this type of pre-stressing in order to avoid

cracks caused by tensile stresses on either side of the member. As experience grew solutions

between fully pre-stressed and reinforced concrete were often favoured. Such an intermediate

solution in which concrete receives tensile stresses which are compensated by reinforcement

is called partial pre-stressing. The cracking due to tensile stresses under full service load is

usually small and disappears when reducing the load.

Typically the fully pre-stressed girders are heavy with large cross-sections, producing an

objectionable large camber at more typical loads than the value service load. Partial pre-

stressing tends to results in more economical solutions by reducing the amount of pre-

stressing steel. When designing for partially pre-stressed girders, the design code generally

38
nominates whether reinforcement in the appropriate layer may be considered for tensile

forces, or whether the partially stressed steel can be considered as passive steel, using the

additional capacity as being equivalent to reinforcement.

It has been observed that partially pre-stressed girders are more or less the state of the art in

almost all popular design codes. Certain codes, for example the Eurocode 2 (CEN 2002),

demand full pre-stressing for certain load situations and partial pre-stressing for other load

combinations. In the US partial pre-stressing is the most frequently used as pre-stressing

method.

3.3 Pre-stressing methods

There are two methods commonly used for pre-stressing members as shown in Figure 3-3:

pre-tensioning and post-tensioning. Pre-tensioned members (Figure 3-4) are typically

produced in a casting yard by stressing tendons between external anchorages before the

concrete is placed in the formwork between these anchorages. As the concrete hardens it

bonds to the steel, when the concrete has reached the required strength, the anchorages are

released and the pre-stressing force is transferred to the concrete. Only linear tendon profiles

can be achieved.

Post-tensioned members are stressed inside ducts after the concrete has hardened to the

required strength. The pre-stressing is applied through jacks against the ends of the concrete

member and the ducts are usually grouted. Hardening of the grout creates the bond between

tendon and girder. Tendons may be bundled parallel wires, stranded cables, or solid steel rods.

A typical post-tensioning arrangement can be seen in Figure 3-5 where the geometry follows

the anticipated moment distribution due to self weight and traffic loading. Stirrups are

installed in regular distances in longitudinal direction supporting the duct and guaranteeing

the duct and tendon position after casting and jacking.

39
 A A-A

13mm or 15mm strand A Pre-

Strand debonding at end.
tensioned
strand
B B-B

B Post-
Beam thickened at end for Multi strand tendons
anchor tensioned
strand

Figure 3-3. Typical pre-tensioned and post-tensioned beam.

Tendon
anchorage jacks
Precast beam

Casting bed tendon

jacks

Support Hold down force

force

Figure 3-4. Straight and polygonal tendon layout for pre-tensioned beam.

Position at Pier: Duct internal tendon

Grout vent.
Stressing Strands at bottom of duct eccentricity

Dead
anchor
R[m] = curvature Concrete cover
min.120mm

Lowest point at Diameter of duct Duct internal tendon

40% of side Stirrups installed in Position in span: eccentricity
span regular intervals Strands at top of duct

Figure 3-5. Typical post-tensioned tendon layout.

3.4 Development length of pre-stressing strands

Stresses are transferred from the pre-stressing strands to the surrounding concrete through the

bond between the two materials. The distance from the end of the member over which the
40
effective pre-stressing force develops is called the “transfer length”. The “flexural bond

length” is the additional bond length necessary to develop the strand stress from effective pre-

stress to the ultimate at the ultimate flexural strength of the beam. The sum of these two

lengths is called the “development length”. Kaar et. al. (1963) gives the following equation

for the development length.

Ld = D + ( f su* − f se ) D
f se
(3.3)
3

The first term, (fse/3)D, represents the transfer length. The second term, (fsu-fse)D, represents

the flexural bond length. Some codes like the AASHTO (1996) require a minimum

development length for bond beyond the critical section given by

Ld = ( f su* −
2
f se ) D (3.4)
3

In both formulas D is the nominal strand diameter, fsu* is the average stress in the pre-

stressing tendon at ultimate load and fse is the effective pre-stressing steel force after all

losses. Research by Deatherage & Burdette (1991) showed that the transfer and development

length increase almost linearly with the strand diameter.

