SPE-184308-MS

Effects of Mud Filtrate Invasion on Well Log Measurements

Oluwatoyin O. Akinsete and Doyinsola A. Adekoya, University of Ibadan

Copyright 2016, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition held in Lagos, Nigeria, 2– 4 August 2016.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Invasion of mud filtrate into surrounding formation affects most data acquired by logging tools, which
impedes accurate formation evaluation. The invasion process may result in formation damage and
reduction in well producibility. The objectives of this work are to determine the effects of invasion on
induction well logs, identify the invasion profile present, and to determine the factors influencing
invasion. Therefore, a realistic model depicting the actual wellbore conditions is required in order to
accurately analyze the invasion process, and its effects on well logs.
In this work, a numerical model is developed. The physics of mud filtrate invasion in overbalanced
drilling is numerically simulated using a 3D multiphase fluid flow simulator. Sensitivity analysis is done
to quantify the influence of several petrophysical parameters on the spatial distribution of mud filtrate
away from the wellbore, and the corresponding effects on induction logging tools.
Result showed that the distribution of salt concentration due to the invasion of fresh water-base mud
into a formation containing highly saline formation water affects resistivity measurements. Based on the
plot of resistivity against radial distance of invasion from the wellbore, annulus invasion profile is found
to be present. Also, sensitivity analysis showed that formation parameters such as porosity and permea-
bility, in-situ fluid saturation and mudcake permeability are important factors to consider when deter-
mining the extent of filtrate invasion. A plot of formation resistivity versus formation porosity shows that
a reduction of formation porosity from 0.25 to 0.1 increased the radial distance of invasion by about 70ft,
and also shifted the annulus deeper into the formation.
Result also showed that both medium and deep induction logs can be affected by invasion, and this
depends on the total time of invasion, the formation rock and fluid properties and mudcake properties.

INTRODUCTION
While drilling, the drilling mud is kept at a slightly higher pressure than the formation pressure. Because
of this pressure difference, there is a tendency for the drilling mud to infiltrate porous and permeable beds.
Three types of filtration have been recognized in drilling operations; beneath the bit filtration, static
filtration, and dynamic filtration (Calçada et al, 2011; Isehunwa and Falade, 2012). As a result of these
filtration processes, three zones of mud particles are established on or in a permeable formation which are:
an invaded zone, which normally extends into the formation; an internal filter cake, extending a few inches
into the formation; an external filter cake on the borehole wall.
2 SPE-184308-MS

