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Sulla 2011
Sulla 2011
Sulla 2011
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: A general method for calculating the short-circuit currents of a squirrel-cage (SCIG) and a doubly fed
Received 19 October 2010 induction generator (DFIG) using crowbar protection is presented. The method results in an approxi-
Received in revised form 17 February 2011 mate analytic expression that allows calculating the SCIG and DFIG short-circuit currents as a function
Accepted 9 March 2011
of time for symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults in the power system. The presented theoretical anal-
Available online 8 April 2011
ysis highlights some important differences between the short-circuit behavior of the SCIG and the DFIG
with high crowbar resistance. A comparison with time simulations of the same model shows that the
Keywords:
proposed approach leads to results whose accuracy is comparable to those obtained through dynamic
Short circuit currents
Wind power generation
simulations and may be sufficient to replace the use of simulations in many contexts, e.g. calculation of
Doubly fed induction generators (DFIG) maximum current, calculation of its DC and AC components and short-circuit calculations for protection
Protection relay settings.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction crowbar resistance may be around 20 times the value of the gener-
ator rotor resistance [7]. Thus the behavior of a DFIG during a fault
The squirrel-cage induction generator (SCIG) has been widely is similar to that of a SCIG with a high rotor resistance. Many papers
installed in the past for small-scale hydro generation and wind have been published on the short-circuit current contribution of a
power generation. Today, doubly fed induction generators (DFIG) DFIG but they usually confine their analysis to a solid symmetri-
along with induction or permanent magnet synchronous gener- cal three-phase short-circuit at the generator terminals [8–13]. An
ators equipped with full scale converters represent the standard analysis of the DFIG behavior under unsymmetrical voltage dips is
solution for wind power plant installations. Induction generators performed in [14].
have a different short-circuit behavior when compared to syn- In this paper a general method for calculating the short-circuit
chronous generators and prediction of this behavior is an important current of a DFIG with crowbar resistance is proposed. For pedagog-
issue in power system planning, transient stability analysis and ical purpose, the short-circuit current of a SCIG is calculated first.
protection setting studies. The method deals with both symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults
The short-circuit behavior of a SCIG has been analyzed in various and voltage dips of any magnitude at the generator terminals. It will
text books and in many papers. A closed formula for the short- be shown that the simplifications done to derive the short-circuit
circuit current calculation is given in the case of a bolted three- formula of a SCIG neglect some dynamics that become important
phase short-circuit at the generator terminals in [1–4]. The analysis when the rotor resistance is high, as is the case for a DFIG with crow-
of the short-circuit behavior of a SCIG during unsymmetrical faults bar protection. Therefore applying a short-circuit formula derived
is usually performed by means of digital simulations [5,6]. for a SCIG to predict the short-circuit current of a DFIG leads to
In the last decade, there has been much attention in predicting inaccurate results.
the short-circuit behavior of the DFIG, because of its extensive use The proposed method permits to predict the short-circuit cur-
in wind power. A commonly employed solution to protect a DFIG rents as a function of time in the three phases of a SCIG or a DFIG
during a fault in the power system is to connect the rotor wind- by using an analytic expression, eliminating the need for dynamic
ings to an extra resistance, called crowbar resistance, and to block simulations. The analytic expression can also be used to calculate
the switching of its rotor side converter (RSC) [7]. The value of the the maximum phase currents for different faults, their DC and AC
components, or it may be used to get an envelope of the currents
if only their RMS value is needed. The results obtained with the
夽 This work was supported by Elforsk AB, Elektra project 36078. proposed method are compared to those obtained through simula-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 46 2220133; fax: +46 46 142114. tions using the well-established classic linear fifth order model of
E-mail address: Francesco.Sulla@iea.lth.se (F. Sulla). the induction machine [2]. A main assumption made in this work
0378-7796/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsr.2011.03.016
F. Sulla et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 1610–1618 1611
Similar expressions can be obtained for currents and fluxes. The The pre-fault flux and the post-fault positive and negative
zero-sequence is not considered here, since commonly an induction sequence forced flux components in a stator reference frame can
generator is not grounded and therefore no zero-sequence current be derived from (5) neglecting the stator resistance:
can flow.
