Agriculture Development in India

With Special Reference to Chhattisgrah and

Punjab

Submitted to
Mrs.Eritriya Roy
Faculty Member in Economic

Submitted by
Surbhi Bais
B. A. LL. B. (Hons.) Student
Semester – 2, Section – C, Roll No. 175

Hidayatullah National Law University

Uparwara Post, Abhanpur, New Raipur – 493661 (C.G.)

1
 CERTIFICATE OF DECLARATION

This is to certify that the Project work done at Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur
Chhattisgarh by Ms Surbhi Bais Roll no.175 has been found satisfactory. It has not been
submitted for any other examination and does not form a part of any other course undergone
by the candidate. It is further certified that she has made the project with all her sincerity and
is found authentic and not copied from any other project submitted earlier.

2
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I, Surbhi Bais, would like to humbly present this project with the grace of the almighty and . I
would first of all like to express my most sincere gratitude to Mrs.Eritriya Roy for her
paramount support and encouragement. I am thankful for being given the honour of doing this
research paper. I am thankful to the library staff and committee members for all the
conveniences which played a major role in the completion of this paper. Last but by far the
most important, I would like to thank God for keeping me in good health and senses to complete
this project. I am thankful to my seniors for all their boundless support, encouragement and
valuable advice whenever needed. I present this project with a humble heart.

-Surbhi Bais

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Declaration
2. Acknowledgement
3. Introduction
4. Objectives of the Study
5. Research Methodology
6. Chapter 1: History of Agriculture development
7. Chapter 2: Agriculture development in Punjab
8. Chapter 3: Agriculture development in Chhattisgarh
9. Conclusion
10. Bibliography

4
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is unquestionably the largest livelihood provider in India,
more so in the vast rural areas. It also contributes a significant figure to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). Sustainable agriculture, in terms of food security, rural employment, and
environmentally sustainable technologies such as soil conservation, sustainable natural
resource management and biodiversity protection, are essential for holistic rural development.
Indian agriculture and allied activities have witnessed a green revolution, a white revolution, a
yellow revolution and a blue revolution.

Objective
 To study the history of Agriculture development
 To anaylze Agriculture development in Punjab
 To anaylze Agriculture development in Chhatisgrah

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study has been carried out in a descriptive and analytical manner. Secondary and
published documented data has been collected through various sources and analyzed
accordingly. No field work has been carried out in the development of this work.

5
HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

When India became independent in 1947, the agricultural productivity was very low (about 50
million tons). The agriculture was mainly rained and was being done as a subsistence farming
using mainly animate sources of farm power and traditional tools and equipment’s. More than
80% of the population living in rural areas was dependent on agriculture for their livelihood.
The Royal Commission on Agriculture in its report in 1928 had laid stress on harnessing
science to develop and spread new agricultural technologies for the irrigated, arid and semi-
arid areas. However, the quantum of efforts generated in agricultural engineering research and
education till 1947 was microscopic in relation to the magnitude and diversity of the problems
awaiting solutions.

The manpower for agricultural engineering research in the ICAR system was inadequate, both,
qualitatively and quantitatively for facing successfully the numerous problems of developing
equipment and technologies for mechanization of agriculture for maximizing efficiency of
costly inputs like seeds, fertilizers, irrigation water, plant protection chemicals, and energy
sources to increase higher production and productivity, reduction of drudgery; post-harvest
technology and value addition, water, Plant Protection chemicals, and energy sources to
increase higher production and productivity, reduction of drudgery; post-harvest technology
and value addition, waste utilization, and generating income and employment in rural areas.

