EFL STUDENTS’ HIGHER-ORDER THINKING

IN SPEAKING ASSESSMENT

THESIS PROPOSAL

By:
Iin Widayani
17070835035

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE EDUCATION

POSTGRADUATE
STATE UNIVERSITY OF SURABAYA
2018
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents an introduction of the study that explains the reasons of

accomplishing this research. In addition, it has the research questions that come up with

some cases, goals of the study that show the aims of conducting this research,

significance of the study. Furthermore, scope and limits of the study are also presented

in this chapter. Finally, definition of key terms defining the variables used in this

research is also provided to avoid misunderstanding of those terms.

1.1 Background of the Study

Thinking represents a cognitive process (Mainali, 2012). Higher order thinking

skills is an important aspect in teaching and learning as it is a useful tool to help

students in learning and in improving their performance in dealing with reality of

situations (Subramaniam, 2016). higher-order thinking skills; According to

Anderson (2010) Analyzing involves breaking material into constituent parts and

determining or detecting how parts relate to one another and to an overall structure

or purpose. In this level of thinking the processes such as differentiating, organizing

and attributing. Evaluate in this level means making judgments based on criteria

and standards. The processes are checking and critiquing. And the last level of

higher-order thinking is create. Create means putting elements together to form a

novel, coherent whole or make an original product. The processes of this thinking

level are generating, planning, and producing

Recently, teaching and learning second language is a pivotal task in Indonesian

Education. Therefore, English has been many years implemented as one of

compulsory subjects in Indonesian Education Curriculum, from Elementary school

to higher education. In recent Indonesian Curriculum, English teaching process

emphasized in the language for communication. Hence, the role of language

teaching is to communicate, to carry knowledge and to develop logical systematic

and creative thinking. Here, students are expected to curious on information, have

ability in solving the problem, construct logical thinking.

In addition, English language teaching and learning for students of university

are expected to be able to deliver English orally and academically. In delivering

English, it is related to students’ speaking skills. Therefore to measure students’

speaking skill, the teacher must assess students’ speaking skill using an appropriate

way. Then, the approach of learning and assessing in the university level starts to

move on analytical approach which requires capability of critically questioning,

thinking and presenting certain ideas (clanchy, 1984).

Regarding to the purpose of meaningful learning, students are not expected to

only be able to understand the lesson, but higher level of abilities are also needed.

Speaking is widely believed as the most used language skill in daily communication

(Srikaew et al., 2015) Furthermore, as Heong, et.al’s findings, the needs of higher-
order thinking skills shows that being critical and able to find ideas are the keys of

learning. (Heong et al., 2012) The issues are updated to engage students’ interest,

motivation and higher level of thinking. Discussion and presentation sections is

mostly applied in teaching and learning process in the classroom (Srikaew et al.,

2015) that will be observed.

The skills of different taxonomy level can play important roles in carrying

students’ achievement and measurement. Therefore, these cognitive aspects are

arranged. (Krathwohl, 1956) Beyond those skills, there are sets of instructional

materials that also need to be designed by educators or teachers. Identifying,

assessing and developing thinking skills are different based on each domain.

(Cotton, 1991)

However, many studies have discussed about teaching speaking skill in

different learners (Baumgarten, 2016; Bowe, 2015; Idrissova, Smagulova, &

Tussupbekova, 2015;) . In addition, teaching thinking skills also has been an issue

in these past twenty years (Ball & Garton, 2005; Doolen, 2015; Heong et al., 2012,

2012; Nguyễn & Nguyễn, 2017; Xu, n.d.; Yee et al., 2015; Zohar & Cobern, 2004).

Yet, the fact that it is still neglected by teachers, especially language teachers,

cannot be avoided. (Xu, n.d. 2014) Practically, teaching thinking skills objective

including the assessment is not clearly stated; so, students’ language skills and

proficiency levels become priorities. (Heong et al., 2012) It is has been a challenge
 for language teachers and educators to make sure that students learn language use

practically and theoretically without neglecting students’ learning processes.

From the issues explained above, this research has a research problem: “how is

the EFL students’ high order thinking in students’ speaking?”

1.2 Research Questions

According to the background of the research, the problems of this research are

stated how is EFL students’ Higher Order Thinking Skill expressed in their

speaking skill? In terms of:

a. The transfer ability in students’ speaking?

b. The critical thinking ability in students’ speaking?

c. The problem solving ability in students’ speaking?

1.3 Objective of the Study

Based on the research questions formulated above, this research aims to

describe EFL students’ Higher-Order Thinking skill in terms of transfer skill,

critical thinking and problem solving in assessing speaking.