Pre-cast beams can be created in a controlled environment and usually have high concrete

quality and good precision in reinforcement layout and pre-stressing arrangement. Stress

transfer is often approximated by a linear function as shown in Figure 3-6. In pre-cast

members the anticipated moment diagram due to dead load and traffic loading is often

counteracted by groups of tendons which are sleeved in a staggered pattern towards the ends

of the members.

41
 Capacity
built up from
zero to max. Full capacity (σallowable x Areatendon)

1.0m Length of full tendon capacity 1.0m

Length of precast member

No bond at Distribution of force in concrete

member end Tendon
Full bond and full capacity
Stressing after development length
force 1.0m

Figure 3-6. Pre-cast beam and development length.

3.5 Pre-stressing losses

For pre-tensioned members the initial pre-stressing force acts at the permanent anchorages of

the casting yard. The tension is constant for straight tendons, losses only occur when deviators

are installed to achieve a specific tendon geometry. The pre-tensioning steel force is reduced

by the anchorage slip at the anchorages, which is also a relevant type of pre-stressing loss for

post-tensioned tendons.

For post-tensioned girders the full pre-stressing force is applied at the anchorages and the pre-

stressing force along the girder is reduced due to friction losses. Friction between tendons and

ducts results in a loss of pre-stressing force. The total friction losses are a combination of

wobble friction caused by deviations of the tendon within the duct and friction due to

curvature. Both types of friction losses depend mainly on the tendon material.

Additionally, concrete members shorten due to the compressive force applied by pre-stressing

thus reducing the pre-stressing force in the tendon. This effect is termed elastic shortening.

For pre-tensioned members the change in steel strain is the same as the concrete compressive

strain in the steel centroid and the losses may be calculated accordingly. For post-tensioned

42
members the elastic deformation of the concrete takes place after applying the jacking force

and there is automatic compensation for shortening losses. If parallel or overlapping tendons

are post-tensioned sequentially the interaction between the elastic shortening losses for each

tendon must be considered. Especially, in constructions where pre-tensioning and post-

tensioning are combined losses in the pre-tensioned steel occurring due to the post-tensioning

actions need to be accounted for.

Time-dependent effects also cause reductions of stress in the pre-stressing steel. Creep and

shrinkage in the concrete as well as relaxation for the pre-stressing steel contribute to this

group of losses.

Figure 3-7 shows the force distribution in a pre-stressing tendon considering losses due to

friction, wobble, anchorage slip, creep and shrinkage and steel relaxation in a post-tensioned

member.

All losses require consideration in the analysis and design process. The time dimension

becomes an important factor and needs to be incorporated in the calculation of pre-stressed

structures. The described losses do not happen simultaneously but at different points in time

as shown in Figure 3-8.

Jacking force

Maximum tendon force

Force in tendon
Allowable steel stress Initial jacking force
reduced due to
friction and wobble
Losses due to
anchorage slip

Force in tendon at time of Force in tendon at time infinity.

completion reduced due to creep
and shrinkage and other PT action
in the structure

Figure 3-7. Development of forces in the pre-stressing tendon.

43
 Instantaneous Time-dependent

Due to conrete
Elastic Shrinkage Creep
shortening

Total pre-
Friction stressing
losses
Due to steel

Anchorage
Steel
slip
relaxation

Causal relation
Effect relation

Figure 3-8. Interrelationship of causes and effects among pre-stressing losses [Naaman and Hamza, 1993]

3.6 Primary and secondary effects

When pre-stressing tendons apply load to the structure the resultant forces and moments

generated can be considered as a combination of primary and secondary (or parasitic) effects.

