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Four Quadrant DC Motor Control
Four Quadrant DC Motor Control
Four Quadrant DC Motor Control
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
1
CERTIFICATE
(Mentor)
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any
task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant
guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting
before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and
knowledge.
Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either
directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.
3
DECLARATION
We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled ‘FOUR QUADRANT
DC MOTOR
Being submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology in
Electrical engineering Degree, is the work carried out by us.
4
CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1. ABSTRACT
2. BLOCK DIAGRAM
3. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
4. IC-555
5. IC-Z44
6. TRANSISTOR
7. LED
8. DIODE
9. RESISTOR
10.RELAY
11.CAPACITOR
12.SWITCHES
13 TRANSFORMERS
14 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
15 DESCRIPTIONS
16 LAYOUT DIAGRAM
18 HARDWARE TESTING
19CONTINUITY TEST
20 POWER ON TEST
5
21. RESULTS
6
Four Quadrant DC Motor Controls without Microcontroller
The main intention of this project is to control the speed of a DC motor in alternative
directions using speed control unit and to operate the motor in four quadrants: ie, clockwise,
counter clock-wise, forward brake and reverse brake.
This system uses an H-bridge motor drive IC for controlling the DC motor from
corresponding switches used by the user for pressing. The four switches are connected to the
circuit for controlling the movement of the motor. One slide switch interfaced to the circuit is for
controlling the alternative direction of the DC motor. A 555 timers is used in the project to
develop the required PWM pulses for speed control. The relays are used for changing the
polarities of the motor as well as to apply brake to the motor. In the regenerative mode, the
current is applied to the circuit in such a way that a revere torque is produced to stop the motor
instantaneously .
The four-quadrant control of the DC motor is archived by the varying duty cycles from a
555 timer and their changing polarity with the H-bridge IC by appropriate switch pressing. The
alternative speed control feature is achieved by a slide switch operation.
IC 555 TIMERS
IC 555 timer is a well-known component in the electronic circles but what
is not known to most of the people is the internal circuitry of the IC and the
function of various pins present there in the IC. Let me tell you a fact about why
555 timer is called so, the timer got its name from the three 5 kilo-ohm resistor in
series employed in the internal circuit of the IC.
IC 555 timer is a one of the most widely used IC in electronics and is used in
various electronic circuits for its robust and stable properties. It works as square-
wave form generator with duty cycle varying from 50% to 100%, Oscillator and
can also provide time delay in circuits. The 555 timer got its name from the three
5k ohm resistor connected in a voltage-divider pattern which is shown in the figure
below. A simplified diagram of the internal circuit is given below for better
understanding as the full internal circuit consists of over more than 16 resistors, 20
transistors, 2 diodes, a flip-flop and many other circuit components.
The 555 timer comes as 8 pin DIP (Dual In-line Package) device. There is also a
556 dual version of 555 timer which consists of two complete 555 timers in 14 DIP
and a 558 quadruple timer which is consisting of four 555 timer in one IC and is
available as a 16 pin DIP in the market.
IC 555 Timer
555 circuit
Basics Concepts:
1. Ground: This pin is used to provide a zero voltage rail to the Integrated
circuit to divide the supply potential between the three resistors shown in the
diagram.
2. Trigger: As we can see that the voltage at the non-inverting end of the
comparator is Vin/3, so if the trigger input is used to set the output of the F/F to
‘high’ state by applying a voltage equal to or less than Vin/3 or any negative pulse,
as the voltage at the non-inverting end of the comparator is Vin/3.
3. Output: It is the output pin of the IC, connected to the Q’ (Q-bar) of the F/F
with an inverter in between as show in the figure.
4. Reset: This pin is used to reset the output of the F/F regardless of the initial
condition of the F/F and also it is an active low Pin so it connected to ‘high’ state
to avoid any noise interference, unless a reset operation is required. So most of the
time it is connected to the Supply voltage as shown in the figure.
5. Control Voltage: As we can see that the pin 5 is connected to the inverting
input having a voltage level of (2/3) Vin. It is used to override the inverting voltage
to change the width of the output signal irrespective of the RC timing network.
