COURSE no.

12

Assoc. Prof. Luminiţa SCRIPCARIU

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 Antennas
 Antenna arrays
 Disturbancies on communication channels
 AWGN
 Noise Bandwidth
 Noise Temperature. Noise Figure. Friis Relation

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 Which of the following parameters is used to
calculate the received noise power in band by
a circuit?
 Noise bandwidth
 Noise temperature
 Noise factor
 Noise figure

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 Which of the following parameters is used to
calculate the received noise power in band by
a circuit?
 Noise bandwidth
 Noise temperature
 Noise factor
 Noise figure

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 The dB value of SNR decreases from the input
to the output of the receiver with:
 Received noise power
 Noise temperature
 Noise factor
 Noise figure

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 The dB value of SNR decreases from the input
to the output of the receiver with:
 Received noise power
 Noise temperature
 Noise factor
 Noise figure

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 Friis relation is used to calculate:
 The received noise power
 The noise power produced by the circuit
 The noise temperature of a circuit with
cascaded stages
 The noise factor of a circuit with cascaded
stages

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 Friis relation is used to calculate:
 The received noise power
 The noise power produced by the circuit
 The noise temperature of a circuit with
cascaded stages
 The noise factor of a circuit with cascaded
stages

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 The timing error of a digital receiver at the
sampling moments is called:
 AWGN
 Fading
 Intersymbol interference
 Jitter

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 The timing error of a digital receiver at the
sampling moments is called:
 AWGN
 Fading
 Intersymbol interference
 Jitter

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 The steering angle of the directivity diagram
can be modified by:
 Changing the antenna’s position
 Electronically controlling the current phase in
the antenna array.
 Modifying the amplitude of current in the
antenna
 Using a parabolic reflector.

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 The steering angle of the directivity diagram
can be modified by:
 Changing the antenna’s position
 Electronically controlling the current phase in
the antenna array.
 Modifying the amplitude of current in the
antenna
 Using a parabolic reflector.

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Find the noise figure of the amplifier with 3
cascaded blocks represented below.
Calculate the dB values of the input and the
output SNR of the entire circuit.

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 ISI is produced by Band Limited (BL) channels
 The channel actions like a LPF on the rectangular
pulse.
 The pulse shape becomes longer than a bit
period.
 ISI increases for higher bit rates.
 ISI depends on the spectral efficiency (b/s/Hz)
 ISI channel is called dispersive channel.

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 ISI phenomenon is more powerful for
higher bit rates.
 Error-rate is increased by ISI.

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• Analogic
• Digital

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 Carrier extraction from the received signal
spectrum or generating the carrier using a
local oscillator, with the same frequency and
correct phase as the transmitted one.
 Digital systems require additional
synchronizing circuits for bit, symbol or
frame timing.
 Spread-spectrum systems require
synchronization of the locally generated
pseudo-random sequence (PRS) used to
demodulate the received signal.

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 Carrier-synchronization
 Bit-timing
 Block-timing
 PRS synchronization

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 The carrier signal can be extracted from
the received signal spectrum using a PLL
(Phase Locked Loop).
 SC systems rebuild the carrier signal
using non-linear PLL circuits (Costas
Loop, Quadratic Loop)
 Carrier signal can be transmitted on an
adjacent channel or periodically during
timing intervals of data frames.

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 A phase detector (PD) generates a voltage, proportional
to the phase difference between two signals.
 The PD output voltage is used to control the VCO.

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 Free oscillating frequency (fo)
 Sensitivity or Voltage-to-frequency
conversion constant of VCO (Hz/V)
 Responsive level (the lowest input voltage
level detected by VCO)

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 Capture range (PLL can achieve the lock state)
 Hold-in range (PLL tracks the input signal frequency
and phase)
 Free-running frequency (fo)
 Voltage-to-frequency conversion constant of VCO
(Hz/V)
 Responsive level (V)
 Loop gain (k) (calculated by multiplying all the
amplification factors of the loop’s components)
 Loop order (equal to the order of loop’s filter plus 1).

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 The first order PLL locks in less than a signal
period. It is the fastest one but it has an
output non-zero error.
 Superior order loops works slower but the
output error is reduced up to zero.

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PLL can be analyzed by applying the Laplace transform. Loop
characteristics can be controlled by inserting different types
of loop filters.

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 Carrier synchronization
 Bit synchronization
 Frequency Demodulators
 Frequency Multiplication Circuits by odd
factors
 Delay Locked Loop (DLL) – used to
synchronize PRS.

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Let us consider a PLL with a
LPF represented in the
following image.
Calculate:
 LPF function: F(s)
 PLL system function
 Output Phase Error for an
input FM signal
(considering that the
carrier frequency is equal
to the free-oscillating
frequency of VCO) :

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Correction of distortions caused by a communication
channel or compensation of intersymbol interference
(ISI) which occurs when the signal is transmitted by a
Band-Limited (BL) channel can be done by an equalizing
filter.

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 It aims to achieve an ideal frequency
characteristics.
 The method is used for low data-speed.

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 It aims obtaining received signal samples
like those transmitted.
 Equalizer is mandatory for any digital
modem.
 Digital equalizers are adaptive FIR or IIR
filters.
 The equalizers reduce the peak-error or
the mean-square-error.
 This method is used for high data-speed.

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• No feedback/Non-recursive circuit
• Filter order: N
• Filter coefficients are deduced in order to
minimize the error between the rebuilt
sequence of samples and the transmitted one.

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 Minimum peak-error criterion
 It is convergent only if the initial distortion is
less than 100 %.

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Apply ZF algorithm in order to calculate the
coefficients of an equalizer FIR filter for a
communication channel with second-order
ISI described by the following coefficients:
g1 = 0.3 ; g2 = 0.15.

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 Theory Test
 Exercise Test (Access to the documentation
and calculators are allowed during the
exercise test!)
 Oral examination is optional.
 More information can be found on Moodle!

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