International Journal of Research In Science & Engineering e-ISSN: 2394-8299

Volume: 2 Issue: 3 p-ISSN: 2394-8280

PERFORMANCE OF ORGANIC SOLAR CELLS: EFFECT OF

NANOMATERIALS

Atri Maity1, Ambrish Abhijnan2, Avipsha Naha3, Rabindranath Jana4*,

1
Graduate Student, Department of Chemical Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology, W.B., India,
E-mail: maityatri@gmail.com
2
Graduate Student, Department of Chemical Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology, W.B., India,
E-mail: abhijnan010@gmail.com
3
Graduate Student, Department of Chemical Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology, W.B., India,
E-mail: avipshanaha.96@gmail.com
4
Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology, W.B., India,
*
Corresponding Author, E-mail: rabindrajana@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The renewable energy sources are becoming as the most promising sources of energy to cope with the recent
increasing energy demand. Harnessing of solar energy has come a long way where organic solar cells have
gained the spotlight. The organic layer much thinner than the wavelength of light and by sandwiching it between
a mirror layer and a rough layer the light stayed in the solar cell longer and excited more electrons. Organic
solar cells require heterojunction active layer architectures for sufficient charge generation and transport.
Inorganic solar cells, effective fields break up excitons which result in the electrons to fall from the conduction
band of the absorber to the conduction band of the acceptor molecule. The optical absorption coefficient of
organic molecules is greater, resultingin a large amount of light absorption with a few materials in the order of
nanometers. Bulk heterojunctions have an absorption layer consisting of a blend of donor and acceptor
materials, in the order of nanometers. However, bulk heterojunctions need to maintain large enough domain
sizes to form a penetration network without which charges might be trapped in a donor or acceptor rich domain
and undergo recombination. The short lifetime, low efficiency and high cost of current OPV technology obstruct
its competitiveness when compared to solar cells. These problems are being solved by semiconductor
nanoparticles, nanowires embedded in flexible polymer films and graphene sheets, also carbon nanotubes are
widely used on the polymer layer for better performance of the OPVs. This paper deals with the latest information
on the effects of different nanomaterials on organic solar cell’s performance.

Keywords: Organic Solar Cells, excitons, bulk heterojunctions, nanowires, nanotubes

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1. INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuels are the most preferred sources of energy consumed globally. Ever since the industrial
revolution in19th century, coal, crude oil, and natural gas have persisted as the fossil fuel resources that supply 90%
of the global energy demand. The electrical and thermal energy generated from these resources are vital for the
mankind [1]. Electricity supply allows an increase in productivity as well as access to basic services, thus
developing the life conditions of human communities [2]. However, the methods for the manufacturing of energy
from such fossil fuels are not sustainable. The demanding fact is that such fossil fuel sources (coal, gas, and oil) are
limited natural resources which are diminishing at an increasing rate. During the production of power, the aforesaid
non-renewable sources also exude carbon dioxide which is known as a green house gas [3]. The greenhouse gases
increase the formation of thermal insulating layers in the upper atmosphere of the globe and thus hinder normal heat
dissipation resulting in global warming. Global warming significantly impairs the ecosystems, affecting the
agricultural productivity, and inducing a rise in sea level. In accord with a statistics, if the world population touches
10 billion in 2050, a 75% decline in carbon emissions is mandatory to limit global temperature rise about 2°C [4]. In
order to make the advancement of a civilization with finite environmental hazard, clean energy sources are needed
essentially. To accomplish the goal, the use of renewable energy, can be considered as a prime step. Some of the
popular modes of renewable energies are wind power, hydropower, solar energy, biomass, biofuel and geothermal
energy. Most of these renewable sources of energy are considered reasonably clean and non-polluting. In this

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 International Journal of Research In Science & Engineering e-ISSN: 2394-8299
Volume: 2 Issue: 3 p-ISSN: 2394-8280

perspective, solar energy can certainly be taken into account as a most attractive renewable energy source since it is
plentiful, clean and safe. It has been predicted that if only 0.1% of earth's crust is covered with solar cells having an
efficiency of 10%, the immediate requirement of energy in the world can be met out. Therefore, solar power is
supposed to play a critical role as a renewable energy source to accommodate the growing demand for energy
worldwide [1].