8. Supply: This pin is used to provide the IC with the supply voltage for the
functioning and carrying of the different operations to be fulfilled with the 555
timer.
Uses:-
The IC 55 timer is used in many circuits, for example One-shot pulse generator in
Monostable mode as an Oscillator in Astable Mode or in Bistable mode to produce
a flip/flop type action. It is also used in many types of other circuit for achievement
of various purposes for instance Pulse Amplitude Modulatin (PAM), Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) etc.
TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic
signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one
pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair
of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the
controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today,
some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in
integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in
the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the
way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other
things.
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical
devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to
use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control
function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function.
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at
another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its
output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an
electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other
circuit elements.
The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A
small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can
control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.
For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a
voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.
Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current
in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a
semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the
base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the
transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
Transistor as a switch
1N4007
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or
full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of
diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity
PN JUNCTION OPERATION
Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials
are joined together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue
our discussion with the operation of the PN junction. But before we can
understand how the PN junction works, we must first consider current flow in
the materials that make up the junction and what happens initially within the
junction when these two materials are joined together.
Voltage Transformer:
One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents
in our homes and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a
convenient voltage, transformed (hence the name transformer) into much higher
voltages and then distributed
The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that
higher distribution voltages implies lower currents for the same power and
therefore lower I2R losses along the networked grid of cables. These higher AC
transmission voltages and currents can then be reduced to a much lower, safer
and usable voltage level where it can be used to supply electrical equipment in
our homes and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the basic Voltage
Transformer.
A Typical Voltage Transformer
The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits
using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer
itself. A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in
the form of Mutual Induction.
These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead
wrapped together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the
“core”. This soft iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations
connected together to help reduce the core’s losses.
The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are
magnetically linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be
transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through
the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into
the secondary winding as shown.
Where:
Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only
linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or
decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used
to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it
is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the
secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down
transformer.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is
achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP )
compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the
number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly
known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the
operation of the transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the
secondary winding.
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary
winding compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units,
compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-
1). This means in this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding
there will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see
that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must
also change by the same ratio, and this is true.
Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the
ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer will
be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: “turns ratio =
voltage ratio”. The actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not
important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:
A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of
wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.
This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for
every one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on the left
to a smaller number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down
in value as shown.
If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above,
what will be the resulting secondary no load voltage.
If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage,
(step-up transformer) then there must be more turns on the secondary giving a
turns ratio of 1:N (1-to-N), where N represents the turns ratio number. Likewise, if
it is required that the secondary voltage is to be lower or less than the primary,
(step-down transformer) then the number of secondary windings must be less
giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).
Transformer Action
We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared
to the primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available
from the secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically isolated from each
other, how is this secondary voltage produced?
We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound
around a common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to
the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic
field around itself, called mutual inductance, by this current flow according
to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field
builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given
asdΦ/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from
the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux.
This magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in
opposite directions under the influence of the AC supply.
However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core
depends upon the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding.
When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.
When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns
of the secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil.
The amount of voltage induced will be determined by: N.dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law),
where N is the number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same
frequency as the primary winding voltage.
Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both
windings because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings
together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each winding is directly
proportional to the number of turns in that winding. However, the peak
amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding will be
reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.
If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the
cores magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or
keep the same current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns
( NP ) of the winding. The product of amperes times turns is called the “ampere-
turns”, which determines the magnetising force of the coil.
So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only
one turn in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary
coil, assuming no losses, enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux
generated to induce one volt in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each
winding supports the same number of volts per turn.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic
relationship between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:
emf = turns x rate of change
Where:
This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding
emf, N will be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding
emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( NS ).
A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on
the secondary winding. The maximum value of the magnetic flux density is 1.1T
when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the transformer primary winding. Calculate:
Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the
conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge
separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the
charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in
establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given
by:[11]
Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate
of flow of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot
pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on
the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an
electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal
and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on
the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is
added to represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the
capacitor equation,[12]
.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,[13]
.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field
rather than the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging
current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance
L.