s,pre = vpre = V̂pre e
jϕpre ejωs t Vpre jωs t
If no zero-sequence component is present, the instantaneous = e (8)
values of the currents in the three phases can be obtained from the jωs jωs jωs
corresponding space-vector as [2]: v1 V̂1 ejϕ1 ejωs t V1 jωs t
= = = e (9)
sf,1
ia (t) = Re(is ) jωs jωs jωs
ib (t) = Re(a2is ) (4) v2 V̂2 e−jϕ2 e−jωs t V2 −jωs t
= = =
ic (t) = Re(ais ) sf,2
−jωs −jωs −jωs
e (10)
Using the introduced space-vector notation and using a sta- Negative sequence quantities rotate with a frequency of −ωs in
tionary reference frame, the equations describing the electrical a stator reference frame.
dynamics of a squirrel-cage induction machine are given by (5) and Next, the natural component of the stator flux must be found.
(6) [2]. In general for any kind of fault, because of the constant flux linkage
theorem, the natural flux just after the fault is given by the dif-
ds
vs = Rsis + ference between the stator forced flux components immediately
dt
(5) before and after the fault, as in (11). The natural stator flux is actu-
dr ally not constant because of the presence of the stator resistance,
0 = Rr ir + − jωr r
dt but decays with a time constant given by (12), [1,2,4], which is valid
1612 F. Sulla et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 1610–1618
This result indicates that for a SCIG the negative sequence forced
rotor flux can be neglected.
The natural rotor flux is the flux trapped into the rotor circuit
at fault occurrence. Its magnitude and phase immediately after the
fault are found as in (19).
rn (0) = rn = r,pre (0− ) − ( rf,1 (0+ ) + rf,2 (0+ ))
V V1
pre
Fig. 1. Positive and negative sequence equivalent circuits of a SCIG. These are also = ks − (19)
applicable to a DFIG with rotor windings connected to a crowbar resistance, if Rr is jωs jωs
replaced by Rr + Rcr .
This flux is fixed with the rotor circuit, i.e. it rotates with the rotor
speed in a stator reference frame [8]. In a rotor reference frame, it
under the assumption that the rotor resistance is small, as will be is a DC component decaying exponentially with time constant Tr ,
shown later. By combining (8)–(11) and taking into account that defined in (20) [8]. The expressions for the inductances in (12) and
the natural stator flux decays with time constant Ts , the total stator (20) can easily be derived by considering the induction generator
flux after fault occurrence is given by (13). equivalent circuit in Fig. 1 or using (5) and (6). See also [2,8].
i = v2 ≈ v2
(16) 4. SCIG simulation results
s,2
Z2 −jωs (Lsl + (Lm Lrl /Lr ))
The minus sign in front of the reactances is due to the fact that a The network of Fig. 2 has been modeled in MATLAB SimPower-
negative sequence voltage induces a flux whose direction of rota- Systems.
tion is opposite to that of a positive sequence induced flux. This is The induction generator is considered linear, without satura-
also the reason why the rotor resistance is divided by the negative tion, and it is connected to the network directly without a step-up
sequence slip 2-s in Fig. 1 [17]. The negative sequence rotor current transformer. The network voltage is 575 V and the p.u. generator
can be found by a simple current division between the rotor and parameters are reported in Table 1. To comply with the assumption
the magnetizing branch: made above of constant rotor speed during the fault, a high inertia
constant has been defined for the generator. The generator initial
i ≈ − −jωs Lm i = − Lm i slip is close to zero and the generator remains unloaded during the
r,2 s,2 s,2 (17)
−jωs Lm − jωs Lrl Lr fault. A time-step of 5 s has been used in all simulations.