Research in agricultural engineering related to farm implements and machinery began at the
Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Naini in 1921 with Prof. Mason Vaugh as the Research
Engineer. During 1930 agricultural engineering research was started at the then Agricultural
College and Research Institute, Coimbatore, with Mr. Charley, a Britisher, as the first research
engineer.1

Efforts were then concentrated mainly to develop labour saving manual and animal drawn
implements. Later, with the starting of B.Sc. Agricultural Engineering Programme at Allahabad
Agricultural Institute during 1942, establishment of Agricultural Engineering Division at
TART in 1947, Agricultural Engineering Department at IIT, Kharagpur in 1954, and colleges

1
the Department of Commerce and Industry 2014–15
6
of Agricultural Engineering and Technology at Pantnagar, Ludhiana, Jabalpur, Udaipur,
Coimbatore. 1960s gave an impetus to agricultural engineering research programmes.

Besides these research-cum-academic institutions, a good amount of research opportunity was

opened up in the soil and water engineering with the establishment of the 1st river valley
project, the Damodar Valley Corporation in 1949, to tackle the problems of soil and water
conservation in Bihar and West Bengal.

This was followed by the Government of India’s initiative in establishing soil conservation
centres at different regions of the country from the First Five-Year plan. Subsequently all these
centres were administratively combined together as a Central Soil and Water Conservation
Research Institute at Dehra Dun under the ICAR in 1975, with 6 regional centres.

More recently, organizations other than the ICAR have shown interest in sponsoring research
in different areas of agricultural engineering, either by giving financial support or as integral
part of the activity of these organizations. Some of these organizations are Ministry of Non-

7
conventional Energy Sources; Department of Electronics; Department of Science and
Technology; Department of Agriculture and Co-operation; Tata Energy Research Institute and
the Indian National Committee of Irrigation and Drainage etc.

The ICAR has however remained the most important organisation in the country supporting
the research in all areas of agricultural engineering and technologies, primarily through the
Division of Agricultural Engineering and in some aspects also through the Division of Natural
Resource Management, Crop Science and Horticulture.

Early farm machinery development in India was greatly influenced by technological

developments in England. The horse drawn equipment imported from England were suitably
modified to suit Indian draught animals, and thus as a result, mould board ploughs, disc harrow
and cultivators were introduced in India. In 1954 the ICAR for the first time sponsored a
scheme to conduct state-wise survey of the existing tools and implements used by farmers.

Market Size
Over the recent past, multiple factors have worked together to facilitate growth in the
agriculture sector in India. These include growth in household income and consumption,
expansion in the food processing sector and increase in agricultural exports. Rising private
participation in Indian agriculture, growing organic farming and using information technology
are some of the key trends in the agriculture industry.
As per the 3rd Advance Estimates, food grain production is estimated at 251.12 million tonnes
(MT) for 2014-15. With an annual output of 138 MT, India is the largest producer of milk. It
also has the largest bovine population.
India is the largest producer and importer of pulses at 19.0 MT and 3.4 MT, respectively.
India, the second-largest producer of sugar, accounts for 14 per cent of the global output. It is
the sixth-largest exporter of sugar, accounting for 2.76 per cent of the global exports.2
Spice exports from India are expected to reach US$ 3 billion by 2016–17 due to creative
marketing strategies, innovative packaging, strength in quality and strong distribution
networks. The spices market in India is valued at Rs 40,000 crore (US$ 6.42 billion) annually,
of which the branded segment accounts for 15 per cent.

2
the Union Budget 2015–16
8
The procurement target for rice during marketing season (MS) 2014–15 has been finalised as
35.10 MT.