Parallel plate model
Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a
separation of d.
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a
dielectric with permittivity ε (such as air). The model may also be used to make
qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The plates are considered to
extend uniformly over an area A and a charge density ±ρ = ±Q/A exists on their
surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater than their separation
d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the
magnitude E = ρ/ε. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field
between the plates
Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases
with separation
.
The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high
permittivity.
RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric
current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the
current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are
extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be
made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a
high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power
they can dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit
is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the
resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as
integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to
equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat
when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the
terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion
to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the
resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the
flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:
Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after
Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are
specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of
milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω)
are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is
measured in Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is
−1
the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω . Although the concept of conductance is often
used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their
resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.
Theory of operation
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's
law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I) passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in
practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the
terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40
milliamperes) will flow through that resistor.
LED
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs
are made out of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts
of chemical impurities that are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide,
indium, and nitride. When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a
byproduct. Normal light bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until its
white hot. Because LEDs produce photons directly and not via heat, they are far
more efficient than incandescent bulbs. Not long ago LEDs were only bright
enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or electronic equipment. But recent
advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional lighting technologies.
Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward
biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is
released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color
of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is
usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to
shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster
switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than traditional light sources.
Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy and also for
replacements for traditional light sources in well-established applications such as
indicators and automotive lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new
text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in communications technology. So here the role of LED is to
indicate the status of the components like relays and power circuit etc…
LED Circuits
To build LED circuits, it helps to be familiar with Ohm's law, and the
concepts of voltage, resistance, and current. LEDs do not have resistance like a
resistor does. LEDs have a dynamic resistance, that is their resistance changes
depending on how much current passes through them. But it's easiest to think of
them as having NO resistance. This means that if you just connect an LED to a
battery, you'll have a short circuit. That's bad. You would probably ruin your LED.
So an LED circuit needs some resistance in it, so that it isn't a short circuit.
Actually we need a very specific amount of resistance. Among the specifications
for LEDs, a "maximum forward current" rating is usually given. This is the most
current that can pass through the LED without damaging it, and also the current at
which the LED will produce the most light. A specific value of resistor is needed
to obtain this exact current. There is one more complication. LEDs consume a
certain voltage. This is known as the "forward voltage drop", and is usually given
with the specs for that LED. This must be taken into account when calculating the
correct value of resistor to use. So to drive an LED using a voltage source and a
resistor in series with the LED, use the following equation to determine the needed
resistance:
RELAY
Basic design and operation.
In a device using a relay where the relay contacts are brought out to a terminal
block or other termination, the contacts can be used to switch any type of DC or
AC load that is within the voltage and current ratings of the contacts. This is
usually marked on the relay.
A relay does not provide power for a load, it just switches power from a
power source, on and off, similar to how a wall switch turns a lamp on and off
but does not itself provide the power that lights the lamp. Relays are made in
many configurations, sizes and shapes, coil voltage and current, contact voltage
and current. They are available as:
Single Pole Single Throw SPST either Normally Open or Normally Closed
Single Pole Double Throw SPDT as above
Double Pole Single Throw DPST either Normally Open or Normally Closed
Double Pole Double Throw DPDT
10. HARDWARE TESTING
Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test without
microcontroller because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to damaging the
controller. We check for the input to the voltage regulator i.e., are we getting an input of 12v and
an output of 5v. This 5v output is given to the microcontrollers’ 40th pin. Hence we check for the
voltage level at 40th pin. Similarly, we check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In
this way we can assure that the voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.
The Four Quadrant DC Motor Control operation was studied thoroughly and its practical aspects
were studied .
Finally a practical working model by using 555 timer,Relays, Resistors was developed.
Four quadrant dc motor operation can also be done by andriod application system..This specific
system could also be used in that applications where we must tocontrol the motor in 4th or two
direction such as in auto industries ,textile industries or robotics industry.The equipments used
are transformer,motor driver ic ,bluetooth device and microcontroller.