Aquaculture, 3(1974) 61-85

@ Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

INTENSIFIED FISH CULTURE COMBINING WATER RECONDI-

TIONING WITH POLLUTION ABATEMENT

DR. PAUL B. LIAO* and RONALD D. MAYO**

*Vice President, Technology and **Executive Vice President of Kramer, Chin & Mayo, Inc.,
Consulting Engineers, Architects and Applied Scientists, I91 7 First Avenue, Seattle, Wash. (U.S.A.)

(Received February 19, 1973; revised June 1, 1973)

Diminishing sources of new pure water supplies, increasing demand for

sport and commercial fishes, and developing governmental pollution
abatement requirements in the U.S.A. led to a-study by the authors’ firm
for a group of agencies. It was found that a properly designed water
reconditioning-reuse system, under conditions set forth, can provide
necessary pollution abatement and increase a hatchery’s fish carrying
capacity tenfold as compared to a single-pass system. Requirements for
removal of ammonia, nitrite and solids are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the salmonid areas of the United States, demand for game
and commercial fishes increases as the availability of new sources of good
quality water decreases. Coincidentally there has been a recognition of the
pollution potential of fish hatcheries, and a consequential development of
governmental abatement requirements.
This situation has stimulated efforts to obtain more fish production
with less water, including the application of water reconditioning and
reuse techniques for fish propagation with provisions for pollution con-
trol.
Under authorization by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla
District, and acting in cooperation with a number of agencies (U.S. Army,
Corps of Engineers, North Pacific Division; U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, Regions I, III, and IV; U.S. National Marine Fisheries Ser-
vices, Northwest Region; and Kramer, Chin & Mayo, Inc., Seattle,
Washington), the authors’ firm participated in one such effort. It involved
62

an evaluation of water treatment systems at the Bozeman Fish Culture

Development Center in Montana with respect to operations at the
Dworshak National Fish Hatchery in Idaho and the Abernathy Salmon
Culture Laboratory in Washington. This paper presents findings from that
study.
Previous studies had indicated that water reconditioning and reuse tech-
niques were promising, but needed improvement (Liao and Mayo, 1970b);
in addition the pollution potential of fish hatcheries had been determined
and proper control deemed necessary (Liao and Mayo, 1970a; Liao,
1970a,b; Bodien, 1970; Brisbin, 197 1).
In the study under discussion, it was ascertained that fish production
can be increased tenfold or more, and that time required for rearing fry
to a stream-release size of 6-8 inches could be reduced by approximately
50% if water reconditioning and reuse was practiced with water tempera-
ture control.
Most important to reconditioning hatchery water is the removal of
metabolites _(feces, ammonia, carbon dioxide and organic solids), the
proper use of aeration and pH control. Removal of ammonia is essential to
fish propagation. Ammonia is toxic to fish, even at very low concentra-
tions (Ellis, 1937; Burrows, 1964).
Efficient removal of ammonia from hatchery water can be achieved by
conventional means: through biological oxidation (nitrification), air
stripping, ion-exchange, and chlorination with subsequent dechlorination
by carbon absorption. Solids (feces and uneaten food) can be separated
from hatchery water by sedimentation, screening, filtration, or chemical
coagulation and settling. Aeration is normally achieved mechanically
through surface stirring, tubing air induction, or the simulation of a water-
fall with a series of trays (Liao, 1971a). The criteria for design of aeration
systems are well established. However, aeration alone does not adequately
recondition water for intensive hatchery reuse because the content of
nitric acid and carbon dioxide will increase, and pH will be depleted if the
buffer capacity (alkalinity) of the water supply is low. A low pH level can
be harmful to fish (Lloyd and Jordan, 1964; Jordan and Lloyd, 1964).
Therefore, pH control is necessary to fish propagation. Control of pH can
be achieved by adding chemicals, or bringing the water into contact with
natural buffering materials such as oysters shell or limestone (Liao and
Mayo, 1972a).
Conventional physical-chemical methods, though efficient, normally
are not used by ,hatcheries for water reconditioning. They are expensive
and require special operator skills. Under certain conditions they can be
harmful to fish: i.e., ion-exchange-bed exhaustion, failure in the pH
adjustment of air stripping or failure of the residual-chlorine removal
 63

process. The most commonly used processes for hatchery water recondi-
tioning include clarification, filtration, aeration, sterilization, buffering
and temperature regulation. Sterilization, considered to be a part of the
pretreatment process, eliminates water-borne disease organisms contained
in make-up water. At the Dworshak National Fish Hatchery, in common
with many other U.S. hatcheries, ultraviolet sterilization is used.

STUDY METHODS

(1 )Systems stud ied

The systems studied include the following:

Submerged upflow filter system (Fig. 1)
Trickling filter system (Fig. 2)
Activated sludge system (Fig. 3)
Extended aeration system (Fig. 4)
Horizontal filter system (Fig. 5)

I 6’ #’ AT 5’

33 SQ. FT AT
4’ DEEP FILLED
WITH 3.5” $b
12’ @ AT 3’ DEEP
FISH WT i 600 LBS KOCH RINGS

FISH REARING TANK

SEDIMENTATION
TANK

Fig. 1. Schematic flow diagram of the Bozeman submerged upflow filter pilot plant water recondi-
tioning system.