Sun has always been the primary source of energy for the mankind. Today in this world, non-renewable
energy resources are fast depleting. Thus, mankind will always have to fall back to solar energy time and over again
to meet the increasing energy demands. This has stimulated scientific research for the development of inexpensive,
efficient, low-cost photovoltaic devices as photovoltaics have shown promising developments in trapping solar
energy. The organic, polymer-based photovoltaics have shown the potential of obtaining cheap and easy methods to
produce energy from sunlight. The ease of chemically manipulating the material properties of polymers combined
with a variety of easy and cheap processing techniques has made polymer-based materials important in almost every
aspect of modern society. Organic photovoltaics have several advantages: (a) low-cost synthesis, (b) easy
manufacture (c) and its potential for large-scale manufacture [5]. A Power Conversion Efficiency (PCE) of over
13% is reported. However, simulations indicate that efficiency of ≈19% could be realized, with a total energy loss of
0.5 eV and with an external quantum efficiency of 90%. This device shows that Organic Solar Cells (OSC) have
significant potential for the future [5]. Higher efficiencies and longer lifetime are still necessary for the OSCs to
compete with the established solar cell technologies. Possible pathways toward higher efficiency are tandem cells
which utilize different absorber materials to harvest photons from a wide part of the solar spectrum with little
thermal losses [6].

Advancement of Organic Solar Cell

A photovoltaic cell enables us to capture an extensive amount of the energy radiating from the sun, works
on the principle of photovoltaic. Alexandre - Edmond Becquerel, a French physicist observed the photovoltaic effect
in the year 1839, while conducting an experiment. His experimental setup consisted of two electrodes dipped into an
electrolytic solution (acidic in nature). An increase in current was noticed as the setup was brought to light [7]. It
took another 56 years for the introduction of the first solar cell. In 1876 working on selenium Adams observed
photoconductivity. Charles Fritts was responsible for the invention of the solar cell made from selenium wafers. One
year later to the development of the 1st solar cell, Charles Fritts applied a thin layer of gold over the selenium so as
to increase its poor efficiency. The cell was used as a light sensor had an efficiency of 1% [8].

In 1906 A. Pochettino observed photoconductivity in anthracene (an organic compound) [9]. A large
number of scientific research papers published in the late 1960s in the field of photoconductivity. During that period
organic materials were being recognized as photoreceptors [10]. Methylene Blue (a dye) and other bio-molecules
like chlorophylls also showed photovoltaic effect later that year [11]. The first silicon-based inorganic photovoltaic
having efficiency was devised at Bell Laboratories [12]. Present-day about 90% of the market shares of photovoltaic
cells is shared by standard silicon cells. The years of extensive research have reduced the fabrication cost of the
photovoltaic cells to large extent making it affordable. Despite all the efforts PV still constitutes merely 0.1% of the
total world energy production [13]. A lot of emphases were laid on the field of organic photovoltaic cell the past
decade. The introduction of potent organic displays has made the organic photovoltaic more commercially viable.
The low cost photovoltaic is considered to be a profound solution for the development of OLED technology. At the
moment OPV comprises of the bulk heterojunction. After ensuring charge separation the holes move towards the
anode and electrons towards the cathode producing current [14].

A Comparative study: Organic Solar Cells and Inorganic Solar cells

The inorganic semiconductors are evenly matched in terms of their band gap in the solar spectrum,
however, it possesses absorptivity much lower than that of organic materials that eventually lead to thicker
absorbing layers. A material with a high purity has to be equipped for a potent operation [5]. Another prominent
difference between a standard inorganic solar cell and organic PV cell is in terms of exciton binding energy. The
energy required to disband the excitons into charge bearers is comparatively low in the order of a few milli-eV at
room temperature. The exciton binding energy can be of the order 0.5 eV or more. Inorganic materials tend to be
more efficient due to the presence of a specific inorganic material with a low exciton binding energy. The interfacial
distance between the acceptor and the donor should be comparable so that the excitons may reach the interface

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 International Journal of Research In Science & Engineering e-ISSN: 2394-8299
Volume: 2 Issue: 3 p-ISSN: 2394-8280

promptly to disband. As soon as the excitons disband into the two separated species i.e. electron and hole must shift
smoothly towards the respective electrodes. The brisk the movement of holes and electrodes from each other, the
more adequate the separation will be [16].