Invasion has a significant implication on well log measurements, especially resistivity logs (Jesús and
Carlos, 2009). Most times, the depth of investigation of a well logging tool is a few inches and there is
always a possibility that the drilling fluid would have invaded beyond that depth. As a result of this, the
readings taken by the logging tool is greatly influenced by the invading mud filtrate properties, rather than
the formation fluids properties.
Resistivity is an important formation property as it helps to differentiate between salty water-filled
rocks and hydrocarbon-filled rocks due to the variations in resistivity. These resistivity measurements,
coupled with porosity measurements help to evaluate the producibility of the formation. Deep reading
resistivity logs that are designed to see beyond the invaded zone, a few feet away from the borehole, often
do not see deep enough, and these need correction to obtain true formation resistivity. It is therefore
necessary to obtain a realistic model depicting the actual wellbore conditions in order to accurately
analyze the invasion process, and its effects on resistivity logs.
Semmelbeck and Holdltch (1988) determined the effects of certain reservoir and wellbore properties
on mud-filtrate invasion. The analysis showed that the imbibition of mud filtrate into low permeability
reservoirs was not a piston-like displacement, and depth and magnitude of invasion could be inferred from
the separation between the medium- and deep-induction log resistivities. Breitmeier et al (1989) carried
out experimental study on invasion and concluded that dynamic filtration rate was the most important
factor affecting mud filtrate invasion. David et al (1991) examined the factors that controlled mud filtrate
invasion into the formation and concluded that most mud filtrate is lost under dynamic conditions. Alpak
et al (2003) developed a procedure to simulate and detect mud filtrate invasion in horizontal wells. They
concluded that the rock’s petrophysical parameters and fluid parameters played a vital role in the
determination of fluid saturation distribution within the invaded zone. Also, analysis of the effects of
capillary forces on mud filtrate invasion showed the possibility of deep invasion in the presence of low
mud filtrate saturations. In 2004, Wu et al analyzed the effects of several petrophysical parameters on the
spatial distribution of mud filtrate invasion. Their sensitivity studies showed that the invasion process was
affected by the bed geometry and other petrophysical parameters. Arunesh (2010) investigated fluid loss
using experimental method. He established that the formation of mud cake under dynamic conditions and
the time advancement in invasion depended on the in-situ rock properties such as porosity, relative and
absolute permeability, capillary pressure and residual fluid saturation. Isehunwa and Falade (2012)
developed an approximate analytical filtration theory of drilling muds in vertical wells. Three classes of
filtration were recognized; static, dynamic and beneath the bit filtration. Their studies showed that the
drilling mud properties, mud cake parameters and time were the major factors controlling drilling mud
filtration.
Zhang et al (1999) investigated the time-dependent response high-definition induction log. They
established that there is no sharp boundary between the invaded zone and the uninvaded zone and that the
invasion process is related to formation parameters. Ling et al (2014) also developed a model to determine
the depth of mud filtrate invasion near the wellbore. They established that the displacement is not a
piston-like process and that the filtrate invasion volume during dynamic filtration is more significant than
those of static filtration and spurt loss
The aim of this paper is to construct a valid numerical model which accounts for convective salt
transport and mudcake buildup as well as in-situ fluid displacement by invading mud filtrate. The
influence of several petrophysical parameters on the spatial distribution of mud filtrate and formation
fluids away from the wellbore, and the corresponding effects on induction logging tools are analyzed.
Reservoir Simulation Model
The radial flow of mud filtrate into the surrounding formation can be modeled as an isothermal two-phase
immiscible flow. The general conservation of mass equation for the case of immiscible two-phase flow
in a homogenous medium can be written as:
SPE-184308-MS 3

The invasion of a hydrocarbon-bearing formation by a water-base drilling mud is governed by the same
principles as the water flooding process. The flow of mud filtrate into the surrounding formation is
principally controlled by the mudcake, whose property is a function of several parameters such as mud
composition, flow rate, formation temperature and differential pressure.
Simulation of an isothermal two-phase immiscible flow in a hydrocarbon-bearing formation requires
mass balance equation and transport equation. The flow rate of invasion is governed by Darcy’s law
2

Numerical modeling of the flow of two-phase immiscible flow in porous media is done using a finite
difference based black oil simulator – ECLIPSETM in fully implicit mode. The model consists of a
water-base drilling fluid invading the surrounding formation containing hydrocarbon (oil) and water. Both
phases are assumed to be immiscible and gravity effects are negligible. The formation is assumed to be
homogenous and isotropic, with invasion occurring only in the horizontal plane. As variation in mudcake
properties affects mud filtrate invasion, it is necessary to account for mudcake buildup to accurately model
the invasion process. The permeability of the zone nearest to be wellbore is significantly reduced to
account for the formation of mudcake on the sandface. Fluid flow through the mudcake can be assumed
to be single phase flow.
The distribution of brine is modeled by solving the equation for salt concentration in each radial grid
block. The convective transport model for brine tracking used in this work is given as
3

V is the block pore volume, Cs is the salt concentration in the aqueous phase, Sw is the water saturation,
T is the transmissibility, Krw is the relative permeability of water, Bw is the water formation volume factor,
␮s eff is the effective viscosity of salt, Pw denotes the water pressure, ␳w denotes water density, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, Qw is the water production rate. During all the simulation runs, the mud filtrate
salinity was kept constant.
For a fresh water-base mud invading a water-wet formation containing hydrocarbon, there will be a
gradual variation in salinity due to mixing of invading mud filtrate (fresh water) and highly saline
formation water. Water resistivity Rw is calculated from formation temperature and water salinity using
the equation.
4