The components and their dimensions are indicated in Fig. l-5.

Various commercially available plastic filter media were compared for
nitrification. These media, with trade names of Koch rings, Flocor,
Microfloc tube settler and Vinyl Core, are honeycombs of plastic in
various configurations. The media provide a maximum surface area for
growth of biota and an efficient circulation of air for oxygen supply. They
take the place of rock in a conventional filter. Dimensions (filter depth,
surface area, etc.) of various components were varied in a second phase
study in order to derive engineering design criteria.
In addition to the systems installed at Bozeman Fish Culture Develop-
ment Center, the pilot plant at Abernathy Salmon Cultural Laboratory
(Fig.6) and the prototype water reconditioning reuse system at the
Dworshak National Fish Hatchery were monitored periodically.
 ! 3- 4 X 2.67’ X 7’ FILTERS
FILLED WITH 3 l/2“ @
KOCH RINGS

FISH WT 6 600 LBS

FISH REARING TANK SEDIMENTATION TANK

Fig. 2. Schematic flow diagram of the Bozeman trickling filter pilot plant water reconditioning
system.

XAFFLE

V = 177 CU. FT
SLUDGE RETURN

PUMP
t 50 GPM L
u
FISH REARING TANK SEDIMENTATION AERATION
TANK TANK
Fig. 3. Schematic flow diagram of the Bozeman activited sludge pilot plant water reconditioning
system.

3 X6 X39 LON

FISH REARlNG TANK

AERATION TANK SECUbiENTATION

TANU

Fig. 4. Schematic flow diagram of the Bozeman extended aeration pilot plant water rccondition~ng
system.
 65

WAXR INLET

6’X 2.5’ X 60’( LONG)

FISH RACEWAY FILTER

Fig. 5. Schematic flow diagram of the Bozeman horizontal filter systems. Three different plastic
media (Flocor, MicrofIoc tube setters and Koroseal) with a~proxi~natel~~ the same volumes and
specific surface areas were installed in three raceways of equaI flow for comparing ammonia
removal efficiency.

FLUSH PIPE (1.5” # PEPFORATED

WITH 318” HOLES; s” SPACINGS)

FLOAT VALVE

FILTER ASSEIWBLY
ASPIRATOR (2.5” LINE)

AERATION TANK

2” OVERFLOW LINE

FISH TANK -&-I’$’

Fig. 6. Abernathy pilot plant filter reconditioning system,

(2) Test Procedure

The study was divided into two phases. Phase I consisted of the actual
construction of these systems at Bozeman and the establishment of uni-
form operating conditions. Once the systems began operating hydrauli-
cally, rainbow trout were loaded gradually into the rearing tanks to in-
66

crease the biological Ioad on the treatment system. This process was
started with approximately 50 lb of fish in each rearing unit. At times,
fish loads as high as 600 lb’ per unit were reached. This resulted in an
effective water use of 120 lb of fish per gallon of make-up water entering
the rearing tank per min (gpm).
Periodic water samples were obtained from several points in the pro-
cess. These were analyzed for various chemical parameters in order to
determine when uniform operating conditions had been achieved. Effort
was concentrated on those tests that related ammonia and solids removal
to flow rate and to fish weight or loading. However, other tests were
necessary in order to define completely the mechanisms involved in the
removal of metabolic by-products and the treatment of process effluent.
During the period prior to achieving a steady state, and thereafter at
24-hour intervals, tests were made for the following: pH, NH4, NO*,
NOa, DO (dissolved oxygen), COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand) and SS (suspended solids). In addition,
histopathological tests on cultured fish were conducted by the U.S.
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. The 24hour tests were run at all
the pilot plants several times during the Phase I period.
Phase II began when the units became more or less stabilized. This stage
consisted of continued operation of the units at various fish and hydraulic
loadings, and a 24-hour test series for each unit at 2- to S-week intervals.
At the completion of each test series, the operation was modified and the
units were monitored until once again a steady state was achieved; then
another 24-hour test cycle was conducted. This procedure was repeated
throughout the 24-week Phase II period. Details of the test programs,
summarized here, have been described elsewhere (Liao et al., 1972).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(1) General

The performances of the various systems studied are evaluated in two

distinctive categories: (i) water reconditioning (basically nitrification), and
(ii) pollution abatement. Results obtained at the end of Phase I indicated
that for nitrification, based on equivalent space requirements, filter
systems were superior to both the activated sludge process and the ex-
tended aeration system. Engineering design criteria were developed by
converting the activated sludge process to a thin-bed submerged upflow
filter system, and by connecting the fish tank of the extended aeration
system to the old, submerged upflow system. During the study, an effort
was made to establish metabolite (pollutant) production rates, important
 67

to both water reconditioning and pollution abatement. Details of this

aspect of the investigation have been reported elsewhere (Liao et al ,
1972); only the major findings are summarized here.