Fig 1: Power conversion efficiency of best research of organic photovoltaics in accordance to its year (ref. 15)

Working Principle

The process of transforming solar energy to electrical energy in an organic solar cell is consummated by the
following principal stages: (i) The photon absorption which leads to electron lone pair after it reaches the excited
state. (ii) Diffusion of excitons which leads to (iii) charge separation (iv) finally the charge transport takes place in
the respective electrodes to supply direct current to the load [17].

The minimum energy required to promote an electron from its HOMO to its LUMO is known as the
HOMO-LUMO gap or band gap. The first step as mentioned above, the electron is excited enough to get transferred
from HOMO to LUMO. Then it is diffused in the donor-acceptor interface by achemical potential gradient in which
the electron is transferred to the acceptor material in the LUMO and hence forms a charge transfer (CT) complex.
This occurs when the energy difference in the LUMO (donor/acceptor) is greater than the binding energy of the
exciton, which depends on the materials used. The CT state, also referred as germinate pairs, which depends on
columbic attraction of charge carriers because of which it pivots on the distance that separates these charge species
and hence become a charge separated (CS) state. Recombination across the interface will occur if the germinate pair
is unable to outbreak the coulomb capture radius which is referred as germinate recombination. Furthermore, the
segregated charges are transported to their respective electrodes through their corresponding domain (p-type and n-
type), following their usual mechanism of the holes being collected at anode and electrons at the cathode which is
connected in an external circuit from where it supplies direct current [18]. Fig. 2 shows us the various parts of
organic photovoltaics.

Device Architecture
Subsequently mentioned are the basic architecture and its individual advantages. In this paper, we have given a more
detailed study on bulk heterojunction.

Single Layer: Initially, the organic solar cells were based on the principle of single thermal evaporator molecular
sandwiched between two electrodes of varying electrodes. The thin films formed can work well as photodetectors,
under huge reverse bias with which the electric field drives the charges to the electrodes [17].

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 International Journal of Research In Science & Engineering e-ISSN: 2394-8299
Volume: 2 Issue: 3 p-ISSN: 2394-8280

Glass Substrate
ITO- Electrode-I
Electron Transport Layer
Active Layer

Hole Transport Layer

Electrode-II

Fig 2: Schematic of the parts of organic photovoltaics (ref. 19)

Bi-Layer Heterojunction: In the bilayer device, donor and acceptor are mounded together having a planar
interface. The charge separation that occurs is advocated by a potential gradient between donor and acceptor. This is
sandwiched between the electrodes matching the donor and acceptor in the respective orbital (HOMO and LUMO),
for better extraction of the respective charge carriers. A big advantage of this over the single layer is the
monomolecular charge transport. It can be produced by sequential thermal deposition of pigments or by sequential
solution casting by applying polymer precursor route [17].

Bulk Heterojunction (BHJ): To maintain the donor-acceptor interface shorter than exciton diffusion length in the
absorbing site, an intimate amalgamation of the donor and acceptor units in a bulk volume is ensured. This forms the
quintessence of bulk heterojunction [17]. The BHJ device architecture is fabricated on a substrate with an ITO
coating followed by bulk heterojunction layer (PEDOT: PSS, P3HT: PCBM) with other polymer and appropriate
nanomaterials followed by the cathode layer usually of Al [20]. Addition of befitting nanoparticles can not only
change the power conversion efficiency of the solar cell but also multiplies its various other significant properties.
For instance, the addition of strontium titanate or barium titanate in the P3HT/PCBM polymer, which is the
ferroelectric nanoparticles can enhance its efficiency. Further addition of TiO 2 and ZnO in various ratios can
decrease the series resistance and increase the fill factor. Nanoparticles of different metal oxides increase absorption
due to alteration in the band gap of the donor, it also has a subtle effect on the external quantum efficiency that is it
decreases on the addition of these [21].

The morphological balance of bulk heterojunction devices is maintained by stable, nanometer-sized interpervasive
DA (Donor-Acceptor) domains. In other words, the performance of the BHJ devices is only dependent on the
nanoparticle size counter to those with active layers from a mixture of the same polymers [20]. Fig. 3 shows the
components of the types of organic solar cells.

Preparation Techniques
Different approaches have been incorporated to synthesize organic solar cells, some of which are briefly discussed
below:

Drop Casting: Starting off with the simplest method, a substrate is molded with an appropriate casting solution
followed by drying. Though good quality films are guaranteed by this process yet this method does not allow us to
control the thickness of the film. The thickness of the film (100 nm to a few μm) is determined by a number of
factors as the drop dries up. The surface tension and volume of the solution along with the amount of air flow
determines the rate of drying. To ensure complete refrainment of crystallization or precipitation, the material should
have high solubility in the solvent [23].