Primary effects are the moments, shears and axial forces generated by the direct application of

the force in the tendon on the relevant section. Secondary effects occur when the structure is

statically non-determinate and restraints on the structure prevent the pre-stressed member

from deflecting when the pre-stressing force is applied. For continuous decks the intermediate

supports restrain the deck from vertical movement and secondary moments and shear occur.

The combined primary and secondary affects as shown in Figure 3-9 are derived directly from

the analysis output. The forces and moments from the tendon are applied at each anchor

position. Along the structure equivalent loads are applied to the model wherever the tendon

geometry has a change of angle. Care needs to be taken when modelling the structure since

the example shows that the support definitions have a major influence on the behaviour of the

structure under pre-stressing load. The correct consideration of pre-stressing as well as the

44
subdivision of the pre-stressing results into primary and secondary effects is a basic

requirement for computer programs today (Bangash, 1999).

Pre-stressing anchorage Tendon eccentricity e

Typical prestress layout Section neutral axis

Mp
Fh

Fv Force in tendon
Equivalent forces Load intensity = Radius of tendon

Primary effects: Mp=P*e Secondary effects

Hogging moment
Resultant moment: primary + secondary Sagging moment

Figure 3-9. Pre-stressing – primary and secondary effects in a continuous girder

Figure 3-10 shows the principle of how the ratio between primary and secondary effects can

be estimated by comparing the areas between the tendons and the CG of the cross-sections.

However, this estimation does not consider the fact that the pre-stressing force is not constant

along the girder.

Due to the cross-section geometry of Tee-beams the CG of cross sections is geometrically

relatively high. This position of the CG becomes especially important when defining the pre-

stressing of the girder. The eccentricity of the tendon in the span relative to the CG is bigger

than the eccentricity at the support. When considering the example in figure 3-9 and

accounting for the eccentricity relatively high secondary moments result. In some cases the

secondary moments can be of the same magnitude as the primary moment which means that

the pre-stressing forces compensate each other.

45
The remaining structural design component to be considered is the axial force which causes

compression in the concrete. The secondary effects can be reduced by shifting the tendon

geometry closer to the CG. Increasing the distance to the bottom fibre in the spans decreases

the cross-section capacity.

Pre-stressing anchorage Tendon eccentricity e

Rectangular
cross-section Area between Area between Section neutral axis
tendon and CG in tendon and CG at
spans (area A) supports (area B)

Σareas B = Σareas A →Secondary effects = 0

Σareas B > Σareas A →Secondary effects are hogging

Σareas B < Σareas A →Secondary effects are sagging

Tendon eccentricity e

Tee-beam
cross-section Section neutral axis
Area between Area between
tendon and CG in tendon and CG at
spans (area A) supports (area B)
Primary effects: Mp=P*e Secondary effects

Tee-beam Resultant moment: primary + secondary

cross-section

Hogging moment
Sagging moment
Σareas B << Σareas A →Secondary effects are sagging

Figure 3-10. Quick estimation of primary and secondary effects in a continuous girder for a rectangular cross
section and a Tee-beam.

3.7 Consideration of pre-stressing for SLS and ULS design code checks

At SLS the stresses in the concrete must be kept within allowable limits for both compression

and tension. It is usual to keep the concrete in compression across the full section under

permanent load and to allow tension stresses up to 2 - 3 N/mm2 for live loading. The primary

and secondary forces both combine giving the resultant force distribution as shown in Figure

46
3-11. The corresponding stress distribution in the cross-section is taken into account for the

SLS checks. In many design standards the Primary and Secondary effects require different

safety factors and therefore must be considered as separate entities.