Tf is the formation temperature in °C and Cw is the salt concentration in parts per million (ppm).
The formation resistivity of each radial grid is calculated using Archie’s water saturation equation
5

Model Construction
The assumptions made in the model construction are:
1. The reservoir is homogenous and isotropic
2. Both fluids are essentially incompressible and immiscible
3. No initial free gas saturation exists
4. Negligible gravity effects
5. The system is isothermal
4 SPE-184308-MS

6. The dependence of viscosity on pressure is negligible

7. Only radial flow in the horizontal plane occurs during invasion
8. Mixing of waters of different salinities is majorly a convective process, and diffusive transport can
be assumed negligible.

Table 1—Formation and Fluid Properties used in the Simula-

tion.
Parameters Value

Formation temperature (°F) 100

Formation pressure (psia) 3035.7
Reservoir thickness (ft) 30
Compressibility (psi-1) 2.8E-06
Formation permeability (mD) 150
Formation porosity 0.25
Wellbore radius (ft) 0.2
Formation water salinity (ppm) 100,000
Formation water resistivity (ppm) 0.056
True formation resistivity (⍀m) 22.68
Water density (lb/ft3) 62.43
Oil density (lb/ft3) 42.28
Total invasion time (days) 10

Table 2—Mud Filtrate Properties used in the simulation.

Parameters Value

Mudcake permeability (mD) 0.3

Mudcake porosity 0.25
Mud filtrate salinity (ppm) 3000
Mud filtrate resistivity (⍀m) 1.344

Figure 1—Relative permeability curves for oil and water

Simulation Run
The simulation was run in order to study the effect of mud filtrate invasion on induction logs. Mud-filtrate
invasion from the wellbore was simulated by injecting low salinity water from the wellbore. The
SPE-184308-MS 5

finite-difference model was used to study how water saturation, oil saturation, water salinity, water
resistivity, and formation resistivity vary during the invasion process and how these factors affect the
resistivities measured by the shallow, deep and medium induction logs.

Results and Discussion

The results of the simulations of low salinity water-base mud invading a formation containing highly
saline formation water and hydrocarbon are displayed below:
Figure 2 shows the effect of water-base mud filtrate invasion on the water saturation profile for
different time intervals, i.e. 3 days, 6 days, and 10 days. From Figure 2, it can be clearly seen that water
saturation around the wellbore increases due to the invasion process. The invasion can be regarded as
imbibition since it involves the increase in saturation of the wetting phase (which in this case is water) in
the invaded zone. As the invasion time increases, the wetting phase imbibes deeper into the formation.

Figure 2—Water saturation profile

The oil saturation profile for the invasion is displayed in Figure 3. This also agrees with the imbibition
process as the water saturation gradually decreases back to initial saturation while the oil saturation also
increases gradually back to initial saturation with increasing radial distance from the wellbore, Figure 1.
An analysis of both oil and water saturation profiles shows that the invasion process is not a perfect
piston-like displacement process since the oil was not completely displaced from the invaded zone during
the invasion. Fig 3 shows that there is still residual oil left in the pore spaces. This shows that for every
period during the invasion, both phases actually flow together simultaneously though the same pore
spaces, hence the displacement is not complete.
6 SPE-184308-MS

Figure 3—Oil saturation profile

Figure 4 presents the salinity profile with radial distance from the wellbore. Salinity increases with
increasing radial distance from the wellbore as a result of salt mixing. The low salinity mud filtrate
(3000ppm) invading the formation mixes with the in-situ formation water which is highly saline
(100,000ppm). As a result of this mixing of waters of different salinities, the zone nearest to the wellbore
contains mud filtrate, while the outer zones increase in salt content as the mud filtrate comes in contact
with formation water.