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Fig 3: Compositions of the device architectures of different types of organic solar cell (ref. 22)

Spin coating: Categorically, it is the most popular method of all times for the thin film deposition to develop
organic solar cell. This coating technique involves applying the appropriate polymer on the substrate followed by
rotating the substrate at a desirable speed to ensure required thickness (20-200 nm). Subsequently, the polymer
solution may also be applied while spinning, maintaining the angular velocity such that gradually a thin film is
deposited in the surface. In the process of spin coating a uniform film of liquid is produced by the deposition of
thick fluid on a regular surface of a rotating disk. The disk is in astatic condition or is rotated at a low velocity which
is gradually accelerated to high spin velocity (up to 1000 rpm) until the polymer is evaporated and a film of desired
thickness is formed. The film thickness can be regulated by varying solution concentration and spin speed
respectively.

Spray-coating: Spray coating or thermal coating is an industrial process of coating that constitutes of a source of
heating and the polymeric material in powdered form. The powdered polymeric material is liquefied and sprayed
onto the substrate upon which the solution is to be deposited. During deposition due to the application of heat, a
significant amount of solution is evaporated and the rest is deposited. This technique can be only applied to planer
substrates as in case of non-planer substrates the tractability of the film thickness is greatly reduced [24].

Printing: The above coating techniques do not fit well with the corrugated surface of the substrate, hence, Pad
printing technique has been a boon for 2 D printing techniques as well as for printing in bantam sized areas. The
procedure involves the transfer of motif from a gravure to the substrate. Relatively volatile solvents can be used by
using ink cups, however, the ink used is relatively tough to attain as a large amount is required. But what makes the
film thinner is the additional force of the pad into the motif. This method has certain advantages as well as
disadvantages. The usage of the ink cup in this procedure enables us to use relatively volatile solvent; this feature of
it provides an edge to this technique in comparison to the others. But the main disadvantage is that this procedure
requires a comparatively challenging technique to obtain the ink and also the necessity of requiring a large volume
of the ink. This printing technique has found prominent use in in the printing of active layer of polymer organic cells
and also in the printing of the silver electrode in silicon organic cells [25].

The other type is roll-to-roll preparation technique which includes Knife-over-edge coating and meniscus coating,
Slot die coating, Gravure coating, Curtain, multilayer slot and slide coating, Spray coating, Offset lithography,
Flexographic printing [26]. The roll-to-roll technique has not gained much importance. Till date only two detailed
scientific experiments of polymer solar cells has been observing where this technique has been put to use. Proper
fabrication to get more surface contact is important to have better efficiency of the cell.

Effect of nanomaterials on solar cell’s performance:

Several nanomaterials are used to improve the performance properties of organic solar cells. With the application of
nanomaterials, photovoltaic solar cells are increasing their efficiency while reducing the production costs of
electricity and manufacturing. According to the US Department of Energy, few power-generating technologies have
as little environmental impact as photovoltaic solar panels. Photovoltaic systems generate considerably smaller