(2) Metabolite production

Metabolites generated in a fish rearing unit include ammonia, nitrite,

nitrate, phosphate, BOD (or COD> and suspended solids. M~tabolite
production was found to be directly related to feeding rates. Production

0 I 2 3 4 5 e
z
8
FEEDING RATE. F f LB 11DOLB. FISH - DAY 1 2

Fig. 7. Oxygen consumption and metabolite production rates in relation to feeding rates (see text).
Water temperature, 50-58 OF; fish size, 3- 11” trout; pond water velocity, OS- 1.0 f.p.s. (A) cd =
1.89 F; (B) Bd = 0.60 F; (C) 0, = 0.547 F; (II) S, = 0.52 F; (E) NA = 0.0289 F; (I?) N, = 0.024 F;
(G) P = 0.0162 F.

rates of metabolites (Fig. 7) may be approximated by use of the following

equations:

NA = 0.0289 F Ill
NYl = 0.024 F (2)
68

P = 0.0162 F (3)
S, = 0.52 F (4)
Bd = 0.60 F (5)
Cd = 1.89 F (6)

where :

NA = ammonia production rate at temperatures of 50-58’F, lb NE-L, -

N per 100 lb fish per day
N, = nitrate production rate at temperatures of 50%58”F, lb NO3 -N
per 100 lb fish per day
P = phosphate production rate at temperatures of 50-58’F, lb PO4 - P
per 100 lb fish per day
S, = suspended solids production rate at temperatures of SO-58”F, lb
SS per 100 lb fish per day
Bd = BOD production rate at temperatures of 50-58”F, lb BOD per
100 lb fish per day
Cd = COD production rate at temperatures of 50-58”F, lb COD per
100 lb fish per day
F = feeding rate, Ib food per 100 lb fish per day

These equations imply that when the feeding rate is zero, no metabolite
is produced. This, however, is not true; metabolites are produced even
though the fish are not fed (due to catabolism).
Rates of oxygen consumption (Fig. 7) and carbon dioxide production
were also established. The equation, proposed by Liao (1971 b) for deter-
mining oxygen consumption rates of salmonids is as follows:

0, = &T”Wm (7)

where :

0,
= oxygen uptake (consumption rate > in lbs O2 per 100 lb fish per day
K2 = rate constant
T = water temperature in OF
W = fish size in lb per fish
m,n = slopes.
The COZ production rates of coho salmon ~U~co~~~~c~~~ ~~~~~c~)
were measured and found to range from 0.103 to 0.395 lb CO2 per 100 lb
 69

fish per day, with an average of 0.285. For steelhead (Salmo gairdneri),
the production rates range from 0.41 to 0.45 lb CO2 per 100 lb fish per
day (Liao and Mayo, 1972a).

(3) Water treatment system performance

The most important function of a hatchery water reconditioning unit is

the removal of ammonia. The results of this study reveal that the ammonia-
removal effectiveness of the Bozeman pilot plant, operating at water
temperatures of 50-58”F, was mainly dependent upon retention time,
hydraulic loading, (initial) ammonia loading and organic levels in the
water (Fig. 8-l 1). Dissolved oxygen was maintained at adequate levels
(above 5 mg/~t~r) for biological oxidation throughout the test period.
More ammonia may be removed per unit of the specific surface area of the
media if the initial ammonia loading is high and the retention time is
prolonged (Fig. 11). Regardless of whether the filter is submerged or not,
ammonia removal efficiencies are about equal under similar loading condi-
tions. Specifically, retention time in the media is the most important
variable when other p~~eters (loading rate, temperature, hydraulic

0 5 IO I5 20 25

AMMONIA LOADING. AL (18 N”4-N,FT*-DAYV lO-5

Fig. 8. Ammonia removal in relation to ammonia loading. Temperature, 50-58 OF; media, 3 l/S”
Koch rings; hydraulic loading, 1.5-2.5 gpm per ft’ ; pH, 7.5-8.0; t, = V,. (void fraction)/~ow,
where t, = media retention time (hours); V, = volume of media (ft”); void fraction = fraction of
media volume which is void space; flow = flow rate (fP/hour). In the figure: (A) A, = 0.489A
(trickling filter, t, = 0.46h); (B) Ar = 0.258A (trickling filter, tm = 0.294h); (C) A, = 0.253A (old
upflow filter, t, = 0.33h); (D) A, = 0.223A (old upflow filter, t, = 0.236h); (E) Ar = 0.181A
(new upflow filter, t, = 0.206h)
70

0 0
3 0” I I lo
b IO 20 30

AMMONIA LOADING ( LB NH,-N/ft2- DAY x to-‘)

Fig. 9. Ammonia loading in relation to ammonia removal at various hydraulic loahings (HL in
gpm/ft' ) and media retention times (tm in hours) The test runs illustrated are for trickling filter
(TF) and upflow filter (UF) ~n~g~ations. TF: A (HL = 2.35; t, = 0.294); O(HL = 1.56; t, =
0.46). UF: in (HL = 2.29; t, = 0.236); o (HL = 1.83; t, = 0.274); ; (HL = 1.52; t, = 0.33); l
(HL = 0.152; t, = 0.206); 0 (HL = 1.83; t, = 0.23)

loading, and organic levels) are maintained at desirable levels. Ammonia-

removal efficiency increases linearly as retention time increases. With a
retention time of 30 min, and a hydraulic loading of 1.5-2.5 gpm/ft2,
about 48% of the initial ammonia load can be removed. At a retention
time of 38 min, initial ammonia removal increases to 60%. Conversely
after 12 min retention, only 20% is removed (Fig. 11). Accordingly, the
following equation may be used to determine the removal rate at various
media retention times:

EA =96 tm (8)

where :
IEA = filter efficiency, in terms of percent of ammonia removed,
ammonia loading expressed in lb NH4 -N per day per ft2 (media
specific surface area) at an average water temperature of 54°F
t, = media retention time of filter (hours).