F. Sulla et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 1610–1618 1613
Fig. 2. Network diagram used for the simulations. By varying the parameter p, the
voltage dip magnitude at the generator terminals during the fault can be changed.
Table 1
Induction generator parameters.
Fig. 3. Simulated (dashed) and calculated (solid) SCIG short-circuit current for a
Let us start with the stator transient time constant, (12). In other
three-phase-phase fault, with parameter p = 1. SCIG initially unloaded. Pre-fault papers dealing with the DFIG short-circuit current [8,12], the DFIG
voltage angle ϕ = 90◦ . stator transient time constant is still assumed to be equal to the one
1614 F. Sulla et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 1610–1618
in (12). However, for a DFIG with high total rotor resistance, the component iac and the external flux linkage with the coil. The total
stator transient time constant needs to be expressed in a slightly flux linkage with the coil will therefore be given by (30).
different way. The natural stator flux generates a voltage in the rotor jωt
(t) = M me + Liac (t) + Lidc (t)
whose frequency and magnitude in a rotor reference frame are pro-
jωL
portional to the rotor speed. A current will flow in the rotor, having
= 1− M m ejωt + ccoil 0 e−t/(L/R) (30)
the same frequency of the induced voltage and opposite to the rotor R + jωL
speed. The stator and rotor current due to the natural stator flux
have the form Ie−jωr t e−t/Ts,DFIG when expressed in a rotor reference Without the coil resistance, the AC current component in the
frame. Ts,DFIG is the stator transient time constant for a DFIG and is coil would completely counteract the inducing flux, and only a DC
defined below. By deriving this expression and neglecting the term flux would be present in the coil. This ideal situation is close to
proportional to 1/Ts,DFIG , which for a typical induction machine is what happens in the short-circuited rotor of a SCIG during a tran-
much smaller than ωr , the voltage drop over an inductance L can be sient, with the natural rotor flux being almost a pure DC component
expressed as jωr LIe−jωr t e−t/Ts,DFIG . A simple current division there- decaying with the rotor transient time constant. However, when
fore still holds between the rotor and magnetizing branch and the the coil resistance in not negligible, the induced AC current com-
rotor natural current in a rotor reference frame is: ponent does not completely counteract the inducing flux. This is
−jωr Lm due to the fact that the AC current component magnitude decreases
irn = − isn (25) and that it acquires a phase difference with the inducing flux. As
Rr,tot − jωr Lr
a result the total coil flux will be composed of an AC component
can be regarded as
Substituting in (6), leads to (26). The term Lsn and a DC component. The coefficient ccoil tells how big the DC flux
a complex operator that gives the relation between the natural sta- component is in comparison to the total coil flux is. This situation is
tor flux and current. A similar concept, named operator inductivity, analogous to what happens in the rotor circuit of a DFIG with high
is introduced in [1] when dealing with the short-circuit behavior of crowbar resistance. In this case the natural rotor flux can no longer
a synchronous generator. be considered a pure decaying DC component.
To find out the value of the constant ccoil , we can refer to the
−jωr Lm2
sn = Ls − isn = L isn (26) constant flux linkage theorem, which says that the coil flux cannot
sn
Rr,tot − jωr Lr change instantaneously. Therefore it must hold that:
is a modification of the inductance L in (12) and coincides
Lsn
jωL
s
1− M m + ccoil 0 = (dcoil + ccoil ) 0 = 0
with it if the total rotor resistance is negligible. Therefore the stator R+ jωL M
transient time constant of a DFIG with high rotor resistance is given jωL m (31)
dcoil = 1−
in (27). This means that the natural stator flux is no longer fixed R + jωL 0
with respect to the stator, but it is actually slowly rotating because ccoil = 1 − dcoil
of the presence of a high rotor resistance. These results can now be translated to the case of a DFIG with
2 /(R
high crowbar resistance to find out the natural rotor flux as a func-
Lsn Ls − (−jωr Lm r,tot − jωr Lr ))
Ts,DFIG = = (27) tion of time. In this case, the external inducing flux is the natural
Rs Rs
stator flux and the initial coil flux is the post-fault natural rotor flux
rn . Neglecting its slow rotation as found in (27), the natural sta-
5.2. Influence of high Rcr on natural rotor flux
tor flux induces in the rotor circuit a voltage whose frequency is
proportional to the opposite of the electrical rotor speed. The total
Let us denote the natural rotor flux immediately after the fault
equivalent inductance seen from the rotor circuit is given by the
as rn. In the SCIG case, this flux in a rotor reference frame is a
series connection of the rotor leakage inductance and the parallel
DC component decaying with the rotor transient time constant.