Figure 4 —Salinity profile

From Fig 5, the water resistivity profile is as a result of the spatial distribution of salt due to the
invasion process. The water resistivity values were calculated from salt concentration. Due to salt mixing,
water resistivity decreases with increasing salt concentration radially from the borehole. Fig 6 shows the
radial distribution of formation resistivity from the wellbore. Two zones can be seen in this figure:
SPE-184308-MS 7

Figure 5—Water resistivity profile

Figure 6 —Radial distribution of electrical resistivity

1. The invaded zone where mud filtrate invasion has changed the original distribution of in-situ fluids
2. The uninvaded zone or virgin zone where the in-situ fluids are at their initial saturations.
Salt concentration values in ppm were used in calculating the water resistivity values in each radial
grid, which in turn were used in estimating the true resistivity of each radial grid. The initial high
resistivity values at a very close distance to the wellbore are as a result of the invasion of a highly resistive
low saline water-base mud. Moving a little further away from the wellbore, an almost sharp decrease in
formation resistivity can be seen. This plunge seems to be deepest for shortest invasion period, i.e. it is
greatest for 3 days. With deeper invasion, the resistivity values gradually increase until they finally
become stable.
The invasion profile displayed in fig 6 is an annulus invasion profile. Based on literature reviews, this
low resistivity zone has been identified to be due to the banking of formation water ahead of the invading
mud filtrate as invasion progresses deeper into the formation. Since the formation water resistivity is high
as opposed to mud filtrate resistivity, this annulus zone is expected to be of low resistivity. With increasing
radial distance from the annulus zone, the hydrocarbon saturation (oil) increases while the water saturation
decreases back to initial conditions, and as such, there is a gradual increase in resistivity until the true
formation resistivity value is attained.
8 SPE-184308-MS

Induction logging tools are categorized into three basic types based on their depths of investigation;
shallow induction logging tools, medium induction logging tools and deep induction logging tools. The
shallow induction logging tool generally has a short depth of investigation (about a few inches) and
measures the resistivity of the flushed zone which in this simulation, is the resistivity of the highly
resistive mud filtrate. The medium induction logging tools travel a little further (a few feet) into the
formation than the shallow logging tools while the deep induction logging tools have the greatest depth
of investigation and measure the true formation resistivity. The zone of greatest impact to these logging
tools is the annulus zone identified in fig 6 above. From the resistivity profile shown, this annulus zone
can be estimated to exist between 5ft and 13ft radially form the borehole, and based on depths of
investigation of induction logging tools, the medium induction logging tool is likely to be most affected
by this zone. For deeper depths of invasion, especially in cases where the annulus zone has travelled very
deep into the formation, the deep induction logging tools will most likely be affected by the annulus zone,
though this generally depends on the lateral extent of invasion and the depth of investigation of the logging
tools.
Numerical Sensitivity Studies
Sensitivity analysis is performed by varying the basic geometrical and petrophysical parameters such as
formation permeability, porosity, and invasion time in order to determine their effects on mud invasion,
and subsequently on induction resistivity measurements. The first case consist of analyzing the effects of
formation properties such as porosity ф, permeability k, and initial water saturation Swi while the second
case involves varying mudcake properties such as mudcake permeability Kmc, and porosity фmc.
Effects of Formation Porosity
Fig 7 illustrates the effects of formation porosity on the rate of invasion for 10 days. Invasion rate was
determined for different values of formation permeability; 0.1, 0.25, and 0.75. Invasion rates for these
porosity values were plotted on the same graph in order to compare the results. From the plot, a clear trend
can be seen. It shows that the rate of invasion increases with a decrease in formation porosity. This can
be mathematically stated as:

Figure 7—Effect of formation porosity on invasion rate

SPE-184308-MS 9

Fig 8 shows that formation porosity affects the formation resistivity profile, most especially the annulus
zone. At a porosity value of 0.75, the annulus is seen to exist very close to the wellbore with the resistivity
values advancing to the true formation resistivity. At the lowest porosity value shown on the plot, the
annulus is seen to move farthest into the formation with the resistivity value finally constant at the true
formation resistivity value at an estimated radial distance of 100ft. Also, Fig. 8 shows that the depth of
invasion is inversely proportional to the formation porosity.