This equation is applicable when the hydraulic loading of the filter is less
than 2.5 gpm/ft2, when the retention time is one hour or less, the water
 71

-5 ,b Nkt4-W1t:d.Y

0
- 3
e AL= IO x lO-5 lb NH4- N,ft2- day
2

5
A = 5 X IO- lb NH4-N/ftldoy

I I d

0.5 I 2 3

HYDRAULIC LOADING RATE ( gpm/ft2)

Fig. 10. Ammonia removal in relation to falter hydraulic loading. Temperature, 5048°F; pH,
7.5-8.0; filter media, 31/2”Koch rings; media retention time 0.33 h; AL = ammonia loading

temperature is at or near 54”F, and the ammonia concentration is about 1

mg NH,, - N/liter.
Ammonia removal decreases when initial ammonia loading exceeds
2 x 10m4 lb NH4 - N per day per square foot of specific media surface area
(Fig. 9). This reduction is attributed to the presence of higher levels of
organic materials in the water. Because an ammonia loading greater than
2 x 10m4 lb NH4 - N per ft2 per day results in the reduction of ammonia
removal efficiency, the ammonia loading of 2 x lo-4 lb NH4-N per ft2 per
day is considered to be the upper limit for the filter system design.
At first it was believed that hydraulic loading (gpm/ft2) had influenced
ammonia removal efficiency, but final results did not confirm this sup-
position (Fig. 10); ammonia removal efficiency appears to be independent
of hydraulic loading when the loading is between 1.5 and 2.5 gpm/ft2.
Whether this relationship holds true at higher hydraulic loadings is not
known. At this time, we recommend that a hydraulic loading of 2.5
gpm/ft2 be considered a maximum level for treatment unit design.
 0 0.1 02 03 04 0.5

RETENTION TIME, hr

Fig. 11. Relation between ammonia removal and media retention time at various ammonia loading
rates (AL in lb NH,-N per ft’ per day): (A) AL = 20 x 10-5; (B) AL = 15 x lo-‘; (C) AL =
10, x 1o-5 ; (D) AL = 5 x lop5 ; Hydraulic loading, 1.5-2.5 gpm/ft* ; water temperature,
50-58°F. The relation [ammonia loading/hydraulic loading] is also compared for several locations:
q Sea Pool [1.05/0.86]; A Abernathy [5.85/2.0]; ODworshak [10.3/0.89]; @ St. Paul [5.0/1.5].

When the retention time and hydraulic loading of a filter are known,
the depth of the filter bed can be determined. During the Bozeman pilot
plant study, water samples were collected at various depths of the filter
bed for determination of ammonia removal efficiencies. More ammonia
was found to be removed in the first 2 ft of the media, in agreement with
results reported by Kawai et al. (1965). Percentage ammonia removal
efficiency appears to be proportional to the depth of the media. However,
when the removal rate is expressed in terms of pounds of ammonia per
square foot of media per day, the rate becomes almost independent of
depth. As indicated earlier, ammonia removal is mainly dependent upon
retention time. Although ammonia removal efficiency is higher in the first
2 ft of media than in the remainder of the bed, a thin-bed filter is not
recommended. Experience gained during this investigation, and observa-
tions made in other studies, indicate that hydraulic short-circuiting is a
problem when the filter bed is too shallow. Algal growth on the surface
 73

layer of the media also will reduce the effective surface area for nitrifying
bacteria activity and thus may reduce ammonia removal efficiency.
Covering the filter bed will prevent surface-layer algal growth. On the basis
of current results we recommend a filter media depth of 4 ft or more.
The performance of a filter normally is influenced by water tempera-
ture. During this study, water temperatures were in the range of 50-58’F
at Bozeman, 50-63°F at Abernathy and 52-58°F at Dworshak. Original-
ly the filter was designed to evaluate the performance at Bozeman at
various water temperatures, but the temperature and quantity of the
water supply made it impossible to adjust water temperatures without a
heat exchanger. Fortunately, water temperatures of 50-60°F have been
reported to be the optimal range for the rearing of salmonids (Burrows
and Combs, 1968; Liao and May-o, 1972~). Therefore, criteria developed
in this investigation may be regarded as applicable to salmonid hatcheries
in general.
Considerable work on the effect of temperature upon nitrification has
been reported (Knowles et al., 1965; Downing, 1966; Haug and McCarty,
197 1). According to Knowles et al., (1965), rates of nitrification occur-
ring in river water range from about 12 to 15% per degree Celsius of
temperature increase. Downing proposed that:

Kt = K2,, 1.143 (T,-20”) [LoI (9)

where:
Kt = rate of nitrification at temperature T, (“C)
K, ,, = rate of nitrification at 20°C [K, 0 ]
TC = temperature, OC.
The relationship between temperature and the rate of nitrification
proposed by Haug and McCarty is:

K = 0.11 T,-0,2 (10)

where:
K = ammonia removal rate constant
T, = water temperature, “C.
The major differences between Equations 9 and 10 are as follows:
(i) When Equation 9 is used, the nitrification rate changes uniformly
with temperature.
(ii) When Equation 10 is used, the change of nitrification rate varies
with temperature. Higher rate change occurs in the lower temperature
range, i.e. 10°C or lower.
74

(iii) The rate of change calculated using Equation 9 is higher than that
computed using Equation 10 when the temperature is greater than 10°C.
However, the relationship is reversed when the temperature is less than
1o*c.
(iv) Equation 9 was derived for nitrification taking place in water where
organic matter was present in addition to ammonia. Equation 10 was
developed on the basis of tests conducted on synthetic waste of high
ammonia content, but devoid of organic matter. In either case, the
ammonia levels are much higher than those contained in the hatchery
water. Since ~trification is dramatically affected by the; initial ammonia
concentration or loading, Equations 9 and 10 may not be precisely
applied to hatchery water treatment unit design.
According to Haug and McCarty (1971) the relationship between the
rate constant of nitrification (K) and water temperature (T,) is linear, and
K = 0 when T, = 1.67”C. Using an average water temperature of 12’C for
the ]3ozeman study the relationship between T, and K can be expressed
as:

K = 0.097 T, - 0.215 (11)

where :
K = ammonia removal rate constant
T, = water temperature (“C)
Equation 11 appears to be more applicable as it reflects the results of
tests conducted on hatchery water treatment. Further work is desirable to
establish the relationship between rate of nitrification and water tempera-
ture for hatchery water treatment. However, Equation 11 may be used to
approximate the nitritication system performance at different water
temperatures.
Combining Equations 8 and 11, a general equation can be established to
relate ammonia removal efficiency to both filter media retention time and
water temperature. That is:

Et = (9.8T, - 2 1.7&, 02)

where :
Et = filter efficiency, in terms of percent of ammonia removed at
temperature T, (“C) and retention time t, (hours)
The specific filter-media surface area is inversely proportional to the
size of the media. When ammonia removal is expressed in pounds of
ammonia-~trogen per day per square foot of media, the smaller the
media size the smaller the filter will be, and vice versa. Use of a smaller
 75

size of media will reduce the space required, but the filter will clog more
rapidly and will require more backwashing, an undesirable process. In
order to maintain a stable function, backwashing should be avoided
whenever a new system is to be designed. Results of this study reveal that
a filter consisting of 3-inch Koch rings (honeycombed plastic media) is
non-clogging and no backwashing is required. Therefore, a media size
equivalent to 3-inch Koch rings is recommended.
Performance of the reconditioning systems relied upon a scheme where-
by solids were removed before the water reached the filter, a preferred
scheme for new systems. Solids present are high in organic matter; if they
are introduced into the filter they will support growth of heterotrophic
bacteria, resulting in a reduction of nitrification. Furthermore, solids may
clog the filter bed if they are present in large quantities. A significant
amount of ammonia can be produced from solids when they are biologi-
cally decomposed. Therefore, to eliminate this potential source of
secondary ammonia production, continuous removal of solids from a
settling basin is recommended. It was found that a settling basin design
based upon an overflow rate of 1200 gpd/ft2, a retention time of 15-30
min, and a water depth of 3 ft or more is adequate to assure proper filter
performance when the oxygen level is maintained above 5 mg/liter. There-
fore, these conditions are recommended as criteria tar the design of a new
filter system. It is possible that an enlarged settling basin, preceeding the
filter, may increase the ammonia removal efficiency associated with
organic solids. Further tests should be conducted to verify this possibility.
It also should be pointed out that an overflow rate as high as 5000 gpd/ft2
was found to be fairly efficient for solids separation in a settling basin
(Kent and Liao, 1971).

(4) Pollution abatement

(A) Treatment system performance

One of the primary purposes of this study was to derive design criteria
for combining pollution abatement and water reconditioning into a single
unit. Tests were designed to evaluate the pollutant removal efficiencies of
various treatment methods under different operating conditions. Pollu-
tants discharged from 90% reuse systems (10% bypass to waste) were
compared to those from a control unit operating as a single-pass system.
Percentage of pollutant reduction achieved was calculated on the basis of
the pounds of pollutants per 100 lb of fish per day (Table I). The control
tank of the single-pass system at Bozeman was loaded and operated in the
same manner as the fish tanks connected to the treatment systems. Com-
76

TABLE I

Average reduction* of pollutant discharge by the Bozeman pilot plant reuse systems
-- -___- _I__ ___-
Activated Extended Upilow New Trickling
sludge aeration filter upflow filter
filter

BOD 97 93 89 91 86
ss** 88 95 79 - 91
NH, 23 10 49 49 69
PO,-P 24 25 +25”** +33 +33
(orthe)

*Percent reduction is based on pollutant production rates (lb/l00 ib fish-day) measured in a

single-p+ system (see Table II)
**Ss = suspended solids.
***Plus (+) sign represents increase.