connection between the magnetizing and the stator leakage induc-
This fact is no longer true for a DFIG with high rotor resistance. To
tance. By analogy with the coil example, we can conclude that the
explain why this no longer holds, we may find it useful to refer to
coefficients c and d for the DFIG are given as in (32), where “//”
a simpler analogous situation. Consider a short-circuited coil with
denotes the parallel operator. It has been assumed that all the nat-
certain resistance R and inductance L. At a certain point, an alter-
ural stator flux links the rotor, i.e. the corresponding to M in (28)
nating flux m (t) with frequency ω is induced in the coil. The coil
has been assumed equal to 1.
may have an initial flux, 0 .
This situation is analogous to that of a DFIG with a non negligible −jωr (Lrl //(Lm + Lsl )) sn
rotor resistance under a sudden transient. The coil corresponds to d= 1−
Rr,tot − jωr (Lrl //(Lm + Lsl )) rn (32)
the DFIG closed rotor circuit, while the external flux m (t) would c =1−d
correspond to the natural stator flux of the DFIG.
The external flux will induce a voltage in the coil and this will The coefficients c and d depend on the ratio between the initial
result in an alternating current component, opposing the inducing natural stator and rotor fluxes and therefore vary for different fault
flux: conditions. Similar results can be derived by solving the DFIG dif-
ferential equations in the case of a three-phase short-circuit at the
vm (t) −jωM m ejωt generator terminals. The AC part of the natural rotor flux in a rotor
iac (t) = = (28)
R + jωL R + jωL reference frame, which depends on the inducing natural stator flux,
M tells how much of the external flux links the coil. A DC current will decay with the same time constant Ts,DFIG as the natural sta-
component depending on the initial flux of the coil and decaying tor flux. The DC natural rotor flux component, fixed with the rotor
exponentially will also flow in the coil: circuit, will decay with the rotor transient time constant Tr,DFIG .
We can now express the natural rotor flux as a function of time
0 −t/(L/R) in a stator reference frame:
idc (t) = ccoil e (29)
L
rn (t) = (de−t/Ts,DFIG + ce−t/Tr,DFIG ejωr t ) rn (33)
The meaning of the constant ccoil is that only a fraction of the
initial flux 0 is due to the DC current component idc in the coil. The initial natural rotor flux rn for a DFIG with high crowbar
The remaining part of the initial flux 0 is due to the AC current resistance will be calculated later in this section. The natural sta-
F. Sulla et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 1610–1618 1615
tor flux is not significantly affected by the rotor resistance value, assumption of zero rotor current, as done for example in (15), (37)
therefore we can continue to use the value calculated for a SCIG in and (38). With reference to the positive sequence equivalent circuit
(11) also in the case of a DFIG with a high crowbar resistance. of the DFIG in Fig. 1, the positive sequence forced component of the