1.4 Scope and Limits of the Study

The scope of this study is English language pedagogy. Specifically, the main

data is taken from the teaching and learning process, particularly in assessing
 speaking skill. This research focuses on students’ higher-order thinking in

assessing speaking skill. In addition, the activities of the teaching and learning

processes are elaborated. Furthermore, the study is limited to students who is taking

students of English education department. They are English-major-students who in

the fifth semester and has a subject that focus on speaking in high level.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The present research is expected to give a good contribution in teaching

English. Theoretically, it provides relevant knowledge and information about

teaching English as an International Language (EFL), in particular in the EFL

students’ higher-order thinking skills in assessing their speaking skill and provides

information related to higher-order thinking skill in assessing language skill.

In addition, the finding of this study can use as reflection for English teachers

and students in assessing students’ high order thinking in speaking skill. For the

students, the findings may help them in improving their high order thinking in

speaking. Therefore they can deliver their idea in good speaking. While for the

teachers, the findings will inspire them to use in teaching English, in particular

teaching and assessing speaking.

It can be a reference for any further research which focuses on the similar

subject with this research. Also the findings can be used as foundation for further
 researcher who interest to seek EFL students’ higher-order thinking skills in

assessing speaking skill.

1.6 Definition of Key Terms

In order to have the same idea and concept in this study, the researcher clarifies

the terms used in this study, as the details are:

1. Higher-order Thinking:

- Hashim and Yaakub (Yee et al., 2015) state that Higher-order Thinking is the

highest levels of cognitive process and the ability of completing the given

tasks.

- Nguyễn & Nguyễn (2017) mention that higher-order thinking skills that can

be seen when learners face uncommon problems, uncertainties, dilemmas and

questions. In this case, memory is not the exact way to help learners in this

kind of situation, therefore reflective, critical, logical, and creative thinking

is needed.

- The exact key notes of Higher-order Thinking cannot be specifically defined,

but higher-order thinking skills can be recognized when it is showed up.

(Zohar & Cobern, 2004)

- In defining the term Higher-order Thinking, this study is in line with Zohar

and Cobern (2004) that it is cognitive activities that are beyond the stage of

understanding and lower-level application according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.

 Therefore, here, thinking skills that are categorized into higher-order level are

analyzing, evaluating and creating.

- To be more specific, this research will only take analyzing skill which

frequently appears in students’ speaking (Xu, n.d. 2014). In addition, three

categories in Higher Order Thinking; transfer, critical thinking, and problem

solving (Bookhart, 2010) are also conducted in this study.

2. Assessing Speaking

- Assessing speaking skill in this research refers to activities for assessing

students to improve their ability in oral communication based on the context.

Specifically, this research will observe on speaking activities during

discussion and presentation section in the classroom, based on the teacher’s

lesson plan.
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher attempts to provide two sub-sections. The first is the

review of related literature which describes the basic theories used in this research. The

second is review of previous study; explains the differences of this study from others

which are conducted by other researchers.

2.1.The Taxonomy of Education Objectives

In education indicates that since the publication of Bloom’s Taxonomy, it has been

used by educators in virtually every subject area at virtually every grade level. The

purpose is to develop a codification system whereby educators could design learning

objectives that have a hierarchical organization. In addition, based on the experts said

that the taxonomy fitted nicely into the instructional objectives movement such

preparing instructional objectives (Airasian, 1994); development of programmed

instructional sequences

The original taxonomy of Bloom’s Taxonomy outlines six levels of cognitive

domain were knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and

evaluation (Anderson, 2001). The categories were ordered from simple to complex and

from concrete to abstract. One of the most frequent uses of the original taxonomy has

been to classify curricular objectives and test items in order to show the breadth, or

lack of breadth, of the objectives and items across the spectrum of categories.
 Since the publication of Bloom’s Taxonomy, others have attempted to update and

improve on that initial effort. According to Anderson (2001), taxonomy involves two

basic dimensions. The first dimension as the knowledge domain which involves four

types of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. For the second

dimension refers to as the cognitive process domain and involves six types of thinking.

The six types of thinking is the development of the original of Bloom’s Taxonomy.

They are Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating and Creating

(Anderson, 2001). From both dimensions defined, educational objectives could be

classified.

2.2.Higher Order Thinking in Speaking

In order develop and improve students’ higher order thinking skill, the achievement

is supposed to be observable through teaching and learning activities. As explained

before, this study is intended to conduct a research on one of the higher order thinking

skill; that is analyze, that appears in speaking activities. (Xu, n.d. 2014) It is the first

cognitive level of High Order Thinking Skill in Bloom Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002).