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 International Journal of Research In Science & Engineering e-ISSN: 2394-8299
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amount of harmful air emissions (at least 89%) per kilowatt hour than conventional fossil fuel-fired technologies
[27]. In a dye sensitized solar cell the photoanode performs a dual role of acting as a matrix for dye adsorption and
as a charge transport medium for electron transport. The surface area and the electronic property of the material
determine the current output of the device. So the performance of dye sensitized solar cell is significantly affected
by our choice of material to be used as photoanode. High surface area, optimum carrier density, low impedance and
efficient carrier transport are requirements for an efficient photoanode material in a DSSC. By the application of
nanostructured photoanode materials the device efficiency may be enhanced [28]. Organic and dye sensitized solar
cell devices have advantages such as low cost, easy processibility, large scale manufacturing and efficient
conversion of solar energy into electrical energy. Organic solar cells are handy tool for young budding researchers to
explore the molecular engineering opportunities in terms of designing and synthesizing more efficient exotic
materials for solar cell [29]. Carbon nanomaterials, such as fullerene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene, are
competitive candidate materials for photovoltaic (PV) applications. Fullerenes and their derivatives have tunable
energy levels and high mobilities, which makes them the most popular electron acceptors for organic solar cells
(OSCs). Tailoring the energy levels and packing behaviors of fullerenes by well-designed chemical modification is
essential to improve the performance of fullerene-based electron acceptors. Semiconducting single-walled CNTs can
play similar roles in OSCs. Owing to the extremely high mobilities, CNTs and graphene are incorporated as charge
transport materials. They are also promising candidates for transparent electrodes, especially in flexible PV devices.
Besides OSCs, CNT and graphene films can form heterojunctions with inorganic semiconductors and CNTs
themselves can also form bipolar diodes by using asymmetrical metallic contacts. Solar cells based on these kinds of
junctions exhibit high efficiencies and can be multiplied to obtain higher voltages and currents. By further
optimizing the molecular design and methods for preparation, handling and assembling of carbon nanomaterials,
performance of the PV devices can be further improved. Then the real application of carbon nanomaterials in PV
devices is expected [30]. Solar based cells coated by nanoparticles (NPs) acknowledge potential utilizing as a part of
photovoltaic innovation. The acquired silicon solar cells (Si-SCs) coated with different sizes of silver nanoparticles
(Ag NPs) as well as uncoated were fabricated in our lab. The sizes and optical properties of prepared NPs were
characterized by spectroscopic techniques and Mie theory respectively. The reflectivity of Si-SCs showed reduction
of this property as the size of NPs increased. Electrical properties as open circuit current, fill factor and output power
density were assessed [31].

Challenges
The limited resources and the worldwide growing demand for energy do not match each other; hence the
development of an inexpensive and renewable energy source is the need of the hour. It has been observed that
organic semiconductors are less expensive than inorganic semiconductors. The field or organic solar cells have seen
a lot of works during 1970 to 1980, although low efficiencies were obtained due to limited concentration and
mobility of free charge carries. But the last ten years has again seen a surge in the research interest in organic solar
cells [15]. Although improved power conversion efficiency has been attained in recent years, persistent device
optimization is still essential to meet the demands of practical applications. As of now, organic photovoltaics are
facing certain challenges, which if overcomes there will be brighter prospects for it. Most recent researches are
aimed for the betterment of light harvesting, photocurrent generation, and charge transport, consigning
manufacturing problems and stability and also for understanding device function and barriers to its performance
[32]. Poor absorption of polymer solar cells has always been one of its shortcomings [33]. There are certain
properties which restrain the performance of organic solar cells. A powerful driving force is necessary to split up the
photo generated excitons. Implementing nanomaterials in the polymers also has certain challenges. A wastage of
light absorption of the polymer occurs due to inadequate electron transfer from polymer to nanocrystals. This issue
can be eliminated by relatively high electron transfer yield when there is a low concentration of polymer. But with
low polymer concentration, there is an influence in the hole mobility of polymer phase and which results in the
narrower active layer, causing incomplete photon absorption yield.

CONCLUSION:
Several strategies are being discovered to enhance the efficiency of Organic solar cells. The preparation techniques,
selection of nanoparticles to be embedded on low band gap polymers for better absorption of the solar energy are the
major concern of the research works going on. There is a huge scope in development of organic solar cells and its
market use will be at its peak by 2025, but, certain drawbacks have roped down the product usage in large scale. A
wide-scale commercialization of the OPVs is not yet possible because of its Power Conversion Efficiency (PCE)
almost 5.5 % achieved. Convincing investment of knowledge in this field has helped improve the PCE up to 8%
which is certified. Advancements are being made in this field to make further intricate changes for improving the

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 International Journal of Research In Science & Engineering e-ISSN: 2394-8299
Volume: 2 Issue: 3 p-ISSN: 2394-8280

performance of the OPVs. The deficiency in the sphere of (a) electrical conductivity by innovating the crystal size,
(b) large DA interface for better dissociation and other shortcomings are yet to be reformed. In spite of the
drawbacks, the advantages of organic solar cells have gained control over the expected high-efficiency per unit cost
ratio, easier synthesis techniques, and improvement scope in the functionalities of solar cells. This promising field is
being amended to compete economically in the years to come and expectantly will replace the non-renewable
sources as a first-hand option in the near future. With the improvement in efficiencies and lifetime of organic solar
cells, it will continue to gain its ground in sustainable energy development. In the upcoming days, the sun is
assumed to be supplied TWs of energy to the earth, which will prove to be an upper hand for the viability of organic
solar cells.

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