parisons of pollutants discharged from both systems are listed in Table II.
It should be noted that the phosphate indicated in both Tables I and IT is
orthophosphate rather than total phosphate.
Generally, the better systems (trickling and submerged filters with 90%
reuse) at Bozeman were able to remove about 86-89% of the ROI3 and
79-91% of the suspended solids from the effluent stream, as compared to
a single-pass system (Table II). Also, the average removal of BOD and
solids by the filter system meets the criteria for secondary associated with
conventional wastewater treatment practices.
For pollution abatement, all of the methods studied (activated sludge
process, aeration/detention, trickling filters and submerged filter) may be
considered sufficient to meet expected standards in the U.S.A. On the
average, all are able to remove more than 85% BOD and suspended solids
from the effluent stream as compared to a single-pass hatchery wastewater
discharge. Therefore, no additional treatment is required for hatchery
effluent water in order to meet expected U.S.A. control standards if the
reconditioning system is installed for treating water, either for recycling or
for effluent discharge.
For the information of readers outside the United States, no water-
quality standards as yet have become final regulatory requirements with
regard to fish-hatchery wastewater control. The U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency is now establishing effluent limitations for fish hatcheries
in an ~dustrial category of existing law (U.S. Public Law 92-500). It is
anticipated that the separation of solids from hatchery wastewater will be
the minimum treatment required. Hatcheries located where the receiving
water cannot accept hatchery waste water discharge without degradation
prohibited by regulation will be required to provide~secondary treatment.
Except in some states, where hatcheries are located on small rivers,
 77

TABLE II

Metabolites (pollutants) discharged from single-pass and reuse systems (lb/l00 lb fish-day)

Source Ortho P&-P NH&-N NO,-N NO,-N BOD SS

---.-~_--.~~-_._-_
Single pass:

Bozeman circular pond 0.023-0.057 0.&34-0.037 Q.oQ~o~o.~au~ 1.36s I.04

Bodien (1970) 0.015 0.058 _ 1.3*

Liao (1970) 0.011 0.113 ._ p.02 1.342 0.5-3.0

BSFW study:
B07Xman 0.012 0.077 0.004 0.009 1.10
Coleman 0.006 0.280 0.029 1.31 5.8
Ennis 0.020 0.141 0.015 0.013 1.61
Kooskia 0.025 0.171 0.039 0.057 1.64
Quilcene 0.004 0.076 0.015 0.006 0.47 _
Winthrop 0.001 0.078 0.002 0.030 1.06

Reconditioning systems:

Bozeman activated sludge 0.0297 0.0274 0.00066 il.00347 0.030* 0.121

Extended aeration 0.0292 0.032 0.~0084 0.00522 0.093* 0.056

NUF*** Bozeman 0.034-0.064 0.01-0.026 0.0~1~8-0.0~158 0.0088-0.0114 0.144*

OUF*** Bozeman 0.035-0.070 0.0075 -0.028 0.0009-0.00156 0.0105-0.016 0.199* 0.220

TF*** Bozeman 0.04-0.064 0.0088-0.014 0.0015-0.0023 0.01 l-0.025 0.1s7* 0.092

Abernathy 0.0067 0.0016 0.021 _

Dworshak 0.0975** 0.00062 0.0357 _

*calculated from COD measured [BOD = 0.3 (COD)].

**relatively high due to parasitic infection of fish and possible interference of formaldehyde on Nesslirization.
***NUF = new upflow filter.
OUF = old upflow filter.
TF = trickling filter.

tertiary treatment may not be required until 1985. These forecasts are
based in part upon the authors’ experience in fish culture and pollution
control.
Results of this study suggest that conversion of a single-pass hatchery to
a system with 90% reuse is justifiable now, if secondary treatment is to be
required for hatchery wastewater control; the reuse system not only pro-
vides pollution abatement but will allow increased fish production. Under
these ~rcumstances, the pollutant materials needing further treatment
78

after reconditioning are the solids removed in the reconditioning unit.

These solids can be digested (aerobically or anaerobically) to inert humus
and used as landfill material, they can be dewatered and used for soil
conditioning, or they can be incinerated. If solids are incinerated, heat
generated can be used to temper water for increased fish production. It
should be noted that reconditioning treatment systems simply convert
ammonia to nitrite and nitrate. Furthermore, as biological action releases
phosphate to water, higher nutrient levels can be found in a recondi-
tioning system effluent. Tertiary treatment may be required, depending
upon local control requ~ements and receiving water conditions (Liao and
Mayo, 1972b).

(5) Effects of water quality on fish

(A) General

The primary objective of this study was to develop and establish

engineering design criteria for hatchery water treatment. Accumulation of
biological and fish-quality data was secondary to the main task. System
performance was evaluated by making frequent changes in operating con-
ditions as previously described, and these changes were made with the
knowledge that environmental parameters might exceed those levels
known to result in pathological problems among the test fish. Control of
both ammonia and nitrite is known to be of primary importance in fish
culture when reconditioning systems are used. Acceptable levels are dis-
cussed in the following sections.