+ =
e

Applied Resulting
Primary Secondary stresses
force
stresses stresses

Figure 3-11. Stresses due to pre-stressing in cross-section

The moment of resistance, or capacity, at a section is derived by comparing the balance of the

tensile force in the tendons and reinforcement with the compressive force in the concrete. The

strain distribution is considered to be linear across the section with the point zero being the

effective neutral axis as shown in Figure 3-12.

fcTo εctop 0.67 fcu 0.0035

fctop Neutral axis dconcr.
Inner
lever d
dtensile
fp fs εp εs fsAdditional arm
fcBottom εcBottom εs+(0.0035-εctop)dtensile/dconcr

Stress Strain εp+(0.0035-εctop)dtensile/dconcr

Initial stress and strain distribution Stress and strain distribution at
ultimate moment of resistence.

Figure 3-12. Ultimate moment of resistance

47
For ULS checks it needs to be considered that a big portion of the pre-stressing force is in the

actual tendon when grouting the duct and creating the bonded situation between tendon and

cross-section. All loads applied subsequently cause deflection resulting in a rotation of the

cross section. This rotation introduces a strain in the cross section. At the concrete fibre at the

same location as the tendon the strain for both the concrete and the tendon are the same due to

the bonded situation. This strain causes new stresses in the tendon which are added to the

stresses form the initial strain of the tendon. The total of the tendon stresses is therefore the

combination of initial stresses due to initial strain plus additional stresses due to additional

loads. For the ULS the section is assumed plane under bending. The initial stress and strain in

the tendon, the reinforcement and the concrete are generated by the pre-stressing and the

permanent loading. The moment resistance of any section along the deck must exceed the

bending moment generated by applied loading to give a sufficient factor of safety against

failure (Neville 1995).

3.8 Precamber and application for pre-cast pre-tensioned members

Permanent deflections of the concrete deck occur due to pre-stressing, due to self weight and

due to the weight of the permanently applied loads followed by further deflections due to

long-term creep of concrete and losses in the pre-stressing. Oftentimes a pre-camber is

implemented in order to achieve a certain desired final deck geometry under permanent

loading. The pre-camber is affected by the construction sequence and the concrete properties.

In the lifecycle of pre-cast beams they run many different construction stages from the casting

yard to the final position as member of a bridge deck. Because of the limited lengths pre-cast

beams are often prepared as simple supported beams. The first time pre-cast beams take load

causing deflection is at the time of cutting off the tendons at the anchorages which introduces

the pre-stressing into the girder. Depending on the tendon geometry the girder gets under

48
compression and lifts away from the formwork. At this stage the pre-cast beams sit on the

edges and develop an upwards deflection as shown in Figure 3-13.

Initial set up Pre-stressing tendons

Precast beam Reinforcement

Pre-stressing

Reinforcement bulged

∆1 - Vertical deflection Stresses in cross-

Longitudinal shortening section, mid-span

Creep and shrinkage

Reinforcement released

∆2 ……> ∆1

Pouring of slab-concrete

Reinforcement bulged

∆3 ……< ∆2
Slab part active… Slab is stress free until
next load application
…often of variable depth due to precamber of precast part.

∆4 ……= ∆3 Stresses in concrete locked

i
Figure 3-13. Stages and deflection for pre-cast girder.

Later construction stages and then again loads bend the girder further again. The fact that due

to the casting of the deck a composite section is built up requires special consideration in the

overall design and in the precamber definition. The properties change significantly when

creating the composite cross-section and the stress state of the pre-cast beam is locked into the

structure.

49
Due to the precamber of the pre-cast girders the deck slab gets a variable depth in case the

precamber is not applied to the deck as well. The load is then not uniform along the girder

which is different to the calculation. The deflection caused by the load as well as the

subsequent creep and shrinkage are underestimated and the precamber is not fully abolished.

50
4 Numeric modelling of the roadway in Tee-beam bridges
4.1 Introduction

In a structural model, the roadway slab represents the link between the adjacent longitudinal

members. The roadway slab is responsible for both the structural interaction between the

longitudinal Tee-girders and for the transfer of loads applied on the roadway slab to the main

girders. The roadway slab is commonly simulated by beam, plate or shell elements in a

numerical model. In selecting the type of elements to be used consideration of the following is

required;

the number of transverse elements per span;

the stiffness of the transverse elements;

the principal stresses, shear and torsion in the roadway slab; and

the connection of the roadway slab elements to the beam elements.