Investments
Several players have invested in the agricultural sector in India, mainly driven by the
government’s initiatives and schemes.
According to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), the Indian agricultural
services and agricultural machinery sectors have cumulatively attracted foreign direct
investment (FDI) equity inflow of about US$ 2,182 million from April 2000 to May 2015.3
Some major investments and developments in agriculture in the recent past are as follows:
 Rabo Equity Advisors, the private equity arm of Netherlands-based Rabo Group, raised
US$ 100 million for the first close of its second fund – India Agri Business Fund II.
The fund plans to invest US$ 15–17 million in 10–12 companies.
 Oman India Joint Investment Fund (OIJIF), a joint venture (JV) between the State Bank
of India (SBI) and State General Reserve Fund (SGRF), invested Rs 95 crore (US$
15.25 million) in GSP Crop Science, a Gujarat-based agrochemicals company.
 The world's seventh-largest agrochemicals firm, Israel-based ADAMA Agrochemicals
plans to invest at least US$ 50 million in India over the next three years.4
 Belgium-based Univeg recently collaborated with Mahindra & Mahindra to develop a
fresh fruit supply chain.
 Companies from the US, Canada, Australia, Israel, the Netherlands and other European
countries have shown strong interest to transfer the best practices, linkages between
scientific institutes, agriculture storage, cold-chain management, market access, and
productivity enhancement such as the introduction of new technology in seed and plant
biotech.
 Canada-based International Food Security Research Fund has major investments in
food security research in several Indian universities. These strengthen food-processing
and sustainable agricultural techniques.

Government Initiatives
Given the importance of the agriculture sector, the Government of India, in its Budget 2015–
16, planned several steps for the sustainable development of agriculture. The government has

3
The Economic Survey 2014–15, Agricultural and Processed Food Products
4
Export Development Authority (APEDA)
9
already taken steps to address two major factors (soil and water) critical to improve agriculture
production. Steps have been taken to improve soil fertility on a sustainable basis through the
soil health card scheme and to support the organic farming scheme ‘Paramparagat Krishi Vikas
Yojana’. Other steps include improved access to irrigation through ‘Pradhanmantri Gram
Sinchai Yojana’; enhanced water efficiency through `Per Drop More Crop’; continued support
to MGNREGA and the creation of a unified national agriculture market to boost the incomes
of farmers.
The central government recognises the importance of micro irrigation, watershed development
and ‘Prada Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana’; thus, it allocated a sum of Rs 5,300 crore (US$ 830
million) for it. It urged the states to focus on this key sector. The state governments are
compelled to allocate adequate funds to develop the agriculture sector, take measures to achieve
the targeted agricultural growth rate and address the problems of farmers.
The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation under the Ministry of Agriculture has inked
MOUs/agreements with 52 countries including the US. In addition, the Department of
Agriculture Research & Education (DARE) and the Department of Animal Husbandry,
Dairying & Fisheries (DAHD&F) under the Ministry of Agriculture have signed
MOUs/agreements with other countries, taking the number of partnerships with other countries
to 63. These agreements would provide better agricultural facilities in areas such as research
and development, capacity building, germ-plasm exchange, post-harvest management, value
addition/food processing, plant protection, animal husbandry, dairy and fisheries. The
agreements could help enhance bilateral trade as well.

10
Given the correlation between improvement in agriculture and the development of the country,
the Government of India adopted several initiatives and programmes to ensure continuous
growth. It allocated Rs 25,000 crore (US$ 3.9 billion)5 for the Rural Infrastructure
Development Fund (RIFD), Rs 1,500 crore (US$ 234 million) for the long-term rural credit
fund, Rs 45,000 crore (US$ 7.03 billion) for the short-term cooperative rural credit finance
fund and Rs 25,000 crore (US$ 3.9 billion) for the short-term RRB refinance fund. It also
marked an ambitious target of Rs 8.5 lakh crore (US$ 132 billion) of agriculture credit during
2015–16.
Some of the recent major government initiatives in the sector are as follows:
 The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) announced 42 dairy projects with a
financial outlay of Rs 221 crore (US$ 35.47 million) to boost milk output and increase
per animal production of milk.
 The government planned to invest Rs 50,000 crore (US$ 8.0 billion) to revive four
fertilizer plants and set up two plants to produce farm nutrients.
 The Ministry of Food Processing Industries took some new initiatives to develop the
food-processing sector that would enhance the income of farmers and export of agro
and processed foods, among others.
 Israel increased contribution to Indian agriculture and helped farmers multiply their
income with better practices and yields. It also helped choose the right crops or
vegetables to make this a success story, which is strengthening bilateral ties.
 The Government of Telangana allocated Rs 4,250 crore (US$ 682.31 million) for the
first phase of the farm loan waiver scheme. The scheme is expected to benefit 3.6
million farmers who took loans of Rs 100,000 (~US$ 1,600) or below before March 31,
2014.