In complex, Bookhart (2010) appears with the characterization of higher-order

thinking that can be represented in three senses; ‘transfer, critical thinking and

problem solving.’ Explicitly, ‘transfer’ here means students’ ability to use and apply

something that they learn in real life; ‘critical thinking’ represents students’ ability to

judge with logical and acceptable base; ‘problem solving’ stands for process of

thinking for successive decisions.

 Those three senses are supposed to be detected in each level of HOTS. In the

other word, inside analyzing skill, these three categories appear. Students may have

different and still acceptable responses to kinds of analysis-level tasks. (Brookhart,

2010) It can be said that when students are in analyze level, they are expected to

break information into its parts, determine how the parts are related to each other

and to the overall whole. The processes are differentiating, organizing, and

attributing. So, students’ ability to separate material into component parts and show

relationships between the parts is assessed. Looking at Bloom’s Taxonomy verbs,

in ‘Analyze’ level, there are many operational and observable verbs for students,

such as ‘analyze, compare, contrast, debate, distinguish’ and many others.

(Anderson et al., 2001)

In link to Bookhart’s (2010) categories in HOTS, ‘analyze’ also brings transfer,

problem solving and critical thinking in it.

2.2.1 Transfer

In transfer category, two of the most important educational goals are to

promote retention and to promote transfer; which, when it occurs, indicates

meaningful learning. Retention requires that students remember what they

have learned, whereas transfer requires students not only to remember but

also to make sense of and be able to use what they have learned. (Anderson

& Krathwohl, 2001)

 The most general of the approaches to higher-order thinking is the

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) division of learning into learning for recall

and learning for transfer. Learning for recall certainly requires a type of

thinking, but it is learning for transfer that Anderson, Krathwohl, and their

colleagues consider “meaningful learning.” This approach has informed their

construction of the Cognitive dimension of the revised Bloom’s taxonomy.

The teaching goal behind any of the cognitive taxonomies is equipping

students to be able to do transfer. “Being able to think” means students can

apply the knowledge and skills they developed during their learning to new

contexts. “New” here means applications that the student has not thought of

before, not necessarily something universally new. Higher-order thinking is

conceived as students being able to relate their learning to other elements

beyond those they were taught to associate with it.

There is a sense in which teaching for transfer is a general goal of

education. Many teachers use the phrase “What are you going to do when I’m

not here?” Most of the time, this reflects teachers’ appreciation of the fact that

their job is to prepare students to go into the world ready to do their own

thinking, in various contexts, without depending on the teacher to give them

a task to do. Life outside of school is better characterized as a series of transfer

opportunities than as a series of recall assignments to be done.

2.2.2 Critical Thinking

Critical thinking, in the sense of reasonable, reflective thinking focused

on deciding what to believe or do (Norris & Ennis, 1989) is another general

ability that is sometimes described as the goal of teaching. In this case, “being

able to think” means students can apply wise judgment or produce a reasoned

critique. An educated citizen is someone who can be counted on to understand

civic, personal, and professional issues and exercise wisdom in deciding what

to do about them. As we all learned in American history class, Thomas

Jefferson argued this point explicitly. He believed that education was

necessary for freedom, that having a citizenry that could think and reason was

necessary for a democratic government.

The goal of teaching here is seen as equipping students to be able to

reason, reflect, and make sound decisions. Higher-order thinking means

students can do this. One of the characteristics of “educated” people is that

they reason, reflect, and make sound decisions on their own without

prompting from teachers or assignments. Wisdom and judgment are

particularly important in higher-order thinking tasks like judging the

credibility of a source, always an important skill but newly emphasized in the

era of ever-expanding, electronically available information.

Identifying assumptions, a classic skill, also is very relevant today. As

school and society become increasingly diverse, it is less likely that

 everyone’s assumptions will be similar. Identifying the assumptions behind

points of view; what students might call “seeing where you’re coming from”,

is a true life skill.

2.2.3 Problem Solving

A problem is a goal that cannot be met with a memorized solution. The

broad definition of problem solving as the non-automatic strategizing

required for reaching a goal (Nitko & Brookhart, 2007) can also be seen as a

broad goal of education. Every academic discipline has problems. Some are

closed problems, like a set of math problems designed to elicit repeated

practice with a particular algorithm. But many problems are open-ended,

could have many correct solutions or multiple paths to the same solution, or

are genuine questions for which answers are not known.

Educators are, too. Teachers propose a solution strategy for a complex

problem—how to effectively teach a particular learning target to particular

students in a given amount of time and with the materials available; every

time they write a lesson plan. Many life problems are open-ended. For

example, planning for and living within a budget is an open-ended problem

most households deal with. People solve problems in many different ways,

depending on the values and assumptions they bring to the task.