Prior to discussing the considerations for the detail model, it is essential to understand the

basic advantages and disadvantages of grillage and finite elements systems when modelling

the roadway slab.

4.2 Modelling Systems

4.2.1 Transversal beam elements – grillage model

A grillage is a structure consisting of rigidly connected longitudinal and transverse beams

with both bending and torsional stiffness. At the connections of the longitudinal and

transverse beams, deflection and slope compatibility equations can be set up. Although the

method is generally approximated as a necessity, it has the great advantage that it can be used

in most situations. Ryall et. al. (2003) gives comprehensive modelling recommendations for

grillages for bridge decks.

51
 Figure 4-1. Grillage model of 2-span bridge with PT in the main girders. Plan view as system
line, plan view with solid deck, perspective view as 3D frame.

In the grillage system, the bending and torsional stiffness’s in every region of the slab are

assumed to be concentrated in the nearest equivalent beam. The longitudinal stiffness of the

slab is concentrated in the longitudinal beam elements; the transverse stiffness is concentrated

in the transverse beams.

Ideally each beam in such a grillage model behaves in a manner that closely agrees to the

physical two-dimensional slab-beam-system of the roadway slab. The moments, normal and

shear forces should resemble the stress resultants and deflections at a any given position. The

grillage deflections should also resemble closely the deflections in the actual slab. There are,

however, a few shortcomings since the grillage is only approximation of the physical

structure.

52
4.2.2 Finite elements for the roadway slab

The finite element method forms one of the most versatile classes for modelling structures,

and the method relies strongly on the matrix formulation of structural analysis. The

application of finite elements dates back to the mid-1950s with the pioneering work of

Zienkiewicz (1991). The finite element method is based on the representation of a body or a

structure by an assemblage of one, two- or three-dimensional subdivisions called elements.

These elements of a finite size are considered to be connected at nodes. Displacement

functions are chosen to approximate the variation of displacements over each element

(Hartmann & Katz 2001).

The entire procedure of the finite element method involves the following steps:

1. the given body is subdivided into an equivalent system of finite elements,

2. a suitable displacement function is chosen,

3. element stiffness matrix is derived using variational principle of mechanics such as the

principle of minimum potential energy,

4. global stiffness matrix for the entire body is formulated,

5. the algebraic equations thus obtained are solved to determine unknown displacements

and

6. element strains and stresses are computed from the nodal displacements.

In Figure 4-2 a typical multiple Tee - beam deck modelled with finite elements is shown. The

finite element method has certain limitations in connection with the problem of result post-

processing as the method produces stresses and strains, and typically the action effects such as

moments and forces are required for design purposes.

53
 Figure 4-2. Typical multiple Tee-beam bridge in plan. Combination of beam elements for the
main girders and finite elements for the roadway slab.

4.2.3 Finite elements versus grillage

Both the grillage and finite element methods have advantages and disadvantages. The choice

of either method depends on several factors including geometry, support conditions and/or

design requirements. The structural behaviour of the bridge deck in Figure 4-2 for instance is

certainly better described by finite elements. The deck widening as well as the skew support

axes introduce both a complex behaviour that is more difficult to represent with a grillage

model.

The main advantage for the use of grillage models is founded in the fact that results are

achieved in the form of internal section forces in a given direction – that is often conveniently

also the reinforcement direction. Finite element results on the other hand are stress

components in arbitrary directions which may be difficult to interpret for design purposes, this

made more difficult as most design codes are based on considerations stemming from beam

54
theory. Intensive post-processing is usually required to transfer results from a finite element

analysis into a useful form to be used in design checks.