Road Ahead
The agriculture sector in India is expected to generate better momentum in the next few years
due to increased investments in agricultural infrastructure such as irrigation facilities,
warehousing and cold storage. Factors such as reduced transaction costs and time, improved
port gate management and better fiscal incentives would contribute to the sector’s growth.
Furthermore, the growing use of genetically modified crops will likely improve the yield for
Indian farmers.

5
Press Releases, Media Reports
11
The 12th Five-Year Plan estimates the food grains storage capacity to expand to 35 MT. Also,
a 4 per cent growth would help restructure the agriculture sector in India in the next few years.
Exchange rate used: INR1= US$ 0.016 as of July 8, 2015
Land Use Pattern

The basic factor in agriculture is land. Knowledge about land use pattern is vital to understand
whether the utilisation of land in India is at its full potential or far from its full potential. In
India the classification of land has had its roots in agricultural statistics. Till 1950, the land in
India was broadly classified into five categories: (i) Area under forests; (ii) Area not available
for cultivation; (iii) Uncultivated lands including current fallows; (iv) Area under current
fallows; and (v) Net area sown. But then it was realised that such a classification did not give
a clear picture of the actual area under different categories of land use required for agricultural
planning. Hence, a reclassification was adopted from March 1950. Under it, land in India now
classified under nine different categories. These are as: (i) forests; (ii) barren and uncultivable
lands; (iii) land put to non-agricultural uses; (iv) cultivable wastes; (v) permanent pastures and
other grazing lands; (vi) miscellaneous tree crops and groves not included in the net area sown;
(vii) current fallows; (viii) other fallows; and (ix) net sown area.

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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN PUNJAB

The Punjab state manifests the growth in agriculture sector achieved by India after the mid
1960s. With mere 1.53% of the geographical area of India, it contributes around 55-65% of
wheat and 35-45% of rice to the national pool every year. The productivity of wheat rose from
1.1 ton/ha during 1960-61 to 4.5 ton/ha during 2007-08 and that of paddy from 1.6 ton/ha to
6.0 ton/ha over the same period. The total production of wheat rose from 1.74 million tons in
1960-61 to 15.4 million tons in 2008-09 and that of paddy from 0.34 million tons to 16.5 million
tons during this period. Additionally, the state now produces 10% milk, 26% honey and 48%
mushrooms of the country.

Table 1: Trends in productivity of paddy in Punjab

Year Yield (Kg/ha)
1970-71 2634
1980-81 4205
1990-91 4968

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1995-96 4811
2000-01 5233
2005-06 5755
2008-09 6003
Compound Growth Rates (% per annum)
1970-71 to 1979-80 5.30
1980-81 to 1989-90 1.29
1990-91 to 1999-00 0.02
1999-00 to 2007-08 2.09
Overall 1.59

Trends in productivity of wheat in Punjab

Year Yield (Kg/ha)
1970-71 2237
1980-81 2730
1990-91 3715
1995-96 3886
2000-01 4563

The wheat productivity almost doubled from 2237 kg/ha in 1970-71 to 4250 kg/ha in2009-
10 (Table 3). The wheat yield peaked at 4563 kg/ha in 2000-01 but followed a decline of 0.55
per cent per annum in the next five to six year. The decline is largely being ascribed to rise in
temperature during the months of January to March, adversely affecting the grain formation
and hence wheat yield. There has been some revival of the yield in the recent years as the
yield again reached 4400 kg/ha during 2008-09.6

Maize: The productivity of maize is relatively less as compared to paddy and wheat crops.
Maize is the major kharif crop of the sub-montane zone comprising Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur and

6
Chand, Ramesh and S.S. Raju (2008) Instability in Indian Agriculture during Different Phases of Technology
and Policy, Discussion Paper: NPP 01/2008, National Professor Project, National Centre for Agricultural
Economics and Policy Research, ICAR, New Delhi.
14
Ropar districts. The average yield of maize crop increased from 1555 kg/ha in 1970-71 to 3403
kg/ha in 2008-09 (Table 5). There was almost no increase in the maize productivity during
1970s and it declined at 1.25 per cent per annum during 1980s. However, the productivity
increased significantly after 1980s at almost 3 per cent per annum. Being largely a rainfed crop,
maize productivity is expected to be more variable as compared to the paddy and wheat yield.