2.3.Assessing Students’ Higher-order Thinking

The skills of different taxonomy level can play important roles in carrying

students’ achievement and measurement. Therefore, these cognitive aspects are

arranged. (Krathwohl, 1956) Beyond those skills, there are sets of instructional

materials that also need to be designed by educators or teachers. Identifying,

assessing and developing thinking skills are different based on each domain.

(Cotton, 1991)

Related to thinking about language, Silver (2005) mention two different ways

to think about language; those are (1) language is a set of structures or products of

the developmental systems, and (2) language is a set of functions that represent the

way a person think. Beholding on Silver’s statement, students’ higher-order

thinking is not simply assessed by looking at their skills. But, sets of instructions,

assessments, plans, and probably observational guidelines are also needed.

Brookhart (2010) has clearly mentioned that “improving thinking skills should

actually improve content knowledge and understanding as well” as the use of

assessment is “to show students’ thinking”.

Rooted in Brookhart (2010), there are “General Principles for Assessing

Higher-order Thinking” which are divided into three main points; those are:

2.3.1 Basic Assessment Principles

Giving assessment is not simply can be done in rough way without particular

consideration except giving scores to students. Basically, assessment need to begin

by specifying clearly and exactly the kind of thinking; about the content and what

teachers wish to see evidence for. Moreover, designing performance tasks or test

items that require students to use the targeted thinking and content knowledge have

to be considered. The last basic principle is deciding what teachers will take as

evidence that the students have; in fact, exhibited this kind of thinking about the

appropriate content.

2.3.2 Assessing Higher-Order Thinking Principles

It has been widely discussed that higher-order thinking means more complex

level of thinking. Then of course, the assessment design must be different from

lower-order thinking assessment. The first step that need to do is using introductory

material or allowing accessing to resource material; the second one is using novel

material, and the third is attending separately to cognitive complexity and

difficulty.

In assessing the quality of students’ thinking, teachers have to be selective in

designing the task and questions that proper and specific about what to be assessed.

Particularly, in measuring students’ analysis level, teachers have to engage students

focus on a question or main idea, compare and contrast particular topic that being

discussed.

Specifically, as the language skill that will be observed in this research is

students’ speaking skill, so the assessment and classroom activity considered are

only speaking assessment. The most important stage is planning the task, and it is
the teacher’s work to develop an effective way to facilitate learning (Franke et al.,

1998). Thus, Table below illustrates the framework of conducting the speaking

activity adopted from Bloom’s taxonomy to scaffold speaking and thinking, as it

was a useful tool to distinguish lower-order thinking and higher-order thinking.

BLOOM’S Examples of Activity for Each Stage

TAXONOMY LEVEL

Label: First look at a sheet (e.g. 10 pictures), then label

Remember
each picture.

Recall: Which standard matters to you when choosing an

ideal mate?

Summarize: Read the explanation of each character and

Understand
discuss about it. Summarize a list of criteria in your own

words.

Discuss: Discuss your ideas with your partner.

Explain: State your reasons to support your choices.

Apply: Think of at least three related situations, such as

Apply
good character of your friend, colleague and parents.

Analyze: Ask your partner some higher-order questions

Analyze
like, “How to choose an ideal mate?” “Why the other

criteria are important or less important to you?”

Contrast: “Which criterion is less important?” Compare

and contrast your argument.

 Judge: Compare the results and defend your reasons.
Evaluate
Finally, try to persuade your partner in order to reach an

agreement within each group.

Synthesis: Discuss in pairs, and organize your partner’s

Create
points of view.

Infer: Formulate a reason that might explain your partner’s

reason for choosing her criteria.

From the table above, students’ speaking skill containing HOTS

specifically Analyze level can be observed based on the question asked

(High Order Question) and the explanation. Those will be assessed and

scored based on the rubrics (Appendix 2). Furthermore, the three categories

in HOTS; transfer, critical thinking and problem solving, will be included in

the rubric scoring methods as well.

2.3.3 Giving Feedback or Scoring Tasks that Assess Higher-Order Thinking

There are two ways to interpret students’ work for items or tasks; those

are: (1) comment on the work and (2) give the score to the work. In giving

comment and giving scores to the works, of course some consideration about

criteria and standard for quality of thinking are need to be formed.

 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the researcher’s steps in conducting the study. The

explanation consists of research design, setting of the study; including time and place,

research subjects, data and sources of the data, research instruments, data collection

technique, and data analysis technique, checking validity of findings, also research

stages.