Primary, the displacement results for beam elements and for the finite elements are generated

in an analysis directly for all node locations. Force results for beam elements are then derived

in these node locations while stress results for finite elements are computed for the so-called

Gauss points of each finite element. Post-processing routines must be employed to generate

results for locations between the nodes or Gauss points respectively. Such post-processing is

possible for beam elements in an analytically rigorous manner while for finite elements

certain approximate assumptions must be made.

4.3 Number of transverse elements per span

During the design of bridges many operations are based on the results of analyses of

individual loading cases – e.g. preparing design load combinations, evaluating traffic loading,

performing design checks for SLS and ULS etc. For various reasons these operations need to

be performed in discrete locations along the structural members and traditionally node

locations are chosen for these tasks. In Figure 4-3 bending moment results for a uniformly

loaded simply supported beam are connected with straight lines between the nodes and are

compared to the analytically derived parabolic function for this particular loading condition.

In Case (a) ten beam elements have been utilised in the model, while for case (b) only half the

number of elements are used. Obviously, the accuracy is improved for higher numbers of

elements, with the peak moment in case (b) being underestimated significantly as a result of

the lower number of structural elements in this model.

55
 Uniform load

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

(a)
Polygonal
analysis results.

Analytical solution (ql2/8 parabola)

1 2 3 4 5

(b)

Polygonal
analysis results.
Under-estimation of
critical result
Analytical solution (ql2/8 parabola)

Figure 4-3. Bending moment due to self weight in simply supported beam.

The number of elements along the longitudinal girders also determines the size of the

elements representing the roadway slab as a result of compatibility. The roadway slab

elements transfer all loading acting immediately upon them to the longitudinal girders, and

the nature of this transfer is influenced by the size of the elements.

This effect is illustrated in Figure 4-4 where a point load acting on the roadway slab is

presented. In the grillage model, as shown in Figure 4-4(a), the loading location is somewhere

on a transverse-beam which deflects and transfer the resulting internal forces to the nodes on

the longitudinal main girders that it is connected to. The resulting moment diagram in the

longitudinal girder will have a triangular shape with the peak in the node were the transverse-

beam is connected. In a model with finite plate elements representing the roadway slab, the

load is distributed to four nodes as opposed to 2 nodes and therefore the resulting moment

diagram in the longitudinal Tee-beams is trapezoidal without the pronounced peak of the

grillage model.

56
 load application
point
(a)
cross-beam axis

Triangular moment
distribution in main
girder. Tee-beam axes
load application
point
(b)

Trapezoidal moment Tee-beam axes

diagram in FE model

Figure 4-4. Moment diagram of longitudinal member due to concentrated load acting on the
roadway slab.

4.4 Stiffness of transverse elements in grillage models

The stiffness of beam elements in the grillage model depends on the material and cross-

section properties and the element length.

The cross-sections of cross-beams in a grillage model need to be defined in order to

geometrically cover the area of the roadway slab. They should be orientated so that they lie

side-by-side, touching but not overlapping and with no gaps. The widths of these cross-

sections are governed by the distances between nodes on the longitudinal girders. Since these

distances are rarely constant the cross-section widths usually vary from cross-beam to cross-

beam (Figure 4-5) care must be taken when generating the model. Changes of deck depth in

the lateral and longitudinal directions also adds additional complexity since these changes

must also be accounted for in the models of cross-beams. Moreover, as illustrated in Figure

57
4-6 in the event of curved alignments in plan view cross-beams have different cross-sections

at start and end of the elements. Such a situation is drawn in detail in Figure 4-7.

Start node for the

Structural nodes cross-member

L1
End node for the
201
cross-member L2
202
101
203
102
Cross-member element 204
L1/2=b1 103
L2/2=b2
104 CP2
CP1 MG2

d MG1 Connection of cross member

to Tee - Beams

Figure 4-5. Definition of cross-members representing the roadway slab.