Figure 8 —Effect of formation porosity on formation resistivity

Effects of Formation Permeability

Formation permeability values were varied, while other petrophysical parameters were kept constant at
their initial values. At low formation permeability value, the formation resistivity bounces back to the true
formation resistivity value at just a few inches from the wellbore. This is due to a low depth of
investigation resulting from a tight formation (K ⫽ 1.5mD). At higher permeability values, annulus profile
is seen to emerge a few feet further into the formation. The relationship between invasion and formation
permeability can be stated as:

Effects of Mudcake Permeability

The permeability of the zone nearest to the wellbore was significantly reduced during the invasion. This
zone of reduced permeability represents the mudcake. In Fig 10, the permeability value of this zone was
varied to study its effects on water saturation and on formation resistivity while other physical factors were
kept constant. The value of mudcake permeability was kept at 0.3md for the first 3 days of invasion, and
then reduced to 0.03mD for the remaining 6 days of invasion.
10 SPE-184308-MS

Figure 9 —Effect of formation permeability on formation resistivity

Figure 10 —Effect of mudcake permeability on water saturation

Piston-like displacement does not exist in the pore spaces during the invasion because if it does exist,
then the water saturation around the wellbore in the invaded zone is expected to be 100% while the oil
saturation is also expected to be 0%. This is not the case as shown on the water and oil saturation profiles
in figures 2 and 3 respectively. This means that there is still residual oil left in the pore spaces in the
invaded zone around the wellbore. This residual oil is generally not uniformly distributed throughout the
reservoir but varies with permeability, lithology, and most importantly, the capillary and gravity forces
present in the reservoir. Also, it can be deducted that with all other parameters kept constant, the longer
the time of invasion, the deeper the invasion. The farther invasion moves into the formation, the more
likely deep resistivity measurements could also be affected.
The resistivity distribution across the formation can be said to be a function of both rock and fluid
parameters. Some of these controlling parameters include in-situ formation fluids present in the formation,
SPE-184308-MS 11

the saturation distribution of these formation fluids, salinity, formation permeability, formation porosity,
and mudcake properties. The mudcake properties are also a function of the drilling fluid properties.
In order to account for the mud invasion errors in resistivity logs, three basic methods can be used;
1. The drilling mud rheological properties can be controlled (mud conditioning) to reduce mud
filtrate loss into the formation.
2. Logging while drilling (LWD) resistivity logging tools can be used in order to minimize the depth
of invasion before resistivity measurements are taken. Measurements from these tools should be
more accurate than measurements from wireline tools, which are run after the drill bit is brought
out of the hole.
3. Measurements got from resistivity logging tools can be corrected for invasion by the use of charts
and correlations. This will aid in significantly reducing errors in resistivity measurements due to
invasion.

Conclusion
From the simulation results and sensitivity analysis of invasion of fresh water into a formation containing
highly saline formation water and hydrocarbon, the following conclusions can be drawn;
1. The invasion of water-base mud filtrate into a water-wet formation is an imbibition process.
2. The displacement of formation fluid by the invading mud filtrate is not a piston-like process. An
interpretation of resistivity measurements based on 100% sweep efficiency will lead to errors.
3. The depth of invasion of mud filtrate is a function of both the reservoir and mudcake properties
such as formation permeability, formation porosity, relative permeability, mudcake permeability,
pressure differential, and time of invasion.
4. Both medium and deep induction tools can be affected by mud invasion, and this depends on the
radial distance of invasion from the wellbore, formation and fluid properties and mudcake
properties.
5. An annulus invasion profile exists as a result of the invasion process as opposed to the ideal
step-profile invasion profile assumed.
6. Induction resistivity measurements are largely affected by invading filtrate salinity, formation
water salinity, and saturation distribution of the in-situ fluids within the formation.
7. Mud conditioning, logging while drilling (LWD) tools, charts and correlations can significantly
reduce errors generated due to the invasion process.