post-fault rotor flux can be calculated using (6) as in (40), where Z1
5.3. Influence of high Rcr on negative sequence fluxes is the DFIG positive sequence impedance.
The rotor negative sequence current can be obtained with a sim- i = v1 , i = − jωs Lm i
s,1 r,1 s,1
Z1 (Rr,tot /s) + jωs Lr
ple current division between the magnetizing and the rotor circuit
jωs Lm Lr
branches, as done for a SCIG: / 0 : rf,1 =
s= Lm − i =
s,1 rf,1 e
jωs t (40)
(Rr,tot /s) + jωs Lr
i −jωs Lm i = − −jωs Lm v2
=− (34) v1
r,2
Rr,tot / (2 − s) − jωs Lr
s,2
Rr,tot / (2 − s) − jωs Lr Z2 s = 0 : rf,1 = ks sf,1 = ks = rf,1 ejωs t
jωs
where Z2 is the total negative sequence impedance of the gener-
The pre-fault rotor flux must also be re-calculated taking into
ator, which can be calculated from the equivalent circuit in Fig. 1.
account the initial conditions of the DFIG. If the initial apparent
By substituting into (6), the rotor negative sequence flux can be
power, fed into the grid according to generator convention, and
expressed as in (35).
rotor slip of the DFIG are known, the pre-fault rotor flux is calcu-
jωs Lm Lr lated, using (6), as:
= Lmis,2 + Lr ir,2 = Lm + i
rf,2 s,2
Rr,tot / (2 − s) − jωs Lr ∗
s,pre ≈ vpre , ir,pre = s,pre − Ls is,pre
Spre
is,pre = − ,
v2
3vpre jωs Lm
= Lr2is,2 = Lr2 (35) 2 S∗
Lr Ls − Lm Lr vpre
(41)
Z2 r,pre =
pre
+ = r,pre ejωs t
Lm 3vpre Lm jωs
Lr2 gives the relation between the rotor negative sequence flux where “*” denotes the complex conjugate.
and the stator negative sequence current and it is equal to zero, as The negative sequence forced rotor flux component is
expected, if the rotor resistance is zero. unchanged with respect to what we found previously in (35). There-
The negative sequence stator flux is still given by (10). However, fore, the total rotor flux equation for a wind-driven DFIG is finally
proceeding as for the rotor flux, it can also be expressed as in (36). given by (42), which is a modification of (39), where rf,1 depends
on the initial slip according to (40).
2
jωs Lm i = L i ≈ Z2 v2
sf,2 = Ls + s,2 s2 s,2 is,2 =
Rr,tot / (2 − s) − jωs Lr −jωs −jωs r (t) = V2 −jωs t
rf,1 e
jωs t
+ Lr2 e + (de−t/Ts,DFIG + ce−t/Tr,DFIG ejωr t )
Z2
(36)
V2
The forced rotor flux must now include the part due to the neg- × r,pre − rf,1 + Lr2 (42)
Z2
ative sequence network voltage and it is given as:
V1 jωs t V2 −jωs t No modifications are needed for the stator flux, which is still
rf = ks e + Lr2 e (37)
jωs Z2 given by (13) with the substitution of Ts with Ts,DFIG . The stator
Therefore the natural rotor flux, given by the difference of the and rotor fluxes can now be substituted into (22), leading to the
pre- and post-fault forced fluxes at t = 0, becomes final expression, (43), for the short-circuit current of a wind turbine
Vs,pre
V1 V2
driven DFIG using crowbar resistance as a protection means during
rn (0) = rn = ks − ks + Lr2 (38) network faults. (43) can be easily implemented in a programming
jωs jωs Z2 language or a spreadsheet program and used to get an approximate
prediction for the DFIG short-circuit currents.