Table 5: Trends in productivity of maize in Punjab

Year Yield (Kg/ha)
1970-71 1555
1980-81 1602
1990-91 1784
1995-96 1796
2000-01 2793
2005-06 2734
2008-09 3403
2009-10 (P) 3150
Compound Growth Rates (% per annum)
1970-71 to 1979-80 0.15
1980-81 to 1989-90 -1.25
1990-91 to 1999-00 2.75
1999-00 to 2009-10 3.46
Overall 1.97

Trends in productivity of sugarcane in Punjab

Year Yield (Kg/ha)
1970-71 4117
1980-81 5526
1990-91 5941
1995-96 6529
2000-01 6425
2005-06 5778
2008-09 6100

15
 Compound Growth Rates (% per annum)
1970-71 to 1979-80 3.51
1980-81 to 1989-90 0.66
1990-91 to 1999-00 -0.26
1999-00 to 2008-09 -0.80
Overall 0.65

The overall instability for sugarcane is relatively higher though it is found to have
declined over time (Table 8). The maximum value of instability index was found in 0.2155 in
Ferozepur and the minimum value of 0.1084 in Ludhiana.7 The instability was relatively the
least in the central zone of the state followed by sub-montane and South-western zone.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN
CHHATTISGRAH

Chhattisgarh is said bowl of rice from agriculture point of view, means rice production
in the state is to the amount that excess amount is exported. But if we think of Punjab, it also
has excess production, but not only that of rice. There Wheat and Potatoes are also produced
in excess. A small state like Punjab and such a wonderful advancement in agriculture. After all
this bowl of rice a name for Chhattisgarh, will continue to satisfy ourselves till what time.
Reality is that per unit area production of rice in Chhattisgarh is for behind than Punjab. This
may be said in this way. There lived two farmers in a village : one farming on 8 acres of land
and the other on 30 acres of land. Owner of 8 acres used to produce 200 quintals of rice whereas
that of 30 acres only 250 quintals. The owner of 30 acres was proud of producing 250 quintals
– an amount highest in the village.

Agriculture is counted as the chief economic occupation of the state. According to a

government estimate, net sown area of the state is 4.828 million hectares and the gross sown

7
Chand, Ramesh and S.S. Raju (2008) Instability in Indian Agriculture during Different Phases of Technology
and Policy, Discussion Paper: NPP 01/2008, National Professor Project, National Centre for Agricultural
Economics and Policy Research, ICAR, New Delhi.
16
area is 5.788 million hectares.] Horticulture and animal husbandry also engage a major share
of the total population of the state. About 80% of the population of the state is rural and the
main livelihood of the villagers is agriculture and agriculture-based small industry.

The majority of the farmers are still practicing the traditional methods of cultivation, resulting
in low growth rates and productivity. The farmers have to be made aware of modern
technologies suitable to their holdings. Providing adequate knowledge to the farmers is
essential for better implementation of the agricultural development plans and to improve the
productivity.

Considering this and a very limited irrigated area, the productivity of not only rice but also
other crops is low, hence the farmers are unable to obtain economic benefits from agriculture
and it has remained as subsistence agriculture till now.