Nomenclature
␳ ⫽ density (lb/ft3)
Ux ⫽ phase velocity (ft/sec)
qx ⫽ flow rate (bbls/day)
Sx ⫽ phase saturation
⌬r ⫽ radial length (ft)
␮x ⫽ phase viscosity (cp)
Pc ⫽ capillary pressure (psi)
Poil ⫽ oil pressure (psi)
Pwater ⫽ water pressure (psi)
So ⫽ oil saturation
Sw ⫽ water saturation
V ⫽ block pore volume
Cs ⫽ salt concentration in the aqueous phase (lb/STB)
12 SPE-184308-MS

Bw ⫽ water formation volume factor (rb/STB)

T ⫽ transmissibility
Tf ⫽ formation temperature (°C)
Krw ⫽ water relative permeability
␮s eff ⫽ effective viscosity of salt
␳w ⫽ water density (lb/ft3)
g ⫽ acceleration due to gravity
⌬P ⫽ pressure differential (psi)
Qw ⫽ water production rate (STB/day)
a ⫽ tortuosity factor
Rw ⫽ water resistivity (⍀m)
Rt ⫽ formation resistivity (⍀m)
DR ⫽ radial distance from the wellbore (ft)
PPMeq ⫽ parts per million equivalent of salt concentration
Ф ⫽ porosity
m ⫽ cementation factor
n ⫽ saturation exponent

References
Alpak, F. O., Dussan, E. B. V., Habashy, T. M. and Torres, V. C. (2003) ⬙Numerical Simulation of Mud-Filtrate Invasion
in Horizontal Wells and Sensitivity Analysis of Array Induction Tools,⬙ Petrophysics, Vol. 44, (pp. 396 –411).
Arunesh, K. (2010). ⬙Fluid Loss as a Function of Position around the Wellbore⬙ AADE -10-DF-HO-18
Breitmeier, J. M., Tosch, W. C. and Adewunmi, M. A, (1989) ‘Investigation of Radial Invasion of Mud Filtrate in Porous
Media’, SPWLA Thirtieth Annual Logging Symposium
David, A., Francois, A., Elizabeth, D., Peter, G., Edmond, F., Russ., W., et al. (1991). Invasion Resivited Oilfield Review,
pg 10 –23.
Calçada, L. A., Scheid, C. M., De Araújo, C. A. O., Waldmann, A. T. A. and Martins, A. L. (2011) ⬙Analysis of dynamic
and static filtration and determination of mud cake parameters,⬙ Brazilian Journal of Petroleum and Gas, Vol. 5 ISSN
1982-0593, pp. 159 –170.
Isehunwa, S. O. and Falade, G. K. (2012) ⬙An Approximate Theory of Static Filtration of Drilling Muds In Vertical Wells,⬙
ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 1 pp. 26 –31
Jesús, M. S. and Carlos, T. V. (2009) ⬙Quantitative comparison of processes of oil- and water-based mud-filtrate invasion
and corresponding effects on borehole resistivity measurements,⬙ Geophysics, Vol. 74, (P. E57–E73).
Ling, K., Zhang, H., Shen, Z., Ghalambor, A., Han, G., He, J. and Pei, P. (2014) ‘A Comprehensive Approach To Estimate
Invasion Radius Of Mud Filtrate To Evaluate Formation Damage Caused By Overbalanced Drilling,’ (SPE 168184)
prepared for presentation at the SPE International Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage, Lafayette,
Louisiana.
Semmelbeck, M. E. and Holditch, S. A. (1988) ⬙The Effects of Mud Filtrate Invasion on the Interpretation of Induction
Logs,⬙ SPE Formation Evaluation
Schlumberger Information Solutions: ECLIPSE™ Black oil Reservoir Simulation Training and Exercise Guide, Version
2.0.
Schlumberger Information Solutions: ECLIPSE™ Reservoir Simulation Software Technical Description and Reference
Manual Version 2010.1
Wu, J., Torres, V. C., Kamy, S. and Delshad, M. (2004) ⬙Numerical Simulation of Mud-Filtrate Invasion in Deviated
Wells,⬙ Paper (SPE 87919) presented at the 2001 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans.
Zhang, J. H., Hu, Q. and Liu, Z. H. (1999) Estimation of true formation resistivity and water saturation with a time-lapse
induction logging method: The Log Analyst, vol. 40, no. 2, p. 138 –148.