L V
i (t) = V1 rf,1 s2 Lr2 2 −jωs t V1 rf,1 V2 −jωs t
− kr ejωs t + − kr e = − kr ejωs t + e
sf
jωs Ls Ls Ls Ls Z2 jωs Ls Ls Z2
isn (t) = Vpre − (V1 − V2 ) e−t/Ts,DFIG − kr (de−t/Ts,DFIG + ce−t/Tr,DFIG ejωr t ) r,pre − + Lr2
V2 (43)
jωs Ls Ls rf,1
Z2
is (t) = i (t) + isn (t)
sf
Taking into account what has been said for the natural rotor 6. DFIG simulation results
flux with (33), the total rotor transient flux is finally calculated as
in (39). 6.1. DFIG directly connected to the network
Fig. 8. Simulated (solid) and calculated (dotted) DFIG phase currents at a three-
phase short-circuit with parameter p = 1 considering the step-up transformer and
a MV line with two different length values. Pre-fault voltage angle ϕ = 90◦ . Initial
apparent power S = 0.6 − j0.18 pu, rotor speed ωr = 1 pu. Fig. 10. Simulated DFIG and GSC (solid) and calculated DFIG (dotted) phase cur-
rents at a three-phase short-circuit with parameter p = 1 considering the step-up
transformer and a MV line of 10 km. Pre-fault voltage angle ϕ = 90◦ . Initial apparent
A case of an earth-fault at the end of the MV line is also reported
power S = 0.6 − j0.18 pu, rotor speed ωr = 1 pu.
in Fig. 9, showing that (43) provides accurate results also for unsym-
metrical faults on the delta side of the transformer.
longer rotor transient time constant, which implies a slower decay
6.3. Influence of GSC and crowbar resistance of the AC stator current component. This is in agreement with what
has been shown in [13].
The total fault current delivered by a DFIG wind turbine is in Also, in the same reference it has been found that the stator
reality the sum of the DFIG fault current, which can be calculated natural flux decays at “near-dc”, meaning that it is actually slowly
according to (43), and the grid side converter (GSC) fault current. rotating while decaying. In [13] the “near-dc” frequency of a 7.5 kW
The GSC maximum current may be around one third of the DFIG DFIG was found to be 0.46 Hz without crowbar resistance and
rated current. Depending on how fast the GSC control is, it may take 1.76 Hz when a crowbar resistance is connected. In this paper, the
some cycles before it delivers maximum current. A three-phase angular rotation of the stator natural flux is given by the imagi-
fault is reported in Fig. 10 including also the contribution of the nary part of 1/Ts,DFIG . For the considered machine, with a crowbar
GSC. As seen, the GSC contributes to a steady-state current com- resistance of 20 times the DFIG rotor resistance, the stator natu-
ponent, but does not affect much the DFIG current delivered under ral flux rotates with 0.3 Hz. This frequency drops to 0.1 Hz with a
the first cycles after the short-circuit. crowbar resistance of 5 times the DFIG rotor resistance. The dif-
Finally, the impact of the crowbar resistance value is here inves- ference in “near-dc” frequencies in this paper and in [13] is due
tigated by changing its value from 20, as in all previous cases, to to different machine parameters. If the method proposed in this
5 times the DFIG rotor resistance. A three-phase fault as in Fig. 5 paper is applied to the machine considered in [13] without crow-
has been considered and the calculated and simulated results are bar resistance, a frequency of 0.46 Hz is found. Choosing a crowbar
shown in Fig. 11. When comparing with Fig. 5, one can see that a
decreased crowbar resistance results in a higher peak current and a
Fig. 9. Simulated (solid) and calculated (dotted) DFIG short-circuit current for a Fig. 11. Simulated (solid) and calculated DFIG (dotted) phase currents at a three-
phase-ground (a − g) fault at the end of a 15 km MV line, with parameter p = 0.99. phase short-circuit with parameter p = 1. Pre-fault voltage angle ϕ = 90◦ . Initial
Pre-fault voltage angle ϕ = 90◦ . Initial apparent power S = 0.45 − j0.18 pu, rotor speed apparent power S = 0.8 − j0.25 pu, rotor speed ωr = 1.25 pu. The crowbar resistance
ωr = 0.7 pu. is chosen to be equal to 5 times the DFIG rotor resistance.
1618 F. Sulla et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 81 (2011) 1610–1618
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1,2 subscripts for positive and negative sequence [20] R. Roeper, Short-circuit Currents in Three-phase Systems, Siemens Aktienge-
s rotor slip sellschaft, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Berlin and München, 1985.
ωs , ωr stator and rotor angular velocity