L1/2 L2/2 L3

L4

cross section 1 =
cross-section 2
cross section 1
b1 = L3 /2 + L4 / 2

cross section 2
L1 L2 b2 = L1 /2 + L2 / 2
L1
L2

Figure 4-6. Cross-section for cross-beams in straight and curved alignments

It is common practice in many software products to average the cross-section properties of

beginning and end of such elements. However, this leads to a miss-representation of the actual

stiffness distribution in the deck. For large radii the error introduced by this averaging

procedure is small but for small radii this error can become significant. This problem can be

circumnavigated by splitting cross-beams into several elements, but this requires additional

series of longitudinal connecting beams to maintain integrity within the grillage. A better

solution for these cases would be to implement beam elements with formulations that take

account for the variable stiffness and represent this particular situation adequately.

58
 System line for
longitudinal beams
Cross section –
element end

Cross section – mid-element:

Cross section – Used for the stiffness
element begin calculation.

System line for

longitudinal beams
Cross section –
end of element 2

Cross section – end of element 1

Cross section – begin = begin of element 2
of element 1
Stepped element stiffness along
transverse beam

Figure 4-7. Stiffness of transverse beam with variable cross-section.

While considering the element width it is also important that the element length the cross

section depth be considered also, as all these dimensions give the necessary geometrical

definitions needed to define the transverse element. In the event of a constant thickness of the

roadway slab between the webs of the Tee-beams, the cross section depth for the transverse

element remains equal to that of the roadway slab thickness as shown in Figure 4-8.

Constant cross section depth

… for transverse elements

Constant roadway slab thickness

Figure 4-8. Four Multiple Tee-beam with constant roadway slab thickness between webs.

Alternatively when the roadway slab has a variable thickness between the webs, as shown in

Figure 4-9, two common methods of representing this situation in a global model are used.

59
The first approximates this variable to one equivalent cross-beam element; while the second

method uses multiple elements to model this situation in a more detailed manner. In the global

analysis the subdivision of the transverse beam into several elements does not necessarily

make any difference regarding the quality of results for the longitudinal Tee-beams. However,

if analysis results for the cross-beams are to be used for the design of the roadway slab then a

detailed representation becomes mandatory.

Variable thickness of
cross section

Variable thickness of
roadway slab

Figure 4-9. Double Tee-beam with variable roadway slab thickness between webs.

If a representative cross-section for a haunched deck as shown in Figure 4-10 is to be defined,

the following procedure can be used to find the correct cross-section depth. It is important to

note that the torsion of the longitudinal Tee-beams introduce bending in the cross-beams and

should be considered.

Element 1 Element 2 Element 3

MG2
MG1 Cross section 1 Cross section 2 Cross section 1

Element 1

MG2
MG1 Cross section 2

Figure 4-10. Three elements and two different cross section per transverse member.

60
The stiff-ended actions for the haunched and the representative beam must be equal in order

to model this effect correctly in the simplified case (Figure 4-11). In Figure 4-12 the bending

moment diagrams for a uniformly distributed load with either one or three spanning elements

are shown.

Torsion Torsion
Mt F
Mt

d1 d2
Vy

L1 L2 L3
L = L1 + L2 + L3

Torsion Torsion
Mt Mt
F

Figure 4-11. Stiff-ended actions in haunched and representative cross-beams.

Distributed load [kN/m2]

My1 My2

Moment diagram in cross

beam for 3 elements
considering the variation of
stiffness due to cross
Same moment at section change.
My1 Moment diagram
junction to main
My3≠ My2 without interpolation.
girders.

Parabolically
Moment diagram in cross
interpolated
beam for one element with
moment – change
constant thickness. of stiffness is not
considered.

Figure 4-12. Bending moment in the cross member consisting of one and three elements.