2.1 Research Design

This research uses qualitative descriptive to find out the research question.

Newman and Benz (Bordens & Abbott, 2011) stated that qualitative method is used

when the research aims to develop a theory that will explain what was experienced

by observing and interpreting reality. As the significant of higher-order thinking in

learning skill, this study will be included into Classroom Research. The researcher

intends to see how students’ higher-order thinking analysis skill in Speaking is.

2.2 Research Setting

The study will take place in a State University in Surabaya. Particularly, in the
fifth semester. The university is chosen based on the fact that the lecturer has
objectives in teaching and learning process to improve students’ higher-order
thinking. Therefore the researcher will conduct research in the speaking classroom.
The university and the specific classroom is chosen after doing preliminary
research.
2.3 Research Subjects

There are around 30 students in the class who are taking speaking classroom.
They are English-major-students who are obligated to learn English for academic
purpose by the University

2.4 Data and Source of Data

The data of this research is the students’ utterances for the product and the
teacher utterances for the feedback, every verbal and non-verbal aspects produced
by the students and the teacher in the classrooms, and Students’ and teachers verbal
utterances. Furthermore, the source of data is the students’ products during teaching
and learning process, Teaching and learning processes in the classrooms, and
Students’ and teacher’s responds.

2.5 Data Collection Technique

Creswell stated that various ways in collecting data are included into qualitative
method, those are: researcher can collect information through unstructured or semi-
structured observations, interviews, documents, and audio-visual recorded
information. He also suggested not to doing random sampling or selection of a large
number of participants. (Creswell, 2009) Specifically, in this research, the data will
be collected from observation.

Observations (Morrison 1993) enable the researcher to gather data on: the
physical setting like the physical environment and its organization; the human
setting such as the organization of people, the characteristics and make up of the
groups or individuals being observed, for instance, gender, class; the interactional
setting, for example the interactions that are taking place, formal, informal,
planned, unplanned, verbal, non-verbal etc.; the programme setting such as the
resources and their organization, pedagogic styles, curricula and their organization.
Additionally, observational data may be useful for recording non-verbal behaviour,
 behaviour in natural or contrived settings, and longitudinal analysis (Bailey 1994:
244).

In this research, the researcher can look directly at what is taking place in situ
rather than relying on second-hand accounts.

2.6 Data Analysis Technique

After the data collected during the observation process, it will be analyzed using
the data analysis technique based on Miles and Huberman (1994) framework; there
are three stages needed in this technique:

1. Data reduction

Data reduction is the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting,

and transforming the collected data. In this research, the researcher will
transform and simplify the raw field notes into descriptive materials and
reflective materials. Also, combining the scores of students’ higher order
thinking skill appears in speaking activities based on the rubrics scoring
method.

2. Data Display

The activities done in this stage is organizing, compressing, assembling

information. In this stage, researcher will start to organize the report and
combine the results of the organized data with the theoretical framework
explained in chapter 2.

3. Conclusion drawing and verification

Of course after set of the processes has been done, finally conclusion drawing
and verification follow. It is the final conclusions, consisting of conclusion
drawing; verified by the analyst proceed and verification; verified by the
subjects
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 APPENDIX
Appendix 1
Speaking Materials, Activities and Instructions
(Will be based on the Teacher’s Lesson Plan)

Appendix 2
Analysis Skill Rubric in Speaking (FORMAT/EXAMPLE)
(The real rubrics will be designed based on Appendix 1)

Analyze level Score

HOTS
activity and
Categories
Instruction 1 2 3 4

Transfer Illustrate: give example Cannot Can give Can give Can give
in your real life related to give example, but example example and
the same issue that just example out of the which is still complete
has been discussed topic related to the explanation
topic why they are
related
Analyze: Ask your
cannot Can ask Can make Can make
partner some higher-
make lower order HOT HOT question
order questions like,
question questions question but that related to
“How to choose an ideal
is not really the topic
mate?” “Why the other
related to the presented
criteria are important or
topic
less important to you?”
Critical presented
Thinking Contrast: “Which
compare Can compare Can compare Can compare
criterion is less
and with and contrast and contrast
important?” Compare
contrast inappropriate with related with clear,
and contrast your
without reason reason related and
argument.
reason appropriate
reason

Problem Examine: choose one of Choose Choose with Choose with Choose with
Solving the possible step we without unrelated explanation explanation
should do after this and further explanation related to the related to the
give the reason why. explanation issue issue and
his/her real life
Appendix 3
Descriptive materials: Dialogue, pictures, real situation

Reflective materials: Observer’s comments and judgment