(6) Ammonia

Severe hyperplasia of gill epthelium was found to be typical in fish

exposed to concentrations of 1.O- 1.5 mg/liter ammonia for prolonged
periods. Experiments conducted at Bozeman (Larmoyeux, 1971) have
shown that fish growth rates were not affected when concentrations of
ammonia were near 1 mglliter, with oxygen levels in excess of 7 mg/liter.
powever, recent studies (Larmoyeux and Piper, 1973) have shown that a
decline in fish quality occurs, ~volv~g reduction in growth rate, damage
to gill tissue, and occasional pathological evidence in kidney and liver
tissue, when oxygen levels decline below 5 mg/liter and ammonia levels
exceed 0.5 mg/hter. Additionally, there is good evidence that levels of
l-2 mg/liter ammonia are sufficient to cause debilitation, predisposing
the fish to; infestation by parasites, and reducing their stamina index.
Larmoyeux (1971) indicates that fish exposed to ammonia levels in excess
 79

of 1 mg/liter, and then placed in water low in ammonia, show reversal of

gill changes in approximately 30 days; they may resume normal growth
rates at a level of 0.35 mglliter ammonia. After 48 h of exposure to fresh
water (no ammonia), there is a demonstrable increase in the stamina
index. However, on the basis of combined results from this study and
those conducted by the staff of the Bozeman Fish Cultural Development
Center, an ammonia level of 0.5 mg/liter realistically may be considered a
permissible upper level for extended exposure when pH is 7.7-7.8 and
water temperature is SOoF.

(C) Nitrite
Significant mortality occurred at a nitrite level of 0.15 mgjliter NOz -N
(Fig. 12 and 13). The concurrence of high fish mortality and high nitrite
levels led to a suspicion that fish mortalities occurring in the Bozeman
pilot plant systems in the early stages of system activation were due
mainly to the presence of high nitrite levels. Experiments were conducted
to confirm the toxicity of nitrite to fish. Preliminary test results con-
firmed that nitrite is toxic to trout and salmon (Smith and Williams,
1972) When fish were exposed to a nitrite level of 0.15 mg/liter NOz -N
for 48 h, about 72% of the hemoglobin in the blood was converted to
methemoglobin. Only about 2% methemoglobin was found in the blood
of fish exposed to water free of nitrite. Currently available data are not
adequate to establish a safe nitrite level for fish propagation because

MARCH APRIL

OAT E
Fig. 12. Upflow-filter operation. Concentrations of ammonia and nitrite and associated fish
mortality.
 MORTALITIES

APRIL MAY

DATE

Fig. 13. Trickling filter operation. Co~c~~ations of ammonia and nitrite and associated fish
mortality.

nothing is known of the long-term effects of exposure to low con ten tra-
tions. Further research on nitrite toxicity is necessary.

(D) Fish loading

In a single-pass system, fish loading (carrying capacity) is normally

dependent upon water quality, temperature, and the desired fish quality.
In a reconditioning and reuse system, fish loading also is limited by the
efficiency of the unit installed to remove or modify metabolites. For the
Bozeman study, fish loads were altered primarily to adjust metabolite
levels so that treatment efficiency could be evaluated. Most of the time,
fish were loaded in excess of acceptable limits established by the Bozeman
Center (Piper, 1970). According to Piper, acceptable loading, or carrying
capacity (lb fish/gpm), is 1.0-1.5 times the fish length in inches. With
&inch fish for example, an acceptable loading would be 8-12 lb of fish
per gallon of water flow per minute. However, as mentioned earlier, fish
loads as high as 600 lb for a make-up water supply rate of 5 gpm (120
lb/gpm) was maintained for a certain length of time.
Significance of the potential increase in fish carrying capacity evident at
Bozeman, Dworshak and Abernathy, may be of special interest to an
operator of a hatchery with a limited water supply; it indicates that recon-
ditioning and reuse can increase carrying capacity by ten times,- when
compared with the carrying capacity of a single-pass hatchery with the
same water-supply availability.
 81

The food-to-fish (dry weight to wet weight) conversion factor for fish
raised in the pilot plant reuse systems ranged from 1.15 to 1.9 1 during the
period of this study. This conversion factor is comparable to that for fish
reared in a single-pass control raceway (with comparable water tempera-
ture, and possibly lower loading) at Bozeman. The only significant differ-
ence between fish reared in the single-pass system and those in reuse
systems was that fish in the latter suffered from the effects of ammonia
and nitrite. An overloaded reuse system cannot reduce ammonia and
nitrite to safe levels. It may be reasonable to conclude, based upon pre-
liminary observations, that criteria established for carrying capacity of a
single-pass system also are applicable to a reuse system when the recondi-
tioning units are properly designed and ope;ated. However, in order to
avoid nitrite toxicity, fish loading should be increased gradually during the
period when the reconditioning system is being activated.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Proposed design criteria, equations and methods were derived from