Using equilibrium equations an expression for the depth may be derived as:

61
Vy = J= = → d = 3 12 *
F *l3 F *l3 b*d3 F *l3
and
192 * E * J 192 * E * V y 12 192 * E * V y

If detailed representations of haunched roadway slabs are chosen then the model size

increases significantly, as all intermediate nodes in the transversal direction must be

connected longitudinally with the additional series of longitudinal beams (Figure 4-13). In

Figure 4-14 the roadway slab is haunched in the transversal direction calling for four

additional series of longitudinal beams, thus demonstrating the increase in model size. In

Figure 4-14 an example for a double hollow box is presented, a similar example for a double-

Tee beam is shown in Figure 4-15. In all cases the cross-sections of the transversal beams

follow the haunch of the roadway slab.

MG1 MG1
MG3
MG4
MG5
MG2 MG2

2 longitudinal beams and 2 + 3 longitudinal beams

series of one-element cross and series of four-elements
beams – Virendel truss cross beams

Figure 4-13. Plan view of grillage model with only one transverse element and a combination of
horizontal and longitudinal elements for the roadway slab.

Four transversal beams Cross-sections of

transverse beams

additional longitudinal
beams longitudinal beam 2
longitudinal beam 1

Figure 4-14. Example for element layout for cross section with variable roadway slab thickness

62
 Centre of gravity of System axes of
transversal beams transversal beams

System axes of
Reference node at top of
longitudinal beams.
cross-section

Centre of gravity of Cross-sections of longitudinal beams

longitudinal beams in the roadway slab.

Cross-sections of
transversal beams.
Cross-section widths of
transversal beams.

Figure 4-15. Four elements in transverse and three in longitudinal direction.

Another consideration when modelling the stiffness of transverse elements is the behaviour of

the bridge deck under lateral horizontal loading. Under this loading condition the bridge deck

acts akin to a shear wall. If a grillage model is employed then this shear wall behaviour must

also be represented adequately. When only two main girders are connected by single element

transverse-beams then this system represents a Vierendeel truss. If multiple element

transverse beams connected by longitudinal-beams have been modelled then the stress flow

through the deck can be represented in more detail. Figure 4-16 illustrates this aspect for a

system with multiple longitudinal girders connected by cross-beams.

Linear distributed load [kN/m2]

A B

MG1 MG1
Ix, Iy, Iz Ix, Iy
MG3 MG3
Ix, Iy, Iz Ix, Iy, Iz (of total cross section)

MG2 MG2
Ix, Iy, Iz Ix, Iy
Mz for all Virendel members Mz for central beam only.

3 longitudinal beams acting Transversal inertia of all 3

as Virendel truss with the longitudinal beams concentrated in
transverse members. one single beam for horizontal load.

Figure 4-16. Plan view of grillage model with only one transverse element and a combination of
horizontal and longitudinal beams.
63
4.5 Principal stresses, shear and torsion in the roadway slab

Differences in normal force in neighbouring transversal elements in the grillage model are a

measure of the transverse shear force present in the bridge deck, this is illustrated in Figure

4-17 for the case of horizontal loading. In finite element models this shear force will be

computed directly but expressed as stresses. The differential bending of neighbouring

longitudinal girders also introduces torsional action into the roadway slab (Figure 4-18),

which leads to the introduction of additional transverse shear forces into the roadway slab. It

is essential that the transverse shear in the roadway slab, from all actions (including torsion)

be considered carefully in order to guarantee correct transmission of this shear through

grillage model and appropriate design measures taken.

Shear force in the transverse elements Girder deflection due

due to horizontal load. to horizontal load.

Vertical
support.

Cross beam
at Support
axis.

Vertical and
transversal
support.
Horizontal transversal load

Figure 4-17. Shear forces in the roadway elements in plan view.

Concentrated load

Bending of longitudinal
girder introduces torsion
into the roadway slab.

Longitudinal offset between load

application points. Concentrated load
introducing bending into
the longitudinal girder

Figure 4-18. Differential bending of longitudinal girders resulting in torsion of the cross-
members.

64
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