PROJECT REPORT

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

TOPIC : TO CALCULATE THE

RANDOMICITY OF GEIGER-MULLER
DATA.

Submitted to : Submitted by:

Dr. Rajeev K. Sharma Jasleen Kaur

L-2017-BS-305-M
Aim: - To calculate the randomicity of Geiger-Muller data.

Apparatus: - Geiger-Muller (GM) tube, Counter or count recording device, high voltage dc
supply.

Theory: -
The Geiger-Muller counter is a particle detector designed to detect ionizing radiation, such as
alpha and beta as well as gamma radiation (although with significantly lower sensitivity than
other types of detectors). It was invented by the German physicist Hans Geiger (co-discoverer of
the atom nucleus) and later improved by his student Walther Muller, therefore the name Geiger-
Muller counter. It is probably one of the most famous radiation detectors, mostly due to its
simplicity and the distinctive clicks produced with the detection of individual particles.

Principle: -
All the nuclear radiations, whether they are charged particles or gamma rays will transfer some
part of their energy to the gas molecule within the tube. This absorption of energy results in
ionization, producing an electron-ion pair (primary ions). This leads to the production of very
large number of electrons and positive ions which are collected by anode wire and cathode of
the GM tube respectively. This ionizing property of a nuclear radiation is utilized for its
detection. The ionisation process gives rise to a very large pulse with an amplitude independent
of the type and energy of the incident radiation. The pulse is communicated to the amplifier
through an appropriate RC circuit, and then to a counter which is called as scaler. Suitable
arrangements are made to measure the counts for a preset time interval.

Construction: -
Gm tube consists of a hollow metal case which acts as cathode and is enclosed in a thin glass
tube. This tube is evacuated and then filled partially with a mixture of 90% argon and 10% ethyl
alcohol vapours. A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of the tube and acts as anode.
At One end of the cylindrical tube, a thin mica window is arranged through which the radiation
enters the chamber. The direct current voltage is kept slightly less than that which
will cause a discharge between electrodes. The block diagram of GM counter set up is
shown in Fig. 1.
 Fig. 1 Geiger Muller counter set up

Working: -
When an ionising radiation enters the counter, primary ionisation takes place and a few ions
are produced. These ions are accelerated with greater energy due to the high potential
difference and they cause further ionisation and these ions are multiplied by further collisions.
Thus an avalanche of electrons is produced in a short interval of time. This avalanche of
electrons on reaching the anode generates a current pulse, which when passing through R
develops a potential difference. This is amplified by electronic circuits and is used to operate
an electronic counter. The counts in the counter is directly proportional to the intensity of the
ionising radiation. The ionisation of the gas is independent of the type of the incident radiation.
Hence, G.M. counter does not distinguish the type of radiation that enters the chamber.

The GM detector registers pulses even when not exposed to radioactive sources. These pulses
are caused by natural and man-made radioactive isotopes found in our environment and also
by cosmic radiation. The background radiation varies with time and depends on the local
environment, the building material, shielding and the weather. Hence, the background count
rate (counts per second) should be recorded before and after carrying out measurements.

Randomness of data: -
Systematic errors control the accuracy of a measurement. Thus, if the systematic errors are
small, or if it is mathematically correct, then an accurate estimate of the true value can be
obtained. The precision of the experiment, on the other hand, is related to random errors. The
precision of a measurement is directly related to the uncertainty in the measurement. Random
errors are the statistical fluctuations during a measurement. If these values are too close to each
other, then the random errors are small. But, if the values are not too close, then random errors
are large. Thus, random errors are related to the reproducibility of a measurement.

Statistical analysis of data: -

To minimize these errors, one should have good understanding on “Statistical analysis of
data”.

Mean: -
It is the average value of a set of (n) measurements in an experiment. Mathematically it is
defined as
x = (x1 + x2 +…… +xn)/n
Mean is also called as average value.
Deviation: -
Deviation is the difference between the actual measured values and the average value. We
define this by: d= x-x

Standard deviation:-
Standard deviation (σ) is a square root of the variance, which is widely used to indicate about
the spread of our data.

1

n 1
 ( x  x) 2

Expected Standard Deviation (  ) = x

Standard Error

(  ) =
n

ˆ x  
n
Chi square probability distribution
The chi-squared distribution (X2 - distribution) with degrees of freedom, k is the distribution
of a sum of the squares of k independent standard normal random variables. Chi square
distributions vary depending on the degrees of freedom. It is one of the most widely used
probability distributions in statistics used to test the independence of variables. Calculation of
chi square is used to determine how closely the observed data fits the expected data.

Divergence Co-efficient (Q2)

 ( x  x) 2

nx

 2

 ( x  x) 2

(Approximately 1)
2

Degree of Freedom = n-1

Procedure:-

1) Complete the electrical circuit connections as shown in Fig. 1. Set the power supply at
the operating voltage.
2) Make the observation time for each reading equal to 200 seconds.
3) Note the background counts (without any source) at a constant value of operating
voltage.
4) Observe the background counts for different number of times.
5) Calculate the mean, standard deviation, expected standard deviation, standard error,
expected error and divergence coefficient from the obtained data.

Observations and Calculations:-

Operating voltage of GM counter = 450 Volt

Observation time for each reading = 200 second
Paralysis time = 250 µs
 Background Background
Sr. No. counts(x) counts –mean (x - x)2
deviation
(x - x)
1. 273 28 784
2. 255 10 100
3. 241 -4 16
4. 224 -21 441
5. 275 30 900
6. 244 -1 1
7. 223 -22 484
8. 252 7 49
9. 247 2 4
10. 297 52 2704
11. 235 -10 100
12. 246 1 1
13. 224 -21 441
14. 233 -12 144
15. 240 -5 25
16. 238 -7 49
17. 255 10 100
18. 242 -3 9
19. 234 -11 121
20. 227 -18 324
Total 4905 6797

1
Mean (x) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
4905
x=  245
20
1 6797
Standard Deviation (σ) = √𝑛−1 ∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 = √ = 18.9129
19

Expected standard deviation = √𝑥̅ = √245 = 15.6524

 𝜎 357.7
Standard error = = = 4.229
√ 𝑛
20

x 15.6524
Expected standard error = = = 3.5
20 20

2
∑𝑛
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ )
2
6797
Divergence coefficient (Q ) = = = 1.38
𝑛𝑥̅ 4900
Degree of freedom (n-1) = 19

2  
( x  x) 2
= 6797/ 245= 27.74
x
Corresponding p value = approx. 0.10

Results: -
The value of divergence co-efficient comes out to be approximately 1, hence it shows that
dispersion of the data is normal.
For  2 = 27.74, F= 19 we get p = 0.10, which implies that in one out of ten similar tests, we
would expect fluctuation greater than observed here.
Hence it provides satisfactory results that counter is operating properly.

Precautions:-
1. The operating voltage must be kept constant.
2. The counting switch should always be kept slow so that the counting rate does not exceed
10% above the plateau voltage.