results obtained by monitoring the pilot plant and existing plant at the
Bozeman Fish Culture Development Center, from studies conducted at
various prototype systems in North America by Kramer, Chin and Mayo,
and from data obtained from the literature and from questionnaires. The
information and design criteria are applicable to salmonid hatchery plan-
ning, designing and operation.
The major conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) All treatment processes examined (activated sludge, extended aera-
tion, trickling filter and submerged filter) are effective for pollution
abatement, and are sufficient to meet current and anticipated standards in
the United States. For salmonid propagation with water reconditioning
and reuse, filter systems are more reliable and are recommended.
(2) The efficiency of filters for nitrification is directly related to media
retention time and the level of organic solids, providing that water temper-
ature and pH are maintained within acceptable ranges. A retention time of
15-60 min, the normal time at the units investigated, is adequate for
ammonia control. Because high levels of suspended organic solids interfere
with a filter’s nitritication performance, it is necessary to remove most of
the solids from the water before filtering, and to remove settled solids
from the settling basin continuously so as to assure proper ammonia
oxidation.
(3) It was found that about 70% of the ammonia present is associated
with organic solids, and that a total of approximately 20% of ammonia
82

can be removed by using a clarifier with a retention time of one hour.

Therefore, if required ammonia removal efficiency is 20%, short-term
sedimentation and aeration may be adequate for water treatment before
recycling.
(4) The performance of a filter is relatively stable once it reaches
equilibrium. This is attributed to the elimination of backwashing, which is
not required when 3-inch diameter Koch rings, or their equivalent, are used
for filter media.
(5) The unit ammonia removal (lb NH4-N per ft2 per day) by a filter is
independent of the size of media employed, whether the media are sub-
merged or not, providing that the same operating conditions are main-
tamed.
(6) The acceptable maximum hydraulic loading of a filter can be as high
as 2.5 gpm/ft2 if the filter bed is 4 ft deep or more.
(7) The maximum ammonia-loading rate was found to be 2 x 1O-4 lb
NH4-N per ft2 per day (specific media surface area). When the ammonia-
loading rate exceeds this limit, nitrification efficiency drops dramatically
due to presence of high organic levels which support heterotrophic
bacteria.
(8) A settling basin with a retention time greater than 15 min was
found to be sufficient for removing most of the settleable solids from
water prior to its entry into the filter.
(9) Aeration may or may not be required, depending upon whether the
filter media are submerged. No additional aeration is needed with a trick-
ling filter. When a submerged filter is used, sufficient aeration can be
obtained with 10 min of retention in an aeration basin with an air supply
rate of 0.3 ft3 air/gallon of water.
(10) Whether a buffering facility is required depends upon water quali-
ty. Buffering is unnecessary when water alkalinity is higher than 100
mg/liter as CaCOa. When buffering is required, it can be obtained by
placing crushed limestone or oyster shells in the system, or by adding
chemicals to the water.
ill) Thin-bed filters are not recommended because of possible hydrau-
lic‘short-circuiting and potential growth of algae on the surface. Both
factors reduce the effective surface area needed for nitrification.
(12) Effluent from a hatchery-water reconditioning filter system may
be discharged to a river without further treatment because 85% of BOD
and suspended solids which would be found in a single-pass system are
removed.Therefore, a filter system may be regarded as a secondary treat-
ment for pollution control as well as a water reconditioning unit. How-
ever, solids collected in the settling basin of a filter system require further
treatment and disposal.
 83

(13) Kelative to a single-pass system, orthophosphate discharge from a

filter system increases while most of all other pollutants are removed. This
can be attributed to the limited uptake of phosphate by organisms, and to
conversion of the solid form of phosphate to the dissolved form (ortho)
through biological action.
(14) Metabo~te (or pollutant) production rates measured during this
study are comp~able to those reported previously by other investigators.
( 15) Ammonia production rates can be calculated by a method in use at
Bozeman, or by a comp~able method proposed by the authors.
(16) Specific pollution abatement standards have not yet been estab-
lished in the United States but the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
is establishing limits on hatchery effluent discharges. Should secondary
treatment be required, the conversion of a single-pass hatchery to a 90%
or more water-reconditioning and recycling system is warranted.
(17) With a properly designed water reconditioning-reuse system, a
hatchery’s fish-carrying capacity can be increased to ten times or more
than that of a single-pass system with the same water supply.
(18) Concentration of nitrite increases during the early stages of a new
water-reconditioning system’s activation. Therefore, a gradual increase in
fish loading is recommended so as to safeguard fish from nitrite toxicity.
Time required for bringing a new reconditioning system to a stable state
depends upon water temperature. This time period may be 1 to 2 months,
if temperatures are those within the normal range for rearing salmonids.
The stab~liza~o~ time can be reduced slightly for a facility previously
operated, or it may be desirable to use chemicals to speed the process.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Research upon which this paper is based was funded by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla District. The authors gratefully acknowl-
edge assistance rendered by the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife and the National Marine Fisheries Service.
Special thanks are due to Mr. Warren Willies, Dr. James Congleton of
Kramer, Chin & Mayo, Inc. ; Messrs. Jack Larmoyeaux, Charlie Smith,
Robert Piper of the Bozeman (Montana) Fish Cultural Development Center;
Messrs. John Parvin and Einar Wold of the Dworshak (Idaho)
Natural Fish Hatchery; and Messrs. Robert Combs and Joseph Elliott of
the Abernathy (Washington) Salmon Cultural Laboratory, for their
assistancg during the field monitoring.
84

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