Agricultural products
The main crops are rice, maize, kodo-kutki and other small millets and pulses
(tuar[63] and kulthi); oilseeds, such as groundnuts (peanuts), soybeans[64] and sunflowers, are
also grown. In the mid-1990s, most of Chhattisgarh was still a monocrop belt. Only one-
fourth to one-fifth of the sown area was double-cropped. When a very substantial portion of
the population is dependent on agriculture, a situation where nearly 80% of a state's area is
covered only by one crop, immediate attention to turn them into double crop areas is needed.
Also, very few cash crops are grown in Chhattisgarh, so there is a need to diversify the
agriculture produce towards oilseeds and other cash crops. Chhattisgarh is also called the
"rice bowl of central India".

Irrigation
In Chhattisgarh, rice, the main crop, is grown on about 77% of the net sown area. Only about
20% of the area is under irrigation; the rest depends on rain. Of the three agroclimatic zones,
about 73% of the Chhattisgarh plains, 97% of the Bastar plateau and 95% of the northern
hills are rainfed. The irrigated area available for double cropping is only 87,000 ha in
Chhattisgarh plains and 2300 ha in Bastar plateau and northern hills. Due to this, the
productivity of rice and other crops is low, hence the farmers are unable to obtain economic
benefits from agriculture and it has remained as subsistence agriculture till now, though
agriculture is the main occupation of more than 80% of the population.

17
In Chhattisgarh region about 22% of net cropped area was under irrigation as compared to
36.5% in Madhya Pradesh in 1998-99, whereas the average national irrigation was about
40%. The irrigation is characterized by a high order of variability ranging from 1.6% in
Bastar to 75.0% in Dhamtari. Based on an average growth trend in irrigated area, about
0.43% additional area is brought under irrigation every year as compared to 1.89% in
Madhya Pradesh and 1.0% in the country as a whole. Thus, irrigation has been growing at a
very low rate in Chhattisgarh and the pace of irrigation is so slow, it would take about 122
years to reach the 75% level of net irrigated area in Chhattisgarh at the present rate of growth.

Chhattisgarh has a limited irrigation system, with dams and canals on some rivers. Average
rainfall in the state is around 1400 mm and the entire state falls under the rice agroclimatic
zone. Large variation in the yearly rainfall directly affects the production of rice. Irrigation is
the prime need of the state for its overall development and therefore the state government has
given top priority to development of irrigation.[59]
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A total of four major, 33 medium and 2199 minor irrigation projects have been completed
and five major, 9 medium and 312 minor projects are under construction, as of 31 March
2006.

Existing Agriculture Policies and Development Status

Government of Chhattisgarh has of course, implemented redistributive agriculture policies in the past through
–

Paddy procurement from farmer at minimum support price so as to ensure remunerative prices for agricultural
produce. Focus was the economic wellbeing of the farmers in addition to production and productivity.

Gyan Chaupals at village level with the help of ICT and farm schools in the fields of outstanding farmers to
promote farmer to farmer learning was promoted for strengthening extension services;

Seeds and Soil Health: Quality seeds, disease free planting material and soil health enhancement hold the key
to raising small farm productivity. Every farmer is to be issued with a soil health pass book containing
integrated information on farm soils with corresponding advisories;

Water Use Efficiency: The concept of maximizing yield and income per unit or irrigation water in all the crop
production programmes were accorded priority with stress on increasing efficiency of water use and prevent
wastage;

Availability of credit at 1% interest rate to farmer;

Employment generation through skill development programme;

Rationalization & relatively better working of public distribution system

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Agro-Enterprises Development (Aed) Policy
To improve the above development status, current agriculture practices should be re-orientated towards agro-
enterprises development (AED) mode for making it sustainable livelihood policy option to revitalize state
agriculture which would spur growth and poverty reduction in rural areas. Also studies have indicated that
a1% growth in agriculture sector is 2 to 3 times more effective in reducing poverty than a one percentage
growth in other sectors
4
. Since most of the entrepreneurial activities in rural areas are based on agriculture and natural resource,
inculcating agro-enterprises mode among farmer families can broaden their income opportunities by
integrating ‘Farm (crop diversification) and Non-farm interventions, addressing issue of low productivity,
organize them as producer organization, foster convergence and build market linkages for enhancing
profitability. This holds the key to usher in an effective manner for improving farmer livelihood and addressing
the issue of rural poverty alleviation in given circumstances. Establishment of the agribusiness enterprises
across the value chain will not only create an additional employment opportunities for the youths (as agric-
entrepreneurs or aggregators) but will enhance the linkage of farmers from farm to food table; diminish layers
of intermediary leading to increased price realization both among the farmers and entrepreneurs. This process
requires

A. PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
Through strengthening backward linkages/input supply chain and reducing high wastages during production
by integrating adequate & affordable technologies as wells adopt post harvest mechanism
B. PROMOTE PRODUCERS ORGANSIATION as a tool for empowerment, livelihood promotion
and strengthening panchayat raj institutions (PRIs). This will enable them to develop aptitude for building
strategy towards increasing price realization &bargaining for their produce8
C. PARTNERSHIP for convergence --- Linking producer’s organization (PO) with markets through
participation in value chain and with ongoing programmed of State and Central Government, Banks for
capital/credit need and other related agencies for sectoral support etc. The objective of developing such
partnerships is to mobilize funds and to build a good working relationship between producer
organization andcommunity institutions with various governmentaland nongovernmental
actors.

8 Shri Pranab Mukherjee, President Of India At TheInauguration Of National Conference On Doubling

India’sFood Production In The Next Five Years, Vigyan Bhavan,New Delhi : 01-02-2013, p2

20
D. PROFITABILITY through Market Linkages --market based approach is required to enhance
integrated livelihood opportunities. Production aggregation, inculcation of market
intelligence, collective marketing of agric & allied products and establish forward linkages with
value chain will enable farmers to earn higher incomes and reduce twosome extent
the intermediation costs

CONCLUSION
The results reveal very little instability in the crop yield of paddy and wheat in Punjab.
However, the instability in maize, potato, sugarcane and cotton are much higher in
comparison to the paddy and wheat. There have been considerable variations in the
productivity of major crops across different farm size categories in Punjab. The small and
marginal farms are experiencing greater variability in the crop yield as compared to the
medium and large farms. The study reveals that potato, maize, sugarcane and cotton are
important crops from the point of view of risk and insurance in Punjab agriculture. Almost
negligible instability in paddy and wheat yield and relatively little variation across different
size categories and no significant relationship of wheat yield emerging currently with the
climate variables (especially temperature) point towards higher difficulty in developing
insurance products for paddy and wheat as compared to maize, potato, sugarcane and cotton.
Within last three decade, focused intervention on growth rates of area, production and productivity of
all important kharif and rabi crops has contributed agriculture growth from subsistence agriculture
to the food surplus state. Even though it is observed that majority of the farmers are still
practicing the traditional methods of cultivation, which have made little headway in tackling
the twin challenges of increasing productivity and optimal resource utilization. Result is the
persistent rural poverty and increasing unemployment are becoming day today affairs in rural
areas. Inculcation of AED mode assumes even more significance in Chhattisgarh where the
agricultural canvass is dotted with rain-fed farming, coupled with undulating land and
skewed land holdings. Thus fostering AED mode emerges as a way forward for farmers to improve
their lives, strengthen the local economic unsustainable manner as well as revitalizing rural area for
poverty reduction

21
BILIOGRAPHY

BOOKS REFERRED
 Misra S.K, Puri V.K (2010) Indian economy ,Himalaya Publishing House
 Datt ,Ruddar ,sundaharam ,K.P.M (2009) Indian Economy, S.CHAND
&COMPANY LTD

WEBSITES REFERRED
 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/8376/5/04_chapter%201.
pdf

 http://commerce.nic.in/tradestats/filedisplay.aspx?id=1
 http://www.nber.org/papers/w16550.pdf develoment chhattisgrah
 https://data.gov.in/dataset-group-name/economic-survey-2012-13-fAgriculture
development in punjab

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